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Identifying Customer Needs from User-Generated Content
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Citation Timoshenko, Artem and John R. Hauser. "Identifying CustomerNeeds from User-Generated Content." Marketing Science 38, 1(January 2019): 1-192, ii-ii © 2019 INFORMS
As Published http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/mksc.2018.1123
Publisher Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences(INFORMS)
Version Author's final manuscript
Citable link https://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/124203
Terms of Use Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike
Detailed Terms http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
IdentifyingCustomerNeedsfromUser-GeneratedContent
by
ArtemTimoshenko
and
JohnR.Hauser
June2018
ArtemTimoshenkoisaPhDstudentattheMITSloanSchoolofManagement,MassachusettsInstituteof
Technology,E62-584,77MassachusettsAvenue,Cambridge,MA02139,(617)803-5630,
atimoshe@mit.edu.
JohnR.HauseristheKirinProfessorofMarketing,MITSloanSchoolofManagement,Massachusetts
InstituteofTechnology,E62-538,77MassachusettsAvenue,Cambridge,MA02139,(617)253-2929,
hauser@mit.edu.
WethankJohnMitchell,StevenGaskin,CarmelDibner,AndreaRuttenberg,PattiYanes,KristynCorrigan
andMeaghanFoleyfortheirhelpandsupport.WethankReginaBarzilay,ClarenceLee,DariaDzyabura,
DeanEckles,DuncanSimester,EvgenyPavlov,GuilhermeLiberali,TheodorosEvgeniou,andHema
Yoganarasimhanforhelpfulcommentsanddiscussions.WethankKenDealandEwaNowakowskafor
suggestionsonearlierversionsofthispaper.Thispaperhasbenefitedfrompresentationsatthe2016
SawtoothSoftwareConferenceinParkCityUtah,theMITMarketingGroupSeminar,the39thISMS
MarketingScienceConference,andpresentationsatAppliedMarketingScience,Inc.andCornerstone
Research,Inc.Theapplicationsin§6werecompletedbyAppliedMarketingScience,Inc.Finally,we
thanktheanonymousreviewersandAssociateEditorforconstructivecommentsthatenabledusto
improveourresearch.
1
IdentifyingCustomerNeedsfromUser-GeneratedContent
Abstract
Firmstraditionallyrelyoninterviewsandfocusgroupstoidentifycustomerneedsformarketing
strategyandproductdevelopment.User-generatedcontent(UGC)isapromisingalternativesourcefor
identifyingcustomerneeds.However,establishedmethodsareneitherefficientnoreffectiveforlarge
UGCcorporabecausemuchcontentisnon-informativeorrepetitive.Weproposeamachine-learning
approachtofacilitatequalitativeanalysisbyselectingcontentforefficientreview.Weusea
convolutionalneuralnetworktofilteroutnon-informativecontentandclusterdensesentence
embeddingstoavoidsamplingrepetitivecontent.Wefurtheraddresstwokeyquestions:AreUGC-
basedcustomerneedscomparabletointerview-basedcustomerneeds?Dothemachine-learning
methodsimprovecustomer-needidentification?Thesecomparisonsareenabledbyacustomdatasetof
customerneedsfororalcareproductsidentifiedbyprofessionalanalystsusingindustry-standard
experientialinterviews.Theanalystsalsocoded12,000UGCsentencestoidentifywhichpreviously
identifiedcustomerneedsand/ornewcustomerneedswerearticulatedineachsentence.Weshowthat
(1)UGCisatleastasvaluableasasourceofcustomerneedsforproductdevelopment,likelymore-
valuable,thanconventionalmethods,and(2)machine-learningmethodsimproveefficiencyof
identifyingcustomerneedsfromUGC(uniquecustomerneedsperunitofprofessionalservicescost).
Keywords:VoiceoftheCustomer;MachineLearning,User-generatedContent;CustomerNeeds;Online
Reviews;MarketResearch;TextMining;DeepLearning;NaturalLanguageProcessing
2
1.Introduction
Marketingpracticerequiresadeepunderstandingofcustomerneeds.Inmarketingstrategy,
customerneedshelpsegmentthemarket,identifystrategicdimensionsfordifferentiation,andmake
efficientchannelmanagementdecisions.Forexample,Park,Jaworski,andMacInnis(1986)describe
examplesofstrategicpositioningbasedonfulfillingcustomerneeds:“attirefortheconservative
professional”(BrooksBrothers)or“aworldapart—letitexpressyourworld”(LenoxChina).Inproduct
development,customerneedsidentifynewproductopportunities(Herrmann,Huber,andBraunstein
2000),improvethedesignofnewproducts(KrishnanandUlrich2001;Sullivan1986;Ulrichand
Eppinger2004),helpmanageproductportfolios(Stone,etal.2008),andimproveexistingproductsand
services(MatzlerandHinterhuber1998).Inmarketingresearch,customerneedshelptoidentifythe
attributesusedintheconjointanalysis(Orme2006).
Understandingofcustomerneedsisparticularlyimportantforproductdevelopment(Kano,etal.
1984;MikulićandPrebežac2011).Forexample,considerthebreakthroughlaundrydetergent,“Attack,”
developedbytheKaoGroupinJapan.BeforeKao’sinnovation,firmssuchasProcter&Gamble
competedinfulfillingthe(primary)customerneedsofexcellentcleaning,readytowearafterwashing,
value(qualityandquantityperprice),easeofuse,smellgood,goodformeandtheenvironment,and
personalsatisfaction.Newproductsdevelopedformulationstocompeteontheseidentifiedprimary
customerneeds,e.g.,theproductsthatwouldcleanbetter,smellbetter,begentlefordelicatefabrics,
andnotharmtheenvironment.Themarketwashighlycompetitive;perceivedvalueplayedamajorrole
inmarketinganddetergentsweresoldinlarge“high-value”boxes.KaoGroupwasfirsttorecognizethat
Japanesecustomerswanted“adetergentthatiseasytotransporthomebyfootorbicycle,”“ina
containerthatfitsinlimitedapartmentspace,”but“getsmyclothesfreshandclean.”Guidedbythis
insight,Kaolaunchedahighly-concentrateddetergentinaneasy-to-storeandeasy-to-carrypackage.
3
Despiteapremiumprice,Attackquicklycommandedalmost50%oftheJapaneselaundrymarket(Kao
Group2016).Americanfirmssoonintroducedtheirownconcentrateddetergents,butbybeingthefirst
toidentifyanunfulfilledandpreviouslyunrecognizedcustomerneed,Kaogainedacompetitiveedge.
Thereisanimportantdistinctionbetweencustomerneedsandproductattributes.Acustomer
needisanabstractcontext-dependentstatementdescribingthebenefits,inthecustomer’sownwords,
thatthecustomerseekstoobtainfromaproductorservice(BrownandEisenhardt1995;Griffin,etal.,
2009).Productattributesarethemeanstosatisfyingthecustomerneeds.Forexample,whendescribing
theirexperiencewithmouthwashes,acustomermightexpresstheneed“toknoweasilytheamountof
mouthwashtouse.”Thiscustomerneedcanbesatisfiedbyvariousproductattributes(solutions),
includingticksonthecapandtextualorvisualdescriptionsonthebottle.
Toeffectivelycapturerichinformation,customerneedsaretypicallydescribedwithsentencesor
phrasesthatdescribeindetailthebenefitsthecustomerswishtoobtainfromproducts.Complete
formulationscommunicatemoreprecisemessagescomparedto“bagsofwords,”suchasdevelopedby
latentDirichletallocation(LDA),wordcounts,orwordco-occurrence(e.g.,BüschkenandAllenby2017;
LeeandBradlow2011;Netzer,etal.2012;SchweidelandMoe2014).Forexample,considerone“bagof
words”fromBüschkenandAllenby(2017):
“Realpizza:”pizza,crust,really,like,good,Chicago,Thin,Style,Best,One,Just,New,Pizzas,Great,
Italian,Little,York,Cheese,Place,Get,Know,Much,Beef,Lot,Sauce,Chain,Got,Flavor,Dish,Find
WordcombinationsgiveinsightintodimensionsofItalianrestaurants—combinationsthatare
usefultogenerateattributesforconjointanalysis.However,fornewproductdevelopment,product-
developmentteamswanttoknowhowthecustomersusethesewordsincontext.Forexample:
• Pizzaarrivestothetableattherighttemperature(e.g.,nottoohotandnotcold).
• Pizzathatiscookedallthewaythrough(i.e.,nottoodoughy).
• Ingredients(e.g.,sauce,cheese,etc.)areneithertoolightnortooheavy.
• Crustthatisflavorful(e.g.,sweet).
4
• ToppingsstayonthepizzaasIeatit.
Ourpaperfocusesontheproblemofidentifyingthecustomerneeds.Whilerelativeimportances
ofcustomerneedsarevaluabletoproduct-developmentteams,methodssuchasconjointanalysisand
self-explicatedmeasuresarewell-studiedandincommonuse.Weassumethatpreferencemeasuresare
usedlaterinproductdevelopmenttodecideamongproductconcepts(UlrichandEppinger,2016;Urban
andHauser,1993).
Theidentificationofcustomerneedsincontextrequiresadeepunderstandingofacustomer’s
experience.Traditionalmethodsrelyonhumaninteractionswithcustomers,suchasexperiential
interviewsandfocusgroups.However,traditionalmethodsareexpensiveandtime-consuming,often
resultingindelaysintimetomarket.Toavoidtheexpenseanddelays,somefirmsuseheuristics,suchas
managerialjudgmentorareviewofweb-basedproductcomparisons.However,suchheuristicmethods
oftenmisscustomerneedsthatarenotfulfilledbyanyproductthatisnowonthemarket.
User-generatedcontent(UGC),suchasonlinereviews,socialmedia,andblogs,providesextensive
richtextualdataandisapromisingsourcefromwhichtoidentifycustomerneedsmoreefficiently.UGC
isavailablequicklyandatalowincrementalcosttothefirm.Inmanycategories,UGCisextensive—for
example,thereareover300,000reviewsonhealthandpersonalcareproductsonAmazonalone.IfUGC
canbeminedforcustomerneeds,UGChasthepotentialtoidentifyasmany,orperhapsmore,
customerneedsthandirectcustomerinterviewsandtodosomorequicklywithlowercost.UGC
providesadditionaladvantages:(1)itisupdatedcontinuouslyenablingthefirmtoupdateits
understandingofcustomerneedsand(2)unlikecustomerinterviews,firmscanreturntoUGCatlow
costtoexplorenewinsightsfurther.
