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analysis by Jon Opstad of Herbie Hancock's soloing on Fender Rhodes
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This article was downloaded by: [King's College London]On: 20 October 2013, At: 05:06Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registeredoffice: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
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The Harmonic and Rhythmic Languageof Herbie Hancock's 1970s FenderRhodes SolosJon OpstadPublished online: 21 Apr 2009.
To cite this article: Jon Opstad (2009) The Harmonic and Rhythmic Language of Herbie Hancock's1970s Fender Rhodes Solos, Jazz Perspectives, 3:1, 57-79, DOI: 10.1080/17494060902778126
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The Harmonic and Rhythmic Languageof Herbie Hancocks 1970s FenderRhodes SolosJon Opstad
Herbie Hancocks Fender Rhodes keyboard solos of the 1970s have not received the
same degree of critical attention as his acoustic piano work, particularly his piano-
centered recordings from the 1960s under his own name and with Miles Davis.
Nevertheless, the 1970s and early 1980s were a period of enormous commercial
success for Hancock, starting with the 1974 Head Hunters album, which became the
first jazz album to achieve platinum sales,1 and culminating in his massive techno hit
Rockit in 1983, which was a chart success both in the United States and the United
Kingdom. With his electric recordings from this period, many critics felt that
Hancock had sold out to a mass pop audience, and the general suspicion (even
derision) with which the jazz world often treats commercial success meant that the
substantial musical innovations that Hancock made during this time have not been
widely acknowledged.
Hancocks Fender Rhodes playing is highly distinctive. The harmonic and
rhythmic innovations that he made with his acoustic piano work across the 1960s2
were distilled in his Rhodes playing into an instantly recognisable style that is
arguably more harmonically and rhythmically advanced than that of any other player
of this instrument. One of the key features of the jazz-funk genre in which the
majority of these solos were performed is the generally slow rate of harmonic rhythm.
Unlike the rapid chord changes of bebop and other previously prevalent jazz genres,
jazz-funk was often riff-based, with improvisations based on a few chords, or often
just over a single harmonic area. What set Hancock apart as a soloist within this style
of improvisation was his genius for reharmonisation. Whereas the static harmonic
backdrop to solos limited many soloists, Hancock mastered techniques of harmonic
tension and release, creating elaborate harmonic development within his solos and
generating a strong sense of form.
1 This information can be found on the Recording Industry Association of America website, http://
www.riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php?table5SEARCH (search under Artist: Herbie Hancock).
Accessed November 24, 2008. The albums platinum status achieved November 21, 1986.2 Elements of Hancocks 1960s acoustic piano playing have been analysed in Keith Waters, Blurring the
Barline: Metric Displacement in the Piano Solos of Herbie Hancock, Annual Review of Jazz Studies 8
(1996): 1937, and David Morgan, Superimposition in the Improvisations of Herbie Hancock,
Annual Review of Jazz Studies 11 (2001): 6990.
Jazz PerspectivesVol. 3, No. 1, April 2009, pp. 5779
ISSN 1749-4060 print/1749-4079 online # 2009 Taylor & FrancisDOI: 10.1080/17494060902778126
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Through his 1970s Fender Rhodes solos, Hancock took outside playing to a new
level in harmonic sophistication and sheer musicality in such a way that has had a
significant influence on later generations of improvisers, but which has gone
largely ignored by jazz critics and analysts. With some of Hancocks most
innovative work recorded in funk and vocal pop contexts, some of which can
sound dated to modern ears, a substantial degree of this innovation has gone
unrecognised.
The Rhodes Years
Although his first recorded appearance on Fender Rhodes was the track Stuff on
the Miles Davis Quintet album, Miles in the Sky, recorded May 17, 1968, Hancocks
first experience with an electric piano was actually some months earlier on a
Wurlitzer model, of which he said:
We were doing a recording session with Miles and when I came into the studio Ididnt see an acoustic piano anywhere. In the corner of the room was only thisWurlitzer electric piano that Id never played before. I asked Miles what he wantedme to play and he said Play that. I was thinking That toy? Then I turned it onand was really surprised by the sound. It sounded beautiful! From that I learnednot to form an opinion on something you have no experience of. And Miles waslistening to Jimi Hendrix and other rock artists, and flamenco and classical musicand opera. When I saw this from my musical mentor I started to think Whatswrong with me that Im so closed-minded and he is open-minded? So I changedmy whole attitude.3
The session was for the track Water on the Pond, from December 28, 1967,
though this recording remained unreleased until 1981.4 The Rhodes made a brief
appearance within the ensemble passages on Hancocks final Blue Note album, The
Prisoner, in 1969 (although he did not solo on the instrument on this recording).
From the following year, with Fat Albert Rotunda, the Rhodes became his primary
instrument for recording until 1983, when the dramatic shift in musical direction of
Rockit largely signalled the end of the period of Rhodes solos and a shift towards
digital synthesisersand then, ultimately, another shift back to the acoustic piano.
Since this time, Hancock has largely turned his back on the Rhodes. In the quarter of
a century since Rockit, only one album recorded under his name has used the
instrument to any significant degree, Future2Future, recorded in 2001 (although this
release contains barely a hint of his 1970s solo style).5
3 Paul Tingen, Herbie Hancock: Creating Future2Future and Touring in Surround, www.soundon-
sound.com/sos/jul02/articles/herbiehancock.asp. Accessed November 24, 2008. Originally published in
Sound On Sound, July 2002.4 Originally released on Miles Davis, Directions, Columbia 88514, 1981, LP; reissued as Sony 35392,
1998, compact disc.5 Hancock has revived his 1970s Rhodes style for a small number of live situations. These events include
the 1998 Return of the Headhunters tour (albeit with Hancock soloing on modern keyboards rather
than a Rhodes) and a tour with hip-hop artist Guru in 2000 (during which Hancock played a Rhodes).
58 Herbie Hancocks 1970s Fender Rhodes Solos
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The Rhodes Years in Hancocks discography lasted from 1969 to 1982. Within this
period, Hancocks recorded output under his own name can be roughly divided into
three sub-periods (with his major albums from each period listed in the third column):
19691973 The Sextet Years (Mwandishi, Crossings, Sextant, etc.)
19741978 The Headhunters Years (Head Hunters, Thrust, Man-Child, etc.)
19791982 The Disco Years (Feets Dont Fail Me Now, Monster, etc.)
Hancocks approach to the Rhodes changed subtly for each of these sub-periods.
