THE POET IN HIS JOY

6

The review ends w i t h a c o r r e c t i o n of t h e e r r o r conce rn ing 'Clergymen i n t h e F l e e t ' , a compla in t t h a t M a r t i n shou ld n o t be g i v e n t h e t i t l e of B a c h e l i e r , and a d i s c u s s i o n of t h e d i f f e r e n c e between ' p h y s i c k ' and p h y s i q u e .

F r e r o n ' s s t r i c t u r e s are of c o u r s e t o o s e v e r e . I n my own view L a Double B e a u t @ , w i t h a l l i t s i n a c c u r a c i e s and d i v e r g e n c e s from t h e o r i g i n a l , i s r e l a t i v e l y s u c c e s s f u l i n conveying t h e i d e a s and a t t i t u d e s of t h e Memoirs. Rabener m u s t t a k e much of t h e c r e d i t , b u t t h e French v e r s i o n h a s a l i v e l i n e s s and g u s t o - even i f i t sometimes l a c k s e l e g a n c e - which can b e s e e n as a p o s i t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n . I f i n d t h e work e n t e r t a i n i n g f o r a f u r t h e r r e a s o n , which goes beyond t h e t e x t . L a Double Beaut@ gave r i s e t o two s i t u a t i o n s which would d o u b t l e s s have amused t h e S c r i b l e r u s C lub : f i r s t l y , i t s p u b l i c a t i o n provoked j u s t t h a t k i n d of l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m which w a s one of t h e C l u b ' s t a r g e t s f o r a t t a c k ; and second ly , i t made a v a i l a b l e t o French r e a d e r s , i n a separate volume, p r e c i s e l y t h a t e p i s o d e which t h e worthy Bishop Warburton and s a n e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y e d i t o r s of t h e Memoirs r e f u s e d t o i n c l u d e i n E n g l i s h e d i t i o n s . T h i s i s t h e f i n a l double i r o n y of L a Double Beau te .

Vivienne Mylne C a n t e r b u r y .

THE POET I N HIS J O Y

H o w and why a word changed i t s meaning d u r i n g t h e E i g h t e e n t h Century

I n 1841 J o h n Clare was e n t e r e d i n t o Norhampton Genera l L u n a t i c Asylum, v i c t i m of i n s a n i t y which, a c c o r d i n g t o D r Fenwick S k r i m s h i r e , who had a t t e n d e d t h e p o e t s i n c e 1 8 2 4 , had been b rough t on " a f t e r y e a r s a d d i c t e d t o p o e t i c a l p r o s i n g s " . Those " p r o s i n g s " d i d n o t c e a s e when Clare e n t e r e d t h e a s y l u m and one of them i s of immediate r e l e v a n c e t o my theme. I t i s c a l l e d 'The Peasan t P o e t ' , i t i s abou t Clare h i m s e l f , and i t ends w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g l i n e s :

A s i l e n t man i n l i f e ' s a f f a i r s ,

A p e a s a n t i n h i s d a i l y c a r e s , A t h i n k e r krom a boy,

The p o e t i n h i s j o y . 1

Odd, pe rhaps h e a r t b r e a k i n g , t h a t he s h o u l d i n s i s t on j o y as t h e d e f i n i n g c h a r a c t e r - i s t i c f o r t h e p o e t , But t h e r e i t i s , The p o e t , n o t a p o e t , The p h r a s e i s peremptory and a b s o l u t e . And echoed by Matthew Arnold-in t h e v e r y long 'Empedocles on A e t n a ' . For l a t e on i n t h a t poem Empedocles remarks t o h i m s e l f t h a t

something h a s i m p a i r ' d t h y s p i r i t ' s s t r e n g t h And d r i e d i t s s e l f - s u f f i c i n g f o u n t of j o y . 2

1 John C l a r e : S e l e c t e d Poems, e d . J . W . and Ann T i b b l e , 1965, p . 326 . Oddly enough, G e o f f r e y G r i g s o n , i n h i s s e l e c t i o n of t h e poems p r i n t s "A p o e t i n h i s j o y " , t h u s r u i n i n g t h e f o r c e of t h e l i n e .

2 - The P o e t i c a l Works of M . Arnold, e d . T i n k e r and Lowry, 1950, p . 429.

7

D i f f e r e n t as they may b e , b o t h Clare and Arnold a c c e p t t h e e q u a t i o n of p o e t - a s p o e t w i t h " joy" and i n do ing t h i s t h e y are , of c o u r s e , f o l l o w i n g a conven t ion t h a t had been e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e g r e a t Romantic p o e t s , e s p e c i a l l y Wordsworth and C o l e r i d g e . Again and a g a i n i n t h e i r work I 'joy' ' i s invoked i n such a way t h a t i t seems t o have a n a l m o s t t a l i s m a n i c power. And s o f o r t h e i r s u c c e s s o r s . Which may h e l p t o e x p l a i n why Arnold c o u l d c a l l t h e Augustan age one of p r o s e . For no m a t t e r how f i n e l y you comb t h e works of Dryden and Pope you w i l l f i n d no e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e y though t of t h e p o e t o r t h e a c t of c r e a t i n g p o e t r y i n t e r m s of j o y . W i t , y e s ; judgement , f a n c y , r e a s o n , a r t and n a t u r e , y e s , y e s , y e s and y e s a g a i n . B u t j o y ? No, n e v e r .

So where d i d i t come from, t h i s e q u a t i o n ? O r t o p u t t h e matter a n o t h e r w a y , how d i d Wordsworth and C o l e r i d g e f i n d i t p o s s i b l e t o make such c o n s t a n t and empha t i c u s e of t h e word and t o l i n k i t so i n t i m a t e l y w i t h t h e n a t u r e and f u n c t i o n of p o e t r y ?

By way of beg inn ing t o answer t h i s q u e s t i o n I want t o n o t e t h a t a t l e a s t some e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y p o e t s were c a p a b l e of l i n k i n g j o y , i f n o t w i t h p o e t r y i t s e l f , t h e n w i t h f a n c y . For example, i n Book 1 of t h e f i r s t v e r s i o n of h i s The P l e a s u r e s of Imag ina t ion ( 1 7 4 4 ) , Mark Akenside o f f e r s a p u r e l y c o n v e n t i o n a l a c c o u n t of f ancy a s t h e p l e a s i n g l i e . of Reason, and when i t does

I t p r o p e r l y f u n c t i o n s by k i n d pe rmis s ion

t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l power Bends from h i s awful t h r o n e a wondering ear , And s m i l e s ; t h e p a s s i o n s , g e n t l y smoothed away , S ink t o d i v i n e r e p o s e , and l o v e and j o y Alone a re waking . . . l

L t i s obv ious enough t h a t Akenside i s h e r e a c c e p t i n g t h e Lockeian claim t h a t t h e p l e a s u r e of i m a g i n a t i o n m u s t n o t b e confused w i t h t h e t r u t h ( a c l a i m which had been e r e c t e d i n t o a p r i n c i p l e of s o r t s i n A d d i s o n ' s famous p a p e r s 411-421 of t h e S p e c t a t o r J .' a t l e a s t Akenside chooses t o t h i n k of j o y as a p l a c i d and s e r e n e emhtion. And i t i s wor th n o t i c i n g t h a t t h i s i s h o w j o y i s r e g a r d e d i n Langhorne ' s f o u r e l e g i e s , - The V i s i o n s o f Fancy, w r i t t e n a b o u t 1750. of t h e f i r s t e l e g y may a t f i r s t g l a n c e seem t o say more t h a n t h a t , b u t Langhorne hedges t o o many b e t s f o r u s t o r e g a r d him as i n any way Romantic i n h i s u s e of t h e word.

So i t s h o u l d come as no s u r p r i s e t h a t on t h i s o c c a s i o n

T r u e , t h e l a s t s t a n z a

E c s t a t i c hour s ! so e v e r y d i s t a n t day L i k e t h i s s e r e n e on downy wings s h a l l move; R i s e crown'd w i t h j o y s t h a t t r iumph o ' e r decay, The f a i t h f u l j o y s of Fancy and of Love.3

" E c s t a t i c " t h e r e h a r d l y s u r v i v e s t h e " s e r e n e and downy wings". o t h e r e l e g i e s j o y i s s imply e q u a t e d w i t h t h e p l e a s a n t b u t un impor t an t r e i g n of Fancy.

And i n t h e

Moreover, s i n c e i t i s s o e q u a t e d you a re bound t o g e t a r u d e awakening

1 The P o e t i c a l Works of Mark Akenside, A ld ine e d n . , Bok.1, 11, 127-131

2 Addison p u b l i s h e d t h e p a p e r s as a separate essay which w a s w ide ly known and iiiuch r e f e r r e d t o d u r i n g t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y .

