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Teacher Education Quarterly, Spring 2014
Reacting to the Script:Teach for America Teachers’ Experiences
with Scripted Curricula
By Nicole Mittenfelner Carl
Introduction
FormerSuperintendentArleneAckerman’sdeparturefromtheSchoolDistrictofPhiladelphiaaswellasalossofapproximately320milliondollarscreatedanatmosphereof“needingtodomorewithless”asthe2011-2012schoolyearbeganinPhiladelphia(Herold,2011).AsthefaceofeducationinPhiladelphia’spublicschoolschangesinresponsetobudgetconstraintsandpolitics,currentTeachForAmerica(TFA)corpsmembers’roleshavealsochanged.In2003,TFAplaced160corpsmembersinPhiladelphia,andsincethenTFAhasapproximately300corpsmembersteachingintheregioneachyear(TeachForAmerica[TFA],2012,GreaterPhiladelphia).ThePhiladelphiaPublicSchoolNotebookdescribestheeffectoftherecentbudgetcutsonTFAteachers:“Amongthemorethan1,200teacherslaidoffbytheDistrictduetocutbackswere85ofthe90second-yearTFAcorpsmembers”(Mezzacappa,2011).Themajorityofthesesecond-yearTFAcorpsmembershavebeenrelocatedfromschooldistricttocharter-managedschools,manyofwhichhaveadoptedscriptedcurricula(J.Lytle,personalcommunication,September28,2011).WhiletheSchoolDistrictofPhiladelphiaannouncedinFebruaryof2012thattheywillnolongermandatetheimplementationofscriptedcurricula(Herold,2012),thecharterschoolsinthisstudywerenotrequiredtofollowthismandate. Thisstudysoughttounderstandthefollowingquestion:Howdosecond-year
NicoleMittenfelnerCarlisanadvanceddoctoralstudentintheGraduateSchoolofEducationattheUniversityofPennsylvania,Philadelphia,Pennsylvania.mittenfe@gse.upenn.edu
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TFAteachersplacedincharterorturnaroundschoolsinPhiladelphiaexperiencescriptedcurriculaintheirclassrooms?AgoalofthisstudyistoexaminethedifferentwaysTFAteachersexperiencescriptedcurricula.Anadditionalaimofthisstudyistocontributetotheoverallunderstandingoftheeffectsofeducationalreforms,suchasscriptedcurricula,onteachersandtheirautonomyandefficacy.ThegoalisnottoevaluateTFAortheeffectivenessofscriptedcurricula;rather,thisstudyexamineshowTFAteachersperceiveandexperiencesuchcurricula. WendyKoppfoundedTFAin1990withthegoalthat“oneday,allchildreninournationwillhavetheopportunitytoattainanexcellenteducation”(Kopp,2001,p.174).TFAattemptstosolvetheproblemofeducationalinequitybyrecruiting“ournation’smostpromisingfutureleaders,investsinthetrainingandprofessionaldevelopmentnecessarytoensuretheirsuccessasteachersinourhighest-povertycommunities,andfosterstheirongoingleadershipasalumni”(Kopp,2008,p.735).AsapartofTFA,teachers,selectedthroughahighlycompetitiveprocess,committoteachfortwoyears(Heilig&Jez,2010;Kopp,2001;TFA,2012,WhoWeLookFor).After thiscommitment,TFA’sgoal is to“buildamassiveforceof leadersworkingfrominsideandoutsideeducationwhohavetheconvictionandinsightthatcomefromteachingsuccessfullyinlow-incomecommunities”(Kopp,2008,pp.734-735).TFAhasbecomeanexclusiveandselectiveprogramthatpermitscorpsmembers“todogoodanddowell”(Labaree,2010,p.54). Thisstudyexamineshowthesesecond-yearTFAteachersexperiencescriptedcurricula.Myinterestinteachers’experienceswithscriptedcurriculadevelopedoutofmypracticeasaformerTFAcorpsmemberandmiddleschoollanguageartsteacherinPhiladelphiaforfiveyearsandacurrentuniversity-basedmentortofirst-yearTFAteachers.Second-yearteacherswerechosenbecausewhiletheyarestillnewtoteaching,theyatleasthaveoneyearofexperience.Additionally,thestudyexplorestheperspectivesofthesesecond-yearteachersbecauseoftheirexperienceofbeinglaidofffromtheSchoolDistrictofPhiladelphia.
Rationale and Significance of the Study NoChildLeftBehind’s(NCLB)focusonstandardizedtestingopenedthedoorfor standardized curricula (Milosovic, 2007). Many schools have implementedscriptedcurriculawiththegoalofincreasingstandardizedtestscores(Gill,2007).NCLBfundingregulationsforTitle1schoolsessentiallyrequire“theuseofscriptedcurriculummaterialsbecausethesearetheonlyonesthatqualifyasbeingscien-tificallybased”(Ede,2006,p.30).Title1fundsaregiventoschoolsservicingahighnumberoflow-incomefamilies(USDepartmentofEducation,2011).Thus,asotherauthorshaveacknowledged(Gill,2007;Ede,2006),scriptedcurriculaaremoreprevalentinschoolsservinglow-incomecommunities.Asteachinginlow-incomecommunitiesispartofthecommitmentTFAteachersmakewhentheyjointheorganization(Heilig&Jez,2010;TFA,2011,OurMission), thisstudyfocusesonteachersworkinginschoolslocatedinunder-resourcedcommunitiesin
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Philadelphia.Scriptedcurricula,standardizedtests,andincreasedmonitoringareafewoftheresultsofcurrenteducationalreforms.Thesereformsdirectlychangetherolesofteachersandespeciallyimpactteacherautonomyandefficacy.NCLBhasresultedinreformsthatlimitteachers’professionaljudgment:“Byscriptingtheconductofteachers,theNCLB-inspired…programscangenerateharmbyclosingdownthediscretionaryspaceteachersneedtomakeresponsiveandeducationallysoundjudgmentsintheclassroom”(Hlebowitsh,2007,p.28). Scriptedcurricula,forthepurposesofthisstudy,aredefinedalongthelinesof“scriptingtheconductofteachers”(Hlebowitsh,2007,p.28).WhilescriptedcurriculaareoftendefinedasscientificallybasedprogramssuchasSuccessForAll(Ede,2006),Kauffman,Johnson,Kardos,Lieu,andPeske(2002)definecurriculummorebroadlytoinclude“whatandhowteachersareexpectedtoteach”(p.274).Inthissense,manyteachersmayhavewhatcouldbeconsideredaprescriptiveorscriptedcurriculuminthattheyarefollowingadetailedandprescribedinstruc-tionalmodelthatrequiresteacherstoteachwithfaithfulattentiontothescriptforeachlesson.Inthispaper,scriptedcurriculumisdefinedbyemployingKauffmanetal.’s(2002)definitionofcurriculumandconsideringacurriculumscriptedtotheextentthatitlimitsteacherautonomy.Theteachersinthisstudyhadascriptedinstructionalmodel,ascientificallybasedscriptedcurriculum,orboth.