Much of his early use of the instrument was in the context of his sextet, a group that
focussed strongly on exploring textural possibilities. A large amount of Hancocks
Rhodes playing on albums such as Mwandishi (1971) and Crossings (1972) was
strongly textural, focussing more on creating washes of sound and expanding the
timbral range of the instrument through effects processing than soloing in a
conventional sense, although a small number of significant solos were recorded
during this period. The majority of Hancocks most significant Fender Rhodes solos
were recorded in the years 1974 to 1978, with the instrument largely unprocessed and
at the forefront of arrangements. Head Hunters (1974), the defining statement of
Hancocks funk-influenced work, featured two extensive, landmark Rhodes solos on
the tracks Chameleon and Sly. The Rhodes played a less prominent role on
Hancocks four disco projects, Feets Dont Fail Me Now (1979), Monster (1980),
Magic Windows (1981), and Lite Me Up (1982). (Please see Appendix 2 for complete
discographical information on these and other releases cited in this essay.) In total,
these latter releases include only a small handful of solos, of which Magic Number
from Magic Windows strongly stands out.
Broadly speaking, Hancocks appearances as a sideman on Rhodes fall within the
same stylistic categories outlined above. During the first sub-period, he appeared on
albums such as Eddie Hendersons Realization (1973), Bennie Maupins The Jewel in
the Lotus (1974), and Norman Connorss Dance of Magic (1973), each of which
featured the Rhodes in a role of textural exploration, with each recording influenced
by the music of the sextet. Across the second sub-period, he appeared on albums such
as Harvey Masons Marching in the Street (1975) and Eddie Hendersons Mahal
(1978), soloing in settings strongly influenced by Head Hunters. Over his disco
sub-period, Hancock appeared in a non-soloing session role on pop albums such as
Quincy Joness The Dude (1980) and George Bensons Give Me the Night (1980). On
these latter two releases, it is a testament to how individual a player Hancock is that
he remains distinctive even in the background of heavily-produced pop music.
Three of Hancocks albums featuring the Rhodes fall outside of the categorisation
implied by the sub-periods described previously. The tracks for Fat Albert Rotunda,
from 1969, were originally composed as television music and have strong R&B
elements that separate this album from the sextet recordings that immediately
followed. The 1978 Sunlight, in achieving pop success with the vocal single I
Thought It Was You, could be classified with the disco albums that followed, but
this release is a considerably more orchestrated and richly textured recording, with
stronger elements of improvisation. As such, Sunlight stands on its own stylistically
Jazz Perspectives 59
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between the instrumental funk and disco periods. Mr. Hands, released in 1980 at the
height of Hancocks disco years, is an instrumental recording closer in style to the
19741978 projects, and it involves materials taken from several sessions.6
From 1974, Hancock had separate recording contracts with the American and
Japanese arms of Columbia/Sony.7 The Japanese contract was used primarily as a
means for allowing Hancock to simultaneously pursue acoustic projects, such as
V.S.O.P. (a reunion of the 19631968 Miles Davis Quintet, but with Freddie
Hubbard substituting for Davis), his trio with Ron Carter and Tony Williams, and his
only entirely solo piano album (The Piano, from 1978), at the same time as releasing
electric material through the American contract. Three electric recordings were
released on the Japanese contract though. These albums were Dedication in 1974 (half
solo piano, half solo keyboards), Flood in 1975 (a live Headhunters recording), and
Directstep in 1978 (a live-in-the-studio Headhunters recording).
Why the Rhodes?
While Hancock used an arsenal of different keyboards across the 1970s (a period
when he could employ up to fifteen keyboard models on a single album), the Fender
Rhodes largely replaced the piano as his main instrument of solo expression. That
said, Hancock had not given up the piano at this time, but in the context of his
electric music the Rhodes became more prevalent, with its softer attack making it a
more suitable instrument texturally for the new sound world that he was working
within. While Hancocks contemporaries Chick Corea, Joe Zawinal, Jan Hammer,
and George Duke each developed highly distinctive styles on the Moog synthesiser,
Hancock rarely soloed on this latter instrument. This is perhaps because its
monophonic nature was too limiting for Hancocks often harmonically-dense
soloing. While the clear tone and pitch-bending possibilities of the Moog allowed
keyboardists to vie with rock-fuelled electric guitarists for attention (an attribute that
was particularly relevant for Corea with Return to Forever and Hammer with the
6 The history of this recording is more ambiguous than the other albums from this period. Although
released in 1980, no recording dates are given and each track is recorded with a different lineup. There is
evidence to suggest that at least half of the album is made up of outtakes from previous sessions. In a
1977 interview with Len Lyons (Len Lyons, The Great Jazz Pianists: Speaking of Their Lives and Music
[New York: Da Capo, 1983]), Hancock refers to the harmonic structure of a piece that he is recording.
He describes the exact harmonic basis of Spiralling Prism, the first track on Mr. Hands. When
combined with the personnel lineup of this recording, this statement suggests that the track was
originally recorded during the sessions for Sunlight. Shiftless Shuffle is the only released track outside
of the Head Hunters album that was recorded with the exact same personnel lineup. While this latter
recording was the first and only time the composition appeared on one of Hancocks official American
album releases, bootleg live performances exist back to 1973, thus suggesting that this track could be an
outtake from the original Head Hunters sessions. Also, a 1974 bootleg exists in which Hancock
announces to the audience that eight tracks were originally recorded for Head Hunters, of which only four
made the release. The lineup of 4am also suggests that this additional number could have been
recorded during the Sunlight sessions.7 Noted in the album liner notes by Bob Belden and David Rubinson to Herbie Hancock, The Piano,
Sony Jazz 87083, 2004, compact disc (originally Columbia 1033, 1979, LP).
60 Herbie Hancocks 1970s Fender Rhodes Solos
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Mahavishnu Orchestra), this was not a concern for Hancock. While there are
significant examples of Hancock soloing on instruments other than the Rhodes on his
1970s recordingssuch as the ARP synthesiser solos on Chameleon from Head
Hunters and Palm Grease from Thrust, and the piano solo on Hang Up Your
Hang Ups from Man-Childmore than any other keyboardist of this era, he made
the Rhodes his instrument. The only other jazz pianist who could be said to have
adapted to the Rhodes to a similar degree for soloing was Chick Corea, who likewise
created a style distinct from his acoustic piano work but one that was equally
advanced and expressive. Coreas work on this instrument though was largely
changes-based rather than modal, and so he maintained a more direct link with
standard jazz vocabulary.
