The Paleolithic Period

Prehistory

The Paleolithic Period Paleolithic Architecture TheoldestexamplesofPaleolithicdwellingsaresheltersincaves,followedbyhousesofwood,straw,androck.

Key Points

• Earlyhumanschoselocationsthatcouldbedefendedagainstpredatorsandrivalsandthatwereshieldedfrominclementweather.

• Weather,water,andtimehavedestroyedthemajorityofcampsites;ourunderstandingofPaleolithicdwellingsisthereforelimited.

• CavesarethemostfamousexampleofPaleolithicshelters.

KeyTerms

• Mammoth:Alarge,hairy,extinctelephant-likemammalofthetaxonomicgenusMammuthus.

• Hut:Asmallwoodenshed,aprimitivetemporarydwelling.• Paleolithic:Paleo(Old)Lith(Stone);EarlystageoftheStoneAge,when

primitivestonetoolswereused.

ThePaleolithicAge,orOldStoneAge,spannedfromaround30,000BCEuntil10,000BCEandproducedthefirstaccomplishmentsinhumancreativity.Duetoalackofwrittenrecordsfromthistimeperiod(Pre-history),nearlyallofourknowledgeofPaleolithichumancultureandwayoflifecomesfromarchaeologicandethnographiccomparisonstomodernhunter-gatherercultures.ThePaleolithiclasteduntiltheretreatoftheice,whenfarminganduseofmetalswereadopted.

Paleolithic Societies

AtypicalPaleolithicsocietyfollowedahunter-gatherereconomy.Humanshuntedwildanimalsformeatandgatheredfood,firewood,andmaterialsfortheirtools,clothes,orshelters.Theadoptionofbothtechnologies—clothingandshelter—cannotbedatedexactly,buttheywerekeytohumanity’sprogress.AsthePaleolithiceraprogressed,dwellingsbecamemoresophisticated,moreelaborate,andmorehouse-like.AttheendofthePaleolithicera,humansbegantoproduceworksofartsuchascavepaintings,rockart,andjewelry,andbegantoengageinreligiousbehaviorsuchasburialandrituals.

DwellingsandShelters

Earlymenchoselocationsthatcouldbedefendedagainstpredatorsandrivalsandthatwereshieldedfrominclementweather.Manysuchlocationscouldbefoundnearrivers,lakes,andstreams,perhapswithlowhilltopsnearbythatcouldserveasrefuges.Sincewatercanerodeandchangelandscapesquitedrastically,manyofthesecampsiteshavebeendestroyed.OurunderstandingofPaleolithicdwellingsisthereforelimited.

Asearlyas380,000BCE,humanswereconstructingtemporarywoodhuts.Othertypesofhousesexisted;theseweremorefrequentlycampsitesincavesorintheopenairwithlittleinthewayofformalstructure.Theoldestexamplesareshelterswithincaves,followedbyhousesofwood,straw,androck.Afewexamplesexistofhousesbuiltoutofbones.

Temporarywoodhut:Anartist’srenderingofatemporarywoodhouse,basedonevidencefoundatTerraAmata(inNice,France)anddatedtotheLowerPaleolithicera.

Caves

CavesarethemostfamousexampleofPaleolithicshelters,thoughthenumberofcavesusedbyPaleolithicpeopleisdrasticallysmallrelativetothenumberof

hominidsthoughttohavelivedonEarthatthetime.Mosthominidsprobablyneverenteredacave,muchlesslivedinone.Nonetheless,theremainsofhominidsettlementsshowinterestingpatterns.Inonecave,atribeofNeanderthalskeptahearthfireburningforathousandyears,leavingbehindanaccumulationofcoalsandash.Inanothercave,postholesinthedirtfloorrevealthattheresidentsbuiltsomesortofshelterorenclosurewitharooftoprotectthemselvesfromwaterdrippingonthemfromthecaveceiling.Theyoftenusedtherearportionsofthecaveasmiddens,depositingtheirgarbagethere.

IntheUpperPaleolithic(thelatestpartofthePaleolithic),cavesceasedtoactashouses.Instead,theylikelybecameplacesforearlypeopletogatherforritualandreligiouspurposes.