3 Langhorne 's Works, Cooke ' s E d i t i o n , p . 1 4 2 .

8

i f you hope f o r any more. I n t h i s c o n t e x t i t i s w o r t h mentioning S i r Wil l iam H a m i l t o n ' s "Ode t o Fancy". The d a t e of t h i s i s u n c e r t a i n , b u t i t was p u b l i s h e d i n h i s -_ Poems on S e v e r a l Occas ions ( 1 7 4 9 j and i s u n l i k e l y t o have been w r i t t e n b e f o r e he had r e a d Joseph W a r t o n ' s "Ode t o Fancy", which had been f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1746 as one of h i s Odes on Var ious S u b j e c t s . Hamil ton e n q u i r e s of Fancy

why d i d s t thou decoy My t h o u g h t s i n t o t h i s dream of J o y , Then t o f o r s a k e me a l l a l o n e , To mourn t h e fond d e l u s i o n g o n e ? l

Even s o , H a m i l t o n ' s dream of j o y has v e r y l i t t l e s u g g e s t i o n of power about i t , and t h e f a c t i s t h a t none o f t h e e i g t e e n t h c e n t u r y w r i t e r s I ha-ie so f a r mentioned t h i n k of j o y a s a n e x u l t a n t emotion. Why t h i s shou ld be so need n o t s u r p r i s e u s i f we remember t h a t Locke had remarked t h a t j o y i s 'la d e l i g h t of t he mind, from t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e p r e s e n t , o r a s s u r e d approach ing p o s s e s s i o n of a good."3 Which f a i r l y enough s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e Augustans though t of j o y i n t e r m s of r a t i o n a l and c o n t r o l l e d eruotion. They d i d n o t e x p e c t t o he s u r p r i s e d by j o y . " I f t h e t h i n g w e t h i n k of i s g r e a t , " .John Dennis wro te i n The Advancement - and Reformation of Modern P o e t r y , "why, t h e n , a d m i r a t i o n a t t e n d s t h e i d e a of i t ; and i f i t i s very g r e a t , amazement. I f t h e t h i n g i s p l e a s i n g and d e l i g h t f u l , why t h e n j o y and ga ie ty f low from t h e i d e a of i t . ' 14

9

What Dennis had s a i d i n 1 7 0 1 , Langhorne, Hamil ton and Akenside r e p e a t i n the midd le of t he c e n t u r y ; and t h e Lockeian i n f l u e n c e i s s t i l l t h e r e a t t h e c e n t u r y ' s e n d . I n 1798 Thomas Campbell p u b l i s h e d t h e P l e a s u r e s of H o p e , and t h e r e w e can r e a d o f a woman whose husband i s drowned a t s e a , b u t t o whom

Mercy g a v e , t o charm t h e s e n s e of woe, I d e a l p e a c e , t h a t t r u t h cou ld n e ' e r bestow; W a r m on h e r h e a r t t h e j o y s of Fancy beani, And a i m l e s s Hope d e l i g h t s h e r d a r k e s t dream. 5

And y e t i n t h e y e a r i n which t h e P l e a s u r e s of Hope made i t s appea rance , Wordsworth and C o l e r i d g e p u b l i s h e d t h e L y r i c a l B a l l a d s , and i n one of t h e g r e a t poems of t h a t volume w e f i n d Wordsworth w r i t i n g

While w i t h a n eye made q u i e t by t h e power Of harmony and t h e deep pov7er of j o y We see i n t o t h e l i f e of t h i n g s . 6

-- 1 My t e x t i s B e l l ' s Classical Arrangement of F u g i t i v e P o e t r y , v o l , X I I , 1 7 9 0 ,

p . 7 0 . B e l l p r i n t s f o u r o t h e r Odes t o Fancy, i n c l u d i n g W a r t o n ' s .

2 Johnson r e l e g a t e d j o y as v i o l e n t emotion t o t h e t a i l end of h i s accoun t of

3 I n h i s Essay Concerning t h e Human Under s t and ing .

4 See E n g l i s h Cr i t i ca l E s s a y s , X V I - X V I I I C e n t u r i e s , W o r l d ' s Classics , p . 206. For o t h e r Augustan t e x t s which l i n k j o y w i t h t r a n q u i l l i t y o r s e r e n i t y , s e e e . g . L y t t l e t o n ' s "To M r . West, a t Wickham", where j o y i s equa ted w i t h " t r a n q u i l l i t y and l o v e " , and Henry B a k e r ' s "The U n i v e r s e : A P h i l o s o p h i c Poem", i n which j o y i s l i n k e d w i t h "calm1' and 'kepose".

t h e w o r d ' s meanings.

5 The P o e t i c a l Works of Thomas Campbell , n . d . p . 1 2 . I t i s on ly f a i r t o s a y t h a t i n t h e same poem Campbell a l s o l i n k s j o y w i t h melancholy and w i t h g r i e f . The re i s a good d e a l of g o t h i c k r y abou t h i s u se of t h e word: i t d e f i n e s a p l e a s i n g shudder .

6 " T i n t e r n Abbey", 11. 4 7 - 9 .

9

And v e r y c l e a r l y t h e r e i s a n enormous gap between how Campbell and Wordsworth u s e t h e word.

For t h e moment I want mere ly t o r e g i s t e r t h e f a c t of t h a t gap and t o s u g g e s t t h a t i t i s of g r e a t importance t o C o l e r i d g e . For t h e r e can be no doubt t h a t C o l e r i d g e ' s c r u c i a l u s e s of t h e word a re i n d e b t e d t o Wordsworth. I n a v e r y real s e n s e Wordsworth i n v e n t e d t h e modern meaning of r r j o y l l . C e r t a i n l y t h e r e i s n o t h i n g i n e a r l y C o l e r i d g e t o s u g g e s t t h e s t r e n g t h t h a t t h e word w i l l come t o have i n h i s p o e t r y . Where " joy1 ' o c c u r s i t i s i n c o n t e x t s and w i t h d e f i n i t i o n s t h a t Augustan p o e t s would have u n h e s i t a t i n g l y approved. So "An I n v o c a t i o n " (1790) b e g i n s "Sweet Muse! companion o f my hour ! /Vo ice of my j o y ! S u r e s o o t h e r of t h e s igh !" and i n "Domestic Peace", a poem w r i t t e n f o u r years l a t e r , C o l e r i d g e speaks of "Elemory, bosom-spring of j o y " . l S i n c e Locke r e g a r d e d memory as t h e s o u r c e o f n e a r l y a l l i d e a s of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n , C o l e r i d g e i s b e i n g no more t h a n o r thodox i n making a double e q u a t i o n between j o y , memory and f ancy ( s i n c e t h e e q u a t i o n of j o y and f ancy w a s by now a c l i c h e ) .

Now t h e " E o l i a n Harp" (1795) c o n t a i n s C o l e r i d g e ' s f i r s t i m p o r t a n t u s e of " j o y " , b u t t h i s i n f a c t p roves my p o i n t abou t h i s i n d e b t e d n e s s t o Wordsworth. For t h e l i n e s i n which t h e word o c c u r s (26-33) were n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e poem u n t i l t h e three-volume e d i t i o n of 1828, though they were p r i n t e d i n t h e e r ra ta t o S i b y l l i n e Leaves ( 1 8 1 7 ) . Thus they m u s t have been w r i t t e n a f t e r t h e 1803 e d i t i o n of t h e poems. The k e y l i n e s r u n

01 t h e one L i f e w i t h i n u s and a b r o a d , Which meets a l l motion and becomes a l l s o u l , A l i g h t i n sound, a sound l i k e power i n l i g h t , Rhythm i n a l l t h o u g h t , and j o y a n c e everywhere. 2

C o l e r i d g e speaks h e r e of a n i n n a t e power i n t h e human mind which r e c o g n i s e s t h e e s s e n t i a l v i t a l i t y of t h e u n i v e r s e by means of a matching v i t a l i t y . I n s h o r t , he i s h e r e p r e p a r e d t o j o u r n e y beyond H a r t l e y ' s a s s o c i a t i o n i s t t h e o r y which had e a r l i e r c o n t e n t e d him. whose Essay on Genius ( 1 7 7 4 ) i s i m p o r t a n t t o any c o n s i d e r a t i o n of e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a c c o u n t s of t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . Speaking of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n ' s power i n P a r t i , S e c t i o n iii of h i s e s s a y , Gerard remarks t h a t i t can " t r a n s p o s e , v a r y and compound our p e r c e p t i o n s i n t o a n e n d l e s s v a r i e t y of forms, so as t o produce number1,ess combina t ions t h a t a re wholly new.113 I t may look fo rward t o C o l e r i d g e ' s famous d e f i n i t i o n of t h e secondary i m a i n a t i o n a s t h a t which " d i s s o L v e ~ , d i f f u s e s , d i s s i p a t e s , i n o r d e r t o recreate",& b u t t h e r e i s a c r u c i a l d i f f e r e n c e . For Gera rd i s f o r c e d t o r e g a r d a l l p e r c e p t i o n s as r e t a i n e d wholes s i n c e he h a s no s a t i s f a c t o r y e x p l a n a t i o n of how t h e i m a g i n a t i o n can a c t i v a t e - and s o r e c r e a t e - them. G e r a r d ' s problem becomes e s p e c i a l l y obv ious as soon as he s a y s t h a t t h e i m a g i n a t i o n " d a r t s w i t h t h e q u i c k n e s s of l i g h t n i n g , t h rough a l l p o s s i b l e views of t h e i d e a s which a re p r e s e n t e d " - f o r a l t h o u g h he sees g e n i u s as t h e p o s s e s s i o n of t r u e p o e t s he can o n l y and l a m e l y s a y t h a t i t s workings r e q u i r e "a p e c u l i a r v i g o u r of a s s o c i a t i o n " . No e f f o r t of g e n i u s can make f o r t h e c r e a t i v e b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r of i d e a s , i n s t e a d i d e a s themse lves have q u a l i t i e s which l e a d t o t h e i r b e i n g r e g u l a r l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h each o t h e r and "i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o g i v e a r e a s o n why t h e s e q u a l i t i e s u n i t e i d e a s " .5