Theoretical Framework
Thecurrenteducationalmovementimplementsavarietyofreformsincludingscriptedcurriculathatoftenlimitteacherautonomy.OnemustconsidertheextenttowhichthesereformsreflectthepurposeofeducationintheUnitedStatesandwhethertheyfostereducationalequity.Tounderstandthecomplexitiessurround-ing scripted curriculum and its effects on teacher autonomy and efficacy, thisframeworkbeginsbydiscussingthepurposeofeducationbyconsideringDewey’s(1916/2011)democraticbeliefintheimportanceofameaningfuleducationandFreire’s(1970/2000,1998)assertionthateducationisaprocessofself-actualization.Asnotedabove,scriptedcurriculaareoftenusedwiththeintentionofincreasingtestsscores(Gill,2007).Thus,thisframeworkprovidesabriefexaminationofthecurrentstandardizedtestingmovement;thewaycurrenteducationalreformschangetheroleofteachersandtheconsequencesofsuchreformswillalsobediscussed.Sincesecond-yearteachersarethefocusofthisstudy,theKauffmanetal.(2002)empiricalstudyofnewteachers’experienceswithcurriculumandthepressuresofstandardizedtestingwillbeexamined.First-andsecond-yearteachersremainanimportantpopulationtoconsiderinregardstoteachers’autonomybecausemanypeoplearguethatnewteachersbenefitfromscriptedcurricula.Additionally,newteachersdonothavetoadaptinthesamewayasveteranteachersandmayhavedifferentperspectivesregardingteacherautonomyandscriptedcurricula.BecausepartofTFA’smissionistoendeducationalinequityandTFAteachersarethepar-
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ticipantsinthisstudy,studiesofTFA’steacherpreparationwillalsobeaddressed.Furthermore,TFAteachersmayhavedifferentperceptionsaboutscriptedcurriculaasaresultof theirpreparationandbeliefs.Finally, this frameworkre-visits thepurposeofeducationandconsidersissuesofequityandopportunityastheyrelatetoscriptedcurricula.
For What Purpose: Concerning Teaching to a Test Ede(2006)states,“ThegoaloftheeducationsystemintheUnitedStateshaslongbeentoprovideaneffectivepubliceducationforallchildreninorderthattheymayrealizetheirfullpotential”(p.29).Edeacknowledgesthatimplementationofthisgoalisquitecontroversial.Theformationofanenvironmentthatnourishesanindividual’saptitudesiscrucial toeducation(Dewey,1916/2011).Furthermore,Deweymakesanimportantdistinctionbetweentrainingandeducation;forDewey,education“isacontinuousprocessofgrowth”(p.33).Deweybelievesthatthisnotionofeducationiscontrarytotheviewthateducationismerelypreparationforadultlife.Heassertsthatthefutureistakencareofwhenthepresentexperiencesare“rich”and“significant”(p.34). LikeDewey(1916/2011),Freire(1970/2000)believesthateducationinvolves“actsof cognition” insteadof the transferofknowledge (Freire,1970/2000,p.79).TheseactsofcognitionandinquiryoccurinwhatFreire(1970/2000)terms“problem-posing”education,whichismoreactivethanwhathetermsthe“bankingconcept”ofeducation,whichfocusesonrotelearningratherthanactiveknowledgeconstruction(p.79).Inthisparadigm,dialogueisthefoundationofproblem-posingeducationbecauseitinvolvescommunication,whichFreire(1970/2000)considersessentialtotrueeducation.Thismethodchallengesandengagesstudents,andFreire(1970/2000)believesthatengagementwithreal-worldproblemsencouragesstudentstorespondtotheseproblems.Theseideasrundirectlycountertotheideologyandimplementationofscriptedcurricula. Thecurrenteducationalenvironment,asmanyresearchersandpractitionersargue,seemstoignoretheideathatlearningshouldberichandsignificant(Dewey,1916/2011)orposeproblems(Freire,1970/2000).Instead,itoperatesinanenviron-mentthatvaluespreparationforatestoverexperientialandmoremeaningfulformsoflearning.Dewey(1916/2011)asks,“Whyisit,inspiteofthefactthatteachingbypouringin,learningbyapassiveabsorption,areuniversallycondemned,thattheyarestillsoentrenchedinpractice?”(p.25).Thisquestion,posedin1916,isstillrelevanttoday.Cochran-SmithandLytle(2009)arguethattheaccountabilitymovementignoresthe“radicallylocal”natureofteaching,whichis“embeddedintheimmediaterelationshipsofstudentsandteachers,shapedbytheculturesofschoolsandcommunities,andconnectedtotheexperiencesandbiographiesofindividualsandgroups”(p.10).Thefocusonstandardizingcurriculaandtailor-ingteachingandlearningtostandardizedtestsservestotrainstudentstotaketestsratherthanengagingtheminmeaningfulandgenerativelearningexperiences.One
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mustconsidertheextenttowhichstudentsarebeingeducatedtotheirfullpotentialinthiscurrentsystem. Freire(1970/2000,1998)affirmsthateducationisalife-longprocess,andhisunderstandingofeducationasacriticalprocessofself-actualization is instarkcontrastwithwhatRavitch(2011)describesasthecurrentgoalsofeducationasreflectedinNCLBlegislation.AccordingtoRavitch,proponentsofNCLBbelievethatscoresonstandardizedtestsaretheultimategoalofeducation.Ravitchassertsthatmakingraisingtestscoresthegoalofeducationisdangerousbecausepeoplebegintoforgetaboutothereducationalgoalsincludingfosteringcriticalthinkingskills,developingmoralindividuals,andlearningtoapplyknowledgetodifferentcontexts(Ravitch,2011).Ravitchexplainsthatinsteadoffocusingonthedevelopmentofcharacterandethicalideals,idealsthatrelatetowhatFreire(1970/2000,1998)considersthegoalsofeducation,NCLBproponentsfocusedondataandtheteach-ingofrudimentaryskills.IntheeraofNCLB,knowledgehasnotbeenconsideredimportant,andhightestscoresareequatedwithagoodeducation(Ravitch,2011).ThisunderstandingofagoodeducationgreatlycontrastswithFreire’s(1970/2000,1998)notionthatagoodeducationfostersadepthofunderstandingandDewey’s(1916/2011) beliefthateducationshouldberichandsignificant.