TentsandHuts

Modernarchaeologistsknowoffewtypesofshelterusedbyancientpeoplesotherthancaves.Someexamplesdoexist,buttheyarequiterare.InSiberia,agroupofRussianscientistsuncoveredahouseortentwithaframeconstructedofmammothbones.Thegreattuskssupportedtheroof,whiletheskullsandthighbonesformedthewallsofthetent.Severalfamiliescouldliveinside,wherethreesmallhearths,littlemorethanringsofstones,keptpeoplewarmduringthewinter.Around50,000yearsago,agroupofPaleolithichumanscampedonalakeshoreinsouthernFrance.AtTerraAmata,thesehunter-gatherersbuiltalongandnarrowhouse.Thefoundationwasaringofstones,withaflatthresholdstoneforadoorateitherend.Verticalpostsdownthemiddleofthehousesupportedroofsandwallsofsticksandtwigs,probablycoveredoverwithalayerofstraw.Ahearthoutsideservedasthekitchen,whileasmallerhearthinsidekeptpeoplewarm.Theirresidentscouldeasilyabandonbothdwellings.Thisiswhytheyarenotconsideredtruehouses,whichwasadevelopmentoftheNeolithicperiodratherthanthePaleolithicperiod.

Paleolithic Artifacts ThePaleolithicerahasanumberofartifactsthatrangefromstone,bone,andwoodtoolstostonesculptures.

KeyPoints

• ArtifactsdatingfromtheLowerandMiddlePaleolithicremaindisputedasobjectsofartisticexpression.

• ThereissomeevidencethatapreferenceforaestheticemergedintheMiddlePaleolithicduetothesymmetryinherenttodiscoveredartifacts.

• The(So-called)VenusofTan-TanisanallegedartifactfoundinMoroccothatisbelievedbysomearchaeologiststobetheearliestrepresentationofthehumanform.

• ThePaleolithicischaracterizedbytheuseofstonetools,althoughatthetimehumansalsousedwoodandbonetools.

KeyTerms

• ochre:Anearthpigmentcontainingsilica,aluminum,andferricoxide• incised:Tocutintothesurfaceofanobjectfordecorativepurposes• flint:Ahard,fine-grainedquartzthatfracturesconchoidallyandgenerates

sparkswhenstruck.• paleoliths:AstonerelicofthePaleolithicera.• artifacts:Objectsthatarecreatedbyahumanbeingwithculturaland

historicalsignificance.

ThePaleolithicorOldStoneAgeoriginatedaround30,000BCE,lastinguntil10,000BCE,andisseparatedintothreeperiods:theLowerPaleolithic(theearliestsubdivision),MiddlePaleolithic,andUpperPaleolithic.ThePaleolithiceraischaracterizedbytheuseofstonetools,althoughatthetimehumansalsousedwoodandbonetools.Otherorganiccommoditieswereadaptedforuseastools,includingleatherandvegetablefibers;however,duetotheirnature,thesehavenotbeenpreservedtoanygreatdegree.SurvivingartifactsofthePaleolithiceraareknownaspaleoliths.

Acheulean hand-axes: Acheulean hand-axes from Kent. The types shown are (clockwise from top) cordate, ficron, and ovate. Evidence shows these early hominids intentionally selected raw materials with good flaking qualities and chose appropriate-sized stones for their needs to produce sharp-edged tools for cutting.

TheearliestundisputedartoriginatedintheUpperPaleolithic.However,thereissomeevidencethatapreferenceforaestheticemergedintheMiddlePaleolithicduetothesymmetryinherentindiscoveredartifactsandevidenceofattentiontodetailinsuchthingsastoolshape,whichhasledsomearchaeologiststointerpretthese

artifactsasearlyexamplesofartisticexpression.Therehasbeenmuchdisputeamongscholarsoverthetermingofearlyprehistoricartifactsas“art.”Generallyspeaking,artifactsdatingfromtheLowerandMiddlePaleolithicremaindisputedasobjectsofartisticexpression,whiletheUpperPaleolithicprovidesthefirstconclusiveexamplesofartmaking.