1 C o l e r i d g e ' s Poems, e d E . H . C o l e r i d g e , 1912, Vol. k , p.16 and 72.

2 See E . H . C o l e r i d g e , Vol 1, p . 101.

3 An Essay on G e n i u s , Alexander G e r a r d , 1774, p . 30.

4 Biograph ia L i t e ra r i e , c h . 1 3 .

5 G e r a r d , op . c i t . , p . 5 7 .

And b e s i d e H a r t l e y w e may p l a c e Alexander Gera rd ,

10

Mechanical a s s o c i a t i o n i s m , p e r h a p s , and y e t i n a d m i t t i n g t o t h e p e c u l i a r v i g o u r of g e n i u s Gera rd h a l f a n t i c i p a t e s C o l e r i d g e ' s l eap by means o f which q u a l i t i e s a r e t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e i d e a s themse lves t o t h e mind which e n t e r t a i n s them. The i m a g i n a t i o n of g e n i u s does n o t work m e c h a n i c a l l y b u t o r g a n i c a l l y ; and i t s power i s s i g n a l l e d by j o y . We h e r e approach t h e c r u x of t h e ma t t e r . A s Humphry House remarked, " t h e ' j o y ' of ' D e j e c t i o n ' m u s t be unde r s tood as invo lv ing t h e ' d e e p d e l i g h t ' which 'Kubla Khan' shows a t t h e c e n t r e of c r e a t i v e happ iness" .

Joy , l a d y ! i s t h e s p i r i t and t h e power, Which wedding Na tu re t o u s g i v e s i n dower A new E a r t h and new Heaven,

Undreamt of by t h e s e n s u a l and t h e proud - J o y i s t h e sweet v o i c e , Joy t h e luminous c l o u d -

W e i n o u r s e l v e s r e j o i c e ! And t h e n c e f lows a l l t h a t charms o r ear o r s i g h t ,

A l l me lod ie s t h e echoes o f t h a t v o i c e A l l c o l o u r s a s u f f u s i o n from t h a t l i g h t . I

Those l i n e s from t h e D e j e c t i o n Ode may be compared w i t h some l i n e s from Book .? of t h e P r e l u d e :

I had a wor ld abou t me; ' t w a s my own, I made i t ; f o r i t on ly l i v ' d t o me, And t o t h e God who l o o k ' e d i n t o my mind. 2

In t h e 1850 v e r s i o n t h a t l a s t of t h o s e l i n e s w a s changed t o "And t o t h e God who s e e s i n t o t h e h e a r t " , and Wordsworth 's r e t r e a t from h i s e a r l i e r p o s i t i o n i s n o t u n l i k e a r e t r ea t from j o y . For j o y n o t on ly s i g n a l s t h e power of i m a g i n a t i o n working i n g e n i u s , i t a l s o c o n f i r m s ' t h e t r u t h f u l n e s s of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n ' s t r a n s - forming power.

But C o l e r i d g e had h i s d o u b t s . And a t t h i s p o i n t I need t o make b r i e f men t ion o f t h e B iograph ia L i t e r a r i a and e s p e c i a l l y of t h e p e r s u a s i v e accoun t of i t o f f e r e d by J . A . Appleyard i n h i s C o l e r i d g e ' s Ph i losophy of L i t e r a t u r e . Appleyard f o l l o w s I . A . R i c h a r d s i n f e e l i n g t h a t t h e argument of t h e B iograph ia d o e s n ' t r e a l l y h o l d w a t e r , and i n t h e c o u r s e of h i s i m p o r t a n t d i s c u s s i o n of i t , he s a y s t h a t

S i n c e . . . 1801 [ C o l e r i d g e ' s ] s p e c u l a t i o n s had been d i r e c t e d t o t h e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n of t h e C a r t e s i a n dua l i sm by a knowledge t h e o r y which would p r o v i d e b o t h f o r a f o r m a t i v e , c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t y of t h e mind and f o r t h e o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y of what was known . . . The t h e o r y of i m a g i n a t i o n grew o u t of c e r t a i n e x p e r i e n c e s - t h e l e s s o n s of Boyer, t h e r e a d i n g of Bowles and e s p e c i a l l y of Wordsworth, a n d , o b v i o u s l y , C o l e r i d g e ' s own once- t o t a l involvement w i t h t h e c r e a t i o n of poems - which t e s t i f i e d

1 C o l e r i d g e ' s Poems, Vol 1, p . 336. T h i s i s t h e v e r s i o n of t h e poem which C o l e r i d g e chose t o p u b l i s h i n h i s l i f e - t i m e and n o t t h e "Let te r" which Humphry House p r e f e r s . See h i s C o l e r i d g e , 1953 .

2 The P r e l u d e , e d . E . De S e l i n c o u r t , 1926. I q u o t e t h e 1805-6 v e r s i o n , 11. 142-5.

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t o t h i s u n i t y of t h e knowing mind and t h e known o b j e c t , and w a s a n a t t e m p t , even p r i o r t o t h e B i o g r a p h i a , t o p r o v i d e a r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e a p p a r e n t c o n n a t u r a l i t y o f t h e two.

I t h i n k t h a t b o t h R i c h a r d s and Appleyard a r e r i g h t i n a r g u i n g t h a t C o l e r i d g e f a i l s t o p r o v i d e t h e r a t i o n a l e even i f he t e s t i f i e s t o t h e "one l i f e w i t h i n u s and ab road" . Moreover , Appleyard c o n v i n c i n g l y e x p l a i n s why C o l e r i d g e withdrew from t h e o p p o r u n i t y of p r o v i d i n g t h e r a t i o n a l e t h a t S c h e l l i n g seemed t o o f f e r , S c h e l l i n g , whose work C o l e r i d g e c e r t a i n l y knew by t h e t u r n of t h e c e n t u r y , proposed t h e i d e n t i t y of mind and n a t u r e a t t h e p o i n t a t which t h e y m e e t i n a n Abso lu te where a l l p r i o r a n t i t h e s e s d i s a p p e a r , and h e f u r t h e r a rgued t h a t i m a g i n a t i o n p r o v i d e d t h e v e r i f i c a t i o n of t h i s i d e n t i t y because i t c o u l d o b j e c t i f y t h e inward i n t u i t i o n of t h e s u b j e c t - o b j e c t i d e n t i t y . A t f i r s t g l a n c e such a l i n e of argument seems t o be e x a c t l y one t o a p p e a l t o C o l e r i d g e . I t p r o v i d e s a medium between knower and known and i t g i v e s i m a g i n a t i o n i t s c o n t a c t w i t h t h e r e a l .

Y e t C o l e r i d g e r e j e c t e d t h i s and h e d i d so because , i n A p p l e y a r d ' s words

i t o f f e r e d t o o much . . . i t c o l l a p s e d a l l d i s t i n c t i o n s between t h e w o r l d and t h e s e l f i n s o f a r as i t d i d n o t d i s t i n g u i s h between t h e w o r l d and God - e v e r y t h i n g became o n l y a moment i n t h e d i a l e c t i c a l a c t of knowing t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e A b s o l u t e

I n o t h e r words C o l e r i d g e w a s t o o s e r i o u s a C h r i s t i a n t o r i s k advanc ing t h e t h e o r y . Which means, of c o u r s e , t h a t he i s l e f t w i t h t h e problem t h a t i m a g i n a t i o n may be t h e sweet l i e of L o c k e ' s a c c o u n t . And from t h a t i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e power of j o y which h e w a n t s t o r e g a r d as i n t e g r a l t o t h e p o e t i c p r o c e s s may i t s e l f de lude t h e p o e t i n t o i d e n t i f y i n g i t w i t h i n s p i r a t i o n , t h a t i s , t r u t h .

Of c o u r s e , t o s u g g e s t t h a t i n s p i r a t i o n e q u a l s t r u t h i s t o make a n o t h e r l e a p , b u t i t w a s one t h a t had been accomplished f a r e a r l i e r t h a n when C o l e r i d g e began t o worry abou t t h e t r u t h o r o t h e r w i s e of i m a g i n a t i o n . Indeed , by t h e end of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y i t had become a commonplace t o a c c e p t t h a t i n s p i r a t i o n w a s t h e s o u r c e of a l l t r u e p o e t r y . We are by now a long way from J o h n s o n ' s g r u f f " S i r , a man may w r i t e a t any t i m e i f h.e w i l l s e t h imse l f doggedly t o do i t " . And a l s o a l o n g way from t h e demznd t h a t p o e t s shou ld be s c h o l a r p o e t s . S o , as Rober t Anderson p o i n t e d o u t , Burns c o u l d - j u s t i f i a b l y - make money from h i s poems by g u l l i n g p o l i t e s o c i e t y i n t o t h e b e l i e f t h a t

he w a s a n i l l i t e r a t e ploughman who w r o t e from p u r e i n s p i r a t i o n . . . i n company he would n o t s u f f e r h i s p r e t e n s i o n s t o p u r e i n s p i r a t i o n t o be c h a l l e n g e d , and i t w a s seldom done where i t might be supposed t o a f f e c t t h e s u c c e s s of t h e s u b s c r i p t i o n f o r h i s Poems. 2

I do n o t t h i n k i t n e c e s s a r y t o t r a c e i n any d e t a i l t h e r i s e i n t h e f o r t u n e s of " i n s p i r a t i o n " d u r i n g t h e c e n t u r y , b u t a f e w p o i n t s a r e i m p o r t a n t . F i r s t ,

1 C o l e r i d g e ' s Ph i losophy of L i t e r a t u r e , J . A . Appleyard, 1965, pp. 204 and

2 For t h i s , see Burns, T . Crawford, 1965, pp. 198-9 .

2 0 6 .