Changing the Role of Teachers Ball(2003)describeshowteachersexpressfrustration,despair,anxiety,andemotionalduressregardingneweducationalreforms:“[W]hocontrolsthefieldofjudgment”(Ball,2003,p.216)isshiftingthenatureofpubliceducationawayfromarespectfortheteacher’sjudgmenttoplacingaprimacyonotherentitiesincludingthestate.TheteacherswhomBallquotesdirectlyexperiencethisshiftofcontrolbecausetheirautonomyandprofessionaljudgmentarenotvalued.Ballstatesthatthesecurrentreformsalongwithconstantmonitoringhavecreated“performativity,”whichhedefinesas“atechnology,acultureandamodeofregulationthatemploysjudgment,comparisonsanddisplaysasmeansofincentive,control,attritionandchange–basedonrewardsandsanctions(bothmaterialandsymbolic)”(p.216).Ballbelievesthatthecurrenteducationalreformpoliciesare“changingwhatitmeanstobeateacher”andarecreating“newkindsofteachersubjects”(p.217)andsuggeststhatsocialrelationsinthecultureofperformativity“arereplacedbyjudgmentalrelationswhereinpersonsarevaluedfortheirproductivityalone”(p.224).Hearguesthataccordingtotheserelations,teachersarevaluedsolelyfortheirresultsandoutcomesandthusbecomealienatedselves(Ball,2003). Kohl(2009)alsobelievesthatwhatitmeanstobeateacheraswellasastudentischanging.Hestates,
Ibelievethattheconsequenceofscriptedcurriculum,teacheraccountability,con-tinuousmonitoringofstudentperformance,highstakestesting,andpunishmentfornotreachingexternalstandardsisthatschoolsbecomeeducationalpanopticons,that is, total control and surveillance communities dedicated to undermining
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theimagination,creativity,intelligence,andautonomyofstudentsandteachers.(Kohl,2009,para.4)
Kohl,drawingonFoucault’s(1983)understandingofthewayinstitutionsserveaspanopticons,describestheeducationalpanopticonas“asysteminwhichteachersandstudentsareunderconstantscrutiny,allowednochoiceoverwhatislearnedortaught,evaluatedcontinuously,andpunishedforwhatisconsideredinadequateperformance” (Kohl, 2009, para. 6). In this prison-like environment that Kohldescribes,“studentsandteachersareforcedtoliveinaconstantstateofanxiety,self-doubt,wariness,anomie,andevensuppressedrage”(Kohl,2009,para.6).HerrandArms(2004)alsodescribeaversionoftheeducationalpanopticon:“Standard-izedcurriculaaremandated;administratorsareheldaccountableforimplementingthemandthereforebringthissenseofsurveillanceintotheclassroom”(p.536).Notonlyareteachers’roleschanging,butalsoreformpoliciessuchasscriptedcurriculaandthecultureofperformativityhavecreated“astruggleovertheteacher’ssoul”(Ball,2003,p.217).Again,onemustquestiontheextenttowhichthesereforms,whichlimitteacherautonomyaswellasstudentcreativityandarguablypotential,createmeaningfullearningexperiences.
New Teachers Manynewteacherswillnothaveknownatimewhentheeducationalclimatewasnotbasedonconstantmonitoringandtestscores.TheKauffmanetal.(2002)study1 is important because it specifically considers the experiences first- andsecond-yearteachershavewithcurriculum.Kauffmanetal.assertthatmostnewteachersappreciatecurricularguidanceandsupport.Whenreferencingautonomy,Kauffmanetal.state,“Althoughmuchoftheliteraturesuggeststhatteachersvaluetheirautonomyanddonotwanttobetoldwhattodo,nearlyallofthesenewteachersappreciatedwhatcurricularguidancetheyhadorwishedformore”(p.285).Thereis,however,adifferencebetweenaskingformorematerials,guidance,andsupportthanbeinggivenascriptedcurriculumorbeingtoldtoexplicitlyteachcertainskillsusingaspecificmethod.Kohl,referencingscriptedcurricula,explicitlyvoicesthedangerswhenteachersloseautonomy:
Scriptedcurriculumturnsteachersintomechanicaldeliverysystems.MostteachersIknowtrytorevoltagainstthem,buttheyhavetofacewhatarecalled“theOpenCourtpolice”--peoplewhowanderthehallsofschoolscheckingthatteachersareonexactly themandatedpage,askingsetquestions rather thandiscussingideasortexts,andacceptingonlytheanswersprovidedbytheteachers’booklet.Thoughthosemonitorsobviouslycan’tcheckalltheclassesatallthetimestheyinduceastateofanxietysincetheycanenteranyclassroomatanytimewithoutevenknocking.Thisaspectofthepanopticoncontributestotheerosionofself-respectandprideinone’sworkbytreatingteachersasobjectswithnoindependenteducationalknowledgeandjudgmentoftheirown.(Kohl,2009,para.7)
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Newandveteranteachersexperiencethepressuresthatcomewithstandard-ized testing.TheKauffmanetal. (2002) studypresentsaperspective inwhichmanynewteacherswantedadditionalguidanceandsupport;theauthors“foundthat today’s environment of high standards and accountability created a senseofurgencyamongnewteachersbutdidnotprovidethemwiththesupporttheyneededtoteacheffectively”(p.279).Itisalsoimportanttonotethat“[i]ncallingforgreaterspecification,thesenewteachersstoppedwellshortofaskingthattheireverymovebedictated”(Kauffmanetal.,2002,p.285).Thestudyfoundthatnewteacherswere“oftenoverwhelmedbytheresponsibilityanddemandsofdesigningcurriculumandplanningdailylessons”(p.291).Kauffmanetal.(2002)describe“newteachers—whomighthavesucceededwithmoresupport—toexitquicklyforotherlinesofwork”(p.292).Thisstudyinitiatesimportantresearchaboutnewteachersexperienceswithcurriculum;however,“…themostcommoncurriculumthesenewteachersencounteredwasonethattoldthemwhattoteachbutnothow”(Kauffmanetal.,2002,p.288).Hadtheteacherstheyspokewithactuallybeentoldhowtoteach,thoseteachersmayhaveexpressedmoredesireforincreasedautonomy.More researchaboutnew teachers’ reactions to scriptedcurricula isneededastheymaynotonlyexperiencedifferentchallengesthanveteranteachersbutalsohavevaryingperspectives;Beatty(2011)alsorecommendsaneedforad-ditionalstudiesofcomparativereactionsofnewteacherstoscriptedcurricula. TFA Teachers Therecertainlyneedstobemoreresearchabouttheeffectsofcurrenteduca-tionalreforms,specificallyscriptedcurricula,onstudentachievementaswellasontheexperiencesofnewteachersasKauffmanetal.(2002)andBeatty(2011)demonstrate.Thereisalsoaneedforadditionalresearchaboutnewteacherswhoarecertifiedalternatively,suchasTFAteachers(Heilig&Jez,2010;TFA,2011,Teacher Certification).This remains an important area of focus in the currentarenaofstandardizedtestingbecauseoftheincreasingnumberofteachersgainingcertificationalternatively(Darling-Hammond,Chung,&Frelow,2002;Garcia&Huseman,2009;Feistritzer,2009).ItisimportanttoconsidertheextenttowhichTFAteachers,whoarepredominatelycertifiedalternatively,desireautonomyinlightofthefactthattheymaynothaveabackgroundineducationorthecontentareatheyareteaching. Alternativecertificationprogramshavebeen,andcontinuetobe,acontrover-sialissueinthefieldofteachereducation(Zeichner&Schulte,2001).Amajorityofalternativelycertifiedteacherstendtoworkinunder-resourced,urbanschools(Veltri, 2008; Darling-Hammond, Chung, & Frelow, 2002; Wilson, Floden, &Ferrini-Mundy,2001).Scholars(e.g.,Zeichner&Schulte,2001)takeissuewiththis and argue that urban schoolshave thegreatest need for certified teachers.Furthermore,someeducators(e.g.,Veltri,2008)alsocriticizethelackofstudentteachingandpreparationofTFAteachers.Darling-Hammond,Chung,andFrelow