DisputedArt(ifacts):Early“Venuses”

The“Venus”ofTan-TanisanallegedartifactfoundinMoroccothatisbelievedbysometobetheearliestrepresentationofthehumanform.Thename“Venus”isnolongerconsideredappropriatebecauseitsuggeststhattheseobjectswererepresentativeofgoddesses,orotherdeities,whenthereisnoproofthatthisisso.Thetermisstillinusebutherewewilldemotethesefigurestothedesignation“Woman”whichisusuallyundeniablebythephysicalgenderedcharacteristics,althoughtheTan-Tanfigureisarguablynotgendered.TheWomanofTan-Tan,a2.3inchlongpieceofquartziterockdatedbetween300,000and500,000yearsagoduringtheMiddlePaleolithic,wasdiscoveredin1999inariverterracedepositonthenorthbankoftheDraaRiver,justsouthoftheMoroccanvillageofTan-Tan.Thereiscontroversyamongarchaeologistsastoitsnatureandorigin.Somearchaeologistsbelieveitwascreatedbyacombinationofgeologicalforcesaswellastool-basedcarving.Visiblesmudgestainshavebeeninterpretedbysomeasremnantsofredochrepigments.Forothers,therock’sshapeissimplytheresultofnaturalweatheringanderosion,andanyhumanshapeisamerecoincidence.

Drawing of the Woman of Tan-Tan: The Woman of Tan-Tan is an alleged artifact found in Morocco that is believed by some to be the earliest representation of the human form.

Blombos Cave

DiscoveriesofengravedstonesintheBlombosCavesofSouthAfricahasledsomearchaeologiststobelievethatearlyHomosapienswerecapableofabstractionandtheproductionofsymbolicart.Madefromochre,thestonesareengravedwithabstractpatterns,andwhiletheyaresimplerthanprehistoriccavepaintingsfoundinEurope,somescholarsbelievetheseengravedstonesrepresenttheearliestknownartworks,datingfrom75,000yearsago.Although,muchliketheotherpieces,thisbeliefremainscontested.

Engraved ochre from the Blombos Cave: Engraved ochre from the Blombos Cave has led some historians to believe that early Homo sapiens were capable of symbolic art.

Paleolithic Cave Paintings Paleolithiccavepaintingsdemonstrateearlyhumans’capacitytogivemeaningtotheirsurroundingsandcommunicatewithothers.

KeyPoints

• Cavepaintingscanbegroupedintothreemaincategories:animals,humanfigures,andabstractsigns.

• Animalsdepictedincludefamiliarherbivoresandpredatoryanimals.• Animalswereshowninprofile• ThemostspectacularexamplesofcavepaintingsareinsouthernFranceand

northernSpain.

• Interpretationsvaryfromprehistoricstarcharts,accountsofpasthuntsormysticalritualsforfutureones,andshamanism.

KeyTerms

• chiaroscuro:AnartistictechniquedevelopedduringtheRenaissance,referringtotheuseofexaggeratedlightcontrastsinordertocreatetheillusionofvolume.

• shamanism:Arangeoftraditionalbeliefsandpracticesconcernedwithcommunicationwiththespiritworld.

• polychromy:Referstotheuseofmultiplecolorsinanobjectorartwork.• schematic:followingasetform,oftengeometric,andrepeatable.

ThePaleolithic,orOldStoneAge,rangesfrom30,000BCEto10,000BCEandproducedthefirstaccomplishmentsinhumancreativity,precedingtheinventionofwriting.ArcheologicaldiscoveriesacrossabroadswathofEurope(especiallysouthernFranceandnorthernSpain)includeovertwohundredcaveswithspectacularpaintings,drawings,andsculpturethatareamongtheearliestundisputedexamplesofrepresentationalimage-making.

ThemesandMaterials

Themostcommonthemesincavepaintingsarelargewildanimals,suchasbison,horses,aurochs(akindofbull),anddeer.Thespeciesfoundmostoftenweresuitableforhuntingbyhumans,butwerenotnecessarilythetypicalpreyfoundinassociatedbonedeposits.Forexample,thepaintersofLascaux,Franceleftmainlyreindeerbones,butthisspeciesdoesnotappearatallinthecavepaintings;equinespeciesarethemostcommon.

Drawingsofhumanswererareandwereusuallyschematicinnatureasopposedtothedetailedandnaturalisticimagesofanimals.Tracingsofhumanhandsandhandstencilswereverypopular,however,aswellasabstractpatternscalledfingerflutings.Animalswerepicturedinprofiletogivethemostidentifiableinformationabouteachoneaspossible.

