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PHILOSOPHY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SCHEME OF WORK
Learning Outcomes
Synopsis of Course Contents
Method of Delivery
Assessment Methods
References
Page iv
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
1.1 The Term „Childhood‟ Used in Early Childhood Education 1
1.2 The Importance of Childhood Education 2
CHAPTER 2: PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
2.1 Introduction to Philosophy 4
2.2 Philosophy of Education 5
2.3 Why Must Teachers Know the Philosophy of Early Childhood Education? 5
2.4 How to Build Your Own Teaching Philosophy 6
2.5 How to Prepare Yourself to Become a Professional Educator in Early
Childhood Education 6
CHAPTER 3: EDUCATION EXPERTS AND THEIR INFLUENCE IN EARLY
CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
3.1 Martin Luther (1483 – 1546) 8
3.2 Johann Henrich Pestalozzi (1746 – 1827) 8
CHAPTER 4: EXPERTS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
4.1 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778) 12
4.2 John Amos Comenius (1592 – 1670) 14
4.3 John Locke (1632 – 1704) 16
CHAPTER 5: EXPERTS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION FROM
MIDDLE EAST
5.1 Imam Al-Ghazali (1058 – 1111) 17
5.2 Ibnu Khaldun (1332 – 1406) 21
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PHILOSOPHY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
CHAPTER 6: PIONEERS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION FROM
THE WEST
6.1 Robert Owen (1771 – 1858) 23
6.2 Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel (1782 – 1852) 24
6.3 Maria Montessori (1870 – 1952) 28
6.4 John Dewey (1859 – 1952) 31
CHAPTER 7: MODELS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
7.1 Bank Street “Developmental Interaction” Approach 33
7.2 Cognitively Oriented Programme: High/Scope Perry Preschool Programme 35
7.3 The Bereiter-Engelmann or Direct Instruction Model (Preschool Academic or
DISTAR) 37
CHAPTER 8: MODELS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
8.1 Montessori Model 41
8.2 Reggio Emilia Approach 48
CHAPTER 9: MODELS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
9.1 Sure Start Model 51
9.2 Head Start Model 52
9.3 What is the Difference Between the Head Start and Sure Start? 53
CHAPTER10: EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA
10.1 National Philosophy of Education 57
10.2 The Objectives of Preschool Education 59
10.3 The Pillars of Preschool Curriculum 60
CHAPTER 11: DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN
MALAYSIA BEFORE AND AFTER INDEPENDENCE
11.1 The Historical Development of Preschool Education in Overseas 61
11.2 The Development of Preschool Education in Malaysia 62
CHAPTER12: PRESENT ISSUES IN CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
12.1 Changing Families 65
12.2 Wellness and Healthy Living 65
12.3 Poverty 66
12.4 Housing 66
12.5 Children‟s Illness 66
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PHILOSOPHY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
CHAPTER 13: PRESCHOOL EDUCATION ACT
13.1 Preschool Education Act 67
13.2 Declaration of the Rights of the Child 68
13.3 Basic Rights of the Child 68
CHAPTER 14: SETTING EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION CENTRE
14.1 Introduction 72
14.2 Planning the Setting Up of a Child Care Centre 72
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PHILOSOPHY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
SCHEME OF WORK
Programme : Executive Diploma in Early Childhood Education
Course Code : UBSC 1102
Course Title : Philosophy on Early Childhood Education
Credit hours : 4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this course, students will be able to:
Compare the different views of the founders of preschool education
Discuss the preschool models and curriculum abroad
Describe on the current issues and trends of early childhood education
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is intended to introduce the founders of early childhood and to develop a philosophy
of early childhood education. Also, students can compare the different views and discuss the
models of early childhood education locally and globally. The history of early childhood
education development will also be exposed as well as current issues, the Education Acts and the
children‟s rights.
TEACHING METHODS
Lectures, discussions, negotiation and presentations.
ASSESSMENT METHODS
Continuous Assessment 50%
Examination 50%
Total 100%
REFERENCES
1. Nor Hashimah Hashim, Panduan pendidikan prasekolah, (Pts Publications 7 Distributers
Sdn Bhd., 2003)
2. Eva L. Essa, Chapter 5: Introduction to early childhood education, (Delmar Publisher, 6th
Edition., 2010)
3. Morrison. G., Early children education today, (Merill Prentice Hall., 2001)
4. Azizah Lebai Nordin, Pendidikan awal kanak-kanak, teori dan amali, (Universiti Malaya.,
2002)
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PHILOSOPHY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO EARLY CHILDHOOD
EDUCATION
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
explain some of the terminologies used in Early Childhood Education
explain why Childhood Education is important
1.1 The term ‘Childhood’ used in Early Childhood Education
It is important for those involved in childhood education to know and use the
terminologies of the early childhood profession. The term is used by NAEYC
(National Association for the Education of Young Children).
Childhood is referred to the period from birth to eight years old.
Early Childhood Programme is any group programme in a centre, school or other
facilities that serves children from birth through eight years old in part-day and full-
day group programmes at centres, homes and institutions, kindergarten and primary
schools.
Another way early childhood programmes can be grouped is by the age of the
children. The classification are: infants, toddlers, preschoolers, kindergarten and
children in the primary schools. Generally these are terms used for the programmes
and the purpose and age served. Some Examples of Early Childhood Programmes
(Morrison 2001):
Childcare: play/socialisation; baby-sitting
Family day care: provides care for a group of children in a home setting
Employer/Corporate Child care: Settings for meeting care needs
Nursery school (public or private): Play/socialisation, cognitive development
Pre-primary: preparing for first grade
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PHILOSOPHY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
Primary: Teaches skills associated with grade 1, 2, 3
Early Childhood Education: consists of services provided by early childhood
profession. Early Childhood Professionals are:
Early Childhood Educator: work with young children and has committed
to self development by participating in specialised training and
programmes to extend professional knowledge and competence
Early Childhood Teacher: responsible for planning and conducting
Early Childhood Assistant Teacher: Plans and implement activities
Care giver: provide care and education and protection for the very young
in or outside the home include parents, relatives, child care workers and
early childhood teachers.
1.2 The Importance of Early Childhood Education
Early childhood education is important and it has to be given the appropriate attention
because:
The optimum development of the brain in relation to sensory and language
happens before a child reaches first year of life while cognitive development
peaks by age two to three. Thus, the early years are crucial because the brain is
most malleable; the brain’s capacity to change decreases with age, especially
after three (Perry, 2000; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).
This point of view is the same as Piaget’s theory in which cognitive
development is at its peak during the motor sensory stage that is since birth
until two years old. At this stage, children use a lot of motor sensory such as
sucking, crying, and gripping. In addition, at this stage children develop their
basic knowledge and skills which are related to four characteristics: (1)
knowledge about an object, (2) causes for things that happen, (3) space, and
(4) time. Such knowledge becomes the foundation for a more sophisticated
development. The second stage in cognitive development according to Piaget
is the pre-operational stage (2-6 years old). At this stage, children use
symbols/names for the objects in their surroundings. After mastering the
language, children will now learn to relate names with the objects. The
thinking is now more concrete, egocentric but does not understand the concept
of retention. The focus of observation at this stage is only on one aspect and
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other aspects are ignored. At the end of this stage, children become less
egocentric and begin to develop their schema towards more general and more
abstract and they are more capable of solving problems.
Play is another commonality among all children. It is a need that serves
children as a means of learning about and making sense of the world. Play
promotes mastery as children practise skills. Imam Al-Ghazali, a renowned
Islamic philosopher stressed on the aspect of play (refer to Chapter 5). Froebel
stated that playing is life and is the highest stage in childhood development
(refer to chapter 6). These signify that parents and relevant parties such as the
government and teachers should focus and emphasise on early childhood
education.
Young children are beginning to form self-concept, perception development,
and feelings about themselves. A healthy self-concept is vital to all areas of a
child. (Refer to chapter 5 Basic Child Development)
Group Discussion
What are the common terms used for Early Childhood Programmes in Malaysia? Prepare a
group presentation.
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PHILOSOPHY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
CHAPTER 2
PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
explain the concept of philosophy and philosophy of education
discuss why teachers must know the Philosophy of Early Childhood Education
2.1 Introduction to Philosophy
Philosophy derives from the Greek word philosophia which means love of
wisdom. Initially, the term ‘philosophy’ was used by Pythagoras which separated
human beings into three types: those who love fun, those who love activities, and
those who love wisdom.
According to Socrates, the function of philosophy is to gain self-knowledge.
According to Plato, the goal of philosophy is to get absolute truth.
According to Aristotle, this discipline is related to the research of causes and the
principle of the matter.
Omar Al-Syaibani (1991) translated ‘wisdom’ as blessing. In describing the
meaning of philosophy, he said that philosophy is not the blessing itself but is
actually love towards the blessing and the hard work in order to get the blessing.
That is why a philosopher is someone who loves blessing and works really hard to
achieve it, focuses all his attention on it, and creates a positive attitude towards it.
Other than looking for the nature of things, a philosopher also tries to connect
causes and effects and interprets experiences of human beings.
Other than defining philosophy as a love towards cleverness, Shofield (1977:3)
also defined philosophy as ‘the process of asking questions’. He refered to
Socrates who used the questioning method in order to gain true knowledge. He
used questioning to explain one’s ideas to abolish mistakes in a person’s mind.
Socrates believed that most people accept other people’s opinions secondarily.
Without any research, they simply use the information without fully
understanding it. Socrates felt that he is the most brilliant person because he never
pretends that he knows something which he does not know.
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The definition which is used by Shofield is suitable for early childhood education
because children are always asking their parents, teachers, siblings, and caretakers
about things that they are curious to know. The role of parents, caretakers and
teachers is to explain about it.
In everyday life, philosophy is generally described as a viewpoint, lifestyle or
principles which someone embraces in his life and he uses it as a guideline in his
actions, choices or decisions (Omar Al-Syaibani 1992).
2.2 Philosophy of Education
The philosophy of education is a belief about how children develop and learn and how
they should be taught. One’s philosophy of life determines what should be taught to
children. The philosophy of education that is internalised by a teacher would help him
in determining the direction and goal of his teaching. A teacher’s faith about how
children learn well determines the teacher’s choice of teaching strategies, whether to
use a teaching method based on individuals or to teach the same things in the same
way to each child. The teacher’s philosophy also determines whether the teacher
assists children to do activities for their sake or for the children’s own sake.
2.3 Why Must Teachers Know the Philosophy of Early Childhood Education?
Knowing the philosophy of education is vital to teachers because teachers have
goals in every action taken.
By knowing the ideas of the philosophers, it helps teachers to choose a suitable
programme for children under their care. This could provide confidence to the
teacher in implementing his tasks as a teacher.