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(2002)foundthatTFAteachersinNewYorkCityratedtheirperceptionsoftheirteacherpreparationlowerthanteachersintraditionalandotheralternativecertifica-tionprograms;theauthorsstatedthatthismaybetheresultofnotbeingapartofauniversitycertificationprogram.SimilartotheuniversitypartnershipdescribedinHeineke,Carter,Desimone,andCameron’s(2010)study,inPhiladelphia,TFApartnerswiththeUniversityofPennsylvania’sGraduateSchoolofEducationinwhichTFAteachersgaincertificationandalsohavetheoptionofpursuingamaster’sdegreeineducationduringtheirtwo-yearteachingcommitment(PennGSE/TFA,2008).SchultzandRavitch(2013)examinethenarrativesofteachersattwoteachereducationprograms,auniversity-basedprogramandaTFAprogram,atthesameuniversityinPhiladelphia.Commentingonthetwoteachereducationprograms,theauthorsstate,
…thedistinctionsbetween theseprogramsaresomewhatmoreblurred than iscommonlydepictedinthepopularpress.AtthisUniversity,teachersinthetwoprogramstakesimilarcourses.Themostsalientdistinctionsarethetimingofthecourses,thenatureofthementoring,andtheirroleintheclassroom.(Schultz&Ravitch,2013,p.39)
Describingwhyuniversities,includingtheUniversityofPennsylvania,partnerwithTFA,Koerner,Lynch,andMartin(2008)statethatdialogueregardingTFA“canbestbedescribedasschismatic”(p.727).Theypositthattheconversationshouldinsteadfocuson“howschoolsofeducationmightimproveprogramsforallstudents,includ-ingthestudentsinTeachforAmerica”(Koerner,Lynch,&Martin,2008,p.727).SchultzandRavitch(2013)makeasimilarargument;theystatethatthedifferentteacherpreparationroutes,alternativeandtraditional,shouldnotbesetasrivals. TFAteachers,likemanyotheralternativerouteteachers,oftendonothaveadegreeineducation.Followinganintensivefive-weekteacher-traininginstitute,mostTFAteacherslearntoteachonthejob(Heineke,Carter,Desimone,&Cameron,2010;Mikuta&Wise,2008).Manystudiescritiquethistypeofteacherpreparation(e.g.,Laczko-Kerr&Berliner,2002).MacIver,Vaughn,andKatz’s(2005)studyofnewteachersinBaltimore,presentsadifferentviewofalternativecertificationprograms:
Whilemanyteachersinalternativecertificationprogramsdidleavethesystemaftergainingamaster’sdegreeandcertification,theymadeacontributionduringtheirstay.Teachersinalternativecertificationprogramshelpedtofillopeningsinhighneedareas,andbroughtparticularcontentknowledgeinscience,mathemat-icsandSpanishthatwasdifficultforthesystemtofindelsewhere…TheTeachforAmericanprogram,inparticular,broughtteacherswithexcellentacademiccredentialstothesystem.(pp.10-11)
Veltri(2008)commentsonhowTFAteachersspecificallyfacemanychallengeswhentheybeginteachingincludingrecentlygraduatingfromcollege,attendinganintensivefive-weektrainingprogram,andteachinginunder-resourcedschools.
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ItisalsointerestingtonotethattheNationalResearchCouncil(2010)statesthattheresearchonteacherpreparationdoesnotdemonstratethatonerouteortypeofpreparationfostersbetterteachers.TheeffectivenessofTFAteachers’preparationwillnotbediscussedindepthbecauseisnotthefocusofthisstudy.However,whatremainsimportantishowTFAteachersmayexperiencescriptedcurricula.Recruitedfortheircommitmenttoclosingtheachievementgap(Kopp,2001,2008),TFAteachers’commitmenttoendeducationalinequitymayaffecttheirperceptionsaboutscriptedcurricula.Forexample,inHeinekeandCameron’s(2011)studyofTFAalumni,theydescribethatTFAteachers“expresseddisdain”overthedisparitiesofthelanguagecurriculumforELLstudentsversusmainstreamstudents(p.12).Additionally,TFAteachersarealsotaughttoincorporatestandards-basedinstruc-tionalcontentandrelyonstudentachievementdatatoassesstheirteaching(Farr,2010);thisaligns,tosomeextent,withtheaccountabilitymovementandscriptedcurriculaprogramsdescribedabove.Oneaimofthisstudyistoaddressthedearthofliteratureregardingnewteachers’experienceswithscriptedcurriculaingeneralandTFAteachers’experiencesinparticular.
Revisiting Purpose: Is Equity a Fabrication? AccordingtoBall(2003),fabricationisonewaythatsometeachersdealwiththenewcultureofperformativity:
Thetermfabricationseemstocapturethesenseofdeliberationinvolvedhere,sometimesinvolving‘bought-in’professionalsupport,andthespecificityorpur-posefulnessoftheintendedeffectsandthealmostinevitableelementofcynicalcomplianceinherentinmakingupresponsestoperformativity.(p.224)
TouseKohl’s(2009)language,thisfabricationisawaythatteachersrespondwhenforced“toactagainsttheirconscience”(para.11).Kohldoesnotdirectlyadvocateforfabrication;instead,hestates,“Fortunatelytherearemanysubversiveteacherswhoworkintheserviceoftheirstudentsandaccordingtotheirownconscienceratherthansubmittothecoerciveeducationtheyareexpectedtoprovide”(para.9).TheseteachersmayormaynotbepracticingwhatBallconsidersfabrication;however,accordingtoKohl,theyrefusetolosetheirautonomynomatterthecosttoensurethattheirstudents’needsarebeingmet.Kohlgoesontostate,“Whatmustberaisedandansweredforisthemoralcostofcreatingjoylessschoolsthatresemblepanopticons”(para.11).Anotherquestionthatmustbeansweredis if teachers,workinginthecultureofperformativityandfabrication,aretrulyeducatingallstudentstotheirfullpotential,asEde(2006)assertsisthegoalofeducation. Considering theconsequencesof the surveillanceandconstantmonitoringthatKohl(2009)referencesaswellasthefabricationandperformativitythatBall(2003)describes,issuesofeducationalequitymustalsobeexamined.Notonlyareteachersinurban,under-resourceddistrictsareoftenpaidlessandexpectedtodomore(Lareau,2003),butalsothesesameunder-resourcedschoolsaremorelikely
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toadoptreformssuchasscriptedcurricula(Ede,2006)thanschoolsinwealthierdistricts.Onemustconsidertheextenttowhichthesereformscreateinequalityratherthanpromoteequity. Dewey(1916/2011)believeseducationisthedrivingforceofsocialmobil-ity.Publicschoolsallowanindividualtohavean“opportunitytoescapefromthelimitationsofthesocialgroupinwhichhewasborn,andtocomeintolivingcontactwithabroaderenvironment”(Dewey,1916/2011,p.15).Deweybelieveseducationisnecessarytoademocracyforitsabilitytofosterequityandsocialmobility.Intheory,schoolshavethispurpose;yet,inpracticeschoolsarenotservingasthegreat equalizer.Furthermore,when considering equity and socialmobility, thequalityofeducationmustbeexamined.Deweybelievesthatlearningexperiencesshouldbemeaningfulandconnectedtoreallife;Freire(1970/2000,1998)alsoaffirmsthesebeliefs.Towhatextentarestudents,taughtusingthesamemethodinthesameway,makingmeaningfulconnectionstothecontentthatnourisheswhatDeweywoulddescribeastheirindividualaptitudes?Theeffectofsomereforms,includingthe lossofautonomyaswellasconstantassessmentandmonitoring,onunder-resourcedcommunitiescannotbeignored,andissuesofequitymustbeconsidered.HerrandArms(2004)state,“Proponentsofaccountabilityarguethatthedisaggregationofdata fromhigh-stakes testingcan revealwho is succeed-ingandwhoisnotinourschools,forcingschoolstodealwiththedemonstratedinequalities”(p.534).However,HerrandArmsgoontodescribehowresearchdemonstratesthatcurriculatailoredtotestpreparationhaveanegativeeffectonstudentsinunder-resourced,urbancommunities.House(1999)alsodescribesthatanongoingexaminationofsuchpolicies,whichaccordingtoHouseincludeschoolorganization,finance,curricula,abilitygrouping,retention,andtesting,“revealthatthepolicieseffectivelysegregate,differentiate,andprovideminoritieswithaninferioreducation”(p.11).AsKohl(2009)describes,reformssuchasscriptedcurriculaaffectbothteachersandstudents.