Thepigmentsusedappeartoberedandyellowochre,manganeseorcarbonforblack,andchinaclayforwhite.Someofthecolormayhavebeenmixedwithfat.Thepaintwasappliedbyfinger,chewedsticks,orusingfurforbrushes.Sometimesthesilhouetteoftheanimalwasincisedintherockfirst,andinsomecavesmanyoftheimageswereonlyengravedinthisfashion,takingthemoutofastrictdefinitionof“cavepainting.”

MainExamplesofCavePaintings:FranceandSpain

France

Lascaux(circa15,000BCE),insouthwesternFrance,isaninterconnectedseriesofcaveswithoneofthemostimpressiveexamplesofartisticcreationsbyPaleolithichumans.

A horse from the "Panel of the Chinese Horses" from the Lascaux Cave. The second Chinese horse in the Axial Gallery, also known as the Painted Gallery. Note also the sign above the horse. PD-US; Photo: http://coursecontent.westhillscollege.com/Art%20Images/CD_01/DU2500/index.htm

Cave paintings in Lascaux, France: The most famous section of the cave is “The Great Hall of the Bulls,” where bulls, equines, and stags are depicted. CC BY-SA: Prof saxx Feb. 2006

Discoveredin1940,thecavecontainsnearlytwothousandfigures,whichcanbegroupedintothreemaincategories—animals,humanfigures,andabstractsigns.Overninehundredimagesdepictanimalsfromthesurroundingareas,suchashorses,stags,aurochs,bison,lions,bears,andbirds—speciesthatwouldhavebeenhuntedandeaten,andthoseidentifiedaspredators.Thepaintingscontainnoimagesofthesurroundinglandscapeorthevegetationofthetime.

TheChauvet-Pont-d’ArcCave(circa30,000BCE)intheArdèchedepartmentofsouthernFrancecontainssomeoftheearliestknownpaintings,aswellasotherevidenceofUpperPaleolithiclife.TheChauvetCaveisuncharacteristicallylarge,andthequality,quantity,andconditionoftheartworkfoundonitswallshavebeencalledspectacular.Hundredsofanimalpaintingshavebeencatalogued,depictingatleastthirteendifferentspecies—notonlythefamiliarherbivoresthatpredominatePaleolithiccaveart,butalsomanypredatoryanimals,suchascavelions,panthers,bears,andcavehyenas.

Drawings of horses from the Chauvet Cave in France: The Chauvet-Pont-d’Arc Cave in the Ardèche department of southern France is a cave that contains some of the earliest known cave paintings. PD-Art US

Asistypicalofmostcaveart,therearenopaintingsofcompletehumanfiguresinChauvet.Thereareafewpanelsofredochrehandprintsandhandstencilsmadebyspittingpigmentoverhandspressedagainstthecavesurface.Abstractmarkings—linesanddots—arefoundthroughoutthecave.

Theartistswhoproducedtheseuniquepaintingsusedtechniquesrarelyfoundinothercaveart.Manyofthepaintingsappeartohavebeenmadeafterthewallswerescrapedclearofdebrisandconcretions,leavingasmootherandnoticeablylighterareauponwhichtheartistsworked.Similarly,athree-dimensionalqualityandthesuggestionofmovementareachievedbyincisingoretchingaroundtheoutlinesofcertainfigures.Theartalsoincludesscenesthatwerecomplexforitstime—animalsinteractingwitheachother.Forinstance,apairofwoolyrhinocerosesareseenbuttinghornsinanapparentcontestforterritoryormatingrights.

Spain

Altamira(circa18,000BCE)isacaveinnorthernSpainfamousforitsUpperPaleolithiccavepaintingsfeaturingdrawingsandpolychromerockpaintingsofwildmammalsandhumanhands.ThecavehasbeendeclaredaWorldHeritageSitebyUNESCO.

Painting of a bison in the Great Hall of Policromes, Altamira, Spain: Altamira’s famous Upper Paleolithic cave paintings feature drawings and polychrome rock paintings of wild mammals and human hands. CC BY-SA; MuseodeAltamirayD.Rodríguez

Thelongcaveconsistsofaseriesoftwistingpassagesandchambers.Humanoccupationwaslimitedtothecavemouth,althoughpaintingswerecreatedthroughoutthelengthofthecave.Theartistsusedpolychromy—charcoalandochreorhaematite(ironoxide)—tocreatetheimages,oftendilutingthesepigmentstoproducevariationsinintensity,creatinganimpressionofchiaroscuro.Theyalsoexploitedthenaturalcontoursinthecavewallstogivetheirsubjectsathree-dimensionaleffect.