1 2

and pe rhaps most s i g n i f i c a n t , M i l t o n becomes t h e i n s p i r e d p o e t . "h l i l t on , t h o u s h o u l d s t be l i v i n g a t t h i s h o u r . " Well , t o a l l i n t e n t s and pu rposes h e w a s . Blake a f t e r a l l saw h i m s e l f as M i l t o n ' s r e i n c a r n a t i o n , and w a s proud t o quo te h i s remark t h a t a t r u e poem i s "Not t o be O b t a i n ' d by t h e I n v o c a t i o n of Memory and h e r s y r e n Daugh te r s , b u t by Devout P r a y e r t o t h a t E t e r n a l S p i r i t , who can e n r i c h w i t h a l l u t t e r a n c e and knowledge and s e n d s o u t h i s Seraphim w i t h t h e hal lowed f i r e of h i s A l t e r t o t ouch and p u r i f y t h e l i p s of whom he p l e a s e s . " And he knew, as d i d Wordsworth and C o l e r i d g e , M i l t o n ' s claim t h a t p o e t i c a b i l i t i e s "wheresoever they be found, a r e t h e i n s p i r e d g i f t of God."l

-

I t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t , p robab ly because of t h e g i g a n t i c inf luence of M i l t o n , Augustan p o e t s came t o a c c e p t t h a t p o e t r y w a s t h e g i f t of God. Even t h e most s c e p t i c a l a d m i t t e d t h a t t r u e p o e t r y might s n a t c h a g r a c e beyond t h e r e a c h of a r t , and t h e l e s s s c e p t i c a l were f o r t h r i g h t i n t h e i r a c c e p t a n c e of the n o t i o n . Thus Thomas P a r n e l l , i n h i s "The G i f t of P o e t r y " cou ld w r i t e

My God! from whom proceed t h e g i f t s d i v i n e My God! I t h i n k I f e e l t h e g i f t i s t h i n e . B e t h i s no v a i n i l l u s i o n which I f i n d , Not N a t u r e ' s impulse on t h e p a s s i v e mind, B u t Reason ' s a c t , p r o d u c ' d by good d e s i r e , By g r a c e e n l i v e n ' d w i t h c e l e s t i a l f i r e .

And f o r P a r n e l l t h e t r u e p o e t t e l l s God ' s t r u t h s . The v i s i o n w i t h which t h e poems end h a s him c a s t i n g a r e t r o s p e c t i v e eye ove r human h i s t o r y and coming t o understand why p o e t s were c r e a t e d .

Where f i r s t t h e morning s ta rs t o g e t h e r sung, Where f i r s t t h e i r h a r p s t h e s o n s of g l o r y s t r u n g With s h o u t s of j o y . 2

P a r n e l l d i e d i n 1 7 1 8 , b u t h i s v e r s e c o n t i n u e d t o e n j o y some p o p u l a r i t y , as i s e v i d e n t from a n anonymous e s s a y which appea red i n t h e London Magazine i n 1735, i n t h e c o u r s e of which t h e a u t h o r a r g u e d t h a t

t h e r e i s n o t h i n g more p r o p e r t o f u r n i s h u s w i t h subl ime S e n t i m e n t s and p o e t i c a l Images t h a n a view of t h e m a g n i f i c e n t S t r u c t u r e of T h i n g s , t h a n t h a t - -

v a s t I d e a which made t h e Morning S t a r s s i n g t o g e t h e r , and t h e s o n s of God s h o u t f o r joy. '

P a r n e l l ' s s o n s of g l o r y have now become sons of God, The i n v o c a t i o n t o r e j o i c e i n t h e Lord i s now seen as b e i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e p o e t ' s du ty (and p l e a s u r e ) .

Again, i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e c o g n i s e t h a t t h e b e l i e f t h a t God ' s l a w s i n n a t u r e are a d i s c o v e r a b l e c e r t a i n t y h a s much t o do w i t h t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e p o e t w i t h i n s p i r a t i o n . To s e e t h i s s p e l l e d o u t w e m u s t t u r n t o A k e n s i d e ' s The P l e a s u r e s of I m a g i n a t i o n . Not because i t i s a good poem ( i t h a s some good

1 M i l t o n : The Reason of Church Government, open ing of Bk. 11.

2 My t e x t i s t h e e d i t i o n of t h e P o e t i c a l Works, 1786, pp. 147-150.

3 Quoted by Maren Sophie-Rmstvig, The Happy Man, 2nd e d . r e v i s e d , 1962, p . 1 6 2 .

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p a s s a g e s b u t t hey a re few and f a r between) b u t because i t i s a v i r t u a l an tho logy of contemporary t h i n k i n g abou t p o e t s and p o e t r y ; and because i t w a s a t t e n t i v e l y r e a d by Wordsworth. Near t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e poem, Akenside w r i t e s

From Heaven my s t r a i n s b e g i n : from Heaven descends The f lame of g e n i u s t o t h e human b r e a s t , And l o v e , and b e a u t y , and p o e t i c j o y , And i n s p i r a t i o n

These l i n e s are l a t e r a l t e r e d (Akenside s p e n t t h e r ema inde r of h i s l i f e t i n k e r i n g w i t h t h e poem, which w a s l e f t i ncomple t e a t h i s d e a t h i n 17701, so t h a t " p o e t i c j o y " becomes " p o e t i c wonder", and " t h e human breast ' ' becomes " t h e chosen b r e a s t " . The f i r s t change i s un impor t an t ( t h e r e i s p l e n t y a b o u t j o y e l sewhere i n t h e poem). The o t h e r change i s a d i f f e r e n t mat te r . I t i n s i s t s t h a t t h e p o e t i s chosen by God, makes empha t i c what had been i m p l i c i t i n t h e f i r s t v e r s i o n . Later on i n t h e f i r s t book, Akenside r e v e a l s what i t i s t h a t t h e chosen p o e t s r e c e i v e from God.

To t h e s e t h e S i r e Omnipotent u n f o l d s The w o r l d ' s harmonious volume, t h e r e t o r e a d The t r a n s c r i p t of H i m s e l f . On e v e r y p a r t They t r a c e t h e b r i g h t i m p r e s s i o n s of h i s hand: I n e a r t h o r a i r , t h e meadow's p u r p l e s t o r e s , The moon's m i l d r a d i a n c e , o r t h e v i r g i n ' s form Blooming w i t h r o s y smi l e s , t hey see p o r t r a y e d T h a t u n c r e a t e d b e a u t y , which d e l i g h t s The mind supreme. They a l s o f e e l h e r charms; Enamoured, they p a r t a k e t h e e t e r n a l j o y ?

T h e i n s p i r e d p o e t i s p l a c e d i n t h e way of r e c e i v i n g G o d ' s t r u t h s and of communicating t h e m . P a r t a k i n g i n t h e e t e r n a l j o y i s e x p r e s s i v e as w e l l as r e c e p t i v e .

L a t e r , however, i n one of h i s more compl i ca t ed p a s s a g e s , Akenside seems t o c o n t r a d i c t t h i s p o s i t i o n i n t h e i n t e r e s t of what might be c a l l e d a pre-Romantic commitment t o i m a g i n a t i o n ' s t r a n s f o r m i n g powers.

Mind, mind a l o n e , ( b e a r w i t n e s s e a r t h and heaven!) The l i v i n g f o u n t a i n s i n i t s e l f c o n t a i n s O f beau teous and sub l ime : h e r e , hand i n hand, S i t paramount t h e Graces ; h e r e , e n t h r o n e d , C e l e s t i a l Venus, w i t h d i v i n e s t a i r s , I n v i t e s t h e s o u l t o n e v e r - f a d i n g j o y . 3

Such j o y as t h i s a p p e a r s t o go c l e a n c o u n t e r t o t h e p r i n c i p l e of e t e r n a l j o y and I s u s p e c t t h a t Akenside h i m s e l f must have f e l t unhappy w i t h what a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y appea red t o him t o be a n impious a s s e r t i o n . I n t h e l a t e r v e r s i o n "Mind, mind a l o n e " i s t h e r e f o r e a l t e r e d t o " H e , God most h igh" , - which n e a t l y enough demons t r a t e s t h e problem a b o u t t h e m i n d ' s i m a g i n a t i v e powers t h a t was t o p l ague f a r greater p o e t s t h a n Akenside.