TherearemultipleconcernswithidentifyingcustomerneedsfromUGC.First,theveryscaleof
UGCmakesitdifficultforhumanreaderstoprocess.Weseekmethodsthatscalewelland,possibly,
makehumanreadersmoreefficient.Second,muchUGCisrepetitiveornotrelevant.Sentencessuchas
5
“Ihighlyrecommendthisproduct”donotexpresscustomerneeds.Repetitiveandirrelevantcontent
makeatraditionalmanualanalysisinefficient.Third,weexpect,andouranalysisconfirms,thatmostof
UGCconcentratesonarelativelyfewcustomerneeds.Althoughsuchinformationmightbeuseful,we
seekmethodstoefficientlysearchmorebroadlyinordertoobtainareasonablycompletesetof
customerneeds(withincostandfeasibilityconstraints),includingrarelymentionedcustomerneeds.
Fourth,UGCdataareunstructuredandmostlytext-based.Toidentifyabstractcontext-dependent
customerneeds,researchersneedtounderstandrichmeaningsbehindthewords.Finally,unlike
traditionalmethodsbasedonarepresentativesampleofcustomers,customersself-selecttopostUGC.
Self-selectionmightcauseanalyststomissimportantcategoriesofcustomerneeds.
Ourprimarygoalsinthispaperaretwo-fold.First,weexaminewhetherareasonablecorpusof
UGCprovidessufficientcontenttoidentifyareasonablycompletesetofcustomerneeds.Weconstruct
andanalyzeacustomdatasetinwhichwepersuadedaprofessionalmarketingconsultingfirmto
provide(a)customerneedsidentifiedfromexperientialinterviewswitharepresentativesetof
customersand(b)acompletecodingofasampleofsentencesfromAmazonreviewsintheoral-care
category.Second,wedevelopandevaluateamachine-learninghybridapproachtoidentifycustomer
needsfromUGC.Weusemachinelearningtoidentifyrelevantcontentandremoveredundancyfroma
largeUGCcorpus,andthenrelyonhumanjudgmenttoformulatecustomerneedsfromselected
content.Wedrawonrecentresearchindeeplearning,inparticular,convolutionalneuralnetworks
(CNN;Collobert,etal.2011;Kim2014)anddensewordandsentenceembeddings(Mikolov,etal.
2013a;Socher,etal.2013).TheCNNfiltersoutnon-informativecontentfromalargeUGCcorpus.Dense
wordandsentenceembeddingsembedsemanticcontentinareal-valuedvectorspace.Weuse
sentenceembeddingstosampleadiversesetofnon-redundantsentencesformanualreview.Boththe
CNNandwordandsentenceembeddingsscaletolargedatasets.Manualreviewbyprofessionalanalysts
remainsnecessaryinthelaststepbecauseofthecontext-dependentnatureofcustomerneeds.
6
WeevaluateUGCasasourceofcustomerneedsintermsofthenumberandvarietyofcustomer
needsidentifiedinafeasiblecorpus.Wethenevaluatetheefficiencyimprovementsachievedbythe
machinelearningmethodsintermsoftheexpectednumberofuniquecustomerneedsidentifiedper
unitofprofessionalservicescosts.Professionalservicescosts,orthebillingratesofexperienced
professionals,arethedominantcostsinindustryforidentifyingcustomerneeds.Ourcomparisons
suggestthat,ifwelimitcoststothatrequiredtoreviewexperientialinterviews,thenUGCprovidesa
comparablesetofcustomerneedstothoseobtainedfromexperientialinterviews.Despitethepotential
forself-selection,UGCdoesatleastaswell(inthetestedcategory)astraditionalmethodsbasedona
representativesetofcustomers.Whenwerelaxtheprofessionalservicesconstraintforreviewing
sentences,butmaintainprofessionalservicescoststobelessthanwouldberequiredtointerviewand
review,thenUGCisabettersourceofcustomerneeds.Wefurtherdemonstratethatmachinelearning
helpstoeliminateirrelevantandredundantcontentand,hence,makesprofessionalservices
investmentsmoreefficient.Byselectingamore-efficientcontentforreview,machinelearningincreases
aprobabilityofidentifyinglow-frequencycustomerneeds.UGC-basedanalysesreduceresearchtime
substantiallyavoidingdelaysintime-to-market.
2.RelatedResearch
2.1.TraditionalMethodstoIdentifyCustomerNeeds(andLinkNeedstoProductAttributes)
Givenasetofcustomerneeds,product-developmentteamsuseavarietyofmethods,suchas
qualityfunctiondeployment,toidentifycustomersolutionsorproductattributesthataddresscustomer
needs(Akao2004;HauserandClausing1988;Sullivan1986).Forexample,ChanandWu(2002)review
650researcharticlesthatdevelop,refine,andapplyQFDtomapcustomerneedstosolutions.Zahay,
Griffin,andFredericks(2004)reviewtheuseofcustomerneedsinthe“fuzzyfrontend,”productdesign,
producttesting,andproductlaunch.Customerneedscanalsobeusedtoidentifyattributesforconjoint
7
analysis(GreenandSrinivasan1978;Orme2006).Kim,etal.(2017)proposeabenefit-basedconjoint-
analysismodelwhichmapsproductattributestolatentcustomerneedsbeforeestimation.
Researchersinmarketingandengineeringhavedevelopedandrefinedmanymethodstoelicit
customerneedsdirectlyfromcustomers.Themostcommonmethodsrelyonfocusgroups,experiential
interviews,orethnographyasinput.Trainedprofessionalanalyststhenreviewtheinput,manually
identifycustomerneeds,removeredundancy,andstructurethecustomerneeds(AlamandPerry2002;
Goffin,etal.2012;Kaulio1998).Someresearchersaugmentinterviewswithstructuredmethodssuchas
repertorygrids(WuandShich2010).
Typically,customer-needidentificationbeginswith20-30qualitativeexperientialinterviews.
Multipleanalystsreviewtranscripts,highlightcustomerneeds,andremoveredundancy(“winnowing”)
toproduceabasicsetofapproximately100abstractcontext-dependentcustomer-needstatements.
Affinitygroupsorclusteredcustomer-cardsortsthenprovidestructureforthecustomerneeds,oftenin
theformofahierarchyofprimary,secondary,andtertiarycustomerneeds(GriffinandHauser1993;
JiaoandChen2006).Together,identificationandstructuringofcustomerneedsareoftencalledvoice-
of-the-customer(VOC)methods.Recently,researchershavesoughttoexplorenewsourcesofcustomer
needstosupplementorreplacecommonmethods.Forexample,SchaffhausenandKowalewski(2015;
2016)proposedusingawebinterfacetoaskcustomerstoentercustomerneedsandstoriesdirectly.
Theythenrelyonhumanjudgmenttostructurethecustomerneedsandremoveredundancy.
2.2.UGCTextAnalysisinMarketingandProductDevelopment
Researchersinmarketinghavedevelopedavarietyofmethodstomineunstructuredtextualdata
toaddressmanagerialquestions.SeereviewsinBüschkenandAllenby(2016)andFaderandWiner
(2012).Theresearchclosesttoourgoalsuseswordco-occurrencesandvariationsofLDAtoidentify
wordgroupingsinproductdiscussions(Archak,Ghose,andIpeirotis2016;BüschkenandAllenby2006;
LeeandBradlow2011;TirunillaiandTellis2014;Netzer,etal.2012).Someresearchersanalyzethese
8
wordgroupingsfurtherbylinkingthemtosales,sentiment,ormovieratings(Archak,Ghoseand
Ipeirotis2016;SchweidelandMoe2014;Ying,Feinberg,andWedel2006).Thelattertwopapersdeal
explicitlywithself-selectionormissingratingsbyanalyzingUGCfromthesamepersonoverdifferent
moviesorfrommultiplesourcessuchasdifferentvenues.Weaddresstheself-selectionconcernby
comparingcustomerneedsidentifiedfromUGCtothecustomerneedsidentifiedfromtheinterviews
witharepresentativesampleofcustomers.Weassumethatresearcherscanrelyonstandardmethods
tomapcustomerneedstotheoutcomemeasuressuchaspreferencesforproductconceptsineach
customersegment(GriffinandHauser1993;Orme2006).
Inengineering,theproductattributeelicitationliteratureisclosesttothegoalsofourpaper,
althoughthefocusisprimarilyonphysicalattributesratherthanmore-abstractcontext-dependent
customerneeds.Jin,etal.(2015)andPeng,Sun,andRevankar(2012)proposeautomatedmethodsto
identifyengineeringcharacteristics.Thesepapersfocusonparticularpartsofspeechormanually
identifiedwordcombinationsanduseclusteringtechniquesorLDAtoidentifyproductattributesand
levelstobeconsideredinproductdevelopment.Kuehl(2016)proposesidentifyingintangibleattributes
togetherwithphysicalproductattributeswithsupervisedclassificationtechniques.Ourmethods
augmenttheliteraturesinbothmarketingandengineeringbyfocusingonthemore-context-dependent,
deeper-semanticnatureofcustomerneeds.
2.3.DeepLearningforNaturalLanguageProcessing
Wedrawontwoliteraturesfromnaturallanguageprocessing(NLP):convolutionalneural
networks(CNNs)anddensewordandsentencerepresentations.ACNNisasupervisedprediction
techniquewhichisparticularlysuitedtocomputervisionandnaturallanguageprocessingtasks.ACNN
oftencontainsmultiplelayerswhichtransformnumericalrepresentationsofsentencestocreateinput
forafinallogit-basedlayer,whichmakesthefinalclassification.CNNsdemonstratestate-of-the-art
performancewithminimumtuninginsuchproblemsasrelationextraction(NguyenandGrishman
9
2015),namedentityrecognition(ChiuandNichols2016),andsentimentanalysis(dosSantosandGatti
2014).Wedemonstratethat,onourdata,CNNsdoatleastaswellasasupport-vectormachine(SVM),a
multichannelCNN(Kim2014),andaRecurrentNeuralNetworkwithLongShort-TermMemorycells
(LSTM;HochreiterandSchmidhuber1997).
Densewordandsentenceembeddingsarereal-valuedvectormappings(typically20-300
dimensions),whicharetrainedsuchthatvectorsforsimilarwords(orsentences)arecloseinthevector
space.ThetheoryofdenseembeddingsisbasedontheDistributionalHypothesis,whichstatesthat
wordsthatappearinasimilarcontextsharesemanticmeaning(Harris1954).High-qualitywordand
sentenceembeddingscanbeusedasaninputfordownstreamNLPapplicationsandmodels(Lample,et
al.2016;Kim2014).Somewhatunexpectedly,high-qualitywordembeddingscapturenotonlysemantic
similarity,butalsosemanticrelationships(Mikolov,etal.2013b).Usingtheconventionofboldtypefor
vectors,thenif!(′word()isthewordembeddingfor‘word,’Mikolovetal.(2013b)demonstratethat
wordembeddingstrainedontheGoogleNewsCorpushavethefollowingproperties:
! king − ! man + ! woman ≈ ! queen
! walking − ! swimming + ! swam ≈ ! walked
! Paris − ! France + ! Italy ≈ !(Rome)
Wetrainwordembeddingsusingalargeunlabeledcorpusofonlinereviews.Wethenapplythetrained
wordembeddings(1)toenhancetheperformanceoftheCNNand(2)toavoidrepetitivenessamongthe
sentencesselectedformanualreview.
