The Python Tutorial — Python v2.7

7/29/2019 The Python Tutorial Python v2.7

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The Python Tutorial

Python is an easy to learn, powerful programming language. It has efficient high-level data structures and a simple but effective approach

to object-oriented programming. Pythons elegant syntax and dynamic typing, together with its interpreted nature, make it an ideal

language for scripting and rapid application development in many areas on most platforms.

The Python interpreter and the extensive standard library are freely available in source or binary form for all major platforms from thePython Web site, http://www.python.org/, and may be freely distributed. The same site also contains distributions of and pointers to many

free third party Python modules, programs and tools, and additional documentation.

The Python interpreter is easily extended with new functions and data types implemented in C or C++ (or other languages callable from

C). Python is also suitable as an extension language for customizable applications.

This tutorial introduces the reader informally to the basic concepts and features of the Python language and system. It helps to have a

Python interpreter handy for hands-on experience, but all examples are self-contained, so the tutorial can be read off-line as well.

For a description of standard objects and modules, see The Python Standard Library. The Python Language Reference gives a moreformal definition of the language. To write extensions in C or C++, read Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreterand Python/C

API Reference Manual. There are also several books covering Python in depth.

This tutorial does not attempt to be comprehensive and cover every single feature, or even every commonly used feature. Instead, it

introduces many of Pythons most noteworthy features, and will give you a good idea of the languages flavor and style. After reading it,

you will be able to read and write Python modules and programs, and you will be ready to learn more about the various Python library

modules described in The Python Standard Library.

TheGlossary

is also worth going through.

1. Whetting Your Appetite

2. Using the Python Interpreter

2.1. Invoking the Interpreter

2.1.1. Argument Passing

2.1.2. Interactive Mode

2.2. The Interpreter and Its Environment
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2.2.1. Error Handling

2.2.2. Executable Python Scripts

2.2.3. Source Code Encoding

2.2.4. The Interactive Startup Fi le

2.2.5. The Customization Modules

3. An Informal Introduction to Python

3.1. Using Python as a Calculator

3.1.1. Numbers3.1.2. Strings

3.1.3. Unicode Strings

3.1.4. Lists

3.2. First Steps Towards Programming

4. More Control Flow Tools

4.1. if Statements

4.2. for Statements

4.3. The range() Function

4.4. break and continue Statements, and else Clauses on Loops4.5. pass Statements

4.6. Defining Functions

4.7. More on Defining Functions

4.7.1. Default Argument Values

4.7.2. Keyword Arguments

4.7.3. Arbitrary Argument Lists

4.7.4. Unpacking Argument Lists

4.7.5. Lambda Forms

4.7.6. Documentation Strings4.8. Intermezzo: Coding Style

5. Data Structures

5.1. More on Lists

5.1.1. Using Lists as Stacks

5.1.2. Using Lists as Queues

5.1.3. Functional Programming Tools

5.1.4. List Comprehensions
http://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/datastructures.html#list-comprehensionshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/datastructures.html#functional-programming-toolshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/datastructures.html#using-lists-as-queueshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/datastructures.html#using-lists-as-stackshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/datastructures.html#more-on-listshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/datastructures.htmlhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/controlflow.html#intermezzo-coding-stylehttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/controlflow.html#documentation-stringshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/controlflow.html#lambda-formshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/controlflow.html#unpacking-argument-listshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/controlflow.html#arbitrary-argument-listshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/controlflow.html#keyword-argumentshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/controlflow.html#default-argument-valueshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/controlflow.html#more-on-defining-functionshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/controlflow.html#defining-functionshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/controlflow.html#pass-statementshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/controlflow.html#break-and-continue-statements-and-else-clauses-on-loopshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/controlflow.html#the-range-functionhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/controlflow.html#for-statementshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/controlflow.html#if-statementshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/controlflow.htmlhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/introduction.html#first-steps-towards-programminghttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/introduction.html#listshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/introduction.html#unicode-stringshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/introduction.html#stringshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/introduction.html#numbershttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/introduction.html#using-python-as-a-calculatorhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/introduction.htmlhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/interpreter.html#the-customization-moduleshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/interpreter.html#the-interactive-startup-filehttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/interpreter.html#source-code-encodinghttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/interpreter.html#executable-python-scriptshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/interpreter.html#error-handling


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5.1.4.1. Nested List Comprehensions