Research Methods
Cochran-SmithandLytle(2009)assertthat“teachersandotherpractitionersarethekeytoeducationalchange”(p.1).Astheresearchquestionoriginatedfrommypracticeasateacher,thisstudydrawsonapractitionerinquiry(Cochran-Smith&Lytle,2009)approachthatsoughttocreatetheconditionsnecessaryforteacherstoreflectcriticallyontheirpractice.BuildingonLytle’s(2008)understandingofsituatingeducationalexpertiseattheteacherandclassroomlevel,thisstudyseekstounderstandhowTFAteachersexperiencescriptedcurriculaintheirrespectiveclassrooms.Thisstudyemploysamixed-methods(Patton,2002)researchdesignthatdrawsheavilyonaqualitativeinterviewstudyapproach(Weiss,1994;Creswell,2007).
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Background and Context of the Study TheSchoolDistrictofPhiladelphiafacedmanychangesas the2011-2012schoolyearbegan(Herold,2011).CurrentTFAcorpsmembers’roleshavealsochanged,andmanysecond-yearTFAteachersinPhiladelphiawerelaidoffandplacedincharterschools(Mezzacappa,2011).Inadditiontothechallengesofbe-inganewteacher,manyofthesesecond-yearTFAteacherswerealsodealingwithnewschoolsandadministrations.TheteachersinthisstudyalsoexperiencedthepressuresofstandardizedtestingthatKauffmanetal.(2002)describenewteachersfacing.Additionally,becausemanysecond-yearTFAteacherswerelaidofffromtheirdistrictteachingpositions,theyhaveaveryrealsenseofthedispensabilityofteachers.Alloftheteachersinthisstudyexplicitlydiscussedthelayoffs,andoneteachersaid,“Teacherscanbethrownawayatanytime,Imeanwesawthatlastyear.”Thismessage,combinedwiththemessagesofscriptedcurricula,makesmanyteachersfeeldevaluedanddeprofessionalized.
Participant Selection AsaformerTFAteacherandasafirst-yearTFAteachermentorinPhiladelphia,IhaveuniqueaccesstoTFAcorpsmembers.Ipurposefullyelectednottoincludefirst-yearTFAteachersinthisstudybecauseIserveasamentortosomeofthemandwantedtoensurethattheydidnotfeelobligatedtoparticipate.Ialsochosesecond-yearteachersbecausetheyarestillnewtoteachingbuthaveoneyearofexperience.Additionally,becauseoftheirsituationofbeinglaidoff,Ibelievethatthesecond-yearTFAcorpsmemberswouldhaveinterestingperspectivesabouttheeffectsofcurrenteducationalreforms. Participantswereengagedpurposefullyratherthanrandomly(Maxwell,2005).Iemailedapproximately61second-yearTFAteachersoutofthe129teachersonthelist.Becausescriptedcurriculaareoftenusedwiththegoalofincreasingtestscores(Gill,2007),Iselectedthe61teacherswhoteachatestedsubject,English/LanguageArts(Reading)orMath.Ofthe61teachersIemailed,14responded.Iultimatelyinterviewedseventeachersteachingindifferentschools.
Data Collection Acombinationofamixed-methodssurveyandqualitativeinterviewswereemployed.BecauseIdidnotknoweachteacher’sspecificcurriculumpriortotheinterview,eachteacherwasgivenamixed-methodssurveybeforetheinterviewbegantogatherinformationandgaugehisorherinitialexperiencewithscriptedcurriculum.Ifolloweduponsurveyquestionsintheinterviewsinadditiontofol-lowingasemi-structuredinterviewprotocol(Creswell,2007).
Mixed-methodssurvey. Thesurveygatheredup-to-dateinformationabouttheteachers’school,curriculum,andsubjecttaughtandalsoaskedquestionsregard-ingtheextentoftheirautonomyandtheiropinionsabouttheircurriculum.The
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surveyhelpedgenerateanunderstandingoftheamountofcontrolteachershaveoverwhattheyteachaswellasgaugetheirattitudessomorein-depthquestionscouldbeaddressedintheinterviews.Thesurveyaskedparticipantstorespondtotheextenttheyagreewith11statementsincluding:Ideterminewhatgetstaughtinmyclassroom.IcanmakechangestowhatistaughtinmyclassroomwhenIdeemnecessary.Iwillstayinteaching.Therewereopen-endedquestionsonthesurveyaswellthatsoughtcontextinresponses.Thesurveyservedasahelpfulguidetospecificallyorienttheinterviews.Italsoprovidedmewithdataaboutteacherreten-tion.Forexample,alloftheseventeachersindicatedthattheywouldstayinteachingonthesurvey.Amajorityoftheresponsestooneopen-endedquestiondescribedrelationshipswithstudentsastheirreasonforremaininginteaching.WhenIfol-loweduponthisquestionintheinterview,severalteachersqualifiedtheiranswerstosaythattheywillstayinteachingforatleastonemoreyear.Afewteachersalsostatedthattheywouldstayinteaching,butthattheymayconsiderteachingatadifferentschoolbecauseofconflictswiththeadministration.Theabilitytofollowuponsurveyquestionswiththeinterviewsprovidedamoreholisticunderstandingofteachers’experiences.
Interviews.Becausetheresearchquestioncentersonteachers’experiences,interviewsprovedtobethebestmethodtogatherthisdata.Idevelopedasemi-structuredinterviewprotocol(Creswell,2007)thatfocusedonteachers’attitudesandexperiencesaswellasprovidedopportunitiesforteacherstodiscussspecificexamples.Asstatedabove,Iusedthesurveytohelporientmyquestionstoeachteacher’sspecificexperiences,andtheinterviewprotocolssoughttoexploretheteachers’experiencesandperspectivesinrelationtoscriptedcurriculum.Theopen-endedapproachtointerviewing(Creswell,2007;Hammersley&Atkinson,2007;Weiss,1994)allowedmetoaskfollow-upquestionsthatkepttheparticipants’ex-periencesatthecenteroftheinterview.Theinterviewslastedbetween30minutestoonehour.FourinterviewswereconductedinpersonatacoffeeshoporataquietlocationontheUniversityofPennsylvania’scampussothattheinterviewscouldbeeasilyrecordedasCreswell(2007)suggests.Threeinterviewswereconductedoverthephone.
Researcher Roles/Issues of Validity TomakesureIaccuratelyrepresentedtheparticipants’experiences,Ifollowedupwithmemberchecks(Creswell,2007;Maxwell,2004)withtwoparticipants.Maxwell(2005)describesrespondentvalidationasthe“singlemostimportantwayofrulingoutthepossibilityofmisinterpretingthemeaningofwhatparticipantssayanddoandtheperspectivetheyhaveonwhatisgoingon,aswellasbeinganimportantwayofidentifyingyourownbiasesandmisunderstandings”(p.111).Ialsocreatedtwovignettesthatrepresentedtheemergentthemes(Maxwell,2005)inthedata,andIsharedthesevignettesinpeerreviewsessions(Creswell,2007).