At the same time as Hancock was extensively using the Fender Rhodes, he also
developed highly specific roles for the various other keyboards that were available to
him. For example, the Clavinet (effectively an amplified clavichord) was often used
for rhythm-guitar-like harmonic support, and various analogue synthesisers were
similarly given highly individualistic roles within Hancocks arrangements and
orchestrations. One of the best examples of Hancocks skill at synthesiser
orchestration is Spiralling Prism from Mr. Hands. There are also examples of
this use of electronic orchestration stretching to later in Hancocks discography, after
he had switched to digital synthesisers, as can be heard on the lyrical Chemical
Residue from 1988s Perfect Machine (the final statement from Hancocks trilogy of
1980s techno recordings). While the Rhodes suited the timbral context of Hancocks
1970s recordings perfectly, with its polyphonic nature allowing full harmonic
flexibility, another possibility as to why Hancock chose to focus on an instrument
other than the acoustic piano for his funk-influenced recordings could have been to
more clearly distinguish this work from the acoustic projects that he was
simultaneously pursuing during this period.
Critical Attitudes to Herbie Hancocks 1970s Recordings
An example of the critical bias against Herbie Hancocks 1970s music can be found in
Stuart Nicholsons 1998 book Jazz-Rock: A History:
If an element of jazz improvisation was present in Heartbeat, for example, it waslocked into a rhythmic straitjacket that could not help but diminish its emotionalforce, and was inferior to the standards Hancock had set himself with his acousticwork. Improvisation, in any event, was no longer the essence of these recordings,appearing less by design, more by accident.8
Unfortunately, Nicholson is not alone in his lack of appreciation for Hancocks
playing from this period. Various jazz history books take a similar attitude, as can be
seen in this passage from Ted Gioias The History of Jazz, from 1997:
8 Stuart Nicholson, Jazz-Rock: A History (Edinburgh: Canongate, 1998), 193.
Jazz Perspectives 61
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Hancocks 1973 Head Hunters release achieved massive sales and attracted afollowing with a young, urban black audience with such funk-oriented pieces asChameleon and an updated version of Watermelon Man. This release initiateda bifurcated career for Hancock, with his efforts now divided between mainstreamjazz, often of the highest quality, and overtly commercial projects with little jazzsubstance.9
The view of Hancocks 1970s electric work as having little jazz substance is
common to both modern jazz writerssuch as Nicholson and Gioiaand those
writing at the time that the music was being made. For example, in his 1978 book,
The Making of Jazz, James Lincoln Collier argues:
[Chick] Corea and [Herbie] Hancock were making large commercial successes ofthemselves, and were drawing many other players, especially young ones, into theform. However, whether this fusion music can be classified under the rubric of jazzis an open question. Most committed jazz players do not think so.10
According to Peter Keepnews, in his essay Jazz Since 1968 in The Oxford
Companion to Jazz, the post-Head Hunters Hancock began dividing his time
between acoustic jazz projects and electrified, groove-oriented albums that in his own
view had nothing to do with jazz.11 The source for this statementthough none is
citedis presumably Hancocks July 1986 interview in Down Beat, where his actual
words are: Ive been trying to take the pop stuff more into the pop area and leave
out the jazz. I think Ive pretty much succeeded at that because the last few records I
dont consider jazz at all. Rockit has nothing to do with jazz at all.12 The crucial
point to note here is that in distancing his music from jazz, Hancock only refers to
Rockit and the last few records preceding it (i.e., his four disco projects). To use
this quote to imply that Hancocks Head Hunters-era, funk-influenced recordings of
19741978 have nothing to do with jazz is a clear misappropriation, but this
misguided claim is nonetheless commonly seen in writings on Hancock. For instance,
Mark Gridleys 2000 book Jazz Styles: History and Analysis (seventh edition) suggests
that:
The music had less and less jazz improvisation in it and more and more dancerhythms that were highly syncopated and repetitive. Melodies were simple andheavily rhythmic. Though much of the public places it in the jazz category,Hancock himself has said that he does not consider this music to be jazz.13
Part of what makes Hancocks 1970s Fender Rhodes solos so innovative is that they
bring strong strands of the jazz improvisational tradition to a context that itself is far
removed from jazz in a traditional sense. At the same time, this music builds upon
9 Ted Gioia, The History of Jazz (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 367.10 James Lincoln Collier, The Making of Jazz (London: Granada Publishing Limited, 1978), 495.11 Peter Keepnews, Jazz Since 1968, in The Oxford Companion to Jazz, ed. Bill Kirchner (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2000), 491.12 Howard Mandel, Herbie Hancock: Of Films, Fairlights, Funk and All That Other Jazz, Down
Beat, July 1986, 17.13 Mark Gridley, Jazz Styles: History and Analysis, 7th ed. (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall International,
2000), 321.
62 Herbie Hancocks 1970s Fender Rhodes Solos
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these traditional improvisational elements and stretches harmonic and rhythmic
boundaries to create a new soloistic language. These innovations have gone almost
universally ignored in jazz literature. Indeed, very little has been done in the way of
academic study of Hancocks 1970s recordings. A rare exception is a doctoral
dissertation by Steven F. Pond, completed in 2000, specifically on the Head Hunters
album.14 This research has since been adapted into the book Head Hunters: The
Making of Jazzs First Platinum Album, but although this monograph does cover both
historical issues and stylistic analysis of the music, it does not discuss Hancocks
Rhodes playing in depth.15
Playing Outside
Tension and Release: This is the basic life principle of opposing pairs as in yin and yang,night and day, life and death, etc. Artistically, this principle means that in a meaningfulstatement there should be a balance of excitement and quiescence, action and relaxation. Itcan be perceived as the act of a question being posed and subsequently answered.
David Liebman16
Bill Evans on Kind of Blue (1959) and John Coltrane on both Kind of Blue and A Love
Supreme (1964) each paved the way for improvisers to move outside of the structural
harmony within a solo. The modal jazz basis of both of these albums created a strong
precedent for improvisations based on small-scale harmonic motifs or single
harmonies. In particular, Evans had a strong impact on Hancocks harmonic
thinking. In 1978, Hancock stated that his approach to harmony could be traced to a
small number of influences, of which Evans was one: Clare Fisher was a major
influence on my harmonic concept. He and Bill Evans, and Ravel and Gil Evans,
finally. You know, thats where it really came from. Almost all of the harmony that I
play can be traced to one of those four people and whoever their influences were.