3.AProposedMachineLearningHybridMethodtoIdentifyCustomerNeeds
WeproposeamethodthatusesmachinelearningtoscreenUGCforsentencesrichinadiverse
setofcontext-dependentcustomerneeds.Identifiedsentencesarethenreviewedbyprofessional
analyststoformulatecustomerneeds.Machine-humanhybridshaveproveneffectiveinabroadsetof
10
applications.Forexample,Qian,etal.(2001)combinemachinelearningandhumanjudgmenttolocate
researchwhenauthors’namesareambiguous(e.g.,thereare117authorswiththenameLeiZhang).
Supervisedlearningidentifiesclustersofsimilarpublicationsandhumanreadersassociateauthorswith
theclusters.Theresultinghybridismoreaccuratethanmachinelearningaloneandmoreefficientthan
humanclassification.Colson(2016)describesStitchFix’smachine-humanhybridinwhichmachine
learninghelpscreateashortlistofapparelfromvastcatalogues,thenhumancuratorsmakethefinal
recommendationstoconsumers.
Figure1summarizesourapproach.Theproposedmethodconsistsoffivestages:
1. PreprocessUGC.WeharvestreadilyavailableUGCfromeitherpublicsourcesorpropriety
companydatabases.WesplitUGCintosentences,eliminatestop-words,numbers,and
punctuation,andconcatenatefrequentcombinationsofwords.
2. TrainWordEmbeddings.Wetrainwordembeddingsusingaskip-grammodel(§3.2)on
preprocessedUGCsentences,andusewordembeddingsasaninputinthefollowingstages.
3. IdentifyInformativeContent.Welabelasmallsetofsentencesintoinformative/non-informative,
andthentrainandapplyaCNNtofilteroutnon-informativesentencesfromtherestofthe
corpus.WithouttheCNN,humanreaderswouldsamplecontentrandomlyandlikelyreviewmany
uninformativesentences.
4. SampleDiverseContent.Weclustersentenceembeddingsandsamplesentencesfromdifferent
clusterstoselectasetofsentenceslikelytorepresentdiversecustomerneeds.Thisstepis
designedtoidentifycustomerneedsthataredifferentfromoneanothersothat(1)theprocessis
moreefficientand(2)hard-to-identifycustomerneedsarelesslikelytobemissed.
5. ManuallyExtractCustomerNeeds.Professionalanalystsreviewthediverse,informative
sentencestoidentifycustomerneeds.Thecustomerneedsarethenusedtoidentifynew
opportunitiesforproductdevelopment.
11
FigureA1intheAppendixillustrateseachofthefourstepswithanexampledrawnfor
oneproductreview.Ourarchitectureachievesthesamegoalsasvoice-of-the-customer
approachesinindustry(§2.1).ThepreprocessedUGCreplacesexperientialinterviews,the
automatedsamplingofinformativesentencesisanalogoustomanualhighlightingof
informativecontent,andtheclusteringofwordembeddingsisanalogoustomanual
winnowingtoidentifyasmanydistinctcustomerneedsasfeasible.Methodstoidentifya
hierarchicalstructureofcustomerneedsand/ormethodstomeasurethetradeoffs
(preferences)amongcustomerneeds,ifrequired,canbeappliedequallywelltocustomer
needsgeneratedfromUGCorfromexperientialinterviews.
Figure1 SystemArchitectureforIdentifyingCustomerNeedsfromUGC
3.1.Stage1:PreprocessingRawUGC
PriorexperienceinthemanualreviewofUGCbyprofessionalanalystssuggeststhatsentencesare
mostlikelytocontaincustomerneedsandareanaturalunitbywhichanalystsprocessexperiential
PreprocessUGC
SampleDiverseContent
IdentifyInformativeContent
TrainWordEmbeddings
1. SplitUGCintosentences2. Remove stop-words,punctuation,etc.3. Identifyfrequentcombinationsofwords
1. Estimatewordembeddings onalargeUGCcorpus(skip-grammodel)
1. Labelasmallsampleofsentences intoinformative/non-informative
2. Trainamachine learningclassifier (CNN)3. Identifyinformative contentintherestofthecorpus
Manually ExtractCustomerNeeds
1. Averagewordembeddings tocreatesentenceembeddings
2. Clustersentenceembeddings usingWard’salgorithm3. Sampleonesentence fromeachofYclusters
1. Review theYselected sentencesandformulatecustomerneeds
12
interviewsandUGC.WepreprocessrawUGCtotransformtheUGCcorpusintoasetofsentencesusing
anunsupervisedsentencetokenizerfromthenaturallanguagetoolkit(KissandStrunk2006).We
automaticallyeliminatestop-words(e.g.,‘the’and‘and’)andnon-alphanumericsymbols(e.g.,question
marksandapostrophes),andtransformnumbersintonumbersignsandletterstolowercase.
Wejoinwordsthatappearfrequentlytogetherwiththe‘_’character.Forexample,inoralcare,
thebigram‘OralB’istreatedasacombinedwordpair,’oral_b.’Wejoinwords‘a’and‘b’intoasingle
phraseiftheyappeartogetherrelativelyofteninthecorpus.Thespecificcriterionis:
@ABCD E, G − H@ABCD E ⋅ @ABCD G ⋅ J > L
whereJisthetotalvocabularysize.Thetuningparameter,H,preventsconcatenatingveryinfrequent
words,andthetuningparameter,L,isbalancedsothatthenumberofbigramsisnottoofewortoo
manyforthecorpus.Bothparametersaresetbyjudgment.Forourinitialtest,weset H, L = 5,10 .
Wedropsentencesthatarelessthanfourwordsorlongerthanfourteenwordsafterpreprocessing.The
boundsareselectedtodropapproximately10%oftheshortestand10%ofthelongestsentences.(Long
sentencesareusuallyanartifactofmissingpunctuation.Inourcase,thedroppedsentenceswere
subsequentlyverifiedtocontainnocustomerneedsthatwerenototherwiseidentified.)
Asistypicalinmachinelearningsystems,ourmodelhasmultipletuningparameters.Weindicate
whicharesetbyjudgmentandwhicharesetbycross-validation.Whenwesettuningparametersby
judgment,wedrawontheliteratureforsuggestionsandwechooseparameterslikelytoworkinmany
categories.Whenthereissufficientdata,theseparameterscanalsobesetbycross-validation.
3.2.Stage2:TrainingWordEmbeddingswithaSkip-GramModel
Wordembeddingsarethemappingsofwordsontoanumericalvectorspace,whichincorporate
contextualinformationaboutwordsandserveasaninputtoStages3and4(Baroni,Dinu,and
Kruszewski,2014).Toaccountforproduct-categoryandUGC-source-specificwords,wetrainourword
13
embeddingsonthepreprocessedUGCcorpususingaskip-grammodel(Mikolov,etal.2013a).Theskip-
grammodelisapredictivemodelwhichmaximizestheaveragelog-likelihoodofwordsappearing
togetherinasequenceof@words.Specifically,ifQisthenumberofwordsinthecorpus,Risthesetof
allfeasiblewordsinthevocabulary,and!S ared-dimensionalreal-vectorwordembeddings,weselect
the!S tomaximize:
1Q TAU V WAXYSZ[ WAXYS
\]^[^][_`
a
Sbc
V WAXY[ WAXYS =deV ![!S(
deV !f!S(|h|fbc
Tomakecalculationsfeasible,weuseten-wordnegativesamplingtoapproximatethedenominatorin
theconditionalprobabilityfunction.(SeeMikolov,etal.2013bfordetailsonnegativesampling.)Forour
application,weuseY = 20and@ = 5.
Thetrainedwordembeddingsinourapplicationcapturesemanticmeaninginoralcare.For
example,thethreewordsclosestto‘toothbrush’are‘pulsonic’,‘sonicare’and‘tb’,withthelastbeinga
commonly-usedabbreviationfortoothbrush.Similarly,variationsinspellingsuchas‘recommend’,
‘would_recommend’,‘highly_recommend’,‘reccommend’,and‘recommed’arecloseinthevector
space.
3.3.Stage3:IdentifyingInformativeSentenceswithaConvolutionalNeuralNetwork(CNN)
Dependingonthecorpus,UGCcancontainsubstantialamountsofcontentthatdoesnot
representcustomerneeds.Suchnon-informativecontentincludesevaluations,complaints,andnon-
informativelistsoffeaturessuchas“ThisproductcanbefoundatCVS.”or“Itreallydoescomedownto
personalpreference.”Informativecontentmightinclude:“Thisproductcanmakeyourteethsuper-
sensitive.”or“Theproductistooheavyanditisdifficulttoclean.”Machinelearningimprovesthe
efficiencyofmanualreviewbyeliminatingnon-informativecontent.Forexample,supposethatonly
14
40%ofthesentencesareinformativeinthecorpus,butaftermachinelearningscreening,80%are
informative.Ifanalystsarelimitedinthenumberofsentencestheycanreview(professionalservices
costsconstraint),theycanidentifycustomerneedsmuchmoreefficientlybyfocusingonasampleofj
prescreenedsentencesrichininformativecontentthanonjrandomlyselectedsentences.Withhigher
concentrationofinformativesentences,low-frequencycustomerneedsaremorelikelybefoundinthe
jprescreenedsentencesthaninthejrandomlyselectedsentences.
Totrainthemachinelearningclassifier,somesentencesmustbelabeledbyprofessionalanalysts
asinformative(k = 1)ornon-informative(k = 0).Thereareefficiencygainsbecausesuchlabeling
requiressubstantiallylowerprofessionalservicescoststhanformulatingcustomerneedsfrom
informativesentences.Moreover,inasmall-samplestudy,wefoundthatAmazonMechanicalTurk
(AMT)hasapotentialtoidentifyinformativesentencesfortrainingdataatacostbelowthatofusing
professionalanalysts.Withfurtherdevelopmenttoreducecostsandenhanceaccuracy,AMTmightbea
viablesourceoftrainingdata.