1 Akenside, op . c i t . , Book 1 , 11.56-9.

2 I b i d . , 11. 99-108.

3 I b i d . , Book 1, 11. 481-6.

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Akenside neve r r e s o l v e d t h e problem t o h i s own s a t i s f a c t i o n . I t i s p e r h a p s no a c c i d e n t t h a t h i s poem remained u n f i n i s h e d a t h i s d e a t h . Gene ra l ly s p e a k i n g , t h e e a r l i e r v e r s i o n i s t h e more c o n f i d e n t a n d t h e more c o h e r e n t , p e r h a p s because i t i s more r e l i a n t on M i l t o n ' s " C e l e s t i a l l i g h t " which w i l l " s h i n e inward , and t h e mind th rough a l l h e r powers I I r r a d i a t e " : p e r h a p s a l s o because i t more p o w e r f u l l y a s se r t s t h e f a c t of j o y a n c e everywhere. I n Book 11, f o r example, Akenside w r i t e s of t h e Sove re ign S p i r i t of t h e w o r l d .

Wi th in h i s own deep e s s e n c e he behe ld The c i r c l i n g bounds of h a p p i n e s s u n i t e ; Ye t , by immense b e n i g n i t y , i n c l i n e d To s p r e a d around him t h a t p r imeva l j o y Whi.ch f i l l e d h i m s e l f , he r a i s e d h i s p l a s t i c a r m , And sounded th rough t h e hol low dep th of space The s t r o n g , c r e a t i v e mandate .1

U n i v e r s a l j o y p roceeds from God, i s communicated t o p o e t s , who " t r a c e everywhere t h e b r i g h t i m p r e s s i o n s of h i s hand", and t h e y communicate i t t o o t h e r s i n "shouts of j o y f 1 .

J o y . The word keeps coming u p and i t seems r i g h t t o a s k w h y . Well, pa r t ly because i t i s t h e P s a l m i s t ' s word, and p a r t l y because a r a d i c a l l y new ( o r renewed) emot iona l i sm i n r e l i g i o n i s d i s c o v e r a b l e d u r i n g t h e y e a r s w i t h which I a m concerned. I n t h a t v a l u a b l e s t u d y , The Happy __ Man, Maren-Sofie R b s t v i g o f f e r s c o n c l u s i v e ev idence of t h e f a c t t h a t e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y man went i n s e a r c h of God i n n a t u r e by means of t h a t "charming enthusiasm" which S h a f t s b u r y had f e l t t o b e t h e source of a l l t r u e knowledge. I n t h i s c o n t e x t " joy" i n d i c a t e s t h e t r i umphan t conclusion of t h e s e a r c h . O r i n t h e words of Mrs E l i z a b e t h Rowe, " I n n a t u r e ' s l o v e l y a n d u n b l e m i s h ' d f a c e / With j o y h i s s a c r e d l i n e a m e n t s T t r a c e . " 2 The l i n e s may s t a n d f o r t h e many examples R b s t v i g c i t e s of what w a s f a m i l i a r i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e of t h e p e r i o d . I do n o t mean t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s i s a r emarkab le u s e of t h e word ' ' j oy" . Given t h e n a t u r e of t h e s e a r c h i t i s a n i n e v i t a b l e one. The Happy Man h a s e v e r y r e a s o n t o obey t h e P s a l m i s t ' s i n j u n c t i o n t o r e j o i c e i n t h e Lord. B u t t h a t t h e s e a r c h f o r God shou ld be conducted " e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y " does need n o t i n g , because i t goes beyond a n y t h i n g t h a t Akenside p roposes ( e v e n i f he h i n t s a t i t when he s a y s of God's n a t u r e t h a t t h e p o e t " f e e l s h e r charms") .

I t i s James Thomson who p r o v i d e s t h e p e r f e c t example of t h e " e n t h u s i a s t i c " s e a r c h f o r and d i s c o v e r y o f God. I t h i n k p a r t i c u l a r l y of t h e s e l i n e s i n S p r i n g , where Thomson w r i t e s t h a t

By s m a l l deg rees t h e l o v e of n a t u r e works, And w a r m s t h e bosom; t i l l a t l a s t a r r i v ' d To r a p t u r e , and e n t h u s i a s t i c Heat, We f e e l t h e p r e s e n t D e i t y , and t a s t e The j o y of God, t o see a happy w o r l d . 3

1 I h i d . , Book 2, 11. 311-15.

2 For t h i s see E l i z a b e t h S i n g e r Rowe, Henry F . S t e c h e r , 1973, p . 211. A l a r g e number of poems i n which t h i s e q u a t i o n between j o y and en thus i a sm makes i t s e l f f e l t a r e r e f e r r e d t o by Maren Soph ie -Rbs tv ig , o p . c i t .

3 The Seasons , 1730 ( S c o l a r P r e s s f a c s i m i l e ) , "Spr ing" , 11. 861-5.

1 5

We have now moved some d i s t a n c e from P a r n e l l . municated by Reason ' s a c t b u t by "Rapture and e n t h u s i a s t i c Heat".

God's g i f t of j o y i s n o t com-

I n he r s t u d y of Enthusiasm S u s i e Tucker s a y s t h a t t h o s e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y d e v o t e e s of en thus i a sm who b e l i e v e d t h a t you c o u l d f i n d i t s t r u e meaning by t r a c i n g i t s etymology were s imply b e i n g n a s v e . "The G r e e k , " she s a y s , " i m p l i e s rea l p o s s e s s i o n by a God, o r a t l e a s t ' a n i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h H i m ' i n D r J o h n s o n ' s words. R u t t h e s e v e n t e e n t h and e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y c r i t i c s , . . b e l i e v e d t h a t such a s t a t e neve r e x i s t e d - i t w a s a lways a f a l s e , v a i n c o n f i d e n c e . " l b u t such c r i t i c s had t o t a k e v e r y s e r i o u s l y i n d e e d t h e claims made by Thomson and o t h e r s , i f o n l y because t h e c l a i m s were so many, so i n t e n s e and so p e r s i s t e n t . And they had t h e i n e v i t a b l e a t t r a c t i o n of b e i n g a b l e t o g e t round a d i f f i c u l t problem. For a l t h o u g h Pope had announced t h a t "God s a i d L e t Newton be and A l l w a s L i g h t " , t h e f a c t remained t h a t n a t u r e and n a t u r e ' s l a w s s t i l l l a y h i d i n n i g h t . Bother l i g h t , t h e r e f o r e , and b o t h e r laws. O r r a t h e r b o t h e r such l i g h t s and l a w s a s w e r e n ' t t h o s e of i n s p i r a t i o n , of C e l e s t i a l Venus, of God h i m s e l f .

Maybe,

How t o answer t h i s ? The opponents of i n s p i r a t i o n were q u i c k t o i n s i s t t h a t i t p roceed from t h e h e a t - o p p r e s s e d b r a i n . And t h i s l e a d s u s t o t h e n e x t p o i n t , which i s t h a t d u r i n g t h e e a r l i e r p a r t of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n s p i r a t i o n i s commonly a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e "psychopathology of en thus i a sm" , which p h r a s e I - - t a k e from F . E . Manue l ' s The E i g h t e e n t h Cen tu ry C o n f r o n t s t h e Gods, where i t p r o v i d e s t h e t i t l e s f o r one of t h a t g r e a t b o o k ' s s u b - c h a p t e r s . The re w e f i n d a f a s c i n a t i n g d i s c u s s i o n of t h e d e i s t , John Trencha rd , who i n 1709 p u b l i s h e d a n essay c a l l e d The N a t u r a l H i s t o r y of S u p e r s t i t i o n , i n which he r e h e a r s e s most of t h e arguments t h a t were t o become s t a n d a r d i n e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y d e i s t i c arguments a g a i n s t t h e b e l i e f i n " i n s p i r a t i o n " a s emot iona l c o g n i t i o n of God. T rencha rd a rgued t h a t i n t i m e s of s o - c a l l e d i n s p i r a t i o n what a c t u a l l y happened was t h a t i n n e r s t i m u l i of t h e body a r o u s e d v i s i o n s t h a t were n o t c o n t r a d i c t e d by t h e s e n s e s because t h e r e w a s a b lockage of communication w i t h t h e rea l w o r l d . These i n t e r n a l l y g e n e r a t e d images, he c l a imed , a r e c o n t i n u a l l y " s t r i k i n g upon, and a f f e c t i n g t h e B r a i n , S p i r i t s , o r Organ where t h e i m a g i n a t i v e f a c u l t y r e s i d e s " . And he took t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n t o be s u f f i c i e n t t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e "inward l i g h t " of v i s i o n a r i e s . T r e n c h a r d , moreover , i d e n t i f i e d t h e v i s i o n a r y w i t h t h e e n t h u s i a s t , whom he cha r - a c t e r i s e d as a t y p e of t h e melancholy man, a f f l i c t e d by " I n q u i e t u d e and A l i e n a t i o n of Thoughts , Anxious and Pan ick Fears , and a d e s i r e f o r S o l i t u d e " . 2