And, of course, Miles.17
A crucial concept in Hancocks soloing is playing outside, and analysis of his 1970s
Rhodes solos shows how fundamental this approach is. Example 1 shows an extract
from Hancocks Fender Rhodes solo from the track Hop Scotch, from drummer
Harvey Masons 1975 album Marching in the Street. The harmonic basis of this solo is
Dbm7, and this foundation is clearly outlined by Paul Jacksons bass playing, which is
predominantly based around the pitches Db and Cb (root and minor seventh on Db).
The modes that fit within this harmonic area are Db Dorian or Aeolian. In
14 Steven F. Pond, Herbie Hancocks Head Hunters: Troubling the Waters of Jazz (Ph.D. diss., University of
California at Berkeley, 2000).15 Steven F. Pond, Head Hunters: The Making of Jazzs First Platinum Album (Ann Arbor, MI: University
of Michigan Press, 2005).16 David Liebman, A Chromatic Approach to Jazz Harmony and Melody (Rottenburg, Germany: Advance
Music, 1991), 13.17 Interview with Julia Coryell, in Julia Coryell, Jazz-Rock Fusion: The People, The Music (New York: Hal
Leonard, 1978), 161162.
Jazz Perspectives 63
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Example 1, the pitches that fall outside of these two modes have been annotated. As
can be seen, a substantial proportion of this extract falls outside of the harmonic area
on which the solo is based.
One of the simplest and most effective ways in which Hancock plays outside is by
using a mode a semitone away from that implied by the rhythm section. Doing so
creates a strong degree of harmonic tension due to the quantity of pitches introduced
that fall outside of the structural harmonic area. This can be seen clearly in this
extract from Hop Scotch. The harmonic basis for the whole solo is Dbm7, but a
large portion of this passage is based around D Dorian, a semitone above the
structural harmonic area. This creates a highly colourful effect, but also introduces a
degree of harmonic tension. This tension is then resolved at bar 5 with the return to
Db minor. The concept of tension and release, both in respect to harmony and
rhythm, is absolutely crucial to these solos.
Another significant way in which Hancock plays outside of the structural harmony
is in his use of chromaticism, which he employs in a number of ways. The most
obvious of these is simply using the chromatic scale within right-hand runs. The
chromatic scale adds colour, and in implying no particular harmony it is an
important way of introducing pitches from outside of the harmonic area on which
the solo is based. Hancock often uses the chromatic scale at the top of rising phrases,
such as can be seen in bars 12 of Example 1, as well as bar 7 of Example 3, but also at
many other points. An additional way in which Hancock uses chromaticism is within
sequences or compound melodies, where it can introduce strong harmonic tension.
This can be seen clearly in bar 4 of Example 1, where the chromatically shifting
fourth-based chords in the left hand, combined with the chromatically rising
compound melody of the right hand, increases the harmonic tension already
Example 1
64 Herbie Hancocks 1970s Fender Rhodes Solos
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introduced by the outside playing of the previous bars, until finally resolving to Db
minor at bar 5.
Harmonic Superimposition of the Dominant and Implied Cadential Progressions
When playing outside in his Fender Rhodes solos, another significant device that
Hancock employs to create a sense of harmonic tension and release is the use of the
altered mode. The altered mode/chord is highly colourful and has an extremely
strong harmonic pull towards the tonic.18 Hancock primarily incorporates this idea
in two ways. The first approach involves a I-V7alt-I progression, where the rhythm
section maintains the tonic harmony (i.e., when the harmonic base remains rooted
around a single chord). A classic example of this technique can be found in his solo
on the live recording of Butterfly, on the album Flood. Here, the rhythm section
(Paul Jackson on electric bass, Mike Clark on drums, and Bill Summers on
percussion) set up a groove firmly outlining Fm7 as the tonic modality. After soloing
within this harmonic area for several bars, Hancock suddenly shifts to the altered
dominant mode for a whole six bars and then back to Fm7. The substantial harmonic
pull of the altered mode back towards the tonic creates an extremely effective and
characteristic degree of harmonic tension across these six bars, which is greatly
enhanced by the continued outlining of Fm7 by the rhythm section. This tension is
then resolved with the return to F minor. The resulting effect is extremely colourful.
This is shown in Example 2.
Hancocks second altered mode/chord approach occurs when soloing on a shifting
harmonic base. As the rhythm section moves from one chord to the next (most
typically on minor seventh modalities), Hancock will anticipate the second of the two
chords by superimposing its altered dominant over the first. A clear example of this
idea can be heard in his piano solo on Stanley Clarkes composition Tony, from
drummer Tony Williamss 1979 album The Joy of Flying. Though an acoustic piano
solo, this performance is within a jazz-funk context and Hancocks playing here
exhibits many of the traits of his Rhodes style. Example 3 shows an extract from this
solo. The harmonic foundation moves at two-bar intervals between Gm7 and Dm7.
In bar 7 of this extract, Hancock effectively creates a IVVI progression in D minor
by using the A altered mode. Coupled with the use of the chromatic scale on the final
beat of this bar and with the fact that the rhythm section remains in G minor, the
phrase is again especially colourful. As with the previous example from Butterfly,
Hancocks use of the altered mode here creates a strong sense of harmonic tension
that is then resolved.
18 The altered mode is derived from the dominant seventh chord, with every possible pitch altered that
allows it to still maintain its dominant characteristics (i.e., retaining the major third and minor seventh).
The alterations are thus: flattened ninth; sharpened ninth; sharpened eleventh; and flattened thirteenth.
Because the sharpened eleventh is essentially a diminished fifth, the perfect fifth is most often omitted.
The resulting mode can be enharmonically described as the seventh mode of the melodic minor scale,
hence the C altered mode is an equivalent to Db melodic minor.
Jazz Perspectives 65
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One more example of this second altered mode/chord approach can be heard in
No Means Yes from Sunlight. In the passage that begins around 2:37, the bass line
moves up by step each bar, with the chord sequence moving G#7susA#m7B7susand then reaching an arrival point of C#m7 on the fourth bar. Hancock remainsentirely within these structural harmonies for all except the second half of the third
bar, where he creates two beats of harmonic tension by moving to a G# altered modebefore resolving cadentially by fifth to C#m7. This last phrase is shown in Example 4.