Weuseaconvolutionalneuralnetwork(CNN)toidentifyinformativesentences.Amajor
advantageoftheCNNisthatCNNsquantifyrawinputautomaticallyandendogenouslybasedonthe
trainingdata.CNNsapplyacombinationofconvolutionalandpoolinglayerstowordrepresentationsto
generate“features,”whicharethenusedtomakeaprediction.(“Features”intheCNNshouldnotbe
confusedwithproductfeatures.)Incontrast,traditionalmachine-learningclassificationtechniques,such
asasupport-vectormachineordecisiontrees,dependcriticallyonhandcraftedfeatures,whicharethe
transformationsoftherawdatadesignedbyresearcherstoimprovepredictioninaparticular
application.High-qualityfeaturesrequiresubstantialhumaneffortforeachapplication.CNNshavebeen
proventoprovidecomparableperformancetotraditionalhandcrafted-featuremethods,butwithout
substantialapplication-specifichumaneffort(Kim2014;Lei,Barzilay,andJaakkola2015).
AtypicalCNNconsistsofmultiplelayers.Eachlayerhashyperparameters,suchasthenumberof
15
filtersandthesizeofthefilters.Wecustomselectthesehyperparameters,andthenumberandtypeof
layers,bycross-validation.Eachlayeralsohasnumericalparameters,suchastheparametersofthe
filtersusedintheconvolutionallayers.Theseparametersarecalibratedduringtraining.Wetrainthe
CNNbyselectingtheparametervaluesthatmaximizetheCNN’sabilitytolabelsentencesasinformative
vs.non-informative.
Figure2illustratesthearchitectureoftheCNNinourapplication.Westackaconvolutionallayer,
apoolinglayer,andasoftmaxlayer.ThisspecificationmodifiesKim’s(2014)architectureforsentence
classificationtasktoaccountfortheamountoftrainingdataavailableincustomer-needapplications.
Figure2 ConvolutionalNeuralNetworkArchitectureforSentenceClassification
3.3.1.NumericalRepresentationsofWordsforUseintheCNN
Foreverywordinthetextcorpus,theCNNstoresanumericalrepresentationoftheword.
Numericalrepresentationsofwordsaretherealvectorparametersofthemodelwhicharecalibratedto
improveprediction.TofacilitatetrainingoftheCNN,weinitializerepresentationswithword
embeddingsfromStage2.However,weallowtheCNNtoupdatethenumericalrepresentationsto
enhancepredictiveability(Lample,etal.2016).Inourapplication,thisflexibilityenhancesout-of-
sampleaccuracyofprediction.
TheCNNquantifiessentencesbyconcatenatingwordembeddings.If!S isthewordembedding
forthelmnwordinthesentence,thenthesentenceisrepresentedbyavector!
16
! = !c, … , !p ∈ ℝs×p
whereCisthenumberofwordsinthesentenceandY = 20isthedimensionalityoftheword
embeddings.
3.3.2.ConvolutionalLayer
Convolutionallayerscreatemultiplefeaturemapsbyapplyingconvolutionaloperationswith
varyingfilterstothesentencerepresentation.Afilterisareal-valuedvector,um ∈ ℝs×nv,whereℎmisa
sizeofthefilter.Filtersareappliedtodifferentpartsofthevector!tocreatefeaturemaps(xm):
xm = [@cm, … , @p\nvZcm ]
@Sm = { um ⋅ !S:SZnv\c + Gm
whereDindexesthefeaturemaps,σ ⋅ isanon-linearactivationfunctionwhere{ e = max(0, e),
Gm ∈ ℝisanintercept,and!S:SZnv\cisaconcatenationofrepresentationsofwordsltol + ℎm − 1inthe
sentence:
!S:SZnv\c = [!S, … , !SZnv\c]
Weconsiderfiltersofthesizeℎm ∈ 3, 4, 5 ,andusethreefiltersofeachsize.Thenumberof
filtersandtheirsizeareselectedtomaximizepredictiononthevalidationset.Thenumericalvaluesfor
filters,um,andintercepts,Gm,arecalibratedwhentheCNNistrained.Asanillustration,Figure3shows
howafeaturemapisgeneratedwithafilterofsize,ℎm = 3.Ontheleftisasentence,!,consistingof
fivewords.Eachwordisa20-dimenionalvector(only5dimensionsareshown).Sentence!issplitinto
tripletsofwordsasshowninthemiddle.Representationsofwordtripletsarethentransformedtothe
real-valued@Sm’sinthenextcolumn.TheDmnfeaturemap,xm,isthevectorofthesevalues.Processing
sentencesinthiswayallowstheCNNtointerpretwordsthatarenexttooneanotherinasentence
together.
17
Figure3 ExampleFeatureMap,xÅGeneratedwithaFilter,uÅ,ofSizeÇÅ = É.
3.3.3.PoolingLayer
Thepoolinglayertransformsfeaturemapsintoshortervectors.Theroleofthepoolinglayeristo
reducedimensionalityoftheoutputoftheconvolutionallayertobeusedinthenextlayer.Poolingto
theÑmnlargestfeaturesorsimplyusingthelargestfeaturehasproveneffectiveinNLPapplications
(Collobert,etal.2011).WeselectedÑ = 1withcross-validation.Theoutputofthepoolinglayerisa
vector,Ö,thatsummarizestheresultsofpoolingoperatorsappliedtothefeaturemaps:
Üm = áEe[@cm, … , @p\nvZcm ]
Ö = [Üc, Üà, … , Üâ]
Thevector,Ö ∈ ℝâ,isnowanefficientnumericalrepresentationofthesentenceandcanbeusedto
classifythesentenceaseitherinformativeornotinformative.ThenineelementsinÖrepresentfilter
sizes(3)timesthenumberoffilters(3)withineachsize.
3.3.4.SoftmaxLayer
ThefinallayeroftheCNNiscalledthesoftmaxlayer.Thesoftmaxlayertransformstheoutputof
thepoolinglayers,Ö,intoaprobabilisticpredictionofwhetherthesentenceisinformativeornot
informative.Marketingresearcherswillrecognizethesoftmaxlayerasabinarylogitmodelwhichuses
theÖvectorasexplanatoryvariables.Theestimateoftheprobabilitythatthesentenceisinformative,
18
ä k = 1 Ö ,isgivenby:
ä k = 1 Ö =1
1 + d\ãÖ
Theparametersofthelogitmodel,ã,aredeterminedwhentheCNNistrained.Inourapplication,we
declareasentencetobeinformativeifä k = 1 Ö > 0.5,althoughothercriteriacouldbeusedand
tunedtoatargettradeoff.
3.3.5.CalibrationoftheParametersoftheCNN
Forourapplication,wecalibratetheninefilters,um ∈ ℝs×nv,andthenineintercepts,Gm,inthe
convolutionallayer,andthevectorãinthesoftmaxlayer.Inaddition,wefinetunetheword
embeddings,!ç,toenhancetheabilityoftheCNN’spredictions(e.g.,Kim2014).Wecalibrateall
parameterssimultaneouslybyminimizingthecross-entropyerroronthetrainingsetofprofessionally
labeledsentences(uisaconcatenationoftheum’s):
u, é, ã, ! = EXUáEeu,é,ã,!è(u, é, ã, !)
è u, é, ã, ! = −1ê ëkp TAU kp + 1 − kp TAU 1 − kp
í
pbc
êisthesizeofthetrainingset,kparethemanuallyassignedlabels,andkparethepredictionsofthe
CNN.Theparameter,ë,enablestheusertoweightfalsenegativesmore(orless),thanfalsepositives.
Weinitiallysetë = 1sothatidentifyinginformativesentencesandeliminatingnon-informative
sentencesareweighedequally,butwealsoexamineasymmetriccosts(ë > 1)inwhichweplacemore
weightonidentifyinginformativesentencesthaneliminatinguninformativesentences.
WesolvedtheoptimizationproblemiterativelywiththeRMSPropoptimizeronmini-batchesof
size32andadroprateof0.3.Optimizationterminatedwhenthecross-entropyerroronthevalidation
setdidnotdecreaseoverfiveconsecutiveiterations.SeeTielemanandHinton(2012)fordetailsand
definitionsoftermssuchas“droprate.”
19
3.3.6.EvaluatingthePerformanceoftheCNN
WeevaluatethequalityoftheCNNclassifierusinganìcscore(Wilson,Wiebe,andHoffmann
2005):
ìc =VXd@lîlAC ∙ Xd@ETTñó òôö]SõSúpZôö]ùûû
whereprecisionistheshareofinformativesentencesamongthesentencesidentifiedasinformative
andrecallistheshareofinformativesentencescorrectlyidentifiedbytheclassifier.Accuracy,when
reported,isthepercentofclassificationsthatwerecorrect.
3.4.Stage4:ClusteringSentenceEmbeddingsandSamplingtoReduceRedundancy
UGCisrepetitiveandoftenfocusesonasmallsetofcustomerneeds.Considerthefollowing
sentences:
• “WhenIamdone,myteethdofeel`squeakyclean.’"
• “EverytimeIusetheproduct,myteethandgumsfeelprofessionallycleaned.”
• “Iamstillshockedathowcleanmyteethfeel.”
Thesethreesentencesaredifferentarticulationsofacustomerneedthatcouldbesummarizedas
“Mymouthfeelsclean.”Manualreviewofsuchrepetitivecontentisinefficient.Moreover,
repetitivenessmakesthemanualreviewonerousandboringforprofessionalanalysts,causinganalysts
tomissexcitementcustomerneedsthatarementionedrarely.Iftheanalystsmissexcitementcustomer
needs,thenthefirmmissesvaluablenewproductopportunitiesand/orstrategicpositionings.Toavoid
repetitiveness,weseekto“spantheset”ofcustomerneeds.Weconstructsentenceembeddingswhich
encodesemanticrelationshipsbetweensentences,andusesentenceembeddingstoreduceredundancy
bysamplingcontentformanualreviewfrommaximallydifferentpartsofthespaceofsentence
embeddings.
Researchersoftencreatesentenceembeddingsbytakingasimpleaverageofwordembeddings
correspondingtothewordsinthesentence(Iyyeretal.,2015),explicitlymodelingsemanticand
20
syntacticstructureofthesentenceswithneuralmethods(Tai,SocherandManning2015),ortraining
sentenceembeddingstogetherwithwordembeddings(LeandMikolov,2014).Becauseaveraging
demonstratessimilarperformancetoothermethodsandisbothscalableandtransferable(Iyyeretal.,
2015),weuseaveraginginourapplication.