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Havingthevignettesquestionedanddiscussedbyandwithpeershelpedmetomorecloselyexaminethedata.Theuseofboththemix-methodssurveyandtheinterviewsalsohelpedtotriangulatethedatabybringingtogetherdifferentsourcestoanswertheresearchquestion(Creswell,2007;Patton,2002). AnotheraspectofvalidityconsiderediswhatLincolnandGuba(2003)termfairness.Theydefinefairnessbystatingthat“allstakeholderviews,perspectives,claims,concerns,andvoicesshouldbeapparentinthetext”(p.278).Furthermore,LincolnandGubaassertthatomissionofcertainvoicesrepresentsbias.Becauseofthesmallscopeofthisstudy,somevoiceswereleftout;however,noperspectiveswereintentionallyignored.Arecruitmentemailwassenttoallsecond-yearTFAteachersinPhiladelphiawhoteachEnglishorMath,andIinterviewedtheteacherswhorespondedtomyinitialrecruitmentandfollow-upemails.
Methods of Data Analysis Itranscribedalloftheaudio-recorded,inpersoninterviews.Detailednotesweretakenduringthephoneinterviews,andthenoteswerefilledinassoonastheinterviewended.Beforetranscribingtheinterviews,IlistenedtotherecordingsasMaxwell(2005)suggestssituatingmyunderstandingandthinkingaboutconnec-tionsbetweentheinterviewsandtheliterature.Aftertranscribingtheinterviews,Icompiledallofthedata(theinterviewsandsurveys)andthoroughlyreadthedataasHammersleyandAtkinson(2007)recommend.Iusedmemosto“notonlycapture[my]analyticthinkingabout[my]data,butalsofacilitatesuchthinking,stimulatinganalyticinsights”(Maxwell,2005,p.96).MemoswerewrittenaftertheprocessofthoroughlyreadingthedatathatdescribedmyinitialthoughtsandpossiblecategoriesIwouldusetocodethedata.Ithenbegancodingthedatausingtheinitialcodes,whichwereallinductive.Theinitialcodeswereprimarilysubstantiveandreflectedtheparticipants’emicunderstandingsoftheirexperiences(Maxwell,2005)suchastheinitialcodesoverwhelmedadministrationandclassroommanagementissues.Throughoutthisprocess,Irefinedthecodesandalsodevelopedmoretheoreticalandanalyticalcodessuchasinexperiencedteacher,thetimeconsumingnatureofplanning,knowledgeorlackthereofofcontent,andhesitancytodeviate.Memoswereusedthroughoutthecodingprocesstodocumenttherefinedcodesaswellasmyoverallimpressionsaboutthedata.
Findings and Implications
Thissectionbeginsbyhighlightingthekeythemesthatemergedthroughdataanalysis.ThesectionalsoprovidesexamplesofafewofthechallengesthattheTFAteachersinthisstudyencounteredanddemonstratessomeofthecomplexitiessur-roundingtheissueofscriptedcurricula.TheTFAteachersinthisstudyexperiencedandreactedtoscriptedcurriculainvaryingways.However,fourprimarythemesemergedfromthedatathatwillbediscussed:teacherautonomy,theamountof
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monitoringoroversightteachersexperienced,theextenttowhichteachersdevi-atefromthecurriculum,andteachers’concernsregardingmeetingtheirstudents’needs.Afterdiscussingthefindings,discussionandimplicationsarepresentedinthefinaltwosectionsofthearticle.
Teacher Autonomy Theway that thenew teachers in the studyexperienced scripted curriculaseemsdirectlyrelatedtotheamountofautonomytheyperceivedhaving;thus,anoverridingthemeinthedatafocusesonissuesofautonomy.Thisthemereflectstheseteachers’varyingviewsandopinionsregardingautonomyandthewaystheydiscussautonomy.Afewteachersconsiderowningtheirownclassroomtosignifyautonomy.Relatedtotheideaofowningone’sclassroom,anotherteacherspecifi-callyconsideredautonomyastheabilitytoexerciseprofessionaljudgment:
Iwantmoreautonomy—IwouldsayIwishIhadmoretimeinmyday.Mysched-uleissorigid,andIteachtwomathblocks,andIamsupposedtouse[ascriptedcurriculum]andthatistohavemykidscount,andtheycandothat.Whycan’tIdosomethinglikeinquiry-basedmath?IwishIhadtheopportunitytohavepro-fessionaljudgmentandknowledge,insteadofmakingmedoscripted[lessons].Whycan’tIhavemykidsdoaserviceproject?Iwouldliketomakemyclassroommorepersonalizedformykids.
Someteacherswerefearfulandcautiousabouthowtheyexercisedautonomy;oneteacherstated,
Icanmakethoseautonomousdecisionsinmyclassroom,butsomeoneisgoingtocomebackandsaywheredoesthisalign.HowamIutilizingallofthethingsthattheyexpect?TherecomesapointwhenIhavetolegitimatizeeverything
Anotherteacherinthisstudystated,“Manyschoolsdonotallowteacherstousescriptedcurriculaasresourcesandmakeittheirown.” Amajorityoftheteacherswishedtheyhadmoreautonomy,butoneteacher,whodesignedherowncurriculumduringherfirstyearandusedascriptedcur-riculumduringhersecondyear,discussedfeelingbothextremes.Shestated,
Thegoodthingaboutitisthatmyschooldoesn’tnecessarilydictatehowyouteachthoselessons,soyouifhavethetimeandenergytoplanlessonstoengageyourstudents,youcandothat,butsometeachers,whodon’thavethatwherewithal,arejustteachingtothetest….Ispendalotoftimetryingtomakewhatisgoingoninmyclassroommeaningfulnowandalsolaterinlife.IamnotsureIwouldlovehavingeverythingdictated,nothavinganyfreedomtodecidewhatisbestforyourclassroom,yourself,andyourstudents,wouldbefrustratingtosaytheleast.Also,asasecond-yearteacher,Idon’thavetheaudacitytosayIknoweverything,soIwouldtrythingsthatpeoplesaywork.
ThisteacherrepresentsthefindingsoftheKauffmanetal.(2002)study,whichstate that teacherswantguidanceand support,but theydonotwant tobe told
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exactlywhattodo.Additionally,theseteachers,awareoftheirstatusasnovices,questionthebenefitsofscriptedcurriculabutalsolackexpertisetoknowwhattodo. Theseteachersalsoquestionedthequalityofinstructiontheyprovidedwithscriptedcurricula:
Asateacher,theygavemethiscurriculum.Thisworks,don’tquestionit,justuseit.Ihaveconcernsandgutreactions,butIdon’thavetheresourcestoknowbetter.Theconsequencesarenotjustfromtheadministration,butscriptedcurriculaishandedtoteacherswhoarenewtoteachingandmaynothavetheexperiencetoknowwhatelsetodo…YousayIamdoinggreatjob,butisthatreallywhatagreatjobis?Atthesametime,isthisiskindofteacherthatIwanttobe?
AlthoughmoreresearchisneededaboutnewteachersandTFAteachers’experienceswithscriptedcurricula,itisclearfromthisstudythattheseTFAteacherswanttheautonomytoexerciseprofessionaljudgmentwhentheybelieveitisnecessary.