Further use of implied cadential movement can be found in Hancocks Fender
Rhodes playing in his title music for the film Death Wish (1974). Much of the
performance is based around an eight-bar bass riff, which is made up of two repeated
two-bar phrases, with a two-chord oscillating harmonic structure. Example 5 shows
the two chords around which this main harmonic motive is based. The voicings
shown in the treble staff are intended to illustrate the underlying harmonic
progression between these two chords, with the E, G, and Bb pitches of the E half-
diminished chord essentially forming a series of suspensions against the root D which
are then resolved to D major. Another way of interpreting this harmonic area could
Example 2
66 Herbie Hancocks 1970s Fender Rhodes Solos
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be as Asusb9/D, again implying a strong cadential pull towards the tonic. This simple
repeated motive itself is therefore based around a sense of harmonic tension and
release.
Example 6 shows an extract from Hancocks solo over this harmonic base. This
example illustrates how far outside of the structural harmony Hancock frequently
plays, whilst maintaining a clear sense of harmonic progression and purpose. The
first two notes Hancock plays in this passage are D# and C#, each a semitone eitherside of the root note D played in the bass and so creating an instant sense of dissonant
tension. This leads to a rising scale in E major, against the D major clearly outlined in
the bass line. The tension induced by this bitonality is heightened by the rising shape
of the phrase. This tension peaks halfway through the first beat of bar 2 and from this
point on the overall shape of the phrase is falling, contributing to a sense of gradual
release. However, even once Hancock falls back within the structural harmony at
bar 3, this is at the point where this harmony itself implies a sense of tension and so
the lack of clear resolution maintains a strong sense of progression and movement.
The tension that Hancock creates in this passage can be interpreted by how each
implied harmonic area relates to the tonic D major. The passage begins firmly outside
of D major, with the E-major scale creating a strong sense of dissonant tension across
box [1] in Example 6. The harmonic area that follows at [2] can be perceived in two
ways. This moment can be viewed in relation to the E major that preceded it, where
these pitches act as Am7. As such, there is an implied cadential resolution by fifth
here. These pitches can also be understood in relation to the D major tonic as
constituents of D7sus, thus exerting a harmonic pull towards the tonic. At [3], when
considered with the pitches immediately preceding it, the C# on the second
Example 3
Example 4
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sixteenth-note of the fourth beat of bar 2 can be taken to belong to A7, thus also
exerting a strong cadential pull towards the tonic. All the pitches of bars 3-6 (except a
chromatic G#) belong to the E half-diminished structural harmony at this point, and
this too exerts a harmonic pull towards D major. Example 7 shows how after the
initial E major emphasis, each harmonic area creates a harmonic pull towards D
major, thereby creating a continuing harmonic tension that is gradually released
but not fully resolvedby the falling phrase structure.
The natural resolution of the Bb that this phrase comes to rest on at the last sixteenth-
note of bar 5 would move down a half-step to the A of D major at bar 7. Hancock does
not provide such an obvious resolution, and although the pitches he uses in bar 7 all
belong to D major, the avoidance of resolution on the first beat of the bar, the emphasis
on the ninth (E), and the rising shape of the phrase all contribute to a continued lack of
clear resolution that helps to maintain a constant sense of momentum.
The sophistication of Hancocks concept of harmonic tension and release within
his solos can be seen on a broader leveli.e., in relation to the harmonic structure of
the piece as a wholein his Rhodes solo on the track Sly, from Head Hunters. The
overall harmonic structure of Sly is as follows:
Example 5
Example 6
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As can be seen, the majority of the piece is based around E minor, with two brief moves to
Bb7 (which lies a tritone away) at the end of the first head and the end of the Rhodes solo.
Sly features one of Hancocks most sophisticated and masterful Rhodes solos. Paul
Jackson plays the same two-bar bass riff with little embellishment throughout the E minor
section of the solo, and so the first 3 minutes and 43 seconds of Hancocks 3-minute-and-
55-second solo are over a static harmonic backdrop. The degree of harmonic and
rhythmic tension and release that Hancock creates in this solo is astonishing. To illustrate
one aspect of this, Example 8 shows the opening bars of the solo.
The structural harmony of the opening bars shown in Example 8 is firmly rooted in E
minorby both the combination of Paul Jacksons bass line and the harmonic
expectations induced upon the listener by the previous compositional structureand
yet for the first eight bars of Hancocks solo he plays entirely outside of this harmonic
area. This sense of harmonic tension is released at bar 9 with a clear resolution to E
minor (this point of arrival is emphasised by the resolution from the superimposed
altered dominant). What is so significant about this passage is that the mode with which
Hancock chooses to set up this bitonality is Bb Mixolydian, clearly implying the Bb7
harmonic area on which the solo will end. This illustrates the broad-scale vision behind
Hancocks concept of tension and release. In this case, he begins the solo with a high
degree of harmonic tension and simultaneously creates a deeper sense of structure by
pre-empting the harmony of the solos end. When this Bb7 portion of the solo is finally
reached at 9:08, Hancock plays almost entirely inside this harmony, thus maintaining a
sense of release. In a manner similar to the Death Wish example (Example 6 above), this
inside playing is within a structural harmony that itself creates a degree of harmonic
tension, so definitive release is achieved with the return to the E minor head at 9:29.
Rhythmic Characteristics
The theorist Keith Waters has written that one high point of metric sophistication
and subtlety within the traditional jazz framework may be found in the piano solos of
HEAD E minor 0:001:35Bb7 1:351:52
TRANSITION 1:522:03SOPRANO SOLO E minor 2:035:16TRANSITION 5:165:25RHODES SOLO E minor 5:259:08
Bb7 9:089:20TRANSITION 9:209:29HEAD E minor 9:2910:20
Example 7
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Herbie Hancock, especially during his tenure with the Miles Davis Quintet and as a
leader during the 1960s.19 This observation is indisputable, but Hancock continues
to maintain his metric sophistication in his solos outside of the traditional jazz
framework, with rhythmic displacement remaining a fundamental feature of all of his
Fender Rhodes work.
Example 9 shows an extract from one of Hancocks earliest Rhodes solos, on
Freddie Hubbards Red Clay, recorded in January 1970. The right-hand line from
the second beat of bar 1 to the first beat of bar 2 is a rising sequence based on a three-
note motif. Each note is given an equal rhythmic value (at the sixteenth-note level),
and the way in which Hancocks phrasing emphasises the first note of each three-note
grouping clearly implies a three-against-two cross rhythm against the duple beat of
the rhythm section. These three-note cells are annotated in Example 9. Another
important stylistic point to note here is how Hancock continues the rising sequence
into the first beat of the next bar, where he remains in C# minor despite the chord
change to B minor. This choice creates a degree of harmonic tension in the use of a
D#, which is released on the second beat of the bar by resolving to D-natural. This
Example 8
19 Waters, Blurring the Barline, 19.
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resolution is another clear example of Hancocks expressive use of dissonance and
harmonic tension and release.