Beingtheaverageofwordembeddings,sentenceembeddingsrepresentsemanticsimilarity
amongsentences.Forexample,thethreesimilarsentencesmentionedabovehavesentence
embeddingsthatarereasonablyclosetooneanotherinthesentence-embeddingvectorspace.Using
thisproperty,wegroupsentencesintoclusters.WechooseWard’shierarchicalclusteringmethod
becauseitiscommonlyusedinVOCstudies(GriffinandHauser1993),andotherareasofmarketing
research(Dolnicar2003).ToidentifyYsentencesforprofessionalanalyststoreview,wesampleone
sentencerandomlyfromeachofYclusters.Iftheclusteringworkedperfectly,sentenceswithineachof
thejclusterswouldarticulatethesamecustomerneed,andeachofthejclusterswouldproducea
sentencethatananalystwouldrecognizeasadistinctcustomerneed.Inrealdata,redundancyremains,
but,hopefullylessredundancythanthatwhichwouldbepresentinjrandomlysampledsentences.
3.5.Stage5:ManuallyExtractingCustomerNeeds
Toachievehighrelevancyinformulatingabstractcontext-dependentcustomerneeds,thefinal
extractionofcustomerneedsisbestdonebytrainedanalysts.Weevaluatein§5whethermanual
extractionbecomesmoreefficientusinginformative,diversesentencesidentifiedwiththeCNNand
sentence-embeddingclusters.
4.EvaluationofUGC’sPotentialintheOral-CareProductCategory
Weuseempiricaldatatoexaminetwoquestions.(§4)DoesUGCcontainsufficientrawmaterial
fromwhichtoidentifyabroadsetofcustomerneeds?And(§5)Doeachofthemachine-learningsteps
enhanceefficiency?Weaddressbothquestionswithacustomdatasetintheoral-carecategory.We
selectedoralcarebecauseoral-carecustomerneedsaresufficientlyvaried,butnotsonumerousasto
21
overcomplicatecomparisons.Asaproof-of-concepttest,ouranalysesestablishakeyexample.We
discussapplicationsinothercategoriesin§6.
4.1.BaselineComparison:ExperientialInterviewsinOralCare
Weobtainedadetailedsetofcustomerneedsfromanoral-carevoice-of-the-customer(VOC)
analysisthatwasundertakenbyaprofessionalmarketresearchconsultingfirm.Thefirmhasalmost
thirtyyearsofVOCexperiencespanninghundredsofsuccessfulproduct-developmentapplications
acrossawide-varietyofindustries.Theoral-careVOCprovidedvaluableinsightstotheclientandledto
successfulnewproducts.TheVOCwasbasedonstandardmethods:experientialinterviews,with
transcriptshighlightedbyexperiencedanalystsaidedbythefirm’sproprietarysoftware.After
winnowing,customerneedswerestructuredbyacustomer-basedaffinitygroup.Theoutputis86
customerneedsstructuredintosixprimaryand22secondaryneedgroups.Anappendixliststheprimary
andsecondaryneedgroupsandprovidesanexampleofatertiaryneedfromeachsecondary-need
group.Examplesofcustomerneedsinclude:“Oralcareproductsthatdonotcreateanyoddsensations
inmymouthwhileusingthem(e.g.tingling,burning,etc.)”or“MyteethfeelsmoothwhenIglidemy
tongueoverthem.”Suchcustomerneedsaremorethantheircomponentwords;theydescribea
desiredoutcomeinthelanguagethatthecustomerusestodescribethedesiredoutcome.
Theunderlyingexperientialinterviewtranscriptswerebasedonarepresentativesampleoforal
carecustomersandwerenotsubjecttoself-selectionbiases.IfUGCcanidentifyasetofcustomerneeds
thatiscomparabletothebenchmark,thenwehaveinitialevidenceinatleastoneproductcategorythat
UGCself-selectiondoesnotunderminethebasicgoalsoffindingareasonablycompletesetofcustomer
needs.
Professionalanalystsestimatethattheprofessional-servicecostsnecessarytoreview,highlight,
andwinnowcustomerneedsfromexperiential-interviewtranscriptsisslightlymorethanthe
professionalservicescostsrequiredtoreview8,000UGCsentencestoidentifycustomerneeds.The
22
professionalservicescostsrequiredtoreview,highlight,andwinnowcustomerneedsisabout40%-55%
oftheprofessionalservicescostsrequiredtoscheduleandinterviewcustomers.Atthisrate,
professionalanalystscouldreviewapproximately22,000to28,000UGCsentencesusingthemethods
andprofessionalservicescostsinvolvedinatypicalVOCstudy.
4.2.Fully-CodedUGCDatafromtheOral-CareCategory
TocompareUGCtoexperientialinterviewsandevaluateaproposedmachinelearningmethod,
weneededafully-codedsampleofaUGCcorpus.Inparticular,weneededtoknowandclassifyevery
customerneedineverysentenceintheUGCsample.Wereceivedin-kindsupportfromprofessional
analyststogenerateacustomdatasettoevaluateUGCandthemachine-learningefficiencies.Thein-
kindsupportwasapproximatelythatwhichthefirmwouldhaveallocatedtoatypicalVOCstudy—a
substantialtime-and-costcommitmentfromthefirm.
Fromthe115,099oral-carereviewsonAmazonspanningtheperiodfrom1996to2014,we
randomlysampled12,000sentencessplitintoaninitialsetof8,000sentencesandasecondsetof4,000
sentences(McAuley,et.al.2015).Tomaintainacommonleveloftrainingandexperienceforreviewing
UGCandexperientialinterviewtranscripts,thesentenceswerereviewedbyagroupofthree
experiencedanalystsfromthesamefirmthatprovidedtheinterview-basedVOC.Theseanalystswere
notinvolvedintheinitialinterview-basedVOC.UsingateamofanalystsisrecommendedbyGriffinand
Hauser(1993,p.11).
Wechose8,000sentencesforourprimaryevaluationbecausetheprofessionalservicescoststo
review8,000sentencesarecomparable,albeitslightlylessthan,theprofessionalservicescoststo
reviewatypicalsetofexperiential-interviewtranscripts.Forthesesentences,theanalystsfullycoded
everysentencetodeterminewhetheritcontainedacustomerneedand,ifso,whetherthecustomer
needcouldbemappedtoacustomerneedidentifiedbytheVOC,orwhetherthecustomerneedwasa
23
newlyidentifiedcustomerneed.MatchingneedsfromtheUGCtotheinterview-basedneedsisfuzzy.
Forexample,thethreesentencesthatweremappedto“Mymouthfeelsclean.”werejudgedbythe
analyststoarticulatethatcustomerneedeventhoughthewordingwasnotexact(§3.4).
Inadditiontothefully-coded8,000sentences,wewereabletopersuadetheanalyststoexamine
anadditional4,000sentencestofocusonanycustomerneedsthatwereidentifiedbythetraditional
VOC,butnotidentifiedfromtheUGC.Thisseconddatasetenablesustoaddresswhetherthereexist
customerneedsthatarenotinUGCperse,orwhetherthecustomerneedsaresufficientlyrarethat
morethan8,000sentencesarerequiredtoidentifythem.Finally,toassesscodingreliability,weasked
anotheranalyst,blindtothepriorcoding,torecode200sentencesusingtwodifferenttaskdescriptions.
4.3.DescriptiveStatisticsandComparisons
UsingAmazonreviews,thethreehumancodersdeterminedthat52%ofthe8,000sentences
containedatleastonecustomerneedand9.2%ofthesentencescontainedtwoormorecustomer
needs.However,thecorpuswashighlyrepetitive;10%ofthemostfrequentcustomerneedswere
articulatedin54%oftheinformativesentences.Ontheotherhand,17customerneedswerearticulated
nomorethan5timesinthecorpusof8,000sentences.
Weconsiderfirstthe8,000sentences—inthisscenarioanalystsallocateatmostasmuchtime
codingUGCastheywouldhaveallocatedtoreviewexperientialinterviewtranscripts.Thissection
addressesthepotentialoftheUGCcorpus,hence,forthissection,wedonotyetexploitmachine-
learningefficiencies.Fromthe8,000sentences,analystsidentified74ofthe86tertiaryexperiential-
interview-basedcustomerneeds,butalsoidentifiedanadditional8needs.
Wenowconsiderthesetof4,000sentencesasasupplementtothefully-coded8,000
sentences—inthisscenarioanalystsstillallocatesubstantiallylesstimethantheywouldtointerview
customersandreviewtranscripts.Fromthesecondsetof4,000sentences,theanalystsidentified9of
12missingcustomerneeds.With12,000sentences,thatbringsthetotalto83ofthe86experiential-
24
interview-basedcustomerneedsand91ofthe94totalneeds(97%).Inthesecondsetof4,000
sentences,theanalystsdidnottrytoidentifyanycustomerneedsotherthanthe12missingneeds.Had
wehadtheresourcestodoso,wewouldlikelyhaveincreasedthenumberofUGC-basedincremental
customerneeds.Overall,analystsidentified91customerneedsfromUGCand86customerneedsfrom
experientialinterviews.TheseresultsaresummarizedinFigure4.Atleastinoralcare,analyzingUGC
hasthepotentialtoidentifyatleastasmany,possiblymore,customerneedsataloweroverallcostof
professionalservices,evenwithoutmachine-learningefficiencies.Furthermore,becausethe
experiential-interviewbenchmarkisdrawnfromarepresentativesampleofconsumers,thepotentialfor
self-selectioninUGCoral-carepostingsdoesnotseemtoimpairthebreadthofcustomerneeds
containedinUGCsentences.Wecannotruleoutself-selectionissuesforotherproductcategories.
Whenself-selectionisfeared,werecommendanalysesthatbuildonmultiplesourcessuchasthe
methodsdevelopedbySchweidelandMoe(2014).
Figure4. ComparisonofCustomerNeedsObtainedfromExperientialInterviewswith CustomerNeedsObtainedfromanExhaustiveReviewofaUGCSample
WhetherornotcustomerneedsarebasedoninterviewsorUGC,thefinalidentificationofcustomer
needsisbasedonimperfecthumanjudgment.Weaskedananalyst,blindtothepriorcoding,to
evaluate200sentencesusingtwodifferentapproaches.Forthefirstevaluation,theanalyst(1)explicitly
formulatedcustomerneedsfromeachsentence,(2)winnowedthecustomerneedstoremove
duplicates,(3)matchedtheidentifiedcustomerneedstotheinterview-basedhierarchy,(4)addednew
25
needstothehierarchyifnecessary,and(5)mappedeachofthe200sentencestothecustomerneeds.
Forthesecondevaluation,theanalystfollowedthesameproceduresthatproducedFigure4.Thesetwo
evaluationswereconductedtwoweeksapart.