The ideas of the philosophers could assist teachers in understanding the ways to
implement teaching strategies.
By exploring, analysing and discovering the philosophers’ ideas, early childhood
educators could gain inspiration to re-evaluate their own views and motivate them
to always do their best.
White and Coleman (2000) stated that the philosophy of education that is
internalised by the teacher does not only help him in his interactions with children
but also help him in understanding in depth about teaching practices. It could also
differentiate what have been practiced by other teachers.
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However, the philosophy that is internalised by a teacher would change after the
teacher has learnt more theories about early childhood education, acquired related
knowledge about children’s development and teaching practices, and gained
practical experience in classrooms.
2.4 How to Build Your Own Teaching Philosophy
Discuss with your colleagues.
Visit other early childhood education centres.
Read related articles in journals or books.
Join societies related to early childhood education.
Attend related workshops.
2.5 How to Prepare Yourself To Become a Professional Educator in Early
Childhood Education
Build the philosophy of education and teaching
Evaluate your need to become a dedicated teacher in your profession
Familiarise yourself with activities related to teaching
Explore various programmes related to early childhood education
Talk to professionals in this field to know better about matters related to
teaching
Ask yourself if you are willing to work hard
Are you energetic enough to teach?
Are you really interested to be a good teacher?
Analyse your attitude and feelings towards children and their families
Are you patient and tolerant of the various behaviours of parents?
Do you like children and are you patient with their diverse behaviours?
You should have the confidence that all children have the ability to learn
Do you know that children posses a variety of intelligence to be nurtured?
Enhance your skill and improve your knowledge by:
Registering in education classes
Attending meetings and conferences
Reading books and journals
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Updating yourself with current issues, children and basic knowledge which
keep on changing
Try new things
Latest methods
Latest strategies
Grab the chances to experience all sorts of children who come from different
backgrounds.
Go to various places which provide opportunities to you
Reflection
List down the qualities that u have as a child educator.
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CHAPTER 3
EDUCATION EXPERTS AND THEIR INFLUENCE IN
EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
explain the concept of early childhood education by Martin Luther
discuss the importance of early childhood education by Johann Henrich Pestalozzi
3.1 Martin Luther (1483-1546)
Martin Luther was a German monk, priest, and professor in Theology and is very
truthful to his religion.
He believed that if every individual could read, it would be easy for him to
understand the word of God mentioned in the Bible; hence he would not have to
rely on others to interpret it.
He suggested that primary education should be given to all children including girls
for their overall development—intellectual, religion, physical, emotional, and
social.
He regarded those who were not concerned about their children’s education as the
most sinful.
Among Luther’s views that have always influenced early childhood education are:
the importance of a home and a family as the foundation in building a solid
government and social regulations
parents must send their children to school
the importance of music in education
equal rights for all citizens
3.2 Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827)
Born in Zurich, Switzerland. Extremely influenced by Rousseau’s ideas and book
Emile which is related to the concept of nature.
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He bought a farm to be made as a testing point for agricultural method. While
working at this farm, a great interest towards education emerged in him. In 1774,
he opened a school for poor children at the farm which was known as Neuhof.
Pestalozzi developed his ideas that integrate life at home, vocational education,
and education for reading and writing.
At this school, he applied Rousseau’s view which makes children’s natural
capabilities as the basis for teaching.
Because of the great influence by Rousseau’s natural concept, he taught his son
Jean-Jacques by using Emile as a guide. He failed in educating his son through
Rousseau’s idea because his son still could not read and write at the age of 12.
This condition might be due to his son’s physical problem (his son was suffering
from epilepsy) or might be due to the fact that he failed to interpret Rousseau’s
ideas which were abstract and therefore failed to put all the ideas into practice.
What could be learnt from his failures is that early childhood educators should not
depend fully on children’s initiative and expect that children learn all that they
need to know by themselves (Morrison 2001).
His work was built on the foundation of educational philosophy expounded by
Plato in which childhood was seen as a time of plasticity and expression of innate
goodness.
Pestalozzi’s view on childhood.
Pestalozzi’s philosophy: children learn through sense observation and perception.
Influenced by Rousseau’s focus on natural environment as a vehicle in freeing the
spirit of children.
He created the child-centred curriculum
Environment is very important. The preparation of environment to resemble the
home was a prime importance in setting the stage for children’s experiential learning.
He believed that a home-like environment creates an emotional security, the first
principle of education.
Based on his views of natural development, he designed sequence curriculum
in which material and instruction were matched to children level of
development.
Activities were organised in sequences
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Other principles
Role of teacher
The relationship between a teacher and a student represents mother and child
relationship
Child readiness
Child to please teacher rather fear
No reward—intrinsic motivation
Home and school as continuous
The nurturing attitude of the teacher
Role of Parents
Mother is the best teacher in educating children.
3.2.1 His Ideas on Education
Pestalozzi believed that the technique of teaching through remembering and
memorising is not effective. He stressed on the use of authentic materials and self-
exploration in teaching children.
One of Pestalozzi’s precious contributions is the shaping of a teaching method
which is suitable with individual needs. He believed that children need to be
involved in activities which are meaningful to them based on their interests and
experience.
He also suggested that children be taught in stages based on their capabilities and
effort.
Pestalozzi believed that education is based on sensory experiences. Children can
achieve their natural potential through suitable sensory experiences. He developed
an object-based teaching technique which derived from this belief.
Pestalozzi believed that the best way in the learning concept is through
manipulative such as counting, measuring, tasting and touching.
He also believed in multi-age grouping. In such grouping, the older children can
help the younger ones.
He believed that a mother is the best teacher in educating children.
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Group Discussion
Discuss Martin’s and Pestalozzi’s contribution to teaching and learning.
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CHAPTER 4
EXPERTS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
explain Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s views on education that influence Early Childhood
Education
discuss the principle of teaching by Amos Comenius
4.1 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a French philosophé.
He was known for his book Emile which discusses caretaking and education of
children. Emile, as visualised by Rousseau in his novel, was raised in an island
unpolluted by environmental influence that is filled with malevolence. Emile
learnt from natural environment by using her senses taught by her parents in a
beautiful atmosphere. Rousseau visualised Emile as a very capable child, raised
and developed in an environment which was not influenced by any external
disturbance.
He believed that education should begin at birth and continue until an individual
reached age 25. He emphasised on the need to support children’s natural
development instead of using instruction to socialise children and prepare them
for life. Freedom, not power, is the greatest good. “That man is truly free who
desires what he is able to perform, and does what he desires. This is my
fundamental maxim. Apply it to childhood and all the rules of education spring
from it” (Rousseau, 1762 pg 48).
His view on children education is known as naturalism. For Rousseau, naturalism
means leaving the influence of the society which is fake and untruthful.
Naturalism education allows individual development without obstacles and
disturbances.
For Rousseau, natural education could enhance qualities such as happiness,
spontaneity, and inquisitiveness.
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Rousseau’s philosophy is that human beings are noble basically, therefore,
education must be encouraged so that nobility could be well-developed. In
Rousseau’s point of view, human beings must live in a natural environment
without any unhealthy influence from the society. In his book ‘Emile’, Rousseau
views the world as ‘God makes all things good; man meddles with them and they
become evil’ (Barbara 1933:5) in (Morrison 2001:3).
In the aspect of early childhood education, Rousseau thought that children are
good at birth. They must be allowed to express their capability and feelings freely.
Each child has a unique potential which needs to be fully developed. Rousseau
believed that social and emotional equilibrium should be given priority compared
to the collection of information and skills.
Four things that are stressed in his philosophy are freedom, development, interest,
and activity. In Rousseau’s point of view, because the education process is
focused on children, therefore, children’s needs and their spontaneous
development process are the foundation of education (White & Coleman 2001).
His biggest contribution is the description on the natural characteristics of children
based on different ages. Rousseau’s point of view on such education has shaped a
curriculum which is arranged based on the different age as well as interests and
activities of the children.
Because of the fact that education must be based on children’s experience while
using objects before recognising symbols, textbooks are not important for children
until they reach the age of 12.
The role of a teacher is as guidance which allows the children themselves to
explore in order to gain knowledge and not depend on teachers who use textbooks
while teaching.
He also proposed a theory on education which stated that learning happens
through direct observation on authentic materials (Boyd 1914) in (White &
Coleman 2000).
Because Rousseau stressed on the natural development of children, its curriculum
consists of activities which are based on children’s natural experience through
senses. For example, geometry and mathematics are not taught formally but are
introduced as experience-based activities.
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Rousseau believed that children must be exposed to the use of various objects
which can be applied in counting, measuring, scaling or comparing. By allowing
children to make use of their natural capabilities while exploring various objects,
they can understand the characteristics of things such as hot, cold, hard, sizes, and
shapes.
Rousseau also thought that children’s education should begin at birth.
In terms of teaching, Rousseau asked parents and teachers to encourage children
to develop according to their natural capabilities.
Parents and teachers should observe children’s development and prepare
experiences based on suitable periods of time.
From Rousseau’s point of view, education happens through three sources: natural
conditioning, human beings, and materials.
4.2 John Amos Comenius (1592-1670)
Comenius was born in Moravia, Czechoslovakia and was also a minister in
Moravia. He spent his time mostly as a priest, teaching in schools, and writing
books. Among his books are The Great Didactic and The Orbis Pictus (The World
in Picture) which was the first pictorial book for children. In 1628 John Amos
Comenius wrote School of Infancy, which included his idea of the ‘school of the
mother lap’ where the child from birth to six learned the rudiments of all
knowledge. There are simple lessons in objects; taught to know stones, plants, and
animals; the names and uses of the members of the body; to distinguish light and
darkness and colours; the geography of cradle, the room, the farm, and the street;
and taught to say the Lord Prayer’
Comenius’s point of view on childhood education are:
Education should be based on the natural environment, interest, and
experience of a child. Early childhood educators should observe the capability
of children to avoid from forcing them to learn something which they are not
prepared for.
A well-planned experience is necessary for the development of a natural idea
from children and they learn through interactions with various materials.
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Learning can achieve its goal when it involves senses, and education which
uses such senses is often treated as the foundation to all types of learning.
Teaching should consist of materials which are natural and authentic. These
materials should be taken close to the children.
Education is vital. Therefore, the chances to be educated should be given to
everybody.
Schools are the best agent in educating the society as well as individuals.
Education of an individual should begin since small because at this time they
are still fragile and easy to educate. He likened children to candles and trees.
When soft, candles are easy to mould but when they harden, they are easy to
break. The same goes for trees. When they are still small, they are easy to be
planted, adjusted and cut, but when they have matured, they become very hard
and the process becomes difficult.