Further examples of metrical sophistication can be seen in the extract from Hop
Scotch, shown in Example 10. The rising phrase from the third beat of bar 1 to the
first beat of bar 3 moves from rhythmically consonant four-note groupings to
dissonant three-note groupings, as annotated. This example clearly illustrates how
tension and release is as equally important a concept rhythmically in Hancocks
Rhodes solos as it is harmonically. As with many of the harmonic examples, Hancock
here introduces a sense of tension through a rising phrase, which he subsequently
resolves.
Another clear example of Hancocks application of tension and release through
cross rhythms can be seen in Example 11, which shows the final bars of his solo on
the track People Music from Secrets (1976). This extract shows rhythmic
variation on a basic motif, which is built on two-, three-, and four-note subphrase
note groupings. The basic four-note unit is a stepwise descent from E to B (E, D,
C#, B). The two-note unit uses just the two outer pitches (E, B). The three-noteunit omits the last of the four pitches (leaving E, D, C#). A further rhythmicvariation is created by displacing the strong beat of the four-note unit by moving it
forward by a sixteenth note. The order in which the rhythmic variations are applied
creates a clear sense of ever-shifting metrical tension, thereby heightening the sense
of climax to the solo before the release is achieved with the entry of the ensemble
parts at the end of bar 3. In its overall design, the passage begins with the
rhythmically consonant two- and four-note units, before the tension is increased
with the displaced four-note unit, leading to the rhythmically dissonant three-
note unit.
Example 9. Red Clay composed by Freddie Hubbard. Reproduced by kind permissionof Hubtones Music Co.
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Example 12 shows an example of right-hand compound melody from the Rhodes
solo from Sly. In Example 13, this passage has been renotated so that the first
sounding of each pitch of the compound melody falls on the first beat of a bar to
reveal a cross-rhythm first in 5/8 and then 3/4. Each of the first four pitches of the
compound melody is exactly five sixteenth notes apart, thus resulting in a complex
cross rhythm within straight 4/4 time, and an effect that induces a strong sense of
rhythmic tension. The remaining part of the phrase is divided into two subsections
phrased in a 3/4 meter. The first of these subsections represents a relaxation of the
phrase rhythm as only one pitch of the compound melody is sounded. The second
represents a final intensification, with the final pitches of the compound melody
sounded on each of the three beats.
Weak-beat emphasis is another technique that Hancock employs, and an example
of this can be seen in bar 4 of Example 9, from the previously discussed Red Clay
solo. The bar is made up entirely of equal sixteenth notes, but with the first sixteenth
note omitted. This design creates a sense of syncopation and it gives the first note
(E#) a strong upbeat character. As with all the solos studied in this essay, the
underlying rhythm beneath the solo is based on straight eighths. The second and
fourth notes of beats divided into sixteenth notes are therefore offbeats to these
straight eighths.
In its emphasis on weak beats (particularly by beginning phrases on them),
Hancocks playing brings strong jazz phrasing characteristics to funk contexts. In his
study of the Head Hunters album, Steven Pond discusses the characteristics of funk:
Funk is dance music, and it is designed to make the body move. Funk rhythms tendto favor stable ostinatos, or grooves (frequently called funk grooves, or dancegrooves). Dance groove is both a structure and a quality. Structurally, the ostinato isbuilt to coordinate with funk dance steps, i.e., of one- or two-measure duration,with a strong downbeat gesture (on beat one) and a secondary backbeat gesture (on
Example 10
Example 11
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beat three). Qualitatively in funk, an ostinato is transformed to a dance groove (orfunk groove) by its success at putting bodies onto the dance floor.20
A key contrast between jazz and funk aesthetics is the shift in fundamental rhythmic
emphasis. As Pond describes above, in funk the emphasis is on the one, with a secondary
emphasis on three. With the traditional swing rhythm in jazz, in 4/4 time, the two and
the four are emphasised (i.e., the offbeats). In his solos, Hancock moves rhythmically
between these two aesthetics (with his use of weak-beat emphasis stylistically linking
with the latter). In the majority of the examples studied in this essay, Hancocks backings
retain an emphasis on the first and third beats of the bar, heightening the juxtaposition
when Hancock himself moves away from this in his Rhodes soloing.
Example 14 shows the opening phrase of Hancocks Rhodes solo from People
Music. This brief passage shows three examples of weak-beat emphases within the
space of two bars. The phrase starts on the fourth sixteenth note of the third beat of
the bar (point [a]); it peaks on the fourth sixteenth note of the fourth beat of the bar
(point [b]); and it continues by omitting the first sixteenth note of the following bar
(point [c]), and so emphasises the following weak beat. Particularly significant are
those notes that appear as upbeats to the strongest beats of the bar (beats one and
three), where those beats themselves are then absent. The E at the end of the first bar
in Example 14 is an example of this. This moment gives a sense of anticipation of the
beat in the Rhodes solo when set against the normative pulse of the rhythm section, a
detail that provides a strong sense of forward momentum to the solo. Another
example of this approach can be seen in the transition section from No Means Yes
(see Example 4), where the resolution to C#m7 (after the harmonic tension induced
by the superimposed altered dominant) arrives a sixteenth note early. In this latter
solo, the effect of this form of rhythmic displacement is further enhanced by its use at
a harmonic arrival point. A similar strategy can be seen in the extract from Hancocks
Butterfly solo in Example 2, wherein the same waythe resolution from the
superimposed altered dominant arrives a sixteenth note before the strong beat (i.e.,
the first beat of bar 8). The three most common rhythmic units for creating a sense of
Example 12
Example 13
20 Pond, Herbie Hancocks Head Hunters, 103.
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weak-beat emphasis are shown in Example 15. In each case, the arrows mark the
emphasised weak beats.
Another variation on this rhythmic displacement can be typically seen at points
where harmonic resolution at the end of phrases is achieved a sixteenth note or
eighth note after the strong beat. This strategy essentially forms a suspension effect.
Examples of this can be seen at the first beat of bar 3 in Example 10, and at the first
beat of bar 8 in Example 3.