Wecomparethecodesproducedbytheadditionalanalystversusthecodesproducedbythe
threeanalysts.Inter-taskaccuracy(firstvs.secondevaluationbythenewanalyst)was80%,whichis
betterthantheinter-coderaccuracy(newanalystvs.previousanalysts)of70%.Theadditionalanalyst
identified71.4%ofthecustomerneedsthatwerepreviouslyidentifiedbythethreeanalysts.The
additionalanalyst’shitratecomparesfavorablytoGriffinandHauser(1993,p.8)whoreportthattheir
individualanalystsidentified45-68%oftheneeds,wheretheuniversewasallcustomerneedsidentified
bythesevenanalystswhocodedtheirdata.ThisevidencesuggeststhatFigure4isaconservative
estimateofthepotentialoftheUGCasasourceofcustomerneeds.
4.4.PrioritizationofCustomerNeeds
ToaddresswhethertheeightincrementalUGCcustomerneedsand/orthethreeincremental
experiential-interviewcustomerneedswereimportant,weconductedaprioritizationsurvey.We
randomlyselected197customersfromaprofessionalpanel(PureSpectrum),screenedforinterestin
oralcare,andaskedcustomerstoratetheimportanceofeachtertiarycustomerneedona0-to-100
scale.Customersalsoratedwhethertheyfeltthattheircurrentoral-careproductsperformedwellon
thesecustomerneedsona0-to-10scale.SuchmeasuresareusedcommonlyinVOCstudiesandhave
proventoprovidevaluableinsightsforproductdevelopment.(Reviewcitationsin§2.1.)
Table1summarizesthesurveyresults.Onaverage,thecustomerneedsidentifiedinboththe
interviewsandUGCarethemostimportantcustomerneeds.ThosethatareuniquetoUGCoruniqueto
experientialinterviewsareoflowerimportanceandperformance.Wegainfurtherinsightby
categorizingthecustomerneedsintoquadrantsviamediansplits.High-importance-low-performance
customerneedsarealmostperfectlyidentifiedbybothdatasources.Suchcustomerneedsprovide
insightforproductimprovement.
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Table1. ImportanceandPerformanceScoresforCustomerNeedsIdentifiedfromUGCandfromExperientialInterviews(Imp=Importance,Per=Performance)
Quadrant(mediansplits)
SourceofCustomerNeed
CountAverageImp
AveragePer
HighImp
HighPerHighImpLowPer
LowImpHighPer
LowImpLowPer
InterviewsÇ8,000UGCa 74 65.5 7.85 29 11 11 23
InterviewsÇ4,000UGCb 9 63.9 7.97 6 0 0 3
UGConly 8 50.3 7.12 0 0 1 7
Interviewsonly 3 52.8 7.47 0 1 0 2
aBasedonthefirst8,000UGCsentencesthatwerefully-coded
bBasedonthesecond4,000UGCsentencesthatwerecodedtotestforinterview-identifiedcustomerneeds
Focusingonhighlyimportantcustomerneedsistempting,butwecannotignorelow-importance
customerneeds.Innewproductdevelopment,identifyinghiddenopportunitiesforinnovationoften
leadstosuccessfulnewproducts.Customersoftenevaluateneedsbelowthemediansonimportance
andperformancewhentheyanticipatethatnocurrentproductfulfillsthosecustomerneeds(e.g.,
Corrigan2013).Ifthenewproductsatisfiesthecustomerneed,customersreconsideritsimportance,
andtheinnovatorgainsavaluablestrategicadvantage.Thus,wedefinelow-importance–low-
performancecustomerneedsashiddenopportunities.Bythiscriterion,theUGC-uniquecustomerneeds
identify20%ofthehiddenopportunitiesandtheinterview-uniqueneedsidentify8%ofthehidden
opportunities.Forexample,twoUGC-uniquehiddenopportunitiesare“Anoral-careproductthatdoes
notaffectmysenseoftaste,”and“Anoralcareproductthatisquiet.”Aninterview-basedhidden
opportunityis“Oralcaretoolsthatcaneasilybeusedbyleft-handedpeople.”
Insummary,UGCidentifiesthevastmajorityofcustomerneeds(97%),opportunitiesforproduct
improvement(92%),andhiddenopportunities(92%).UGC-uniqueneedsidentifyatleastsevenhidden
opportunitieswhileinterview-onlyneedsidentifytwohiddenopportunities.Wehavenotbeenableto
identifyanyqualitativeinsightsfromthecomparisonofthecustomerneedsbetweentwosources
suggestingthatthereisnothingsystematicthatismissingintheUGC.TableA2intheappendixlistsall
elevencustomerneedsthatareuniquetoeitherUGCorexperientialinterviews.
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4.5.TestsofNon-Machine-LearningPrescreeningofUGCData
4.5.1.HelpfulnessRatings
Reviewsareoftenratedbyotherusersbasedontheirhelpfulness.Inourdata,41%ofthereviews
areratedonhelpfulness.Becausehelpfulreviewstendtobelonger,thiscorrespondsto52%ofthe
sentences.Weexaminewhetherornothelpfulreviewsareparticularlyinformativeusingthe8,000fully-
codedsentences.Fifty-fourpercent(54%)ofnon-ratedreviewscontainacustomerneedcomparedto
51%ofratedreviews,48%ofreviewswithratingabovethemedian,and48%ofreviewswithratingin
theupperquartile.Helpfulnessisnotcorrelatedwithinformativeness(ü = −0.01, V = 0.56).Whenwe
examineindividualsentences,weseethatasentencecanberatedashelpful,butnotnecessarily
describeacustomerneed(beinformative).Twoexamplesofhelpfulbutuninformativesentencesare:"I
finallygotthistoothbrushafterIhaveseenalotofpeopleusethem."or"I'msohappyI'mjustabout
besidemyselfwithit!"Overall,helpfulnessdoesnotseemtoimplyinformativeness.
4.5.2NumberofTimesaCustomerNeedisMentioned
Forexperientialinterviews,thefrequencywithwhichacustomerneedismentionedisnot
correlatedwiththemeasuredimportanceofthecustomerneed(GriffinandHauser1993,p.13).
However,inexperientialinterviews,theinterviewerprobesexplicitlyfornewcustomerneeds.Thelack
ofcorrelationmaybeduetoendogeneityintheinterviewingprocess.InUGC,customersdecide
whetherornottopost,hencefrequencymightbeanindicatoroftheimportanceofacustomerneed.
Fororal-care,frequencyofmentionismarginallysignificantlycorrelatedwithimportance(ü = 0.21, V =
0.06).Frequencyofmentionisnotsignificantlycorrelatedwithperformance(ü = 0.09, V = 0.44).
However,ifweweretofocusonlyoncustomerneedswithfrequencyabovethemedianof7.9
mentions,wewouldmiss29%ofthehigh-importancecustomerneeds,44%ofthehigh-performance
customerneeds,and72%ofthehiddenopportunities.Thus,whilefrequencyisrelatedtoimportance,it
doesnotenhancetheefficiencywithwhichcustomerneedsornew-productideascanbeidentified.
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5.OralCare:EvaluationofMachine-HumanHybridMethod
5.1.CNNtoEliminateNon-InformativeSentences
ThereisatradeofftobemadewhentrainingaCNN.Withalargertrainingsample,theCNNis
betteratidentifyinginformativecontent,butthereisanopportunitycosttousinganalyststoclassify
informativesentences.Fortunately,labelingsentencesasinformativeornotisfasterandeasierthan
identifyingabstractcontext-dependentcustomerneedsfromsentences.Theratiooftimespenton
identifyinginformativesentencesvs.formulatingcustomerneedsisapproximately20%.Furthermore,
asdescribedearlier,exploratoryresearchsuggeststhatAmazonMechanicalTurkmightbeusedasa
lower-costwaytoobtainatrainingsample.
Figure5plotstheF1-scoreoftheCNNasafunctionofthesizeofthetrainingsample.Weconduct
100iterationswherewerandomlydrawatrainingset,traintheCNNwiththearchitecturedescribedin
§3.3,andmeasureperformanceonthetestset.Figure5suggeststhatperformanceoftheCNN
stabilizesafter500trainingsentences,withsomeslightimprovementafter500trainingsentences.We
plotprecisionandrecallasafunctionofthesizeofthetrainingsampleintheappendix,FigureA2.
Figure5. ìcscoreasaFunctionoftheSizeoftheTrainingSample
Totestwhetherwemightimproveperformanceusingalternativenatural-languageprocessing
methods,wetrainamultichannelCNN(Kim2014),asupport-vectormachine,andarecurrentneural
29
networkwithlongshort-termmemorycells(LSTM,HochreiterandSchmidhuber1997).Wealsotraina
CNNwithahigherpenaltyforfalsepositives(g=3)toinvestigatetheeffectofasymmetriccostsonthe
performanceofthemodel.Theevaluationisbasedonthe6,700of8,000fully-codedsentencesthat
remainafterweeliminatedsentencesthatweretooshortandtoolong.Fromthe6,700sentences,we
randomlyselect3,700sentencestotrainthemethodsand3,000toactasholdoutsentencestotestthe
performanceofthealternativemethods.WesummarizetheresultsinTable2.
Table2. AlternativeMachine-LearningMethodstoIdentifyInformativeSentences
Method Precision Recall Accuracy ¢£ConvolutionalNeuralNetwork(CNN) 74.4% 73.6% 74.2% 74.0%
CNNwithAsymmetricCosts(g=3) 65.2% 85.3% 70.0% 74.0%
RecurrentNeuralNetwork-LSTM 72.8% 74.0% 73.2% 73.4%
MultichannelCNN 70.5% 74.9% 71.8% 72.6%
SupportVectorMachine 63.7% 67.9% 64.6% 65.7%
FocusingonF1,theCNNoutperformstheothermethods,althoughtheotherdeep-learning
methodsdoreasonablywell.ConditionedonagivenF1,wefavormethodsthatmissfewerinformative
sentences(higherrecall,attheexpenseofalowerprecision).Thus,insubsequentanalyses,weusethe
CNNwithasymmetriccosts.
Thedeeplearningmethodsachieveaccuraciesintherangeof70-74%,whichislowerthanthat
achievedinsomesentence-classificationtasks.Forexample,Kim(2014)reportsaccuraciesintherange
of45-95%acrosssevendatasetsandeighteenmethods(average80%).Amore-relevantbenchmarkis
thecapabilitiesofthehumancodersonwhichthedeep-learningmodelsaretrained.Thedeep-learning
modelsachievehigheraccuracyidentifyinginformativesentencesthantheinter-coderaccuracyof70%.
Theabstractcontext-dependentnatureofthecustomerneedsappearstomakeidentifyinginformative
contentmoredifficultthantypicalsentence-classificationtasks.
Tobeeffective,theCNNshouldbeabletocorrectlyidentifybothsentencesthatcontain
frequentlymentionedcustomerneedsandsentencesthatcontainrarelymentionedcustomerneeds.