He also believed that basically, human beings are noble. Therefore, the
education given should be in the form of positive experiences with the
elements of freedom and fun.
In teaching children, Comenius thought that children are not supposed to be
taught with names which are separated from the materials or pictures of the
materials.
4.2.1 The Principle of Teaching
Comenius said that education would be easier if:
it starts from a very early stage while the brain is still fresh and clean
the brain is ready to receive education
it starts from general to specific
it begins from easy to difficult
it is not burdened with too many subjects
the process is not too fast
it is based on the right age and method
it is taught using senses
the teaching aids are shown
all that is taught uses the same method (Morrison 1995:58)
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4.3 John Locke (1632-1704)
The philosopher played a role in laying the foundation for Pestalozzi’s ideas.
Locke was considered the founder of environmentalism trend who thought that the
natural condition of human beings does not exist from birth but is produced by the
influence of the environment. An individual receives knowledge through his
experience that is connected with the term tabula rasa or blank slate. Locke
treated children as blank papers. The outcome of the environment which a person
experienced will influence him. Every child is born with equal capabilities in
terms of mental and learning development. The things that differentiate learning
achievement and behaviour of an individual are environment factors such as the
condition of the family and home, socio-economic status of the family, early
education, and also experience.
Locke believed that experience influences the state of an individual. He stressed
that the use of sight, taste, smell and hearing are effective educational methods for
children. His idea was used by subsequent educators such as Maria Montessori
who created an education system which is based on the use of senses.
Locke also admitted the importance of playing because the method of teaching
through playing makes children learn faster and they will have more fun.
Other than that, Locke also believed that intellectual development in terms of
memory and reasoning could be developed through the teaching of specific
subjects such as classic language and mathematics.
Locke focused more on the development of characters, morale, physical and
mental. In terms of learning, he thought that the learning process is more
important than the learning outcome as the ultimate goal in education.
Activities
Compare the three views of the expert in the childhood education.
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PHILOSOPHY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
CHAPTER 5
EXPERTS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
FROM MIDDLE EAST
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
discuss Imam Al-Ghazali’s eating ritual and advice to teachers
discuss Ibnu Khaldun’s view on education of young children
5.1 Al-Ghazali (1058-1111)
Abu Hamid Muhammad bin Muhammad Al-Ghazali was born in 450 H/1058 M
in Ghazali, a small town located at Thus (Khurasan territory), Iran which is now
known as Meshed. He was a student of Imam al-Haramyn, Abu al-Ma’ali al-
Juwaini. He was an expert in the field of fiqh al-Syafii’ and Kalam al-Asy’ari.
He was a teacher at University of Nidzamiyah, Baghdad.
He was a renowned Islamic philosopher. He had published almost a hundred
books.
One of his famous books was Ihya’ Ulumuddin. This book was written after he
realised that Muslim people had started to forget the religion.
Al-Ghazali stressed on early childhood education.
He once said that parents should observe their children’s education since birth.
They should not ask people to take care or breastfeed their children except for a
pious woman, who is excellent in her religion and only eats what is halal (Syaikh
Muhammad Jamaluddin:443).
Views from Ihya’ Ulummiddin about children’s education
Children are parents’ responsibilities. Their uncorrupted hearts are like
pearls, highly valuable, pure, and untainted from any lines and forms.
They would accept and be inclined towards whatever is given to them.
If children are raised in good manners, they would grow up in a good
environment and thus become good human beings. Parents, teachers,
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caretakers, and other people who are involved in educating these children
would get reward from God.
On the contrary, if children are exposed to bad behaviour and their
education is disregarded, they would grow up as bad people and their sins
would be borne by their parents and those accountable to take care of
them.
Al-Ghazali stressed on eating rituals. They are:
Take food only with right hand.
Recite Bismillah before eating.
Take food that is directly in front of you.
Do not rush to take food before other people.
Do not look wildly at the food or at the faces of the people who are eating.
Do not hurry while eating.
Bite your food carefully and slowly before swallowing.
Do not put food into your mouth too quickly.
Do not get your hands and clothes dirty with food.
Get familiar with eating without dishes at certain times so that you are not
hoping to have dishes at all times when you eat.
Parents must always remind their children that eating too much is a bad habit.
Al- Ghazali regarded people who eat too much as animals.
Al-Ghazali advised parents to send their children to schools so that they could
learn how to recite al-Quran and Hadith of Rasulullah SAW, listen to the
stories of pious people and their life history so that children could take them as
examples.
Children should be forbidden from listening to sexual stories because it is
believed that such stories could threaten the moral of their children.
Reward
Al-Ghazali stressed on rewarding children. He stated that when children show
good manners, they should be rewarded and complimented so that they would
be happy. But when children accidentally make mistakes, parents should
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pretend as if they did not notice the mistake and do not ever embarrass them
by telling other people about the mistakes done.
But if they repeat the same mistake for the second time, parents should talk to
them discreetly and tell them that they should not do such things. Parents
should remind them not to repeat the same mistake because they would be
ashamed if other people know about it.
In advising children, parents should not criticise them too much because they
would be too familiar with it and they would not be scared to do the same
mistake again. Any advice would not be effective any longer. Therefore
parents should not get angry easily except for certain circumstances. Children
should also be reminded that they should respect their parents and should
avoid bad manners.
Children should not be encouraged to sleep during the day because then they
would develop a habit of laziness in themselves. However do not forbid them
from sleeping at night.
Al-Ghazali wanted children to sleep on a hard mattress so that their bodies
would be firm, strong and slim.
Children should be trained on how to behave at special occasions. They should
not do the following:
spit or force out nasal mucus in front of people at an occasion
yawn in front of people
sit with their backs to other people
sit cross-legged
support their chin with their hand
lean their head against their arms because it shows laziness
Al-Ghazali also advised:
Occupy children’s leisure time.
Educate children with appropriate religious practices such as special practices
and general practices like praying. The teaching method is by stages in terms
of behaviour and recitation.
Explain to them about religion, not only in theory but also its practical.
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Children should be explained about the disadvantages of stealing and forbid
them from eating haram food.
Children must be taught how to be humble.
Do not teach children to lie.
Children should be taught how to be modest in their behaviour.
Children should be advised not to get mixed up with bad people.
Do not let children to be too comfortable.
Teach children how to give and not to receive. Giving is noble but if we
receive from other people, it is disgraceful.
Must be strict with children.
Play
Imam Al-Ghazali stresses on the aspect of play because:
Playing is the nature of children.
Playing could develop small bodies and strengthen muscles.
Playing could make children happy.
Playing could make children relax after getting tired of studying.
Al-Ghazali forbade parents from imposing extreme punishment on children.
He suggested that parents should avoid from degrading their children too
much and avoid from focusing on their weakness; instead parents should
shape their nature and instinct carefully.
Children should not feel too proud of themselves in front of their friends.
Children should not be encouraged to ask for other people’s sympathy and
those particular people should not side with the children.
Teachers or caretakers must show their love towards children as they would to
their own children.
Al-Ghazali’s advise to teachers
Children should be taught by a woman who is religious because she could
influence them.
Children’s bad behaviour should be treated well and not by insulting.
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Teach the children based on their capability. Do not teach them a content of a
higher level because it would intimidate the children.
Teachers should practice what they teach, not just talking without doing.
Teachers should follow Rasulullah SAW in teaching where the Prophet did
not ask for any fees or expression of thanks in return, but teach in the name of
Allah and search to bring himself closer to Him. However, children should
remember other people’s kindness towards them.
Al-Ghazali thought that a teacher should feel that he has done something good
teaching the children to be close to Allah by imparting knowledge.
From Al-Ghazali’s point of view, it can be concluded that his approach is
more towards educating children with spiritual and morality.
However, he also stressed on physical development by encouraging children
to play.
5.2 Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406)
A renowned Islamic philosopher. In Islamic history, he was a well-known
historical and sociology figure.
Ibn Khaldun was born in Tunisia on 1st
Ramadan 732H (27 May, 1332M). He
obtained his basic education from his father who was a renowned scholar.
Ibn Khaldun could memorise the al-Quran and he was an expert in nahu, fiqh,
hadith, rhetoric, philosophy, and poetry.
His works had contributed a lot in understanding civilisation.
His views on education
Children should not be taught difficult matters.
Learn from the easiest to the most difficult in stages by using the method of
drilling and concrete materials as teaching aids.
Do not burden children with things that are out of their capability because this
would make them not willing to learn and hate what they learn.
Since centuries ago, Ibn Khaldun had been discussing about these concepts:
learning willingness
motivation
reinforcement
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practice
observation
individual differences
In teaching al-Quran to small children, Ibn Khaldun forbade teachers from
teaching Tafsir, regulations and others except reciting until the children are
matured enough.
Ways to teach children
He forbade teachers or parents from teaching children with cruelty because it
could make children lazy, liars, and pretentious in order to hide the truth. Such
attitude could become a habit and children would lose sense of humanity.
In his book Muqaddimah Ibn Khaldun, he stated that: “Cruelty would make
them lazy and they would lie as well as become cunning. That is, their actions
are different from what they think, because they are scared of being abused if
they tell the truth” (Ibn Khaldun 1993:776).
Ways to learn
In terms of learning time, it should not be too long because it would make
children forget. Teaching within a short time using the right method could
generate better learning.
In terms of language, he stated that language is the foundation of all
knowledge. Language teaching started from writing and reading, and then
words are related to meanings.
Activities
Discuss how your own centre organises children eating time.
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CHAPTER 6
PIONEERS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
FROM THE WEST
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
explain the idea of pioneers concept of early childhood Education
a) Robert Owen
b) Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel
c) Montessori
d) John Dewey
6.1 Robert Owen (1771-1858)
Owen was an environmentalist. He believed that the environment in which a child
is taught and educated is the factor that contributes to the belief, attitude, and
achievement of the child. He also believed that society shapes a child’s personal
behaviour.
Owen believed that a good behaviour should be nurtured while children are still
small and their behaviour is basically influenced by the environment.
Owen has opened an ‘infant school’ in 1816 at New Lanark, Scotland, a model of
factory town which he managed to educate 100 children from the age of 18
months to 10 years old while their parents were working at his cotton factory. His
effort leads to the opening of another ‘infant school’ in London in 1818.
Among the objectives of opening such schools were to educate children who have
uneducated parents while at the same time provide education to the workers to
make them rational people. Owen opened an evening school for them.
Owen’s contributions
The first children’s school which preceded Froebel’s kindergarten by almost a
quarter of a century.
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His ideas and practices have influenced educators in terms of the importance
of early education and the relation between education and social advancement.
6.2 Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel (1782-1852)
An expert in German education. Spent most of his time forming an early
childhood education system.