Monitoring and Oversight Inthissample,issuesofautonomydirectlyrelatetotheamountofmonitoringoroversightteachersexperienced.Asmentionedabove,teachers’viewsconcerningautonomyfrequentlydependedontheschoolcontext.Theteacherswereoftenabletoexercisemoreprofessionaljudgmentbasedonhowmuchtheyweremonitored.However,asKohl(2009)states,eventhoughmonitoringagentscannotbeevery-whereatonce,theteachersinthisstudystillfeelthepressuresofsurveillanceandaccountability.Forexample,oneteacherstatedthathehadnotbeenobservedoncethisyear,yet,heremainshesitanttodeviateandexerciseprofessionaljudgmentabouttheorderconceptsaretaught:
IwouldskiparoundifIhadthefreedomto.IfIdidskiparound,whetheranyonewouldnotice,Iamnotsure.Intermsofwhen[someone]comesin,wearewarned,weneedtobewherewearesupposedtobe.Thatwouldbemyonlyhesitation.Also,theamountoftimewegivetoeachconcept.Itwouldmakemuchmoresensetospendmoretimeonthecoreconcepts.
Someteachersaremonitoredmorefrequently,andinsomeoftheseschools,thepayofteachersisrelatedtostudentperformance.Ateacherataschoolpracticingperformancebasedpaycommentedaboutbeingobserved:“YoubetImadesurethateverythingwasaligned.Mylessonwashyperalignedtotherubric,andIdidreallywell.”Themonitoringandoversightatschools,especiallyatthosepracticingperformance-basedpay,effectshowandifteachersdeviatefromthecurriculum.Theteachersinthisstudyexpressedthatteacherswhohavegoodclassroommanage-mentand/ortheirstudentsperformwellontestsweremonitoredlessandthereforeseemtohavemoreopportunitiestoexerciseprofessionaljudgment:
IfeelliketherearetimeswhenImakeajudgmentcallthatanobjectiveisnotanappropriateobjective;itisnotwhatIamsupposedtodo.TherearetimeswhenIfeellikewholeweeksareoff,andIhavegonetomysupervisor,andIchange
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theorder.Onpaper,Iamnotsupposedtohavethatfreedom.Itakethelibertymyself….Ifeelluckyassomeonewhoseclassroomisnotconsideredahotspot,soIamsomeonewhoisnotcheckedinonalot.Otherwise,otherteachersmayhavetroublemakingthosecallsontheirown.
Teacherswhowereconsidered“hot-spots”weremonitoredmorefrequently;thiswasexpressed inother interviewsaswell:“They trustmyjudgmenta littlebitmore…itsortofletsmeslideundertheradaralittlebit.Theydon’tcheckuponmeasmuch.”Theteachersinthisstudyviewedmonitoringandoversightinconflictinglights.Manyofthemexpressedfrustrationwhentheywereobservedconstantly.However,someteachersexpressedadesireformorefeedback.
Curricular Deviation Theteachers’abilitytomakeautonomousdecisionsandadjustcurriculabasedontheirprofessionaljudgmentinfluencedhowtheyexperiencedscriptedcurricula.Someteacherstookmorerisksthanothers,andthisoftenrelatedtohowfrequentlytheyweremonitored,asoneteacherstated,“Buttheyarenot[inmyclassroom],andsoItakethatrisk.”Whenaskedifhedeviatesfromthecurriculum,ateacheranswered,
DoIdeviate?Yes.Becausethatiswhatmystudentsneed…andhopefullyIdon’tgetcaught…IfIrecognizethingsthatmystudentsneed,theyareabsolutelygoingtogetthat,andifthe[curriculum]doesn’taddressthat,sorryforthe[curriculum].Iamgoingtodowhatworksinmyclassroom.
Someschoolshavethephilosophy,asoneteacherputit,“Ifyoudon’tdoit,youarenotwelcomeinourbuilding.”Eventeacherswhodeviated,acknowledgedthattheywerestillteachingtoatest:
EventhoughIdeviatefromthecurriculum,therealityisIamteachingtoatest.Ihavea[test]insixweeks,Imeetwithmyprincipal,andweusea[scriptedcur-ricular]model,andeverythinghastobe100%aligned…Dayone,teachproblemone,daytwoteachproblemtwo.
Asoneteacherrecommended,
Itisfrustratingtoseethatsomethingisnotworkingbutnotknowinghowtoproblemsolveaswell.ThatshouldbesomethingTFAshoulddo–traincorpsmembersonhowtointeractwithleadershipandhowtopresenteffectivesolutionsorientatedideastopeopleinpower.
Meeting Students’ Needs Inthisstudy,theabilityforteacherstoadjustinstructiontobestmeettheneedsoftheirstudentsisdirectlyconnectedtotheirautonomy,theextenttowhichtheyweremonitored,andtheirperceivedabilitytodeviatefromthecurriculumwhennecessary.Althoughtheteachersexercisedtheirprofessionaljudgmenttovarying
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degrees,theTFAteachersinthisstudydiscussedhowtheybecamefrustratedwhentheywerenotabletomeettheirstudents’needs,asthisteacherexpressed:
Whydo I need to spend time teaching to the testwhenmykidshaveproventhemselves?Theysaidthisiswhatyouteach,andthisiswhatyoudo,andifwecomeinanditisnotaligned,youwillgetmarkeddown.
Manyoftheseteachersreferencedhowscriptedcurriculadonotmeettheneedsofallof theirstudents.Oneteacherstated,“[Thescriptedcurriculum]wasjustforlowlevelstudents;myhighlevelstudentswerebored.Itisveryboringandrepetitious—veryeasyquestions.”Additionally,theexpectationatmanyoftheseteachers’schoolswasthatstudentspracticeindependentlyincompletesilence;ateachernotedthatnotallstudents,justlikeadults,learnbestinthatmanner.Thisteacherstated,
LookataPD[professionaldevelopment]andseehowmanyteachersarereallypayingattention.Ifyoucan’texpectteacherstodoit,Imeangrantedteachersaretheworststudents,ifyoucan’texpectadultswhoareselfmanagerstobeabletodothis,whydoweexpectkidstobeabletodoit?
Theteachersinthisstudywerefrustratedwhenthescriptedcurriculagotinthewayofmeetingtheirstudents’needs.Teachersdiscussedissuesofequityasapartoftheirfrustrationwhentheyperceivedtheycouldnotmeettheirstudents’needs.Another teacherbelieved thatall studentswerenotbeingservedequally inhisschool:“[T]herehavebeeninitiativesandtalktogetridofthebadkidsandsendthemaway,whichisthenwearejustskimmingthecreamagain,whichisthecom-moncriticismofcharters.”Oneteacherstated,
Youdon’taskquestions,youreadwhatyouaresupposedtodo,andifyoudon’tunderstand,youreadoveritagain.Ifsomeonecandothat,ateacherisdispensable,andthatisnothowitshouldbe,especiallyforourkids.Theyneedthemost,andyetwearegivingthemrobots.