30
Weconductiterationstoevaluatethisproperty.Ineachiteration,werandomlysplitthe6,700
preprocessedsentencesinto3,700trainingand3,000holdoutsentences,andtraintheCNNusingthe
trainingset.Wethencomparetheneedsintheholdoutsentencesandtheneedsinthesentences
identifiedbytheCNNasinformative.Onaverageoveriterations,theCNNidentifiedsentenceswith
100%ofthefrequentlymentionedcustomerneeds,91%oftherarelymentionedcustomerneeds,and
84%ofthecustomerneedsthatwerenewtotheholdoutdata.Becauseallcustomerneedswere
identifiedinatleastoneiteration,weexpectthesepercentagestoapproach100%ifitwerefeasibleto
expandtheholdoutsetfrom3,000sentencestoalargernumberofsentences,suchasthe12,000
sentencesusedinFigure4.
5.2.ClusteringSentenceEmbeddingstoReduceRedundancy
InStage4oftheproposedhybridapproach,weencodeinformativesentencesintoa20-
dimensionalreal-valuedvectorspace(sentenceembeddings),groupsentenceembeddingsintoY
clusters,andsampleonesentencefromeachcluster.Tovisualizewhetherornotsentenceembeddings
separatethecustomerneeds,weuseaprinciplecomponentsanalysistoprojectthe20-dimensional
sentenceembeddingsontotwodimensions.Informationislostwhenweprojectfrom20dimensionsto
twodimensions,butthetwo-dimensionalplotenablesustovisualizewhethersentenceembeddings
separatesentencesarticulatingdifferentcustomerneeds.(Weuseprinciplecomponentsanalysispurely
asavisualizationtooltoevaluateStage4.Thedimensionalityreductionisnotapartofourapproach.)
Figure6reportstheprojectionfortwoprimaryneeds.Theaxescorrespondtothefirsttwo
principalcomponents.Thereddotsaretheprojectionsofsentenceembeddingsthatwerecoded(by
analysts)asbelongingtotheprimarycustomerneed:“strongteethandgums.”Thebluecrossesare
sentenceembeddingsthatwerecodedas“shopping/productchoice.”(ReviewTableA1inthe
appendix.)Theovalsrepresentthesmallestellipsesinscribing90%ofthecorrespondingset.Figure6
31
suggeststhat,whilenotperfect,theclustersofsentenceembeddingsachievedseparationamong
primarycustomerneedsand,hence,arelikelytoreduceredundancyandenableanalyststoidentifya
diversesetofcustomerneedswhentheyanalyzeYsentences,eachchosenfromoneofYclusters.
Samplingdiversesentenceslikelyincreasestheprobabilitythatlow-frequencycustomerneedsare
containedinasampleofjsentences.
Figure6. Projectionsof20-DimensionalEmbeddingsofSentencesontoTwoDimensions(PCA).
DotsandCrossesIndicateAnalyst-CodedPrimaryCustomerNeeds.
5.3.GainsinEfficiencyDuetoMachineLearning
Weseektodeterminewhethertheproposedcombinationofmachine-learningmethods
improvesefficiencyofidentifyingcustomerneedsfromUGC.Efficiencyisimportantbecausethe
reducedtimeandcostsenablemorefirmstouseadvancedVOCmethodstoidentifynewproduct
opportunities.Efficiencyisalsoimportantbecauseitenhancestheprobabilityofidentifyinglow-
frequencyneedsgivenaconstraintonthenumberofsentencesthatanalystscanprocess.
Inourapproach,machinelearninghelpstoidentifycontentforreviewbyprofessionalanalysts.
32
Wecomparecontentselectionapproachesintermsoftheexpectednumberofuniquecustomerneeds
identifiedinYsentences.Thebaselinemethodforselectingsentencesforreviewiscurrentpractice—a
randomdrawfromthecorpus.ThesecondmethodusestheCNNtoidentifyinformativesentences,and
thenrandomlysamplesinformativesentencesforreview.Thethirdmethodusesthesentence-
embedding-clusterstoreduceredundancyamongsentencesidentifiedasinformativebytheCNN.For
eachmethod,andforeachvalueofY,we(1)randomlysplitthe6,700preprocessedsentences,which
areneithertooshortnortoolong,into3,700trainingand3,000hold-outsamples,(2)traintheCNN
usingthetrainingsample,and(3)drawYsentencesfromthehold-outsampleforreview.Wecountthe
uniqueneedsidentifiedintheYsentencesandrepeattheprocess10,000times.Anupperboundforthe
numberofcustomerneedsidentifiedintheYsentencesisthenumberofcustomerneedscontainedin
3,000hold-outsentences—thisisfewercustomerneedsthanarecontainedintheentirecorpus.
From3,000sentencesintheholdoutsample,thelargestpossiblevalueofYforwhichwecan
evaluatetheCNNisthenumberofsentencesthattheCNNclassifiedasinformative.Thenumberof
sentencesidentifiedbytheCNNasinformativevariesacrossiterations,andinourexperimentthe
minimumis1,790sentences.WhileitistemptingtoconsiderYinthefullrangefrom0to1,790,itwould
bemisleadingtodoso.AtY=1,790,therewouldbe1,790clusters—thesamenumberasifwesampled
allavailableinformativesentences.Tominimizethissaturationeffectontheoral-carecorpus,we
considerY={200,300,…,1200}toevaluateefficiency.
ThebluedashedlineinFigure7reportsbenchmarkperformance.TheCNNimprovesefficiency
asindicatedbythereddottedline.UsingtheCNNandclusteringsentenceembeddingsincreases
efficiencyfurtherasindicatedbythesolidblackline.OvertherangeofY,therearegainsduetousing
theCNNtoeliminatenon-informativesentencesandadditionalgainsduetousingsentenceembeddings
toreduceredundancywithinthecorpus.
WealsointerpretFigure7horizontally.Thebenchmarkrequires,onaverage,824.3sentencesto
33
identify62.4customerneeds.Ifweprescreenwithmachinelearningtoselectnon-redundant
informativesentences,analystscanidentifythesamenumberofcustomerneedsfromapproximately
700sentences—85%ofthesentencesrequiredbythebaseline.Theefficienciesareevengreaterat200
sentences(78%)and400sentences(79%).Atprofessionalbillingratesacrossmanycategories,this
representssubstantialtimeandcostsavingsandcouldexpandtheuseofVOCmethodsinproduct
development.VOCcustomer-needidentificationmethodshasbeenoptimizedoveralmostthirtyyears
ofcontinuousimprovement;weexpectthemachine-learningmethods,themselves,tobesubjectto
continuousimprovementastheyareappliedinthefield.
FigureA3intheAppendixprovidescomparableanalysesforlower-frequencyandforhigher-
frequencycustomerneedsusingamediansplittodefinefrequency.Asexpected,efficiencygainsare
greaterforlower-frequencycustomerneeds.FigureA4pushesthecomparisonfurthertotheleast
frequentcustomerneeds(lowest10%)andforthosecustomerneedsuniquetoUGC.Asexpected,
machine-learningefficienciesareevengreaterfortheleast-frequentcustomerneeds.
Figure7. EfficienciesamongVariousMethodstoSelectUGCSentencesforReview
34
5.4.ScalabilityoftheMachine-LearningMethods
Theproposedmethodsscalewell.Withatrainingsamplesizeof1,000-4,000,theCNNtypically
convergesin20-30epochs(stochasticgradientdescentiterations)anddoessoinunderaminuteona
standardMacBookPro.WeusethefastclusterpackageimplementationoftheWard’sclustering
algorithm.Theasymptoticworst-casetimecomplexityis§ êà .Inourexperiments,clusteringof
500,000informativesentenceswascompletedinunder5minutes.Onceprogrammed,themethodsare
relativelyeasytoapplyasindicatedbytheapplicationsin§6.
5.5.EfficiencyGainsintermsoftheProfessionalServicesCosts
ProfessionalservicescostsdominatetheexpensesinatypicalVOCstudy.Analystsandmanagers
estimatethatthesecostsareallocatedabout40%tointerviewingcustomers,40-55%toidentifyingand
winnowingcustomer-needsfromtranscripts,and5-20%toorganizingcustomerneedsintoahierarchy
andpreparingthefinalreport(§4.1).UGCeliminatesthefirst40%(§4.2).Theproposedmachine-
learninghybridapproachallowsa15-22%reductioninthetimeallocatedtoidentifyingandwinnowing
customerneeds(§5.3).Applyingourmethodsthuseliminatesapproximately46%-52%oftheoverall
professionalservicescosts.Thesearethesubstantialsavingstothefirmanditsclients,whichcan
facilitatemarketresearchfornewproductdevelopment.Furthermore,machine-learningmethods
enhancetheprobabilitythatthelowest-frequencycustomerneedsareidentifiedwithinagivencost
constraint.Thelowest-frequencycustomerneedsmaybethecustomerneedsthatleadtonewproduct
success.
6.AdditionalApplications
Theproposedhuman-machinehybridmethodshavebeenappliedthreemoretimesforproduct
development.Inallcases,thefirmidentifiedattractivenewproductideas.
Kitchenappliances.Duringthisapplication,thefirmidentified7,000onlineproductreviews
35
containingmorethan18,000sentences.Thefirmwantedtoevaluatetheefficiencyofthemachine
learningmethodanddevotedsufficientresourcestomanuallyreview4,000sentences.Fromthese,
2,000sentenceswereselectedrandomlyfromthecorpusand2,000wereselectedusingmachine-
learningmethods.Thetwosetsofsentencesweremerged,processedtoidentifyuniquecustomer
needs(blindtosource),andthenre-splitbysource.Ninety-seven(97)customerneedswereidentifiedin
themachine-learningcorpusand84customerneedswereidentifiedintherandomcorpus.While66
customerneedswereinbothcorpora,moreuniquecustomerneeds(31)wereidentifiedfromthe
machine-learningcorpusthanfromtherandomcorpus(18).Thefirmfoundthecombinedcustomer
needsextremelyhelpfulandwillcontinuetouseUGCinthefuture.Inparticular,insightsobtainedfrom
UGCtendedtobeclosertothecustomer’smomentofexperience.Customerspostwhentheexperience
isfreshintheirminds.Thesepostsaremorelikelytodescribemalfunctions,difficultiesinuseorrepair,
challengeswithcustomerservice,oruniquesurprises.Suchcustomerneedsareoftenamongthemost
usefulcustomerneedsforproductdevelopment.
