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DEMOGRAPHICSDEMOGRAPHICS “Turning point”–
population from 120 Million in 1700 to 190 Million in 1790
Due to declining death rate
Higher birth rate Better transportation Better food supply,
weather, end of plague
Still very unsanitary
THE FAMILYTHE FAMILY
Family was still the core of social organization
The nuclear family was the norm in western Europe
Children worked in urban and rural families (“Family economy)
Late marriages still common (Father often selected mate)
After 1750 illegitimacy increased
Birth control was in use to limit # of children (Coitus Interruptus)
NEW VIEWS ON CHILDHOODNEW VIEWS ON CHILDHOOD
In the second half of the eighteenth century, traditional views on childhood changed
Rousseau’s book, Emile, and increasing survival rates of infants led to the view of childhood as a phase in human development
CHILDREN VIEWED AS KIDSCHILDREN VIEWED AS KIDS
Part of the new view included an increase in breast-feeding, a change in children’s clothing, a rise in games, puzzles, and toys
For most Europeans however (peasants), children were still a source of anxiety
Infanticide still practiced and foundling homes were overcrowded
THE AGRICULTURAL THE AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONREVOLUTION
During this period, food production increased due to four factors: more cultivated land, increased yield, healthier and more plentiful livestock, and a better climate
Jethro Tull realized hoeing allowed plants to grow better; he also developed a seed drill
Who is this?
JETHRO TULL UTILIZED THE HOE TO AIR-RATE PLANTS
AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONAGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION As a result of the
Columbian Exchange maize and potatoes were introduced
Enclosure resulted when a landowner bought up smaller farms and combined them into one larger property
Land replenished by nitrogen rich crops like alfalfa, turnips, clover (No more fallow land)
England led the way
THE SOCIAL ORDER
Grand Tour: A trip through Europe for educational purposes, undertaken by the sons of the nobility
Poverty was still rampant, with as much as 15-20% of Venice suspected as beggars
It was now argued that charity to beggars merely encouraged them
Guilds still played a large role in city industry
THE GRAND TOUR WAS PART OF THE EDUCATION OF THE ELITE
THE SOCIAL THE SOCIAL STRUCTURESTRUCTURE
Still hierarchy and “estates” (France)
Critique by philosophes but distrust of masses
Economic developments provide impetus for future changes
Resurgence of aristocracy and slow rise of middle class
ARISTOCRACYARISTOCRACY Privileges and
exemptions (wealth varied)
Strongest in Eastern Europe
Economic activities The “country
house” (England) Development of
public/private areas
PEASANTSPEASANTS 85% of population Free and unfree Tithes, taxes, duties,
labor Eastern Europe and
great estates Villages--center of life Parasitic relation with
town Diet of peasants Rebellions--Pugachev
Revolt
TOWNS AND TOWNS AND BOURGEOISIEBOURGEOISIE
More important in Western Europe
Huge growth of cities Migration from
countryside to urban areas
Patrician oligarchies Middle class diversity Petty bourgeoisie Artisans & guilds Unskilled laborers Unhealthy conditions Poverty and begging
EDUCATIONEDUCATION “Stale” universities--
Greek and Latin were considered old-fashioned by philosophes
“Elitist” secondary schools reinforced hierarchy
Realschule were more practical centers for education
EDUCATIONEDUCATION Grammar schools
and government sponsorship--Volkschule (Protestant. v. Catholic)
University of Gottingen and Univ. of Edinburgh were exceptional schools PRIMARY EDUCATION WAS
ENCOURAGED AFTER 1750
Crime and Crime and PunishmentPunishment
Decline in violent crime rateMore property crimesPublic executions, torture, exileLegal and penal reformsCesare Beccaria: anti-death
penalty reformerHumanitarianism
MEDICINE AND HEALTHMEDICINE AND HEALTH
Professionalization of medicine finally arrives
Physicians more clinical, e.g., at University of Leiden
Below the physicans were surgeons, separate from barbers but still bleed--Royal College of Surgeons licensed doctors
OTHER MEDICAL OTHER MEDICAL PRACTITIONERSPRACTITIONERS
Other practitioners included apothecaries, faith healers, and midwives who primarily served commoners especially in rural areas
Hospital “reform” and hygiene remained in its infancy – most hospitals were filthy
Folk medicine, faith healers, midwives were still active
POPULAR CULTUREPOPULAR CULTURE Festivals & Carnival
were group activities Eating, drinking, sex,
aggression -- excess “World turned upside
down” Reinforce hierarchy but
violence Taverns—vodka (Russia)
& gin (England)
CARNIVALS WERE IMPORTANT SOCIAL RITUALS
WHEN ELITE & POP MERGEWHEN ELITE & POP MERGE
Divergence of elite and popular
However, “Commercialization of leisure” brought elite and popular culture together
Bloodsports; bullbaiting & bearbaiting, cockfighting
Chapbooks (cheap books- crude satires & adventure stories) & almanacs BEARBAITING
PUBLISHING AND LITERACYPUBLISHING AND LITERACY
More books, magazines, newspapers
Spectator & female audiencesIncrease in literacyDevelopment of public opinionPopularization of New Science among middle class
Coffeehouses
THE PHILOSOPHESAs a result of religious
warfare and conflict, philosophes took a skeptical stance toward religion, rejecting traditional Christianity.
Enlightenment: a movement to understand and improve society based on the principles of the Scientific Revolution.
PHILOSOPHES LOOK INWARDPHILOSOPHES LOOK INWARD
The realization, through travel literature, that there were advanced civilizations besides their own, forced Europeans to turn a critical eye to their civilization.