Froebel learnt from Pestalozzi and worked with him. Compared to Pestalozzi who
focused on teaching, Froebel created early childhood curriculum and teaching
method. He was known as ‘father of the kindergarten’.
As a result of his close relationship with Pestalozzi and his reading on Rousseau’s
works, Froebel opened a school to practice his ideas. He founded a children’s
school in 1837. This school was called kindergarten. ‘Kinder’ means children,
‘garten’ means garden. Therefore, children’s garden should be filled with beauty
in order to attract children’s attention.
Froebel was very religious. He thought that human beings are generally good
people and the world is the place to work and manifest towards God. He believed
that human beings are responsible to understand the world and live in it truthfully.
Froebel’s contribution in education was in the field of learning, curriculum,
teaching methodology, and teacher training. His concept on children and how they
learn is based on the idea termed as unfolding (developing process such as a
blossoming flower) which was formerly founded by Comenius and Pestalozzi.
The educator’s role, either parents or teachers is to make observations on natural
unfolding and provide activities which enable children to learn when they are
ready. The teacher’s role is to develop the quality to learn. Teachers are treated as
designers of children’s experience and activities.
Froebel treated children like a seed that has just been planted, began to sprout and
produce shoots; it grows from soft to hard and finally produce fruits. He likened
teachers to a gardener. In a garden full of children, they are educated in a close
environment which is harmonious in nature.
Froebel’s views on kindergarten
Kindergarten should be filled with beauty to attract children’s attention. At
least, it has to be painted with bright colours, bright rooms, and full of various
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plants, animals and pictures, sounds and toys which are objects in simple
shapes, sizes and colours.
To provide comfort to children, it has to be equipped with suitable tables and
chairs according to the size of the children. It is not equipped with adult tables
and chairs or placed in a small area that could stop the flow of activities. In
other words, it has to portray a comfortable room that would make it easy to
implement activities.
Kindergarten is an institution which enables children to mix with their peers
without strict control from parents and teachers. The atmosphere in a
kindergarten should be able to prevent children from bad influence from the
society and natural disasters.
At kindergarten, children’s mental, physical, and social development should
be nurtured. It is an approach towards children’s exercises.
He thought that education is the character building of children. Education
should be based on the needs and capabilities of the children. Children learn
something through doing. Children should be treated as children and they must
be given freedom. Early childhood education is important because it is the
foundation of upcoming education. He stated that life is an evolution process,
advancing an individual would also advance the society. Both have an
influence on the other. Kindergarten is like a foundation for societal exercises
such as cooperativeness, self-effort, motivating attitude, respectfulness,
cleanliness and encouraging systematic and good health.
Teaching strategies
In terms of teaching and learning strategies of children, he stressed on the
method of playing and learning by doing. He stated that playing is life and
it is the highest stage in childhood development. Therefore, all work done
by children must have playing attributes. Children can generate their
uniqueness through playing. Play is a strategy in education which is
considered as Froebel’s biggest contribution in early childhood education.
Other than playing, Froebel also stressed on work training for children.
Therefore, all work done by children should have playing attributes. He
accepted Pestalozzi’s principles on the use of tools/objects in teaching to
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trigger interest in learning as well as the principle which says that all
education begin with the perception of senses.
Froebel categorised childhood early process between birth and six years
old to stages based on mental and physical development. There are three
stages: infancy, early childhood, and childhood.
In terms of schedule, he thought that the teaching time table of children
should not be restricted.
Exercises for children
Froebel created various exercises for each stage of childhood development.
For example, before a child leaves the cradle, he should be taught how to hold
and grip.
In order to train children with the activity mentioned above, Froebel invented
geometrical tools as toys for children. These materials are called gifts. Other
than that, he created a curriculum to train children to work such as
occupations, playing, singing, studying nature, language and mathematics to
enable children to understand the universal principle.
Among the occupations for children that Froebel suggested are paper cutting,
paper weaving, beads plaiting, drawing, embroidery and fabric weaving.
Children are taught to create the shapes that they want. Froebel’s goal was to
develop the aspects of physical, cognitive and social in children.
Gifts as suggested by Froebel are meant to train physical, mental, socio-
emotional and creativity of children. The tools that were invented by Froebel
range from easy to a more complicated one based on the children’s age. It also
started from a bigger unit to a smaller one. The first gift consists of six balls
made of wool of different colours.
Gift 1 has six soft balls made of wool with 2” in diameter. The ball has various
colours such as red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and purple. Each ball is
equipped with a string of 6” long and a hole is made at the end of the string so
that it swings. This toy is suitable for children of three months old until three
years old. Froebel admitted that a ball is a baby’s favourite toy. It is light and
easy to hold and grip. For Froebel, a ball is a symbol of oneness because it is a
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whole original shape. The whole is the initial concept to understand something
because each thing must be learnt from the whole concept.
Gift 2 has two 2” cube, one 2” cylinder, and one 2” sphere. Froebel named the
gift as “the children’s delight” which has different forms and designs. This gift
is suitable for children of the age of three and four.
Gift 3 is a 2” cube which can be found in Gift 2 which is now divided into
eight cubes measuring 1” each.
Gift 4 is a 2” cube which is divided into eight rectangular blocks of 2” x 1” x
½”. Children may look at the block as tiles or bricks, etc.
Gift 5 has a 3” cube divided into 21 1” cubes, six half cubes, and 12 ¼ cubes.
Gift 5 represents a bigger shape, 3” cubes and more in total as well as in
various shapes. There are cubes of half-shaped and ¼ introduces triangle. This
gift is suitable for children of age five and above.
Gift 6 has 3” cube which is divided into 18 rectangular blocks, 12 flat blocks,
in square shape, and six small pillars. This gift is suitable for children of age
five and above.
Gift 7 has 172 pieces of small boards of various shapes. Among the shapes are
squares, isosceles triangle, equilateral triangle, and right-angled triangle. Due
to the fact that this gift has various shapes, colours, and sizes, children can
separate the pieces according to the different shapes, colours, and sizes or
separate them based on more than two characteristics such as according to its
colours and shapes; colours and sizes; or colours, sizes, and shapes.
Gift 8 has a ring made of steel. There are also rings in half shape and also
wood. Children can separate these things according to shapes, as well as create
alphabets, create patterns, and many more depending on their own creativity.
Children can play with Gift 9 the same way they play with the other gifts
where they can separate the toys according to colours, patterns, etc. following
their creativity.
Gift 10 changes from a concrete shape into a more abstract shape. This gift is
built by joining the dots and lines to create various shapes.
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6.3 Maria Montessori (1870-1952)
A renowned educator in Rome, she had experience in education for spastic
children.
In 1899, she was involved in building a school for spastic children in Rome. She
spent two years with her friends training teachers in methods of observation and
spastic children education.
She spent a lot of time with children by observing and experimenting using
various materials and methods and she used all her ideas gained from her research.
Some of the children whom were labelled as ‘uneducable’ had learnt well that
they could now read and write. Some of them passed primary education with
better grades than normal children.
Teaching methodology
Montessori stresses on:
Suitable method in children’s learning problems.
Teaching aids should have special features so that children could make use of
their senses. The Montessori Method and its teaching stresses on sensory
teaching and learning. The teaching method in Montessori schools focuses on
training of seeing, hearing, and touching. Its purpose is so that children gain
experience and could make use of their senses efficiently.
In commenting about the effectiveness of teaching special children, she said “I
succeeded in teaching a number of the idiots from the asylums both to read
and to write so well that I was able to present them at a public school for an
examination together with normal children. And they passed the examination
successfully” (Morrison 1995:69).
Her contribution towards children and also the talks to the public whether in
Italy or other European countries made Maria Montessori famous because she
was a teacher and a doctor.
In 1904, she was asked to build a school for children in a slum area which was
a rehousing programme. The first and biggest school in San Lornso was meant
for children aged three until six. She named the school as Casa dei Bambini,
or the Children’s House in Italian (Lesley Britton, 1992).
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Two years later, a few more schools were founded. At these schools,
Montessori implemented her method on normal children. She believed that the
method that she used could benefit special children well and could improve
the achievement of normal children.
The principles of Montessori Method
1. Respect the children
According to Montessori, adults should treat children well.
They should be treated like children and not like adults. Adults could not
force children to accept their ideas.
Teachers and parents must respect children in various ways such as by
helping children learn to do the activities of their choice themselves
When children get to choose, they could develop their skills and
capabilities which are the foundations of effective learning, autonomy and
positive self-recognition.
2. Absorbent mind
How children gain knowledge is different from adults. If adults use their
thinking to gain knowledge, children use their physical attributes or senses.
From the age of three until six, by using conscious absorbent mind,
children could choose the information gained from their environment and
therefore enhance their senses.
At this stage, children could already master a few skills like
differentiating, matching, and grading colours.
Since born until the age of three, children’s thinking is termed as
unconscious absorbent mind which is developed through seeing, hearing,
tasting, smelling, and touching.
What children learn depends on the people around them in terms of the
way they talk, act, and their response towards other children.
Existing experience and the materials which have been prepared for
children also determine the type and quality of learning.
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3. Sensitive periods
Montessori believed that there were sensitive periods where at this time
children learn a few behaviours more effectively. (Many early childhood
educators equate sensitive periods with readiness)
All children would go through such stage but the period for each child is
different.
Parents and teachers should detect these sensitive periods and provide
experiences to develop children’s skills.
Parents and teachers should observe the children. Many educators viewed
that observation on children is more important than testing them.
Sensitive period in learning happens in the initial stage of life where there
are rapid development in terms of physical and language.
Teachers have three roles:
i) admit the existence of sensitive periods
ii) learn how to detect them
iii) provide experiences in developing children’s potential
4. Prepared environment
Children learn better in a prepared environment. Such environment could
be a classroom, at home, at a nursery or at a playground.
The goal of a prepared environment is to enable children to stand on their
own feet and not depend on adults. In fact, they do things for themselves.
5. Auto education
The meaning of auto education is when children could educate themselves
while doing activities in a prepared environment. Through involvement in
such activities, children could:
learn something
execute reflections
gain self-satisfaction
According to studies done by Montessori, all children have universal
characteristics. These characteristics are:
All children have absorbent minds.
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All children go through sensitive periods.
All children want to learn.
All children learn by playing/working.
All children go through various stages of development.
All children want to be independent.
6.4 John Dewey (1859-1952)
A renowned philosopher in America.
Dewey’s theory on schooling is known as progressivism which stresses on
children and their interests rather than subjects. The terms child-centred
curriculum and child-centred school were derived then.
Progressive philosophy also stresses on children’s preparation in facing today’s
reality rather than their preparation for the unknown future. Dewey once
mentioned that “Education, therefore, is a process of living and not a preparation
for future living.” (Morrison 2001).