Interpretations

Likeallprehistoricart,thepurposeofthesepaintingsremainsobscure.Inrecentyears,newresearchhassuggestedthattheLascauxpaintingsmayincorporateprehistoricstarcharts.Someanthropologistsandarthistoriansalsotheorizethatthepaintingscouldbeanaccountofpasthuntingsuccess,ortheycouldrepresentamysticalritualtoimprovefuturehuntingendeavors.Analternativetheory,broadlybasedonethnographicstudiesofcontemporaryhunter-gatherersocieties,isthatthepaintingspertainedtoshamanism,oramysticalconnectiontonature.

Paleolithic Sculpture Paleolithicsculpturesfoundincavesaresomeoftheearliestexamplesofrepresentationalart.

KeyPoints

• SculpturalworkfromthePaleolithicconsistsmainlyoffigurines,beads,andsomedecorativeutilitarianobjectsconstructedwithstone,bone,ivory,clay,andwood.

• “Venus”or“Woman”figurines”isanumbrellatermforanumberofprehistoricstatuettesofwomenthathavebeenfoundmostlyinEurope,butalsoinEurasiaandSiberia.

• Womanfigurinesarecharacterizedbysharedstylisticfeatures,suchasanovalshape,largebelly,wide-setthighs,largebreasts,andthetypicalabsenceofarmsandfeet.

KeyTerms

• flint:Ahard,fine-grainedquartzthatfracturesconchoidallyandgeneratessparkswhenstruck.

ThePaleolithicorOldStoneAgeexistedfromapproximately30,000BCEuntil10,000BCE,andproducedthefirstaccomplishmentsinhumancreativity.ArcheologicaldiscoveriesacrossEuropeandAsiaincludeovertwohundredcaveswithspectacularpaintings,drawings,andsculpturesthatareamongtheearliestundisputedexamplesofrepresentationalart-making.SculpturalworkfromthePaleolithicconsistsmainlyoffigurines,beads,andsomedecorativeutilitarianobjectsconstructedwithstone,bone,ivory,clay,andwood.Duringprehistorictimes,caveswereplacesofdwellingaswellaspossiblespacesforritualandcommunalgathering.Unsurprisingly,caveswerethelocationsofmanyarcheologicaldiscoveriesowingtotheirsecludedlocationsandprotectionfromtheelements.

Venus/Woman Figurines

“Venus”orWomanfigurinesisanumbrellatermforanumberofprehistoricstatuettesofwomenthathavebeenfoundmostlyinEurope,butalsoinAsiaandSiberia,datingfromtheUpperPaleolithic.Thesefiguresareallquitesmall,between4and25cmtall,andcarvedmainlyinsteatite(soapstone),limestone,bone,orivory.Thesesculpturesarecollectivelydescribedas“Venus”figurinesinreferencetotheRomangoddessofbeauty,asearlyhistoriansassumedtheyrepresentedanidealofbeautyfromthetime.WomanofWillendorfisusednowsincethefigures’statusasgoddessesisunknowable.

Thefigurineshavesometimesbeeninterpretedasrepresentingamothergoddess;theabundanceofsuchfemaleimageryhasledsometobelievethatUpperPaleolithic(andlaterNeolithic)societieshadafemale-centeredreligionandafemale-dominatedsociety.Variousotherexplanationsforthepurposeofthefigurineshavebeenproposed,suchasthehypothesisthatthefigurineswerecreatedasself-portraitsofactualwomen(unlikely)orwereusedasgesturesofgoodwillbetweenunrelatedgroups.

StylisticFeatures

Thesefiguresarecharacterizedbysharedstylisticfeatures,suchasanovalshape,largebelly,wide-setthighs,largebreasts,andthetypicalabsenceofarmsandfeet.Hundredsofthesesculptureshavebeenfoundbothinopen-airsettlementsandcaves.TheWomanofHohleFels,a6cmfigureofawomancarvedfromamammoth‘stusk,wasdiscoveredinGermany’sHohleFelscavein2008andrepresentsoneoftheearliestfoundsculpturesofthistype.