Skintreatment.Thiswasapureapplicationinwhichthefirmidentifiedarelevantsetofover
11,000onlinereviews,usedmachine-learningtoselectsentencesforreview,andthenidentified
customerneedsfromtheselectedsentences.Thefirmusedafollow-upquantitativestudytoassessthe
importancesofthecustomerneeds.Importantcustomerneeds,thatwerepreviouslyunmetbyany
competitor,providedthebasisforthefirmtooptimizeitsproductportfoliowithnewproduct
introductions.Thefirmfeelsthatithasenhanceditsabilitytocompetesuccessfullyinthemarketfor
skin-treatment.
Preparedfoods.Oneofthelargestprepared-foodfirmsinNorthAmericaappliedmachine
learningtoanalyzeacombinedcorpusofover500,000sentencesextractedfromitssocial-listeningtool
andover10,000sentencesfromproductreviews.Thesociallisteningsourcesincludedforums,blogs,
micro-blogs,andsocialmedia.Theproductreviewswereobtainedfromfivedifferencesources.Inthis
36
application,thereweresynergiesbetweensocial-listeningUGCandproduct-reviewUGCwithabout
two-thirdsofthecustomerneedscomingfromoneortheothersource.BycombiningthetwoUGC
corpora,thefirmidentifiedmorethanthirtycategoriesofcustomerneedstoprovidevaluableinsight
forbothnewproductdevelopmentandmarketingcommunications.Asaresult,thefirmisnowapplying
themachine-humanhybridmethodtoadjacentcategories.
7.Discussion,Summary,andFutureResearch
Weaddressedtwoquestions:(1)CanUGCbeusedtoidentifyabstractcustomerneeds?And(2)
canmachinelearningenhancetheprocess?Theanswertobothquestionsisyes.UGCisatleasta
comparablesourceofcustomerneedstoexperientialinterviews—likelyabettersource.Theproposed
machine-learningarchitecturesuccessfullyeliminatesnon-informativecontentandreducesredundancy.
Inourinitialtest,machinelearningefficiencygainsare15-22%,butsuchgainsarelikelytoincreasewith
moreresearch.OverallgainsofanalyzingUGCwithourapproachoverthetraditionalinterview-based
VOCare46-52%.
Answeringthesequestionsissignificant.Everyyearthousandsoffirmsrelyonvoice-of-the-
customeranalysestoidentifynewopportunitiesforproductdevelopment,todevelopstrategic
positioningstrategies,andtoselectattributesforconjointanalysis.Typically,VOCstudies,while
valuable,areexpensiveandtime-consuming.Time-to-marketsavings,suchasthosemadepossiblewith
machinelearningappliedtoUGC,areextremelyimportanttoproductdevelopment.Inaddition,UGC
seemstocontaincustomerneedsnotidentifiedinexperientialinterviews.Newcustomerneedsmean
newopportunitiesforproductdevelopmentand/ornewstrategicpositioning.
WhileweareenthusiasticaboutUGC,werecognizethatUGCisnotapanacea.UGCisreadily
availablefororalcare,butUGCmightnotbeavailableforeveryproductcategory.Forexample,consider
specializedmedicaldevicesorspecializedequipmentforoilexploration.Thenumberofcustomersfor
37
suchproductsissmallandsuchcustomersmaynotblog,tweet,orpostreviews.Ontheotherhand,
UGCisextensiveforcomplexproductssuchasautomobilesorcellularphones.Machine-learning
efficienciesinsuchcategoriesmaybenecessarytomakethereviewofUGCfeasible.
Althoughourresearchfocusesondevelopingandtestingnewmethods,wearebeginningto
affectindustry.Furtherresearchwillenhanceourabilitytoidentifyabstractcontext-dependent
customerneedswithUGC.Forexample,
• DeepneuralnetworksandsentenceembeddingsareactiveareasofresearchintheNLP
community.Weexpecttheperformanceoftheproposedarchitecturetoimprovesignificantly
withnewdevelopmentsinmachinelearning.
• UGCisupdatedcontinuously.FirmsmightdevelopprocedurestomonitorUGCcontinuously.
Sentenceembeddingscanbeparticularlyvaluable.Forexample,firmsmightconcentrateon
customerneedsthataredistantfromestablishedneedsinthe20-dimenionalvectorspace.
• Futuredevelopmentsmightautomatethefinalstep,oratleastenhancetheabilityofanalyststo
abstractcustomerneedsfrominformative,non-redundantcontent.
• OtherformsofUGC,suchasblogsandTwitterfeeds,maybeexaminedforcustomerneeds.We
expectblogsandTwitterfeedstocontainmorenon-informativecontent,whichmakesmachine
learningfilteringevenmorevaluable.
• Self-selectiontopostUGCisaconcernandanopportunitywithUGC.Fororalcare,the
effectivenessofproductreviewsdidnotseemtobediminishedbyself-selection,atleast
comparedtoexperientialinterviewsofarepresentativesetofcustomers.Inothercategories,
suchasthefoodcategoryin§6,self-selectionandanon-representativesampleissuesmighthave
alargereffect.Firmsmightexaminemultiplechannelsforacompletesetofcustomerneeds.
• Fieldexperimentsmightassesswhether,andtowhatdegree,abstractcontext-dependent
customerneedsprovidemoreinsightsforproductdevelopmentthaninsightsobtainedfromlists
ofwords.
38
• AmazonMechanicalTurkisapromisingmeanstoreplaceanalystsforlabelingtrainingsentences,
butfurtherresearchiswarranted.
39
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A1
Appendix
TableA1. VoiceoftheCustomerforOralCareasObtainedfromExperientialInterviews(22examplesofthe86tertiarycustomerneedsareshown—oneforeachsecondarygroup.Afulllistoftertiarycustomerneedsisavailablefromtheauthors.)
PrimaryGroup SecondaryGroup #Needs ExamplesofTertiaryCustomerNeeds(22of86shown)
FeelCleanAndFresh(Sensory)
CleanFeelinginMyMouth 4 MymouthfeelscleanFreshBreathAllDayLong 4 IwakeupwithoutfeelinglikeIhavemorningbreathPleasantTasteandTexture 3 Oralcareliquids,gels,pastes,etc.aresmooth(notgrittyorchalky)
StrongTeethAndGumsPreventGingivitis 5 OralcareproductsandproceduresthatminimizegumbleedingAbletoProtectMyTeeth 5 OralcareproductsandproceduresthatpreventcavitiesWhiterTeeth 4 Canavoiddiscolorationofmyteeth
ProductEfficacy
EffectivelyCleanHardtoReachAreas 3 Abletoeasilygetallparticles,eventhetiniest,outfrombetweenmyteethGentleOralCareProducts 4 Oralcareitemsaregentleanddon’thurtmymouthOralCareProductsthatLast 3 It’sclearwhenIneedtoreplaceanoralcareproduct(e.g.toothbrush,floss)ToolsareEasytoManeuverandManipulate 6 Easytograspanyoralcaretool—itwon’tslipoutofmyhand
KnowledgeAndConfidence
KnowledgeofProperTechniques 5Iknowtherightamountoftimetospendoneachstepofmyoralcareroutine
LongTermOralCareHealth 4 IamawareofthebestoralcareroutineformeMotivationforGoodCheck-Ups 4 IwanttobemotivatedtobemoreinvolvedwithmyoralcareAbletoDifferentiateProducts 3 IknowwhichproductstouseforanyoralcareissueI’mtryingtoaddress
ConvenienceEfficientOralCareRoutine(Effective,Hassle-FreeandQuick)
7 Oralcaretasksdonotrequiremuchphysicaleffort
OralCare“AwayFromtheBathroom” 5 TheoralcareitemsIcarryaroundareeasytokeepclean
Shopping/ProductChoice
FaithintheProducts 5 BrandsoforalcareproductsthatarewellknownandreliableProvidesaGoodDeal 2 IknowI’mgettingthelowestpricefortheproductsI’mbuyingEffectiveStorage 1 Easytokeepextraproductsonhand(e.g.packagedsecurely,doesn’tspoil)EnvironmentallyFriendlyProducts 1 EnvironmentallyfriendlyproductsandpackagingEasytoShopforOralCareItems 3 OralcareitemsIwantareavailableatthestorewhereIshopProductAesthetics 5 Productsthathavea“cool”orinterestinglook
NotetoTableA1.Eachcustomerneedisbasedonanalysts’fuzzymatching.Forexample,thecustomerneedof“Iwanttobemotivatedtobemoreinvolved
withmyoralcare”isbasedonfourteensentencesintheUGC,including:“Savesmoneyandtime(andmotivatesmetoflossmore)...”“Thisflosswasabletodo
theimpossible:getmetoflosseveryday.”“Makesflossingmuchmoreenjoyableerr...tolerable…”“…thistoolisthelazyperson'sanswertoflossing.”
A2
FigureA1. DemonstrationoftheApplicationoftheProposedMachineLearningHybridApproachtoanAmazonReview
A3
FigureA2. PrecisionandRecallasaFunctionoftheSizeoftheTrainingSample
(a) Precision (b)Recall
NotetoFigureA2.Below500sentences,theconfidenceboundsonrecallarelargeinFigureA2.Theeffectontheconfidenceboundson!"(Figure5)isasymmetric.!"isacompromisebetweenprecisionandrecall.Wheneitherprecisionorrecallislow,!"islow.Whenrecallisextremelyhigh,precisionislikely
tobelow,hence!"willalsobelow.Thisexplainswhythelowerconfidenceboundfor500sentencesinFigure5isextremelylow,buttheupperconfidence
boundtracksthemedianwell.
A4
TableA2. CompleteSetofCustomerNeedsthatWereUniquetoEitherUGCorExperientialInterviews
CustomerNeedsUniquetoUGC CustomerNeedsUniquetoExperientialInterviews
Easywaytochargetoothbrush. Oralcaretoolsthatcanbeeasilyusedbyleft-handedpeople.
Anoralcareproductthatisquiet. IamabletotellifIhavebadbreath.
Responsivecustomerservice(e.g.,alwaysanswersmycalloremail,
doesn'tmakemewaitlongforaresponse).
Advicethatisregularlyupdatedsothatitisrelevanttomycurrentoral
careneeds—recognizesthatneedschangeasIage.
Anoralcareproductthatdoesnotaffectmysenseoftaste(e.g.
doesn'taffectmytastebuds).
Oralcarethathelpsmequitsmoking.
Easytostoreproducts.
Maintenanceandrepairsaresimpleandquick.
Customerservicecanalwaysresolvemyissue.
A5
FigureA3. EfficienciesamongVariousMethodstoSelectUGCSentencesforReview(Low-andHigh-FrequencyCustomerNeeds)
FigureA4. MachineLearningHybridCanEfficientlyIdentifytheLeastFrequentCustomerNeedsandCustomerNeedsUniquetoUGC
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