In a classroom which is based on Dewey’s idea, children are involved in physical
activities, making use of materials, intellectual development, and the existence of
social interaction.
Physical activities include running, jumping, and using materials. Children also
learn how to use tools and materials to build things. Dewey also suggested that
children’s daily activities should include cooking and carpentry.
In order to encourage children’s intellectual development, they must be exposed to
activities such as problem-solving, exploring new things, looking for answers
about how something happens, etc.
Children should also be trained on how to interact with people in a democratic
classroom environment. To encourage children’s mental and emotional
development, Dewey wanted children to learn in an informal classroom because
he viewed that “formalisation is hostile to genuine mental activity and to sincere
emotional expression and growth” (Morrison 2001:80).
Dewey encouraged teaching which incorporates the contents from various
subjects by using thematic method besides encouraging problem-solving and
critical thinking.
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Among his views are that the role of philosophy is not to know about the world
but how to control and develop the world. The main function of philosophy is to
find all the changes that are related to human experience.
Dewey viewed that education is living and not solely a preparation for living.
Education is a social process which presents knowledge, experience, theories,
thoughts, and facts to the younger society (children). Dewey’s school encouraged
practical teaching and skills such as carpentry, cooking, etc.
He was a pioneer for project method. This method is closely related to children’s
activities. Through such method, children would work hard to achieve success. In
teaching, teachers should start with a small group, then, individually. He also
viewed that actual education is an active process based on children’s natural
being.
Dewey also encouraged children to learn by doing because children are naturally
active and learning by doing makes children more prepared to face the future.
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CHAPTER 7
MODELS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
discuss these three models and compare them in terms of the advantages and disadvantages
in children’ learning:
a) Bank Street “Developmental Interaction” Approach
b) Cognitively Oriented Programme: High/Scope Perry Preschool Programme
c) Bereiter-Engelmann or Direct Instruction (Preschool Academic or DISTAR)
7.1 Bank Street “Developmental Interaction” Approach
Founded for Head Start and “Follow Through” programme by Elizabeth Gilkeson
& Associates. It was based on Bank Street College of Education, New York.
Its curriculum was based on individual’s development stage.
The effects of learning through interaction
In terms of interaction with other people, this programme believes that
children learn more effectively through interaction with peers and adults in an
environment shaped to provide various activities.
This programme is based on philosophy – real effort to foster intellectual and
socio-emotional development.
Stress is given to cognitive skills, self-appreciation, identity (attributes, etc. of
someone), self-effectiveness, impulsive control (inner urge), self-confidence,
design, productivity, autonomy (rights or self-power), and relationships with
other people.
Evaluation
Teachers evaluate continuously towards the development of children and
provide activities that are parallel with the evaluation.
Various learning materials are provided for children.
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Thematic approach
This model suggests teaching and learning strategies to use the thematic
method.
Learning based on themes is done by combining the curriculum aspects.
The choice of themes is based on the following criteria:
Things that are interesting to children
Based on available resources
Leading to activities and discussions
Related to children and easily understood by them
Can enhance a broader development of learning the concept of ideas
Suitable according to the age of children
Have potential towards self-learning
Once a theme has been chosen, teachers need to determine what kind of
concept that can be developed with the theme. Children should enjoy
themselves while doing the activities.
The relationship between teachers and children is the foundation in the
implementation of the programme. Teachers who are friendly, loving and
supportive would encourage children to cooperate with them.
Daily timetable
Daily timetable is arranged carefully in such a way that provides a balanced
involvement. However, it is a flexible one.
Normally, children work on their own or in small groups together with adults
or without being controlled by adults.
In the daily timetable there are also reading and writing activities besides other
activities.
Children write their own books and read books written by their friends.
Relationships with parents
This programme stresses highly on two-way communication with parents.
Therefore, this programme provides a room for parents and often organises visits
to parents’ houses and other activities that could strengthen parent-teacher
relationship.
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7.2 Cognitively Oriented Programme: High/Scope Perry Preschool Programme
Founded by David Weikart and Associates at Institute of High/Scope at Ypsilanti,
Michigan. It is an effort to translate Piaget’s theory of development into the
education programme.
Initially, it was known as Perry Preschool, built in 1960s to help children who
were not privileged. This programme stresses on the development of children’s
cognitive, how children manage time, and interpret relationships between objects
and events in an environment.
Environment
Children can choose various materials that are provided for them.
Classrooms are divided into corners. Each corner is equipped with special
tools. Corners in a classroom consist of:
household corner
blocks corner
arts corner
silent corner and wide corner
corners for building things
music and movement corner
sand and water games corner
animals and plants corner
There are also space for children to keep their things so that they learn about
hygiene and also rules and regulations.
Daily timetable
Sample daily timetable for half-day programme
8:30-8:50 am Time for planning
8:50-9:45 am Time for working
9:45-10:00 am Time for cleaning
10:00-10:30 am Recall, snacks and small group activity
10:30-10:50 am Outdoor games
10:50-11:10 am Circle time
11:10-11:20 am Going back home
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Sample daily timetable for full day programme
7:30-8:30 am When children arrive, teachers do some
planning with the children and ask them to get to work
8:30-9:00 am Breakfast and brush teeth
9:00-9:20 am Time for planning
9:20-10:30 am Time for working and cleaning
10:30-10:50 am Recall session
10:50-11:20 am Outdoor games
11:20-11:45 am Circle time and prepare for lunch
11:45-12:30 pm Lunch
12:30-1:30 pm Time for nap. Children sleep or lie down quietly
while reading
1:30-2:15 pm Small group activity and snacks
2:15-4:00 pm Some children go back home while teachers and caretakers
plan with children who are staying longer at school, then the
children do their work until it is time to go back
Daily timetable is implemented to provide an understanding to children about the
concept of time.
Time for planning
Children start the activity by making plans about what activities to do. Teachers
assist the children in making the plans and record them.
Time for working—Curriculum
There are eight areas:
1) Active learning – children do their own activity including learning through
senses, manipulation, combine to know about relationships, choose their own
activity and materials, and learn to use tools and equipment.
2) Enhance the use of language – children are encouraged to speak with other
people about experiences that are meaningful to them, imagine and pour out
their feelings. Teachers write and organize language games.
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3) Illustrate experience and ideas by identifying objects through senses, imitating
movements and voices, role-playing, drawing, and painting.
4) Do classification – starting from pre-operational where children identify
similarities and differences between objects. Children are encouraged to
illustrate characteristics of things, separate and combine things, use things in
various ways, discuss the characteristics that are not found in things, and
differentiate between little, half and all.
5) Seriation – able to arrange things, done by comparing, arranging objects in
order and joining objects.
6) Number concept – a foundation to mathematical understanding done based on
concrete experience. To enhance such concept, experiences are provided so
that children could compare and count.
7) Relationship with space – encouraged to set and separate things, rearrange and
reshape objects. Observe and illustrate things according to different
perspectives. Play with various shapes of things, experience with own bodies
and illustrate bodies, distance and positions.
8) Understanding units of time and arrange events in order.
7.3 The Bereiter-Engelmannn or Direct Instruction Model (Preschool Academic or
DISTAR)
This model is based on behavioural theory. Founded by Carl Bereiter and
Siegfried Engelmann in 1960 with the purpose of helping poor children to become
successful in primary schools. Underprivileged children were already way behind
their friends from the middle class family. They did not only need enrichment but
they also needed a programme that can quicken their learning rate.
This model is different from the others because it is designed to fulfil specific
goals determined by the teachers (not to fulfil the development of children as a
whole).
Curriculum
This model uses the direct teaching approach.
Teachers plan the teaching. Children are required to do drills and specific
exercises.
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There are three subjects that are stressed here: language, mathematics, and
reading. The goal is to provide related skills to children in the three aspects.
Each subject is designed to assist children in empowering specific skills.
For example, in the aspect of reading, children are asked to look at letters and
say the letters from left to right. The goal is to enable children to combine the
letters to form words.
In the aspect of language, the related word usage is compound words,
complete a sentence, ‘if’ sentences, positive and negative sentences, and
antonyms (big/small, up/down).
Other goals related to colours and names, number until 20, letter identification,
capability to produce rhythmic words. Teachers provide continuous
reinforcement in terms of compliments and food.
Music is taught directly for the purpose of strengthening the use of language.
According to Lay-Dopyera & Dopyera (1993), in mathematics, children are
not only taught how to count until 20, but they are also taught how to count
through addition or subtraction besides teaching of symbols +, -, and =; and
are required to answer related questions.
Environment
Teaching is based on a small classroom where teachers teach directly. A wider
classroom is for a less structured activity for a bigger group.
Floor plan consists of three small classrooms – mathematics room, reading
room, and language room. All these rooms are equipped with five chairs
which are facing the blackboard.
There are materials like puzzles, books and materials for tracing, papers and
crayons but there are no materials for creativity because creative development
is not the goal of this programme.
Timetable
Three subjects (language, mathematics, and reading) are taught intensively. They
are taught in 20 minutes. Each consists of five children, or three to eight children,
and a teacher. Groupings are done according to capabilities.
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Teachers
This programme suggests that primary school teachers are more qualified and
suitable to teach this programme compared to teachers who are trained for early
childhood.
Studies on the effectiveness of programme
A few studies have been conducted to look at the effectiveness of this
programme.
Results portray that children show a significant improvement in IQ tests and
performance tests compared to other groups of children.
But this improvement declines quicker than the children from different
programmes.
Same goes to the level of curiosity and design found in children from the
Bereiter-Engelmann programme. They are found to be lower than children
from other programmes.
This situation could be due to too much reinforcement done which possibly
lessen the intrinsic interest in children in their learning process.
When external motivation is abolished, the motivation to learn also vanished.
Studies have shown that teenagers who undergo direct teaching programme at
preschool stage show a higher rate of teenage delinquency compared to
children who undergo a programme which stresses on self-selection during
kindergarten.
Every day, teachers read books to the children. This programme provides a lot
of pictorial books and books that are easy to read by children.
Children are able to enrich their vocabulary through charts, labels, stories and
games.
Children work on their own. Children might be given plasticines or other
materials to explore and manipulate. This is not the time to teach. It gives
teachers an opportunity to observe the children and introduce the materials to
be explored by the children.
Recall time
Children review their work. It is usually done in small groups.
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Classroom Discussion
Discuss the concept, approach, and implementation of Permata Negara Programme. Compare
with the other early childhood’s model. Discuss the strength and weaknesses.
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CHAPTER 8
MODELS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
discuss the view of Montessori in term of:
i) the environment of early childhood centres
ii) the curriculum of early childhood education and material used
compare between the Montessori model and the Reggio Emilia’s model
8.1 Montessori Model
This model can be found widely in the United States of America. This programme is
based on how children grow up.