Discussion
The ways these second-year TFA teachers experienced scripted curriculadependedontheirperceptionsofautonomy,thefrequencywithwhichtheyweremonitored,howmuchtheydeviatedfromthecurriculum,andtheirdesiretomeettheirstudents’needs.Analyzingthedataillustratesthreeexperiencescommontoalloftheparticipants.First,theteachersdemonstrateaheightenedsenseofteacherdispensabilityasaresultoftheschooldistrictlayoffs.Second,directlyrelatedtothissenseofdispensability,theteachersfaceethicaldilemmasinregardstoscriptedcurricula.TheTFAteachersareleftwiththedilemmaofwhethertheyfollowthescriptedcurriculumfaithfullyorriskdeviatingandpossiblythethreatoflosingtheirjobs.Despitestudies(e.g.,Mikuta&Wise,2008)thatcontendthatTFAteachers
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viewtheirtimeinthecorpsasserviceratherthanacareer,theteachersinthisstudywereconcernedaboutlosingtheirjobsandthisinturnaffectedtheriskstheytookintheclassroom. Additionally,asalternativelycertifiedteacherswhomaynothaveabackgroundinthesubjecttheyteach,theTFAteachersinthisstudyacknowledgethattheydonotalwaysknowthebestpedagogicalapproach.However,theteachersstatethattheyknow their studentsandwant tocreate thebest learningopportunities forthem.Theteachersinthisstudyfacemoraldilemmaswhentheyperceivethatthestrictguidancegetsinthewayofgivingstudentsgenuineopportunitiestolearn.ThesemoraldilemmasmaybeheightenedasaresultoftheirpreparationasTFAteachers.Forexample,TFAteachersareencouragedtoadoptasenseofurgencytoimproveeducationforstudentsinunder-resourcedcommunities(Farr,2010).However,similarlytothenewteachersintheKauffmanetal.(2002)study,theTFAteachersinthisstudymaintainthattheyknowthattheydonothavealltheanswersandwantguidance,yettheybecomefrustratedwhenthescriptedcurriculuminhibitsthemfrommeetingtheneedsoftheirstudentsandcreatingthemeaningfullearningexperiencesthatDewey(1916/2011)andFreire(1970/2000,1998)describe.Theteachersinthisstudyquestionedthequalityofeducationaffordedbythescriptedcurricula.Asaresult,theirexperienceswithscriptedcurriculaincludeissuesofautonomy,theextenttowhichtheyweremonitored,curriculardeviation,andthedesiretomeettheirstudents’needs. Third,whilesomeoftheteachersdeviatedfromthecurriculummorethanothers,theyallexperiencedthepressuresofaccountabilitythatHerrandArms(2004)depictaswellasaversionofthepanopticonasdescribedbyKohl(2009).Furthermore,thedescriptionsofthestateofeducationportrayedinbothBall(2003)andKohl(2009)makeitclearthatschoolleaders,districtofficials,andpolicymakersshouldrevisitthepurposeofeducationandre-thinkwhatpurposethesecurrentreformsserve.AlthoughKauffmanetal.(2002)assertthatnewteachersneedmoresupport,theteachersintheirstudyaswellastheTFAteachersinthisonedonotdesirecompletedictation.SchoolshavethepotentialtoliveuptothepurposeDewey(1916/2011)illustrates;however,limitingteacherautonomybyimposingreformssuchasscriptedcurriculadoesnotappeartobetheanswer.Idonotwanttobelievethatschoolsrepresenttheeducationalpanopticonorareaplaceinwhichteachers,asBall(2003)states,struggleovertheirsouls.How-ever,asteacherautonomycontinuestodiminish,onemustconsiderthetypesofteacherswhowillbeattractedtothisprofession.Ifthisisthewaythatpubliceducationwillgo,privateeducationisunlikelytofollowandsubsequentlypubliceducationwill, asBourdieu (1986)believes, continue to reproduce the statusquoinsteadofchangeit.ThetransformativepowerofschoolsandteachersthatMills(2008)describesisvital;however,reformsthatlimitteachers’abilitiestoexerciseprofessionaljudgmentmayalsobelimitingteacherefficacyandstudentpotential.
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As discussed in the thereotical framework, issues of equity must be con-sideredinrelationtoreformssuchasscriptedcurricula.Administrators,schooldistrictofficials,andpolicymakersshouldseriouslyconsiderthelocalnatureofteachingthatCochran-SmithandLytle(2009)describe.TheTFAteachersinthisstudydemonstratethatateacher’sabilitytomeettheindividualneedsofstudentsisrelatedtoteacherautonomyandtheabilitytoexerciseprofessionaljudgment.Ascriptedcurriculumoramandatedinstructionalmodelwillnevermeetallstudents’needs.FutureresearchregardingnewteachersexperienceswithscriptedcurriculaisneededtohelpdeterminethebalancebetweensupportanddictationthatKauff-manetal.(2002)illustrate.AdditionalresearchisalsoneededtoconsideriforhowTFAteachersdifferfromothernewteachersinregardstoexperienceswithscriptedcurricula.TheteachersinthisstudydidnotnecessarilyalwaysactbasedontheirbeliefsintheTFAmission.Inregardstoscriptedcurricula,someteachersinthisstudyacknowledgedthattheydidnotknowexactlywhattodo,andsomeweremorehesitanttodeviatethanothersforthatreason.Furthermore,theteachersinthisstudywitnessedandexperienceddistrictlayoffsthatmayhavecontributedtotheirhesitancytodeviate.Asstatedabove,theseteachersconsistentlyreferencedwantingtodowhattheybelievedwasbestfortheirstudents.
Implications
ThisstudypresentspotentialimplicationsforTFAtoconsideraddressingscriptedcurriculaintheirteacher-trainingprograms.AsTFAattemptstoeffecteducationalchange(Kopp,2008),oneTFAteacherinthisstudysuggestedthatTFAhelpcorpsmembersbecomeeffectiveagentsofchangewithintheirschools.Itwouldbeuse-fulforTFAtoexplicitlyhelpcorpsmemberspresent“solutionsorientatedideastopeopleinpower,”asasecond-yearTFAteacherrecommended. Thisstudyhaspossibleimplicationsforschools,districts,andpoliciesdeal-ingwithissuesofteacherretention,satisfaction,andprofessionalism.Althoughalloftheteachersindicatedthattheywouldstayinteaching,manynotedduringtheinterviewsthattheywereconsideringchangingschools.Themoraldilemmasdescribedaboveaswellasissuesofsatisfactionandprofessionalismaredirectlyrelated to teacher retention.For example, the teachers in this studyconsideredchangingschoolsinordertohavemoreautonomyorbecauseofdisagreementswiththeirschool’seducationalphilosophy. Asalternativelycertifiedteachers,theparticipantsinthisstudyacknowledgedthattheymaynothaveallofthecontentorpedagogicalknowledge,yettheystillknowtheirstudentsandwanttobeabletomakethebestdecisionsforthem.Theseteachersquestionedthequalityofinstructiontheyprovidedwithscriptedcurricula.Becauseincreasingnumbersofteacherearncertificationthroughnon-traditionalroutes (Darling-Hammond,Chung,&Frelow,2002;Garcia&Huseman,2009;Feistritzer,2009),additionalresearchthatconsidershowtosupportTFAandother
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alternativelycertifiedteacherstodealwithsignificantpedagogicalissues—suchasscriptedcurricula—thatariseintheeraofhighstakestestingandaccountabilityisofvitalimportance.
Note 1TheKauffmanetal.(2002)studyinterviewedfiftyfirstandsecondyearteachersinMassachusettsincludingteachersat“traditionalpublicschoolsandatcharterschools;aturbanschoolsandsuburbanschools;andatelementary,middle,andhighschools”(p.276).
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