The Woman of Hohle Fels: a 6 cm figure of a woman carved from a mammoth’s tusk, was discovered in Germany’s Hohle Fels cave in 2008 and represents one of the earliest found sculptures of this type. CC Fair Use: image copyright H. Jensen / Universität Tübingen http://www.nature.com/nature/videoarchive/prehistoricpinup/

Additionally,theWomanofWillendorfisaparticularlyfamousexampleofthistypeoffigure.Whileinitiallythoughttobesymbolsoffertility,orofafertilitygoddess,thetruesignificanceofthefigureremainsobscure,asdoesmuchofprehistoricart.

The Woman of Willendorf: The Woman of Willendorf is a particularly famous example of the figure. CC BY 2.5: User: MatthiasKabel

Prehistoryisdividedroughlyintothreesections:

Paleolithic–OldStoneAge2.5millionyearsagotoendoflastIceAgec.9600BCE

Mesolithic–MiddleStoneAge–endoflasticeage,agriculture,domesticationofanimalsincludingthedog

Neolithic–NewStoneAge–farmingspreadstoWesternEurope,large-scalestonestructureslikeStonehengeinEngland

Women and Cattle, Rock painting at Tassili n’Ajjer, Algeria. After 5000 BCE. http://nation.com.pk/blogs/09-Aug-2015/do-advances-in-technology-necessarily-signify-improvement-in-human-life

FurtherSouthinpresent-dayAlgeria,theSaharadesertwasavastsavannagrasslandsuitableforthehusbandingofherdsofanimals.Thisrockpaintingseemstopictureagroupofwomenwatchingtheherdandentertainingthemselvesby–possibly–dancing.Theartisthasusedthenaturalcoloringoftherockoutcroppingtocreateaplatformonwhichoneofthefiguresreclines.Thisimageconfirmstheactivityofanimalhusbandryaswellasadvancedculturalandcommunalexchangesamongthepeoplewholivedthere.

Mesolithic Age TheperiodbetweenthePaleolithicAgeandtheNeolithicAgeisknownastheMeso(Middle)Lith(Stone)icperiod.Theyearsattributedtothisperiodvaryfromregiontoregion,butitroughlycorrespondstothetimeinNorthernEuropeduringwhichtheclimatebegantowarmandtheglacierstorecede.

SomecharacteristicsoftheMesolithicAgeisatransitionfromlargechippedstonetoolsandhuntingingroupsoflargeherdanimalstosmaller(microliths)chippedstonetoolsandamorehunter-gathererculture.ItendswiththeintroductionofthegrowingofcropsandhusbandingofanimalsintheNeolithic.

English:Huntergatherer'scampatIrishNationalHeritageParkExhibitshowinghowa7000B.C.campsiteofMesolithicperiodhuntergathererswouldhavelooked.Theywerenomadicandbuilttemporaryhouses.Wood,boneandflintwerethematerialsoftheirtools.Theyfishedusingdugoutcanoes-thereisoneinthephoto.Morephotosinthepark,seehttps://www.geograph.org.uk/gallery/irish_national_heritage_park_county_wexford_10033,photobyDavidHawgoodCCBY-SA2.0

ThereisratherlessartattributedtotheMesolithicthanintheperiodpriorandsubsequent.Certainregionsdevelopedadistinctivepotteryduringthisperiod.Possiblythemostsignificantandlong-lastingdevelopmentduringtheMesolithicisthedomesticationofthedog.

TheElk'sHeadofHuittinenisarareMesolithicanimalcarvinginsoapstonefromFinland.CCBY-SARaunoTräskelin/TheFinnishNationalBoardofAntiquities-https://www.finna.fi/Record/musketti.M012:AKD58629:1

Neolithic Monuments NeolithicartinWesternEuropeisbestrepresentedbyitsmegalithic(largestone)monuments.

Key Points

• TheNeolithicorNewStoneAgewasaperiodinhumandevelopmentfromaround10,000BCEuntil3,000BCE.

• StonehengeandAvebury,bothlocatedinthecountyofWiltshireinEngland,arethebestknownmegalithichenges(circles).Bothwerebuiltinstagesoverseveralcenturies.Theirexactpurposesremainamatterofdebate.

• Passagetombsorgravesconsistofnarrowpassagesmadeoflargestonesandoneormultipleburialchambersbeencoveredinearthorstone.Acommonlayoutisthecruciformpassagegrave.

• ThecarvingsatNewgrangeandKnowtharealignedwiththesolsticesandequinoxes.