The goal of Montessori Education
American Society of Montessori (1984) in Brewer (1998) stated that the goal of
Montessori programme is to develop the following aspects:
Concentration
Skills in observation
Awareness in arrangement and chronology
Coordination
Awareness in assumption and practical skills
Mathematical concept
Language skills
Reading and writing skills
Habits in creative arts
Understanding nature
Experience in understanding social science
Experience in critical thinking skills through problem-solving technique
Preschool centre environment
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Montessori stresses on having a wide compound for a centre for early
childhood education. A wide area enables children to move freely. It should be
equipped with a playground and a garden. The environment should be
attractive and enjoyable. There should be plants, flowers, and interesting toys.
Furniture such as tables and chairs should be in children’s size. Tables and
chairs should be light so that children of two and four years of age could lift
the tables and chairs.
Tables should be in the shape of a triangle that could be used by two or three
children if they sit together. There should also be a small table that only one
child could use if he has to work alone.
Equipment should be arranged in a cupboard that could be reached by
children. There should also be space that is equipped with things that enable
children to obtain specific skills.
At Montessori centres, there is also a place to wash hands that is low enough
for children of three years old to use. There should also be a place to put
soaps, nail brush, towels, etc. If possible, Montessori suggested that a small
cupboard is placed for each child for them to keep their soaps, nail brush,
toothbrush, and other necessities.
In each room, there should be a low cupboard to keep the learning materials.
The door should be easy to open. Children should be given the responsibility
to take care of the materials inside the cupboard. On the cupboard, there
should be a flowerpot, a small aquarium, and various other toys. Children
should be given the freedom to play with these toys.
Classrooms should be equipped with blackboards that are hung low so that
children could use them. These blackboards are equipped with a box to put
chalks and dusters. The blackboards should be decorated with nice pictures
that could attract children’s attention.
Montessori’s philosophy is based on logic, systematic, and beauty.
Children
Based on individual activity. Children of various age groups would get
involved in individual activities. They are free to choose any project that they
like.
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The activities are normally done on a mat or on the table. Children follow their
own rules and work on their own or in pairs. Younger children learn a
particular activity by observing and imitating older children. Montessori
programme is designed for children of 3-6 years old.
Teachers
In a Montessori programme, adults’ supervision is very minimal. Teachers
observe children from afar or get involved only during demonstrations on how to
use new tools/materials. Teachers do not compliment children because the goal of
the activity is to gain self-reward and intrinsic motivation. Montessori teachers
learn the method and curriculum through an intensive course at degree level.
Materials
Have special characteristics.
The materials are didactic, designed for specific subjects.
In a form of self-correcting where children get feedback after they were
successful or not successful in completing a task by using the materials.
Materials are built from easy to difficult. Children are given the challenge to
solve difficult concepts in a progressive manner.
Materials are developed carefully, normally using natural materials such as
varnished wood.
Curriculum
There are a few sets of activities. Among them are:
activities related to everyday lives
activities related to the use of senses
activities that are academic-like
Daily living activity
This activity is a practical one:
button up shirt
tie shoelace
polish shoes
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comb hair
water the plants
clean the windows, sweep the floor, and wipe the table
These activities do not only help in developing physical skills of children, but
train them in being discipline, independent, and self-appreciation through giving
full attention in the activities done.
Sensorial Material
This activity is carried out for the purpose of helping children to develop, arrange,
expand, and study sensorial perception in terms of seeing, hearing, touching,
smelling, and tasting. In order to develop the skills mentioned above in children,
Montessori created various tools. They are:
Pink Tower: Pink Tower consists of 10 cubes made of woods of various
shapes, texture and colour. The cubes are all in pink. The size of the cube
starts from 1 cm and is added by 1 cm for each cube. The biggest cube is
10 cm in size. The cubes are arranged horizontally from the biggest to the
smallest. This tower is extremely attractive for children of age below five
because they can topple down the tower and then rebuild them as many
times as they like.
Brown Stairs: Consists of 10 blocks made of wood. All of them are brown
in colour and differ in their thickness. Children can arrange these blocks
from the thickest to the thinnest. The thickest is 10 cm in size. Other
blocks would be 1 cm thinner for each block.
Red Rods: Consists of 10 sticks, all in red with the same size but differ in
length that starts from 10 cm to 1 cm. Children can arrange the sticks from
the longest to the shortest.
Cylinder Block: Consists of blocks with holes and small cylinders that are
suitable to be put into the holes. Children must take the cylinders out from
the blocks and place the cylinders into suitable holes.
Smelling Jar: Using two bottles of the same colour but with different
scents. Teachers would place two things with same scent as the one in the
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bottle. Children would be asked to smell these two things and match them
with the scent in the bottle.
Baric Tablets: Pieces of woods that are triangular in shape with different
weight. There are three sets altogether—light, medium light, and heavy.
Children are required to match the pieces according to their weight.
Colour Tablets: Initially, Montessori had chosen three pieces of wood
with very bright colours which are in pairs of red, blue, and yellow. All the
six woods are put in front of the children. The children would be shown a
piece of coloured wood and then they would be asked to find another piece
of wood of the same colour. At the end, children would be asked to
arrange all the colours according to pairs.
The number of wood would be added to make eight colours or sixteen
pieces. After children are able to empower all the bright colours, they
would then be asked to identify lighter colours. Then, the same colour of
wood would be added but they would differ in terms of their colour tones.
Children are required to arrange the pieces of wood according to their
tones of colours.
Sound Boxes: Various things are put into two boxes of the same size and
colour. For example, one box contains fine sands and the other box with
rough stones. Children are required to shake the boxes and match the box
with the same sound.
Temperature Jugs: This is to differentiate temperature. The jugs are
made of steel. Water of different temperature is put into the jugs. Children
are required to match the jug with the same temperature.
Montessori also taught children to taste using their tongues to know the
taste of bitter, sour, sweet, salty, etc. Children of four years old are
prepared to play such game. After the children have tasted the food, they
are asked to clean their mouths with clean water. Montessori thought that
this game does not only teach a child the various smells and tastes
available but also teaches them how to clean their mouths after tasting all
kinds of food.
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Various types of clothes – Montessori used various types of cloth to be
identified by children. There are seven different types of cloth: velvet, silk,
wool, fine linen, rough linen, light cotton, and heavy cotton.
Concept and academic materials
Geometric Insets of Wood and Frame: There are various geometrical
shapes used to teach shapes. In this set, children are asked to match the
same shape. They are required to match two similar shapes by pairing the
two shapes into a frame which has been shaped into various shapes. The
two pieces of wood are screwed so that they would not be jumbled up.
Montessori also created a cabinet to keep the geometrical tools.
Shape Tablets: Children are given a frame or tray filled with woods of
various shapes. They must take out all the shapes and mix them all up.
Children need to choose the same shapes and match them into the frame or
tray. Montessori considered this game as very effective to train children to
recognise geometrical shapes. Children are also asked to use their fingers
to touch and move their fingers according to the geometrical shapes
available.
Sand paper: Children are trained on how to use their fingers to trace the
alphabets cut from sand papers.
Alphabet: Montessori classroom is equipped with alphabets. Children are
asked to arrange the alphabets into words.
Material and exercise: Created to help children like and enjoy music and
learn to control the movement of their hands and legs in preparation to
dance. Montessori also introduced rhythm, harmony, and melody. Children
are taught how to use musical instruments and to recognise music through
sensorial training. Although drawings are not taught directly, children are
taught lines and colours before drawings are introduced (Brewer 1998).
Other activities that could enhance understanding in children in terms of
culture are maps, and pictures of animals and plants for children to identify
and classify.
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Daily timetable
Below is one example of a daily plan that can be found in a Montessori
programme, beginning from 9:00 am until 4:00 pm.
Time Task
9:00 – 10:00 1) Check hygiene of the children.
2) Daily living training: helping other friends.
3) Put on and take off the apron.
4) Check condition of the room to make sure it is clean and
tidy.
5) Language: Conversation—Children tell the whole class
about what they have gone through the day before.
6) Religious class.
10:00 – 11:00 1) Intellectual exercises.
2) Break.
3) Sensorial exercises.
11:00 – 11:30 Gymnastics: Common movements that are done in a gentle
way, normal body positions, walking, queuing, salutation,
movement to attract attention, putting things gently.
11:30 – 12:00 Lunch: Short Doa’ recitation.
12:00 – 1:00 Free activity.
1:00 – 2:00 1) Guided activity, if possible, in an open area. At this time,
older children would be doing daily living activity in turns,
cleaning up rooms, dusting and arranging things.
2) General hygiene checks up: Conversation.
2:00 – 3:00 Handcraft: Building clay models, patterns, etc.
3:00 – 4:00 1) Group gymnastics while singing, if possible, in an open
area.
2) Exercises to develop a compassionate character: tour, love
the trees and animals.
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8.2 The Reggio Emilia Approach
This approach was founded at Reggio Emilia, situated at North Italy, under the
guidance of Loris Malaguzzi based on the theories by Piaget and Vygotsky.
Environment
Attractive and enjoyable.
Can enhance human relationship and encourage learning.
Space is used to encourage communication. Space arrangement can enhance
children to work in small groups, big groups, working with only one teacher,
or working on their own.
Equipment, materials, and activities are arranged to encourage exploration,
discovery, and problem-solving as well as to give children a chance to make
their own choice.
Atelier
This model provides a special studio or workshop where children and teachers
can utilise various materials to experience new things.
Atelier is used to document the works of the children, to transcribe children’s
conversations, to take photos of their activities, and to document children’s
learning process in various projects.
The documents are meaningful to children because they can evaluate their
own products as well as their friends’ products.
Through this project, parents and teachers can evaluate and judge children’s
learning process.
Curriculum
The curriculum of Reggio Emilia is project-based. In this project, children
normally work in small groups to explore a concept or a topic in detail.
This project can be done in a short time or longer. Normally, it takes about one
month to finish. Due to the fact that Reggio Emilia programme does not
allocate a fixed duration to be in school, children can do their work peacefully
(not in a hurry).
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Project title or theme
This model stresses on the interest and tendency of children. Because of this,
the title of the project to be implemented by the children could derive from the
questions that they ask their teachers or in other words, it is based on their own
ideas.
It could also be the teachers’ ideas.
Normally, the title of the project is based on daily experience of the children.
Projects can be done in various topics.
Example
Forman (1993) in (Eva Essa 1996), proposed a project where children studied
their environment during spring season that was related to poppies. The children
started off with a drawing activity, beginning from thinking how poppies look
like. Teachers and children communicated: they were questioning and answering
questions, comparing their work with others, and discussing the things that they
found at the poppy farm. Then, they visited the poppy farm and were there for a
few days where they observed, compared, and reviewed all the questions that they
had asked before. When they went back to school, they could draw the poppies in
a more accurate and perfect manner.