5.2. The del statement

5.3. Tuples and Sequences

5.4. Sets

5.5. Dictionaries

5.6. Looping Techniques

5.7. More on Conditions

5.8. Comparing Sequences and Other Types6. Modules

6.1. More on Modules

6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts

6.1.2. The Module Search Path

6.1.3. Compiled Python files

6.2. Standard Modules

6.3. The dir() Function

6.4. Packages

6.4.1. Importing * From a Package6.4.2. Intra-package References

6.4.3. Packages in Multiple Directories

7. Input and Output

7.1. Fancier Output Formatting

7.1.1. Old string formatting

7.2. Reading and Writing Files

7.2.1. Methods of File Objects

7.2.2. The pickle Module

8. Errors and Exceptions8.1. Syntax Errors

8.2. Exceptions

8.3. Handling Exceptions

8.4. Raising Exceptions

8.5. User-defined Exceptions

8.6. Defining Clean-up Actions

8.7. Predefined Clean-up Actions
http://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/errors.html#predefined-clean-up-actionshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/errors.html#defining-clean-up-actionshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/errors.html#user-defined-exceptionshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/errors.html#raising-exceptionshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/errors.html#handling-exceptionshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/errors.html#exceptionshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/errors.html#syntax-errorshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/errors.htmlhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/inputoutput.html#the-pickle-modulehttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/inputoutput.html#methods-of-file-objectshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/inputoutput.html#reading-and-writing-fileshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/inputoutput.html#old-string-formattinghttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/inputoutput.html#fancier-output-formattinghttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/inputoutput.htmlhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/modules.html#packages-in-multiple-directorieshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/modules.html#intra-package-referenceshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/modules.html#importing-from-a-packagehttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/modules.html#packageshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/modules.html#the-dir-functionhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/modules.html#standard-moduleshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/modules.html#compiled-python-fileshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/modules.html#the-module-search-pathhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/modules.html#executing-modules-as-scriptshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/modules.html#more-on-moduleshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/modules.htmlhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/datastructures.html#comparing-sequences-and-other-typeshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/datastructures.html#more-on-conditionshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/datastructures.html#looping-techniqueshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/datastructures.html#dictionarieshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/datastructures.html#setshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/datastructures.html#tuples-and-sequenceshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/datastructures.html#the-del-statementhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/datastructures.html#nested-list-comprehensions


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9. Classes

9.1. A Word About Names and Objects

9.2. Python Scopes and Namespaces

9.3. A First Look at Classes

9.3.1. Class Definition Syntax

9.3.2. Class Objects

9.3.3. Instance Objects

9.3.4. Method Objects9.4. Random Remarks

9.5. Inheritance

9.5.1. Multiple Inheritance

9.6. Private Variables and Class-local References

9.7. Odds and Ends

9.8. Exceptions Are Classes Too

9.9. Iterators

9.10. Generators

9.11. Generator Expressions10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library

10.1. Operating System Interface

10.2. File Wildcards

10.3. Command Line Arguments

10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program Termination

10.5. String Pattern Matching

10.6. Mathematics

10.7. Internet Access

10.8. Dates and Times

10.9. Data Compression

10.10. Performance Measurement

10.11. Quality Control

10.12. Batteries Included

11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library Part II

11.1. Output Formatting

11.2. Templating
http://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib2.html#templatinghttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib2.html#output-formattinghttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib2.htmlhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib.html#batteries-includedhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib.html#quality-controlhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib.html#performance-measurementhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib.html#data-compressionhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib.html#dates-and-timeshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib.html#internet-accesshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib.html#mathematicshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib.html#string-pattern-matchinghttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib.html#error-output-redirection-and-program-terminationhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib.html#command-line-argumentshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib.html#file-wildcardshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib.html#operating-system-interfacehttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib.htmlhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/classes.html#generator-expressionshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/classes.html#generatorshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/classes.html#iteratorshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/classes.html#exceptions-are-classes-toohttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/classes.html#odds-and-endshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/classes.html#private-variables-and-class-local-referenceshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/classes.html#multiple-inheritancehttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/classes.html#inheritancehttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/classes.html#random-remarkshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/classes.html#method-objectshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/classes.html#instance-objectshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/classes.html#class-objectshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/classes.html#class-definition-syntaxhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/classes.html#a-first-look-at-classeshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/classes.html#python-scopes-and-namespaceshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/classes.html#a-word-about-names-and-objectshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/classes.html


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11.3. Working with Binary Data Record Layouts

11.4. Multi-threading

11.5. Logging

11.6. Weak References

11.7. Tools for Working with Lists

11.8. Decimal Floating Point Arithmetic

12. What Now?

13. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution13.1. Line Editing

13.2. History Substitution

13.3. Key Bindings

13.4. Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter

14. Floating Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations

14.1. Representation Error
http://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/floatingpoint.html#representation-errorhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/floatingpoint.htmlhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/interactive.html#alternatives-to-the-interactive-interpreterhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/interactive.html#key-bindingshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/interactive.html#history-substitutionhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/interactive.html#line-editinghttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/interactive.htmlhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/whatnow.htmlhttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib2.html#decimal-floating-point-arithmetichttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib2.html#tools-for-working-with-listshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib2.html#weak-referenceshttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib2.html#logginghttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib2.html#multi-threadinghttp://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/stdlib2.html#working-with-binary-data-record-layouts

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