Example 16 shows a right-hand line in Hancocks Rhodes solo from Come Running
to Me (from Sunlight). In this example, the dissonance of the off-beat rhythms used
in the first half of the bar is resolved with the consonant, straight sixteenth-note run
of the second half of the bar. As with so many aspects of Hancocks Rhodes solos, the
fundamental underlying concept is one of tension and release.
As noted above, in reference to Hancocks performance of Heartbeat, Stuart
Nicholson suggested that if there were element[s] of jazz improvisation present
in this recording, then they must have been locked into a rhythmic straitjacket that
could not help but diminish its emotional force. It could be argued that the opposite
is in fact true. It is characteristic of funk music that the rhythm remains more stable
and less open to augmentation and development than that of modern jazz, but this
underlying jazz-funk juxtaposition places all aspects of Hancocks Rhodes solos in
sharper relief against their backings and, as such, intensifies the emotional force of
the harmonic and rhythmic complexities that Hancock juxtaposes against the
stability provided by his rhythm section. In a 1979 interview, Hancock said: In the
popular forms like funk, which Ive been trying to get into, the attention is on the
interplay of rhythm between different instruments. Its almost like African drummers
Example 14
Example 15
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where seven drummers play different parts. 21 In Hancocks music, this sensibility
translates to the highly specific rhythmic roles given to the crucial duties of the electric
bass and drums, and to a slightly lesser extent percussion, rhythm guitars, and
additional keyboards. The woven, interlocking rhythms create a solid base for Hancock
to both solo against and interact with. In the same way that the strength of the rhythm
places Hancocks own rhythmic and harmonic developments in relief against such
foundational textures, so it also serves to emphasise the tension created by the rhythm
instruments on the occasions when they do step outside of their role and interact
more closely with Hancock. Heartbeat itself is a good example of this aesthetic. At
the opening of Hancocks Rhodes solo (2:01) there are five rhythm parts (electric bass,
drums, two rhythm guitars, processed voice), with each playing two-bar repeated
phrases thatadded togethercreate a solid and stable rhythmic backing for Hancock
to build his solo over. This backing remains largely the same until the harmonic shift at
3:16, where the guitars and processed voice cut out and congas have come in. The
rhythm is intense throughout and this intensity is heightened at the points when
drummer Mike Clark breaks from his rhythmic role for short periods and engages in a
rhythmic dialogue with Hancock. Examples of this can be heard at 3:253:35, at 3:47
3:53, and most clearly at 3:594:11. A similar exchange can be seen in drummer Harvey
Masons interaction with Hancock in the Sly solo. In this latter case, Mason makes
subtle rhythmic alterations all the way through the solo, whilst maintaining the
fundamental propulsion of the beat, and with bassist Paul Jackson and Hancocks own
overdubbed clavinet part each remaining constant. From 8:50 though, Mason engages
more closely with Hancock, heightening the rhythmic tension before the significant
harmonic shift from E minor to Bb7 at 9:08.
Example 17 shows a dramatic example of rhythmic tension induced by close
interaction between Hancock and his rhythm section. This example comes from the
Rhodes solo of No Means Yes. Hancock and Mason link closely on a series of repeated
hits, which Mason punctuates with the simultaneous use of the crash cymbal and bass
drum (annotated with arrows on Example 17). Jackson obviously plays against this, but
the larger point is that all three players work against the metric stability that has been
established by the rhythm section up to this point. This approach creates a strong sense
of rhythmic tension and shows how the jazz and funk elements are constantly kept in
balance, with the jazz sense of improvised rhythmic interaction at this point
contrasting strongly with the funk sense of metric stability of previously in the solo.
Example 16
21 Interview with Bret Primack, quoted in Mark Gilberts CD liner notes to Herbie Hancock, Man-Child,
Sony 9563, 2003, compact disc (originally CBS 33812, 1975, LP).
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Conclusion
As demonstrated above, Herbie Hancocks Fender Rhodes solos of the 1970s offer
advanced and progressive jazz improvisation of the highest order. Hancock innovated by
bringing strong elements of jazz tradition to funk contexts and by using this juxtaposition
to develop a new soloistic language that has strongly influenced later generations of jazz
performers. In turn, these performances set a high water mark for harmonic development
over an often static harmonic base. Tension and release is the most significant underlying
concept both to the harmonic and rhythmic aspects of these solos and Hancocks playing
from this period shows a development of the techniques for outside harmonic playing
and metric displacement that had been characteristic of his 1960s acoustic piano
playing, taking these approaches to new levels of sophistication and musicality.
Abstract
Herbie Hancocks Fender Rhodes electric piano solos of the 1970s, recorded primarily
within the jazz-funk contexts of his Headhunters band and other projects (on albums
such as Head Hunters, Flood, Man-Child, and others), represent a high-point of
improvisation over groove-based forms. These solos built on the developments of
Hancocks piano work from the 1960s to reach new heights of harmonic and rhythmic
sophistication. Predominantly in riff-driven settings based on a single harmonic area or
few chord changes, he masterfully balanced elements of tension and release over this, with
elaborate harmonic development and rhythmic modulation juxtaposed against his
harmonically and metrically stable backings, drawing on both jazz and funk aesthetics.
This article explores these solos from an analytical perspective, aiming to identify specific
harmonic and rhythmic devices and shed new light on this period of Hancocks output.
Example 17
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APPENDIX 1 Significant Fender Rhodes solos by Herbie Hancock
APPENDIX 2 Discography
Herbie Hancock as leader (all albums 19691983):
Herbie Hancock, The Prisoner, Blue Note 84321, 1969, LP; reissued as Blue Note
5456492, 2001, compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, Fat Albert Rotunda, Warner Bros. 1834, 1974, LP; reissued as WEA
12751, 2007, compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, Mwandishi, Warner Bros. 1898, 1971, LP; reissued as WEA 12752,
2007, compact disc.