Teachers
According to Malaguzzi (1993), education should involve three elements:
children, teachers, and families.
Teachers at Reggio Emilia work as partners to the children. They would sit
together with a group of children age three, from infant to three years old, and
also children of 3-6 years old.
The role of the teacher is as resources to the children and as partners in
childhood education. Teachers would be assisted by a pedagogy coordinator
and an art teacher.
Other programmes included in Reggio Emilia are weekly meetings for staff
and staff development programmes.
Both programmes could enhance communication skills and professionalism of
the teachers.
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Group Discussion
Compare Montessori Model and Reggio Emilia‘s Model.
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CHAPTER 9
MODELS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
explain Sure Start
discuss the difference with Sure Start and Head Start
9.1 Sure Start Model
Philosophy
Sure Start is a programme which provides quality preschool education.
The services provided comprise aspects of education, health, social, and parent
involvement.
The close relationship and cooperation between family, school and community
is a factor that is emphasised in the programme.
Sure Start was founded on the developmentally appropriate practice based on
the theories by Piaget, Erikson, Vygotsky, and Gardner.
The programme is aimed to assist in the overall development of children and
to help families. Through this programme, children will be able to develop
their social skills and talents in order to be more productive.
Background
Sure Start is an effort from the British government to overcome the problems
of poor children and social exclusion.
Sure Start is organised through local programmes at deprived regions in the
country.
The goal is to attain the best outcome for the children, parents, and community
by setting up childcare centres for all children, enhancing children’s health,
education and emotional development as well as assisting parents in their role
and increasing aspiration for the job.
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The British government has increased the allocation to more than £1.5 billion
for years 2005-2006 and an addition of £669 million for years 2007-2008.
This is inclusive of 100,000 childcare centres which were partly placed in
schools.
Launched in 1998, children, teenagers, and families are the major focus of
Sure Start. It is managed by the Local Government, Primary Care Trusts, job
seeking agency Jobcentre Plus, local communities, and volunteering
organisations as well as the private sector.
There are 520 local programmes; programmes conducted in Scotland, Wales,
and North Ireland. These programmes focus on families with children aged
below four and cover about 800 children in each area.
The facilities provided include drop in centres for parents to discuss with Sure
Start staff, care centres, and mobile health clinics.
Each programme is administered in cooperation with government bodies
(including professionals in the fields of health and education), professionals in
child care and volunteering groups and communities just as parents work
together to provide services to the family. This sharing concept is a unique
factor in making the Sure Start programmes a success.
The programme offers high quality play and learning experience. The
language development of children is the source of Sure Start’s success. With
Sure Start, the government was able to target in decreasing the cost for
language and speech experts of four-year-old children by 5% in 2004.
9.2 Head Start Model
Sure Start was based on the Head Start programme which was implemented in the
United States of America. Head Start was launched in 1965 with the purpose to
help the community in fulfilling the needs of underprivileged children.
Studies have shown that the examination achievement of children enrolled for the
Head Start programme is better than those who were not. This programme has
also reduced the crime rate.
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9.3 What is the difference between the Head Start and Sure Start?
Head Start Model Sure Start Model
Sure Start tries to combine several
characteristics of Head Start that were
considered high quality:
One-day programme
System that encompasses education,
health, social services and parent
involvement
Medical inspection, dental, and
continuous assessment
Nutritious lunch, drinks, and snacks
Active family involvement
All programmes are based on
developmentally appropriate principle
Sure Start is based on DoDEA
(Department of Defence and
Education Activity)*
Head Start uses income as criteria of
qualification for the registration of
children. Sure Start also considers
family income as an important factor;
however other than income, other
factors are also considered.
Head Start allocates a minimum of
10% of the classrooms for children
with special needs. Sure Start does not
consider children with special needs as
criteria for registration
Parent involvement in Sure Start is an
important part in programmes
Sure Start curriculum uses DoDEA as
foundation. Teachers and programme
assistants are given training in
conducting programmes to ensure
consistency
Sure Start allocates a ratio of two
adults for each 18-20 students
The guiding principles that underscore DoDEA’s commitment to all young
children are:
Young children learn and construct knowledge as a result of meaningful and
purposeful experiences.
Optimal development in young children takes place in an environment where
collaboration with others, discussing, analysing, and developing personal
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meaning through application of what is being learned is encouraged and
facilitated.
Young children reach different levels of learning and development at different
times.
Learning in the early childhood years develops on a continuum.
Learning is both individual and social and takes place within a social/cultural
context.
Play is an integral part of quality programmes serving young children.
Skills and concepts are developed and enhanced through child-initiated and
teacher-initiated activities.
Programmes for young children must provide opportunities for individual
activities and flexible groupings.
Young children should be involved with the teacher in planning,
implementing, and evaluating their learning experiences.
The dignity of young children and their personal circumstances and diversity
must be respected and affirmed.
Families of young children are essential partners in the educational process.
Children are best served in a safe, nurturing, and inclusive environment
Developmentally appropriate assessment of young children's learning is
essential for planning and implementing appropriate curriculum and
celebrating children’s learning.
Programme practices for young children must reflect sound research and
findings about young children and learning.
(Source: http://www.dodea.edu/curriculum/eChildhood.cfm)
Effectiveness of Sure Start programme
Parents who enrolled for the programme acknowledged that they had more fun
and were more motivated to work.
Researchers have also found that the programme succeeded in gathering
various communities including those that have never spoken to one another
prior to this. Around 70 parents including fathers from numerous communities
attended the meeting. Parents felt proud with the meeting.
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An Example of Head Start Programme – Play link
A project implemented to enhance the development of language, focus, social
skills, and independent activities. It is also to strengthen family life and avoid
divorce. The project is collaboration between health programme education
implemented in North Sussex and Brighton.
This project involves weekly visits (by trained visitors including parents who
acquired training and experience) to homes. They discuss with families and
introduce numerous toys, books, drawings, simple dishes, messy play, etc.
There are also discussions held in community halls and in other places for
parents and children where they can meet and share activities including
assisting families in child care.
Studies show that 16 children who are involved in play link show a better
focus in table play and do not face as much speech and language problems
upon enrolling for the child care centres. They are also able to show high
capability, skills, and confidence when talking with other children and adults.
Who can enrol?
Sure Start is a programme that receives government funding. Initially, it was
allocated for children of four years old. Children that qualified to enrol for the
programme are based on families which may put their children “at risk”:
Based on fund ranking
Children of single parent
Parents do not have a degree
Parents are not high school graduates
Parents were in their teens when the first child was born
One of the parents speak language other than English as their first language
Children are underweight
Parents work outside the region for three months or more
Families with four or more children in which their births are not far apart from
one another
Children with a sister or brother with serious special needs
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Curriculum
1. Spiritual, Socio-Emotional, and Personality Development
2. Early Literacy, Communication, and Language Development
3. Logical Thinking and Mathematics Development
4. Environment Understanding and Knowledge Development
5. Physical Development
6. Creativity and Aesthetics Development
Strategy
Learning should be planned well and structured to emphasise on fun, play,
suitability, and motivation to all children.
Group discussion
Compare the advantages and disadvantages of these two programmes.
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CHAPTER 10
EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
discuss on the National Philosophy of Education
explain goals of Preschool Education in Malaysia
discuss the Six Pillars of Standard National Preschool Curriculum
10.1 National Philosophy of Education
Education in Malaysia is an ongoing effort towards further developing the potential of
individuals in a holistic and integrated manner, in order to produce individuals who
are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically, balanced and harmoniously,
based on a firm belief in and devotion to God. Such an effort is designed to produce
Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and competent, who possess high moral
standards and who are responsible and capable of achieving a high level of personal
well being to contribute to the betterment of the nation, family and society.
(Kurikulum Standard Prasekolah Kebangsaan 2010)
The Goals of Education in Malaysia (The Philosophy of Teacher Education in
Malaysia, Ministry of Education 1982)
Individual
To nurture a balance development in each individual by providing for the growth
of physical, intellectual, emotional, moral, and aesthetic potentials as a Malaysian
while upholding tenets of Rukun Negara.
Societal
To assist the individual to obtain greater insight and understanding into our
ecological and cultural heritage, social institutions, values and practices, societal
pressures, and challenges. To enable the individual to function and fulfil his
commitment and responsibilities as a citizen.
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Economic
To develop the human recourses of the nation by assisting the individual to be a
skilled, competent, rational, and responsible planner, producer, and consumer to
enable him to improve his personal wellbeing and contribute to the progress and
development of the nation.
Political
To develop in the individual understanding and acceptance of the democratic
ideas and ideals under the constitution, loyalty to the king, patriotism to the
nation, awareness of his rights, and responsibilities as a citizen in a democracy
and commitment to exercise these rights and responsibilities.
Modernity
To develop in the individual positive attitude towards scientific enquiry and
technical processes and progress, self reliance, desire and capability, for the long
life education to enable him to initiate and adapt to changes compatible with the
cultural and ethical values and aspiration of the nation.
International Peace and Understanding
To promote international peace and understanding in the individual through
the study of other nations from the geographical, sociological, economic, and
political perspective and their relationship with Malaysia.
To sanitise individuals to issues confronting human kind and develop in them
understanding and appreciation of international effort towards peace and
cooperation.
10.1.1 How to Develop the National Philosophy of Preschool Education
The national philosophy of education is the umbrella. Then match with the goal and
objective of the national standard curriculum.
10.1.2 The Goals of Preschool Education in Malaysia
Preschool education aims at exploiting the potential in the children at the age of four
to eight years old in a holistic and integrated manner covering the physical,
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emotional, spirituals, intellectual, and social aspects through the safe, enjoyable,
creative and meaningful environment. This is to upgrade the skills, enhance the
confidence, and to mould the positive personality and self concede so that they can be
successful in the exiting environment and capable of handling the challenges
confronted in the primary school later on.
10.2 The Objectives of Preschool Education
The objectives of preschool education could be achieved through the implementation
of Standard National Preschool Curriculum which prepares the opportunity for
children aged four to six years old to achieve the objective in the aspect of physical,
emotional, and social, intellectual and spiritual as the following:
To develop physical fitness
To have a healthy body
To maintain good healthy practice
To take measures to protect self safety
To acquire the hard and soft motor skill
To have emotional maturity
To have positive self concept
Able to express ones views and feelings
Able to interact with others and develop positive relationship with peers and
adults
To have good values
To perform Islamic practice in the daily life for Muslim children
Able to communicate using Bahasa Malaysia, English, and own language in the
daily life
Explore the surroundings using the skill in basic sciences
Utilise skill in mathematics in performing daily activities and solving problems
Using critical, creative, and innovative thinking skills learning and daily life
Expanding the creative and aesthetic ability
Appreciating and valuing the nature’s beauty and cultural heritage
Having positive personal characteristics, character, and self concept for patriotic
citizen
Able to use the Malay language correctly and expand its use in communication
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Able to use the Chinese or Tamil language correctly in communication which use
Chinese and Tamil language as media of instruction
Able to use English language in daily interaction in line with status of English as a
second language.