We come now t o a f u r t h e r p o i n t , which i s t h e c o n n e c t i o n of t h e p o e t w i t h m e l a n c h o l i a and s o l i t u d e . The a t t a c k on s o l i t u d e a s t h e means of f e e d i n g t h e v i s i o n s of e n t h u s i a s m i s f a m i l i a r enough t o r e q u i r e no comment h e r e . What i s p e r h a p s l e s s f a m i l i a r i s t h e way i n which i n s p i r a t i o n came t o b e defended j u s t because i t c o u l d be l i n k e d w i t h en thus i a sm, s o l i t u d e ; and how a l l c o u l d be seen a s d e f i n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e t r u e p o e t . A.S.P. Woodhouse though t t h a t W i l l i a m C o l l i n s w a s g r e a t l y concerned w i t h t h e p o e t ' s p r o p h e t i c r o l e , and which he though t c o u l d n ' t be d e f e n s i b l e " u n l e s s t h e c r e a t u r e s of t h e p o e t ' s i m a g i n a t i o n were i n some s o r t t r u e " . Where cou ld C o l l i n s have found any e v i d e n c e f o r t h e i m a g i n a t i o n ' s e s s e n t i a l t r u t h f u l n e s s , Woodhouse wondered, and s u g g e s t e d a p o s s i b l e sou rce i n P u t t e n h a m ' s s t a t e m e n t t h a t "A p o e t i s a s much a s t o s a y a maker . . . Such as (by way of resemblance and r e v e r e n t l y ) w e may say of God; who w i t h o u t

1 Enthusiasm, S u s i e Tucke r , 1972, p . 21.

2 The E i g h t e e n t h Cen tu ry C o n f r o n t s t h e Gods, 1959, e s p e c i a l l y pp. 72-80.

1 6

t r a v e l 1 t o h i s d i v i n e i m a g i n a t i o n made a l l t h e w o r l d of n o u g h t . " d o n ' t have t o g o t o a s o u r c e as r e m o t e a s Pu t t enham ( w h i c h anyway w e have no e v i d e n c e t h a t C o l l i n s h a d r e a d ) . The f a c t i s t h a t i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e e i g h t - e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e n o t i o n o f t h e p o e t a s p r o p h e t , b e c a u s e i n s p i r e d w i t h G o d ' s t r u t h s , w a s t o o w i d e - s p r e a d f o r C o l l i n s t o h a v e m i s s e d i t ( a n d a f t e r a l l i t was he who c a l l e d Thomson a d r u i d ) .

But you 1

Here, t h e mos t c o n v e n i e n t t e x t t o r e f e r t o i s Young ' s C o n j e c t u r e s on O r i g i n a l C o m p o s i t i o n ( 1 7 ; 9 ) , i n t h e c o u r s e o f wh ich he makes a famous d i s t i n c t i o n between two k i n d s 01 p o e t s . On t h e one hand t h e r e a r e t h e " s c h o l a r p o e t s " . a n d on t h e o t h e r t h o s e " d i v i n e l y - i n s p i r e d e n t h u s i a s t s " who a ~ e t h e t r u e g e n i u s e s - a n d who a r e r e m a r k a b l e f o 5 t h e i r d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o c r o s s " a l l p ~ i 1 ~ L i . c r o a d s i n t o f r e s h un- t r o d d e n g r o u n d s " . T h a t p u t s m e t a p h o r i c a l l y wha t w a s coming t o b e a c c e p t e d as a l i t e r a l f a c t : t h a t t h e t r u e p o e t i s a s o l i t a r y , O r , a s James G r a i n g e r was t o p u t i t i n h i s " S o l i t u d e : An Ode" ( 1 7 5 8 , , " I n s p i r a t i o n , N a t u r e ' s c h i l d / See@] t h e s o l i t a r y w i l d " . 3

Not s u r p r i s i n g l y t h e o l d o r d e r draw b a c k f r u n t h i s i n s i s t e n c e t h a t t h e p o e t ' s d i v i n e i n s p i r a t i o n i s t o b e n u r t u r e d i n s o l i t u d e . Even G e r a r d , who t o y s w i t h the i d e a of t h e p o e t as d i v i n e l y i n s p i r e d , w o n ' t f i n a l l y commit h i m s e l f t o t h e p r o - p o s i t i o n . "The f i r e of g e n i u s " , he s a y s , " l i k e a d i v i n e i m p u l s e , r a i s e s t h e mind above i t s e l f , a n d by t h e n a t u r a l i n f l u e n c e of i m a g i n a t i o n a c t u a t e s i t a s i f i t were d i v i n e l y i n s p i r e d . " 4 The c a u t i o n i s t y p i c a l .

Yet a t t h e same t i m e t h o s e who i n s i s t e d on t h e f a c t o f t h e d i v i n e l y - i n s p i r e d e n t h u s i a s t , n u r t u r i n g h i s t r u t h f u l v i s i o n s i n i s o l a t i o n , c o u l d f i n d s u p p o r t i n a new e l e m e n t wh ich had e n t e r e d e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e l i g i o u s l a n g u a g e ( o r , p e r h a p s more l i k e l y , t h e two were m u t u a l l y s u p p o r t i v e ) . " I n s p i r a t i o n " , wrote Isaac W a t t s , " i s when a n o v e r p o w e r i n g i m p r e s s i o n of a n y p r o p o s i t i o n i s made upon t h e mind by God h i m s e l f , t h a t g i v e s a c o n v i n c i n g a n d i n d u b i t a b l e e v i d e n c e of t h e t r u t h a n d d i v i n i t y of i t ; And s o , w e may a d d , were e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o e t s . O r s o t h e b e l i e f r a n A s E r n e s t Tuveson h a s p o i n t e d o u t , t h e i m a g i n a t i o n can become a means o f g r a c e ; ' and by e x t e n s i o n ( t h o u g h w e l a c k a s o p h i s t i c a t e d s t u d y of t h e s u b j e c t ) d r u i d s , b a r d s , a n d m i n s t r e l s can become i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e t i t l e s . So Bea t t i e , i n t h e p r e f a c e t o h i s M i n s t r e l n o t e s t h a t

s o were t h e p r o p h e t s a n d a p o s t l e s i n s p i r e d . I l 5

The d e s i g n w a s , t o t r ace t h e p r o g r e s s ;rf a P o e t i c a l G e n i u s , b o r n i n a r u d e a g e , f rom t h e f i r s t dawning of f a n c y and r e a s o n , t i l l t h a t p e r i o d a t w h i c h he may b e supposed c a p a b l e o f a p p e a r i n g i n t h e w o r l d a s a MINSTREL, t h a t i s , a s a n i t i n e r e n t p o e t a n d m u s i c i a n : - a c h a r a c t e r w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n o t i o n s of o u r

1 S e e h i s e s s a y on C o l l i n s i n From S e n s i b i l i t y t o Romant ic i sm, e d . H i l l e s and Bloom, 1965 , p . 108.

2 E n g l i s h C r i t i c a l E s s a y s , o p . c i t . , p . 289 .

3 B e l l ' s C la s s i ca l Ar rangemen t , o p . c i t . , v o l . X I I I , p . 30.

4 G e r a r d , o p . c i t . , p . 6 8 .

5 S e e J o h n s o n ' s D i c t i o n a r y , where h e q u o t e s Watts as t h e s o u r c e f o r t h i s d e f i n i t i o n of i n s p i r a t i o n .

6 S e e h i s I m a g i n a t i o n a s A Means of G r a c e , 1 9 6 0 .

1 7

1 our f o r e f a t h e r s , w a s n o t o n l y r e s p e c t a b l e , b u t s a c r e d .

I t i s now becoming clear t h a t f o r t h e Romantic p o e t s ' ' joy' ' cou ld c a l l up t h e n o t i o n o f s a c r e d t r u t h , and t h e r e f o r e become a m e t a p h y s i c a l cum t h e o l o g i c a l a s s e r t i o n which can manage what t h e i r ep i s t emology and psychology c a n n o t : t h a t i s , Itprove" t h a t t h e t r u t h of i m a g i n a t i o n a s a t once p r o j e c t i v e and r e a l i s t i c . Y e t though Wordsworth and C o l e r i d g e do u s e t h e word i n t h i s way they a r e s t i l l haun ted by d o u b t s . For on t h e one hand i f God g r a n t s j o y he may a l s o deny i t - may sudden ly cease t o r e g a r d a p o e t as one of t h e chosen; and on t h e o t h e r , j o y may i t s e l f be a p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t a t e w i t h no e x p l a n a t i o n beyond t h e s t r a i n s and s t r e s s e s t h a t t h e human mind c a n become v i c t i m o f . The Deists c o u l d be r i g h t a f t e r a l l . The p o e t as s o l i t a r y may - and indeed can o f t e n be - t h e p o e t as melancholy man, c h a r a c t e r i s e d ( t o r eca l l T r e n c h a r d ' s words) by " I n q u i e t u d e and a l i e n a t i o n of t h o u g h t s , Anxious and Pan ick f e a r s " .