KeyTerms

• rectilinear:Inastraightline.• henge:Aprehistoricenclosureintheformofanarc,definedbyaraised

circularbankandacircularditchinsidethebank,withoneormoreentrancestotheenclosedopenspace.

• trilithon:Astructureconsistingoftwostonepillarssupportingahorizontalstone.

• cruciform:Havingtheshapeofacross.• serpentiform:Havingtheformofaserpent.• curvilinear:Formedbycurvedlines.• passagegrave:Aburialchamberconsistingofanarrowpassagemadeof

largestonesandoneormultipleburialchamberscoveredinearthorstone.

AlsoknownastheNewStoneAge,theNeolithicperiodinhumandevelopmentlastedfromaround10,000BCEuntil3,000BCE.ConsideredthelastpartoftheStoneAge,theNeolithicissignifiedbyaprogressioninbehavioralandculturalcharacteristicsincludingthecultivationofwildanddomesticcropsandtheuseofdomesticatedanimals.

AgrariansocietiesfirstappearedinsoutheastEuropeintheseventhmillenniumBCE.Throughmigrationandculturaldiffusion,NeolithictraditionsspreadtonorthwesternEuropebyaround4500BCE.Thedevelopmentofagricultureallowedgroupsofpeopletoformlargerpermanentsettlementsinsinglelocations,asopposedtolivingasnomadichuntergatherers.Permanentsettlementsresultedintheconstructionofmegalithicmonumentsrequiringconsiderabletimeandeffortthatwasunavailabletonomads.

Megalithic Henges

Neolithicsocietiesproducedfemaleandanimalstatues,engravings,andelaboratepotterydecoration.InWesternEurope,though,thisperiodisbestrepresentedbythemegalithic(largestone)monumentsandpassagetombstructuresfoundfromMaltatoPortugal,throughFranceandGermany,andacrosssouthernEnglandtomostofWalesandIreland.

Stonehenge

PerhapsthebestknownmegalithichengeisStonehenge,locatedonSalisburyPlaininthecountyofWiltshireinsouthcentralEngland.Archaeologistsbelieveitwasconstructedfrom3000BCEto2000BCE.Thesurroundingcircularearthbankandditch,whichconstitutetheearliestphaseofthemonument,havebeendatedtoabout3100BCE.RadiocarbondatingsuggeststhatthefirstbluestonesintheinnermostringofStonehengewereraisedbetween2400and2200BCE,althoughtheymayhavebeenatthesiteasearlyas3000BCE.

Plan of Stonehenge: Key to plan: (1) The Altar Stone, (2) barrow without a burial, (3) “barrows” without burials, (4) the fallen Slaughter Stone, (5) the Heel Stone, (6) two of originally four Station Stones, (7) ditch, (8) inner bank, (9) outer bank, (10) the Avenue, (11) ring of 30 pits called the Y Holes, (12) ring of 29 pits called the Z Holes, (13) circle of 56 pits, known as the Aubrey holes, (14) smaller southern entrance. CC BY_SA DrawnbyAdamsan

Althoughhumanremainshavebeenfoundatthesite,archaeologistsareuncertainwhetherthesiteservedfunerarypurposes,ritualpurposes,orboth.Itsalignmentswiththesunriseofthesummersolsticeandsunsetofthewintersolsticepresentthepossibilitythatthesiteservedasarudimentaryastronomicalcalendartohelpearlyagrariansocietiesacclimatetotheapproachinggrowingseasonandharvest.

Stonehenge: Salisbury Plain, England. CC BY 2.0 garethwiscombe, July 30 2007; https://www.flickr.com/photos/garethwiscombe/1071477228/in/photostream/

Eventhesmallestbluestonesweighseveraltonseach.Thesestones,so-calledbecausetheyappearbluewhenwet,werequarriedapproximately150milesawayinthePrescelliMountainsinsouthwestWales.Evenmoreimpressive,thequarryingandtransportofthestonestookplacewithouttheaidofthewheel,requiringasophisticatedmethodoftransportandconstructioninvolvingfelledtreesandearthenmounds.ThelargerSarcenstonesthatformthepost-and-lintelringandhefree-standingtrilithonswerequarriedapproximately25milestothenorthofSalisburyPlain,requiringthesametransportsystemoffelledtreesandearthenmounds.