Locke and Newton served as inspirations for the Enlightenment.
JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704)JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704)
Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)—tabula rasa
Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1689)--childhood
Two Treatises on Government (1690)—individual rights, limited government
Empiricist, defender of natural rights & revolution, beginner of the Enlightenment
LOCKEAN QUESTIONSLOCKEAN QUESTIONS
What qualities of an object would appear the same and appear to different to everyone?
What is meant by sensation and reflection?
How can natural law be used to justify individual rights?
What are the social implications of tabula rasa?
DAVID HUME (1711-1776)DAVID HUME (1711-1776) Scottish Enlightenment Radical empiricist—Treatise
on Human Nature (1748) Agnostic—On Miracles A beloved and tolerant
skeptic “Reason is and ought to be
a slave to the passions…” Hume’s Fork: “you can’t get
an ‘ought’ from an ‘is’…”
HUMEAN QUESTIONSHUMEAN QUESTIONS
How can we be sure that we have a continuous personal identity?
Do humans really experience natural laws, such as cause and effect?
Would it be reasonable to “prefer the scratching of one’s nose to the destruction of the world”?
THE GENIUS OF KANTTHE GENIUS OF KANT(1724-1804)(1724-1804)
Life of an orderly bachelor What is Enlightenment?
(1784)—”dare know & think for yourself!”
Critique of Pure Reason—constructivism
Combines empiricism with “categories of understanding” (our perceptive glasses)
Deontological ethics and “categorical imperative”
KANTIAN QUESTIONSKANTIAN QUESTIONS Can I experience
anything outside of time and space? Can I know objects in themselves?
How would I act if I willed my actions to become a universal law?
Was the 18th century an “enlightened age”? Is today? Why or why not?
THE “SMILE OF REASON” THE “SMILE OF REASON” VOLTAIRE 1694-1778VOLTAIRE 1694-1778
Man of wit, charm, satire Deist and hater of
organized religion—Calas Affair (1762)
Philosophical Dictionary, Candide, History of Louis XIV
Prison, exile, risk-taking, shifting reputation
ENLIGHTENMENT PRINCIPLESENLIGHTENMENT PRINCIPLES
1. Society is governed by natural laws.
2. These laws can be discovered through reason.
3. Society can turn from traditional and authoritarian forms and customs to a more perfect government and society based on reason.
MONTESQUIEU AND POLI SCI 101MONTESQUIEU AND POLI SCI 101
Protestant judge in parlement—wanted to limit absolutism
Persian Letters (1721) Spirit of the Laws
(1748) “checks and
balances”—influence on U.S. Constitution
NOT a democrat!
CESARE BECCARIA AND CESARE BECCARIA AND HUMANITARIANISM 1738-1794HUMANITARIANISM 1738-1794
Legal scholar and Italian jurist
On Crimes and Punishments
Called for legal and penal reform
What was the traditional function of laws and punishment?
Which works better: vengeance or rehabilitation?
ADAM SMITH: FATHER OF ADAM SMITH: FATHER OF CAPITALISM (1723-1790)CAPITALISM (1723-1790)
Influence of Quesnay and Physiocrats
Theory of Moral Sentiments
Wealth of Nations (1776)
Supply and demand, invisible hand, free trade, laissez-faire, attack on mercantilism
J.J. ROUSSEAU ROCKS THE J.J. ROUSSEAU ROCKS THE HOUSE (1712-1778)HOUSE (1712-1778)
Lower-middle class, broken family, barmaid wife, abandoned children
“Noble Savage,” “cult of sentiment,” morality
Social Contract, Emile, La Nouvelle Heloise, The Confessions
Persona non grata Attitude toward women
ROUSSEAN QUESTIONSROUSSEAN QUESTIONS
Are humans corrupted by society?
Did the Enlightenment overuse reason?
How might Rousseau have influenced the French Revolution?
Was Rousseau a hypocrite?
MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT AND MODERN FEMINISMAND MODERN FEMINISM
A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1791)—feminist manifesto
On the Education of Girls
Married to radical William Godwin
Mother of Mary Shelley (Frankenstein)
WOLLSTONECRAFT 1759-1797
FEMINIST QUESTIONSFEMINIST QUESTIONS
How does an equal education for girls help society?
How does equality change the household, society, and politics?
RADICAL ENLIGHTENMENTRADICAL ENLIGHTENMENT
Baron d’Holbach (1723-89)—determinism and materialism
Marquis de Condorcet (1743-94)—theory of history as progressive change, died during Reign of Terror (ordering omelet)
ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM?ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM?
Frederick II, “the Great” of Prussia (174-86)
Catherine I, “the Great” of Russia (1762-96)
Joseph II of Austria (1765-90)
Maria Theresa? (1740-80) How enlightened were
they? What kinds of policies did
they pursue?
FRANKLIN’S WISDOMFRANKLIN’S WISDOM“A stitch in time saves nine.”“Early to bed and early to rise makes a
man healthy, wealthy, and wise.”“Little strokes fell great oaks.”“A penny saved is a penny earned.”“God helps those that help themselves.”“He is ill-clothed who is bare of virtue.”“The heart of the fool is in his mouth; but
the mouth of the wise man is in his heart.”
THE AMERICAN ENLIGHTENMENTTHE AMERICAN ENLIGHTENMENT
Benjamin Franklin & a “useful life”—Autobiography & retirement
Accomplishments—Albany Plan, fire company, post office, U. of Penn., hospital, Junto, magazine, T. of Paris, Dec. of Indep., Constit. Conv., electricity, inventions
Jefferson, Paine (deism), and others
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