But a s i t sometimes c h a n c e t h , from t h e might O f j o y i n minds t h a t can no f u r t h e r g o , A s h i g h as w e have mounted i n d e l i g h t I n o u r d e j e c t i o n do w e s i n k a s low; To m e t h a t morning d i d i t happen so; And f e a r s and f a n c i e s t h i c k upon m e came; D i m s a d n e s s - and b l i n d t h o u g h t s , I knew n o t nor c o u l d name,

A s Wordsworth makes c lear i n h i s g r e a t poem, " R e s o l u t i o n and Independence", he c o n s i d e r s h i m s e l f t o be a s o l i t a r y : "Fa r from t h e wor ld I w a l k and from a l l care". And t h e immoderate j o y t h a t r e s u l t s from s o l i t a r y communication w i t h n a t u r e may t h e r e f o r e w e l l be proof o f a p s y c h o l o g i c a l imbalance ( a n d which i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y w e ca l l a man ic -depres s ive p a t t e r n ) . I n h i s Anatomy o f Melancholy, Burton had spoken of some who had f a l l e h i n t o t h e malady as a r e s u l t o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y " f o r j o y r a n mad". And h e c i t e s t h e c a s e of

Epaminondas . . . [who] t h e n e x t day a f t e r h i s L e u c t r i a n v i c t o r y 'came a b r o a d a l l s q u a l i d and s u b m i s s ' , and gave no o t h e r r e a s o n t o h i s f r i e n d s of so do ing , t h a n t h a t he p e r c e i v e d h i m s e l 5 t h e day b e f o r e . . . t o be t o o i n s o l e n t , overmuch j oyed.

Wordsworth had r e a d h i s Bur ton ( a s had Trencha rd ) b u t h e c o u l d have found t h e s a m e k i n d of case much n e a r e r t o hand.

1791 saw t h e f i r s t E n g l i s h v e r s i o n of a work which had o r i g i n a l l y been w r i t t e n i n German, and which w a s t o go i n t o a t l ea s t 10 e d i t i o n s by 1800. S o l i t u d e , o r t h e Pernici 'ous I n f l u e n c e of a T o t a l E x c l u s i o n from S o c i e t y Upon t h e Mind and Heart , w a s t h e work of J . G . Zimmerman, a Swiss d o c t o r who had s p e n t much t ime i n England and who w a s ex t r eme ly w e l l r e a d i n E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y l i t e r a t u r e of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . H i s a t t i t u d e t o s o l i t u d e w a s t y p i c a l l y Augustan. On t h e whole i t w a s a bad t h i n g . S o l i t u d e , he remarked " e x c i t e s and s t r e n g t h e n s t h e powers of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n t o a n uncommon d e g r e e , and t h e r e b y e n f e e b l e s t h e e f f e c t of t h e c o n t r o l l i n g powers of r e a s o n . " 3

1 The P o e t i c a l Works of B e a t t i e , Bla i r and F a l c o n e r , e d . G i l f i l l a n , 1854.

2 The Anatomy of Melancholy, 1849 e d n . , p . 198 .

3 I u s e t h e e d i t i o n of 1808. See v o l . 11, c h . I V , e s p e c i a l l y pp. 150-172.

18

And he makes a n i n t e r e s t i n g d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e ''happy e n t h u s i a s t " , who i s concerned t o r e c o r d t h e benevo lence of God i n t h e U n i v e r s e , and t h e " f a n a t i c a l v i s i o n a r y " who

f e e l s , l i k e t h e happy e n t h u s i a s t , t h e same a g i t a t i o n of p a s s i o n s , and t h e same in f l ammat ion of mind; b u t , a s t h e f e e l i n g s of t h e one a r e founded upon knowledge, t r u t h and n a t u r e , s o t h e f e e l i n g s of t h e o t h e r a re t h e r e s u l t o f i g n o r a n c e and e r r o r , a n d a l l t h e g l i t t e r i n g me teo r s of h i s b r a i n t h e e f f e c t s of i m p o s t u r e and d e c e p t i 0 n . l

I n o t h e r words , t h e f a n a t i c v i s i o n a r y does n o t , as he s u p p o s e s , r e c e i v e h i s v i s i o n s from God; and as he awakens t o t h i s f a c t h e becomes a t y p e of t h e melancholy man, p a s s i n g from g l i t t e r i n g d e l i g h t i n t o t h e o p p o s i t e s t a t e of mind. H i s s o u l " s i n k s day a f t e r day i n t o deeper d e j e c t i o n , and t h r e a t e n s N a t u r e w i t h madness and Death". 2

W e p o e t s i n our you th b e g i n i n g l a d n e s s , But t h e r e o f come i n t h e end despondency and madness.

The l i n e s a re a t l e a s t a p o s s i b l e g l o s s on Zimmermann's accoun t of t h e melancholy man, and s u g g e s t t h a t Wordsworth w a s w e l l aware o f t h e area of o p i n i o n which Zimmermann's book c o v e r s .

A s Zimmermann r e c o g n i z e d h i s t r e a t i s e and i t s arguments form a r e a r g u a r d a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e growing i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of emo i o n w i t h t r u t h abou t w5ich W.J. Bate w r i t e s so w e l l i n From Classic t o Romantic. I n t h i s c o n t e x t i t i s worth n o t i n g Abraham T u c k e r ' s The L i g h t of Na tu re Pur sued , which appea red between 1768- 7 8 , which H a z l i t t a b r i d g e d , and which had sane e f f e c t on Keats. Tucker s t r e s s e s t h e u s e t h a t i m a g i n a t i o n may make of t h e t o t a l l y unconsc ious mind; and h e argues t h a t t h e r e i s a n unusua l i n t e n s i t y and i n s t i n c t i v e f a c i l i t y t h a t accompanies such a u s e . For Tucker as f o r B lake , g e n i u s h a s no e r r o r .

5

Wordsworth was u n w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t t h a t much w i t h o u t q u e s t i o n , as t h e s p e c u l a t i v e n a t u r e of " R e s o l u t i o n and Independence" shows. Y e t he does n o t abandon t h e i d e a , and h i s u s e of t h e word & shows how he c o u l d c l i n g on t o i t . For when he speaks of j o y h e a c c e p t s , I t h i n k , t h a t t h e word h a s r e l i g i o u s i m p l i c a t i o n s which s i l e n c e doub t s as t o i t s a u t h e n t i c i t y . A t t h e beg inn ing of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y j o y was e q u a t e d w i t h f a n c y , and w a s commonly reckoned t o be a m i l d emotion. But by t h e end of t h e c e n t u r y i t h a d become equa ted w i t h r e l i g i o u s i n s p i r a t i o n , r e l i g i o u s i n s p i r a t i o n i t s e l f had become i d e n t i f i e d w i t h f a n c y , and t h e r e f o r e j o y c o u l d now be s e e n as a v i o l e n t l y - and v a l i d l y - powerful emotion, a g u a r a t n e e of t r u t h , of God's p r e s e n c e , o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p o e t w a s a chosen man, a p r o p h e t , a s e e r b l e s t .

-

1 I b i d . , V o l . 11, p . 152 .

2 I b i d . , V o l . 11, p . 153 c f . D r C o t t o n , who a t t e n d e d Cowper d u r i n g h i s f i r s t p e r i o d of i n s a n i t y , n o t i n g s i g n s of hypermania, and becoming f e a r f u l " les t t h e sudden t r a n s i t i o n from d e s p a i r t o j o y shou ld t e r m i n a t e i n a f a t a l f r e n z y " . Qu in lan , L i f e of Cowper, 1953, p . 78 .

3 See c h a p t e r s I V and V .

19

But where i s t h e r e ev idence of t h e l i n k between j o y and r e l i g i o u s i n s p i r a t i o n ? For a n answer t o t h a t one h a s o n l y t o t u r n t o Wesley ' s J o u r n a l , open i t a t random, and r e a d passages such as t h e f o l l o w i n g :

While I w a s s p e a k i n g , s e v e r a l dropped down as dead; and among t h e r e s t , such a c r y w a s h e a r d , of s i n n e r s g r o a n i n g f o r t h e r i g h t e o u s n e s s of f a i t h , as a lmost drowned my v o i c e . But many of t h e s e soon l i f t e d up t h e i r heads w i t h j o y .

And

An d

A t t h a t hour one who w a s b i t t e r l y mourning a f t e r C h r i s t ... w a s f i l l e d w i t h j o y unspeakable .

[She s t i l l remained] i n s e t t l e d d e s p a i r : b u t a f t e r - wards God t u r n e d h e r h e a v i n e s s i n t o j o y ,

An d

One young man was i n a v i o l e n t agony, and could n o t r e f r a i n from c r y i n g a l o u d . S e v e r a l cont inued w i t h him i n p r a y e r t i l l t e n o ' c l o c k . H e w a s t h e n f i l l e d w i t h j o y unspeakable . 1

I t i s obvious t h a t Wesley u s e s t h e word i n a s e m i - t e c h n i c a l s e n s e . I t s i g n i f i e s t h e moment of sudden i n t r u s i o n of God's g r a c e , h i s overwhelming " i n s p i r a t i o n " , a word which Johnson d e f i n e d as "a b r e a t h i n g i n t o ; o r , i n f u s i o n of i d e a s i n t o t h e mind by a s u p e r i o r I n Wesley 's f o r m u l a t i o n , God g i v e s you l i f e by a n i n f u s i o n of t h e f e l t i d e a of H i m . Rebuking S t i n s t r a ' s An Essay on Fanat ic i sm, Wesley s a y s t h a t " t h e very t h i n g M r S t i n s t r a c a l l s f a n a t i c i s m , i s no o t h e r t h a n h e a r t r e l i g i o n ; i n o t h e r words, r i g h t e o u s n e s s and peace and j o y i n t h e Holy Ghost . These must b e f e l t , o r t h e y have no b e i n g . "

I t h i n k myself t h a t behind c e r t a i n e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t Wordsworth r e c o r d s i n t h e P r e l u d e s t a n d s t h e t r a d i t i o n r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e w r i t i n g s of Akenside and Wesley: t h e knowledge of j o y e t e r n a l f e l t , i f n o t as h e a r t r e l i g i o n , t h e n a t l e a s t " f e l t i n t h e b lood and f e l t a l o n g t h e h e a r t " . I t h i n k f o r i n s t a n c e of t h e passage which b e g i n s "I f e l t t h e s e n t i m e n t of b e i n g s p r e a d O'er a l l t h a t

3 moves . . . I ' and which concludes !'I s a w one l i f e , and f e l t t h a t i t w a s j o y . " And I a l s o t h i n k t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n i s behind C o l e r i d g e ' s "Dejec t ion Ode".