Recording timingRed Clay (Hubbard), on Freddie Hubbard, Red Clay, rec. January
27, 19704:346:30
Sleeping Giant (Hancock), on Herbie Hancock, Crossings, rec.February 1972
2:297:25
Scorpio-Libra (Henderson), on Eddie Henderson, Realization,rec. February 1973
6:159:52
Chameleon (Hancock, Jackson, Mason, Maupin), on HerbieHancock, Headhunters, rec. October 1973
8:3113:09
Sly (Hancock), on Herbie Hancock, Headhunters, rec. October1973
5:249:29
Butterfly (Hancock, Maupin), on Herbie Hancock, Thrust, rec.August 1974
4:319:10
Hop Scotch (Mason), on Harvey Mason, Marching in the Street,rec. April-June 1975
1:373:32
Butterfly (Hancock, Maupin), on Herbie Hancock, Flood, rec.June 28 or July 1, 1975
2:519:52
Hang Up Your Hang Ups (Hancock, Jackson, Ragin), on HerbieHancock, Flood, rec. June 28 or July 1, 1975
13:4519:01
Heartbeat (Hancock, Jackson, Ragin), on Herbie Hancock,ManChild, released 1975
2:014:36
People Music (Hancock, Jackson, Ragin), on Herbie Hancock,Secrets, released 1976
4:044:50
Come Running to Me (Hancock, Willis), on Herbie Hancock,Sunlight, released 1978
3:244:32
No Means Yes (Hancock), on Herbie Hancock, Sunlight, released1978
3:305:18
Butterfly (Hancock, Maupin), on Eddie Henderson, Mahal,released 1978
3:254:42
Amoroso (Maupin), on Eddie Henderson, Mahal, released 1978 4:134:44Butterfly (Hancock, Maupin), on Herbie Hancock, Directstep,
rec. October 17 or 18, 19782:443:54
Just Around the Corner (Hancock, Ragin, Washington), onHerbie Hancock, Mr. Hands, released 1980
2:576:41
Shiftless Shuffle (Hancock, Maupin, Mason, Jackson, Summers),on Herbie Hancock, Mr. Hands, released 1980*
1:195:05
Magic Number (Hancock, Cohen, Rubinson), on HerbieHancock, Magic Windows, released 1981
4:386:18
* This track is likely to have been recorded in 1973 alongside the original Head Hunters material
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Herbie Hancock, Crossings, Warner Bros. 2617, 1972, LP; reissued as WEA 12753,
2007, compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, Sextant, Columbia CK 32212, 1973, LP; reissued as Columbia/
Legacy 64983, 1998, compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, Head Hunters, CBS 32731, 1974, LP; reissued as Sony Jazz 65123,
1993, compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, Dedication, CBS/Sony 165, 1974, LP; reissued as Sony 9342, 1997,
compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, Thrust, Columbia 32965, 1974, LP; reissued as Sony International
86568, 1999, compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, Death Wish Soundtrack, CBS 33199, 1974, LP; reissued as Sony
International 491981, 2003, compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, Flood, Columbia [unknown number], 1975, LP; reissued as
Columbia/Legacy 987084, 2006, compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, Man-Child, CBS 33812, 1975, LP; reissued as Sony 9563, 2003,
compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, Secrets, Columbia 34280, 1976, LP; reissued as Sony/BMG 724836,
2008, compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, V.S.O.P., Columbia 434688, 1977, LP; reissued as Sony Jazz
4865692, 1997, compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, V.S.O.P.: The Quintet, Columbia 34976, 1977, LP; reissued as Sony
Japan 9654, 2001, compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, Sunlight, Columbia 9654, 1978, LP; reissued as Sony International
486570, 2001, compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, Directstep, Columbia 3653S, 1979, LP; reissued as Sony
International SRCS 9503, 1998, compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, The Piano, Columbia 1033, 1979, LP; reissued as Sony Jazz 87083,
2004, compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, Feets Dont Fail Me Now, Columbia 35764, 1979, LP; reissued as
Sony International 35764, 2001, compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, VSOP-Live Under the Sky, Columbia 875, 1979, LP; reissued as Sony
10077, 2007, compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, Mr. Hands, Columbia 36578, 1980, LP; reissued as Sony
International 471240, 2001, compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, Monster, Columbia 35415, 1980, LP; reissued as Sony International
486571, 2001, compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, Magic Windows, Columbia 37387, 1981, LP; reissued as Sony
International 486572, 2001 compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, Lite Me Up, Columbia 32474, 1982, LP; reissued as Sony
International 486573, 2001, compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, Future Shock, Columbia 25540, 1983, LP; reissued as Sony Jazz
4712372, 1994, compact disc.
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Other albums cited:
George Benson, Give Me the Night, Warner Bros. 3453, 1980, LP; reissued as Warner
Bros. 75371, 2008, compact disc.
John Coltrane, A Love Supreme, Impulse! A77, 1964, LP; reissued as Impulse!
001097002, 2008, compact disc.
Norman Connors, Dance of Magic, Cobblestone CST 9024, 1973, LP; reissued
Norman Connors, Dark of Light/Dance of Magic, Sequel MEM CD 683, 1995,
compact disc.
Miles Davis, Kind of Blue, Columbia 8163, 1959, LP; reissued as Sony 88697282382,
2008, compact disc.
Miles Davis, Miles Davis Quintet, 19651968, Columbia 516252, 2004, compact disc.
Miles Davis, Miles in the Sky, Columbia CS 9628, 1968, LP; reissue included on Miles
Davis, Miles Davis Quintet 19651968, Columbia 516252, 2004, compact disc.
Herbie Hancock, Perfect Machine, Sony 65960, 2000 (orig. release 1988), compact
disc.
Herbie Hancock, Future2Future, Transparent Music 50011, 2001, compact disc.
Eddie Henderson, Realization, Capricorn 0118, 1973, LP; reissued on Eddie
Henderson, Anthology, vol. 2, The Capricorn Years: Realization/Inside Out,
Soul Brother CDSBPJ 11, 2005, compact disc.
Eddie Henderson, Mahal, 1978, Capitol E-ST 11846, 1978 (deleted), LP; reissued on
Eddie Henderson, Anthology, vol. 1, Soul Brother CDSBPJ-3, 2005, compact disc.
Freddie Hubbard, Red Clay, CTI 6001, 1970, LP; reissued as King 8209, 2000,
compact disc.
Quincy Jones, The Dude, Mercury 95028, 2005 (orig. release 1980), compact disc.
Harvey Mason, Marching in the Street, 1975, Arista 4054, 1975, LP; reissued as Sinless
682084, 2006, compact disc.
Bennie Maupin, The Jewel in the Lotus, ECM 1043, 1974, LP; reissued as ECM
1723520, 2007, compact disc.
Tony Williams, The Joy of Flying, Columbia 35705, 1979, LP; reissued as Sony 65473,
1997, compact disc.
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Recommended