J o y , v i r t u o u s Lady! Joy t h a t n e ' e r w a s g i v e n , Save t h e p u r e , and i n t h e i r p u r e s t h o u r , L i f e , and L i f e ' s e f f l u e n c e , c l o u d a t once and shower ...

So f a r as I a m aware none of C o l e r i d g e ' s commentators have s t r e s s e d how s p e c i - f i c a l l y r e l i g i o u s h i s u s e of t h e word i s i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h i s poem. It i s

1 Wesley ' s J o u r n a l s , 8 v o l s . , 1909-16. I t i s wor th n o t i n g t h a t Moll F landers n o t e s t h a t h e r husband, when s h e f i n a l l y makes good, thanks God "with an ecstasy of joy1 ' .

2 The D i c t i o n a r y

3 The P r e l u d e , op. c i t . , 11 420-430.

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n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t h i s g u i l t f e e l i n g s i n a d d r e s s i n g i t t o Sa rah Hu tch inson s h o u l d be so e v i d e n t ; b u t i t seems t o m e ce r ta in t h a t h e c o n s i d e r s t h a t j o y h a s been withdrawn from him because of h i s own i m p u r i t y . L i t e r a l l y , he h a s been d e n i e d i n s p i r a t i o n ( i n t h e s e n s e i n which Wesley u s e d t h e w o r d ) . Only i f you t h i n k of t h e word i n p u r e l y secular t e r m s w i l l you t h i n k i t a pa radox t h a t C o l e r i d g e s h o u l d be a b l e t o w r i t e a g r e e t poem a b o u t h i s f a i l e d powers.

By way of n a i l i n g t h e r e l i g i o u s meaning of t h e word i n h i s poem I want t o n o t e h i s s i g n i f i c a n t ( and I s u s p e c t l a r g e l y u n c o n s c i o u s ) echo of Samson Agon i s t e s ( a n echo which seems t o have gone un remarked) . Appleyard s a y s t h a t C o l e r i d g e f e e l s i n t h e poem t h a t he canno t summon j o y . But t h e p o i n t i s t h a t i t i s n ' t h i s t o summon.

My g e n i a l s p i r i t s f a i l ; And what can t h e s e a v a i l

It were a v a i n endeavour , Though I s h o u l d gaze f o r e v e r

To l i f t t h e smothe r ing w e i g h t from o f f my b r e a s t ?

On t h a t g r e e n l i g h t t h a t l i n g e r s i n t h e w e s t : I may n o t hope from outward forms t o win The p a s s i o n and t h e l i f e , whose f o u n t a i n s a r e w i t h i n . 1

Those l i n e s a re s u r e l y a n echo of Samson's d e s p a i r i n g speech?

A l l o t h e r w i s e t o me my t h o u g h t s p o r t e n d , T h a t t h e s e d a r k o r b s no more s h a l l t r e a t w i t h l i g h t , Nor t h ' o t h e r l i g h t o f l i f e c o n t i n u e l o n g , But y i e l d t o double d a r k n e s s n i g h a t hand: So much I f e e l my g e n i a l s p i r i t s droop, My hopes a l l f l a t , n a t u r e w i t h i n m e seems In a l l h e r f u n c t i o n s w e a r y of h e r s e l f ; My race of g l o r y r u n , and r a c e of shame, And I s h a l l s h o r t l y b e w i t h them t h a t r e s t . 2

C o l e r i d g e ' s awareness of t h e l o s s of j o y i s v e r y c l o s e i n d e e d t o Samson's awaueness of h i s l o s s o f g r a c e ; t h e p r i n c i p l e of l i f e summed up i n t h e p h r a s e " g e n i a l s p i r i t s ' ' f a i l s a t t h e i r abandonment by God.

A l a s t p o i n t . C o l e r i d g e ' s l i n e s have some c o n n e c t i o n w i t h R e s o l u t i o n and Independence, a s i s w e l l known. But i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t Wordsworth a c c e p t s t h a t no mat ter what t h e s o u r c e of i n s p i r a t i o n i t w i l l i n t ime f a d e . For j o y i s t o be p r i m a r i l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h y o u t h , because you th i s t h e t i m e of i m a g i n a t i o n ' s power. "Weeping may t a r r y f o r t h e n i g h t , b u t j o y cometh i n t h e morning." And H a r t l e y had p u t t h e m a t t e r i n t h e s e t e r m s .

A s t h e P l e a s u r e s of I m a g i n a t i o n a re v e r y p r e v a l e n t , and much c u l t i v a t e d d u r i n g Youth; so , i f w e c o n s i d e r Mankind as one g r e a t i n d i v i d u a l , advanc ing i n Age p e r p e t u a l l y , i t seems n a t u r a l t o e x p e c t , t h a t i n t h e l a f a n c y of knowledge, i n t h e e a r l y Ages of t h e World, t h e Taste of Mankind would

1 C o l e r i d g e ' s Poems, op . c i t . , V o l . 1, p . 365.

2 I u s e F . T . P r i n c e ' s e d i t i o n , 1957, p . 45. The speech i s a t 11. 590-598.

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1 t u r n much upon t h e P l e a s u r e s of t h i s Class.

Be l i eve t h a t and you a r e more l i k e l y t o b e l i e v e i n t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y of t h e O s s i a n poems. he was s o r r y t h e i r f r i e n d , M r . Howe, had n o t h e a r d of t h e poems, and wished he c o u l d send them t o him, f o r

And so Gray, w r i t i n g i n 1763, t o l d t h e Rev. James Brown t h a t

H e would t h e r e s e e , t h a t I m a g i n a t i o n dwelt many hundred y e a r s ago i n a l l h e r pomp on t h e c o l d a n d b a r r e n mountains of S c o t l a n d . The t r u t h ( I b e l i e v e ) i s t h a t w i t h o u t any r e s p e c t of climates she r e i g n s i n a l l n a s c e n t s o c i e t i e s of men . . . 2

I m a g i n a t i o n and i t s s i g n a l , j o y , are t o be found i n y o u t h f u l s o c i e t i e s and i n t h e y o u t h of men. Among e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y tex ts which make t h e c o n n e c t i o n s between y o u t h and i m a g i n a t i o n and y o u t h and j o y , I n o t e L a n g h o r n e ' s F a b l e s of Fancy, the l a t e r version of The Pleasures of the Imagination ( e s p e c i a l l y Books 2 and 41, Beat t ie ' s "The Triumph of Melancholy" ( e s p e c i a l l y s t a n z a s 47-8 ) and Campbell's "The Pleasures of Hope" ( p a r t 2 ) .

I t h i n k t h a t b o t h Wordsworth and C o l e r i d g e see C h a t t e r t o n and Burns as j o y f u l p o s s e s s o r s of i m a g i n a t i o n because they were p o e t s because they came from " n a s c e n t s o c i e t i e s o f men"; because t h e y were o r c o u l d b e s e e n as s o l i t a r i e s ; and because t h e y d i e d young. 3

I do n o t p r e t e n d t h a t I have done more t h a n o u t l i n e t h e v a r i o u s ways i n which j o y changed i t s meaning - mos t ly th rough a l t e r e d a s s o c i a t i o n s - through t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , and I a m c e r t a i n t h a t a g r e a t d e a l more work can and s h o u l d be done t o show how and why t h e word becomes so i m p o r t a n t , so d e f i n i n g a word f o r t h e p o e t d u r i n g t h e Romantic p e r i o d . But a t l ea s t i t shou ld now be p o s s i b l e f o r u s t o r e c o g n i s e t h a t when C l a r e r e f e r r e d t o h i m s e l f as "The p o e t i n h i s j o y " he w a s assuming a c o n n e c t i o n between words which would have been un imag inab le a hundred y e a r s e a r l i e r , and y e t which he cou ld t a k e f o r g r a n t e d .

J o h n Lucas U n i v e r s i t y of Nottingham

1 O b s e r v a t i o n s on Man, - . 1749, Vol. 1 , p . 431.

2 Le t t e r s of Thomas Gray, 1951, p . 250.

3 I t h i n k h e r e n o t o n l y of " R e s o l u t i o n and Independence' ' b u t of t h e extra- o r d i n a r y myth-making t h a t g o e s on i n C o l e r i d g e ' s "Monody on the Death of C h a t t e r t o n " . C o l e r i d g e ' s Poems, op. c i t . , Vol. 1, pp. 13-16. And a l s o of Wordsworth 's two poems t o Burns, p a r t of t h e Memorials of a Tour of S c o t l a n d .