To practice good values in daily life
Posses the cognitive, thinking and problem solving skills
Have mature emotion and social skills
Have the physical fitness and skills and practice healthy and safety
Have the creative and aesthetic ability to appreciate the nature’s beauty and
cultural heritage
10.3 The Pillars of Preschool Curriculum
Children development can be achieved through eleven learning pillars which are
integrated. These pillars include communication, spiritual, attitude and values, science
and technology, humanism, self-confident, physical development, and aesthetics.
(Please refer to National Preschool Curriculum 2010)
Group Activities
1. What are the problems that you are facing in implementing the curriculum?
2. Do you think you can achieved the goal of preschool education?
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CHAPTER 11
DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA BEFORE AND AFTER
INDEPENDENCE
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
describe the development of early childhood education in Malaysia pre independence
describe the development of early childhood education in Malaysia post independence
11.1 The Historical Development of Preschool Education in Overseas
The preschool education began in Europe in the early 19th
century and in the US,
it started in the 20th
century.
The famous European philosophers are Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Friedrich
Froebel, dan Maria Montessori. Froebel were the first to set up kindergarten in
Germany in 1837, naming it “kindergarten” meaning “Garden of Children”.
The first preschool established in United Kingdom was by Robert Owen in 1816
in a Scotland district, known as “The Infant School”.
In the US, the first preschool was set up in 1850 by Carl Schurz and later in 1860,
Elizabeth Peabody established a kindergarten in Boston.
The preschool in Europe and the US focused on the wealthy children only while
the poor children were neglected with no preschool education .
In ASEAN, the preschool education commenced after the World War II. In 1900s,
preschools were set up in the Philippines, Singapore, Indonesia, and Thailand. In
Malaysia, the preschool education began in the 1940s.
11.2 The Development of Preschool Education in Malaysia
11.2.1 Pre Independence Period
In the 1940s. Preschools were started by the Christian missionary and it was
influenced by the British that charged high fees and attended by rich children. It
was located in the urban areas like Kuala Lumpur, Johor Baru, and Ipoh, etc. The
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teachers were recruited from the ex-primary school teachers who had no training
in preschool education.
In Malaysia, preschool education in the form of kindergarten was introduced in
1950 and initially, they were formed for children of middle class and high class
families. Only in 1960, a few government agencies such as FELDA and KEMAS
started to build kindergartens, most of them at rural areas (Sulaiman et al 1990).
11.2.2 Post Independence Period
In 1969, the Asian Foundation contributed some fund to the Malaysian Workers
Union to set up preschool modelled on the Head Start programme in the US.
Kindergartens were set up in Kg Miniandy, Kg Manggis, and Kg Sentosa in
Selangor. The target group was the less privileged children from the Malay,
Chinese, and Indian families.
In 1970, KEMAS opened 10 preschools in the rural areas known as Tabika
(Taman Bimbingan KEMAS) to help the rural poor. This was followed by
FELDA, RISDA (1980), and Community Relations Council (1976). In 1972, the
Centre for the Curriculum Development published a book on Guidelines on
Preschool Education and established 10 experimental preschool in Malaysia.
In 1972, the Specialist Teachers Training Institute (STTI) had trained 137 primary
school and KEMAS teachers in preschool education to teach in the kindergarten.
KEMAS had opened up the Taman Asuhan Kanak-kanak (TASKA) in line with
the philosophy of rural development. This programme provides services to
children of the low income group in communities in the rural areas, urban areas,
and suburban areas.
In 1981, Sabah Foundation established the Institute for Preschool Teacher in the
Centre of Child Development with the advice of University of Malaysia.
A study which covered the whole nation regarding the position of preschool
education was conducted in 1981 and completed in 1984. It was done to provide
information to the government about the position of preschool education and to
assist the government in legislating basic guidelines on preschool education which
cover surveillance, control, coordination, teacher training, curriculum design, and
quality improvement of preschool education.
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The result of the study showed that preschool education had developed during the
period of 1981-1984. Children in the age group of four until six years old which
underwent preschool education had increased from 171,000 in 1980 to 279,000 in
1984. At the same time, there were 5,657 preschool centres compared to 2,974 in
1980. 4,487 or 79% from the total of these centres were at rural areas consisted of
about 149,850 children or 54% from the total of children who underwent
preschool education in 1984 (Fifth Malaysian Plan 1986-1990).
In 1989, there were 6,959 preschool education centres in Malaysia. 4,728 were
under various government agencies, 631 were under statutory bodies such as
FELDA (Federal Land Development Authority), 1,392 were under private sectors,
and 208 under social organisations. The number of registered children in 1989
was 33,520 which had increased from 196,992 in 1981 and 300,850 in 1986
(Educational Statistics of Malaysia, 1980-1985, 1986, and 1989 (unpublished).
Based on the assumption in 1990, about 490,700 five years old children should
receive preschool education. From this total, it was assumed that 269,450 children
(53%) did not obtain such facilities (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 1991). Such
condition forced the Ministry of Education Malaysia to form “Annex” preschool
to provide preschool education facilities for poor children from urban and rural
areas who were not able to pay for the programme fees that was considered
expensive then.
Knowing the importance of preschool education in establishing a solid foundation
among children at early age, efforts have been made to enhance the facilities and
improve the quality of preschool education. Due to the fact that private sectors
were more active in forming preschool centres in urban areas, public sector
agencies provide preschool education opportunities to children in rural areas and
those who came from poor family in urban areas. Efforts by private and public
sectors as well as NGOs have increased the number of preschool centres from
6,960 in 1990 to 10,350 in 1995. In line with this, the number of children in the 5-
6 years old category who registered at these centres has increased from 328,800 in
1990 to 420,600 in 1995 that was an increase of 27.9%. The public sector was the
biggest provider of preschool centres that was about 8,446 or 81.6%, where the
rest was provided by the private sectors and NGOs. From the total of preschool
centres formed by the government, about 80% were in the rural areas and have
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been fully utilised by 204,100 children in rural areas (Seventh Malaysian Plan
1996-2000).
In year 2000, there were 399,980 children who registered at preschool education
centres, were representing 63.7% of children of 5-6 years old. Preschool
Curriculum Guidelines were developed to standardise the curriculum, facilities,
and teacher training either in the public sector as well as private preschool centres
in order to fulfil the quality allotted in Education Act 1996. In order to enhance
the quality of preschool education, continuous training for supervisors and expert
teachers were provided (Eighth Malaysian Plan 2001-2005).
18 December 1991, the cabinet met to discuss on the Preschool programme in
Malaysia. On 27 January 1992, the ministry of Education met to discuss on the
expansion the preschools. As a result, the Education Act 1965 had proposed the
incorporation of preschool education in the Malaysian formal education system
which led to the meeting by the cabinet of preschool education on 6 June 2001.
Activities
Discuss on the historical development and status of kindergartens in Malaysia until today.
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CHAPTER TWELVE
PRESENT ISSUES OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
EDUCATION
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
explain the issues of:
i) changing families
ii) wellness and healthy living
iii) poverty
iv) housing
v) children’s illnesses
12.1 Changing Families
Family plays a very important role in children’s education. The problem of family
structure has changed much where the basic structure of father, mother, and children
is not common anymore in the 21st
century. The role of a family has also changed
with the mother or grandmother as the head of the family. If they have to perform
other functions at the office and have to manage problems of their juveniles, their
children will be neglected. The responsibility of the head will increase with the
increasing number and increasing problems that have to be managed. Financial
problems will also result in the neglect of the children education. Measures have to be
taken to deal with this issues.
Family and early childhood – family needs to understand their problem and assist the
family units to fulfil their needs which will indirectly help to fulfil the needs of their
children; e.g. taking care of their health. By assisting in making the family literate will
help the children to listen, talk, write and read.
12.2 Wellness and Healthy living
The aim of early childhood programme is provide early well being and security of the
children. If a family is threatened and do not have comfortable living, it will adversely
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affect the development of the children. Several measures should be identified to deal
with the problems of security and well beings. Discuss the illegitimate, abandoned
and AIDS infected children.
12.3 Poverty
Poverty is an issue faced by a family. The family can be assisted by the government
or NGOs that help the poor. The children from poor family will have heath problem,
truant, and fail in their education.
12.4 Housing
Many studies showed that unfavourable housing conditions will result in children who
fail in the school due to low IQ. The type of housing such as a small one-room flat
that is overcrowded will adversely affect the children. For example, they are always
sick due to poisoning by cockroach poison, and some may die due to electric shock
which equipments are not properly installed.
12.5 Children’s Illness
Health problems faced by children consist of chronic diseases and those caused by
allergies. Chicken pox, asthma, and rubella are caused by unhealthy air. Dusts, animal
hair, and stale air in children’s surrounding will result in children suffering from
asthma.
Group Work
Identify a problem faced by children and how to manage the problem.
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CHAPTER 13
PRESCHOOL EDUCATION ACT
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
explain the Preschool Education Act
discuss on the Child’s Right
explain NAEYC position statement on DAP
13.1 Preschool Education Act
Education Act 1996 stated that the national education system consists of preschool
education, primary education, secondary education, post-secondary education, and
higher education.
1996 Act defines “Preschool Education” as educational programme for 4-6 years
old.
No kindergarten can be established, managed, or manned if it is not registered
under this act.
The minister has the power to establish and maintain kindergartens. Programmes
and activities of each kindergarten must be based on curriculum guidelines
approved by the minister.
In terms of medium of instruction, Education Act 1996 allows the use of
languages other than the national language. However, according to subsection
17(1), if a kindergarten uses a language other than the national language, the
national language must be taught as a compulsory subject.
Education Act 1996 which was approved has given a significant improvement to
preschool education. Preschool education has been added into the National
Education System. This act stresses on the preschool education for children of 4-6
years old. The changes in the policy show that Ministry of Education Malaysia is
always concentrating on the effort to maintain and improve the quality of
preschool education (Haji Rafei 2006) in National Preschool Curriculum (2006).
The Ministry of Education of Malaysia (2006) stated that preschool education
opportunity is given to all children regardless of their social background, religion,
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place of living, mental and physical health condition, as well as their intellectual
development.
13.2 Declaration of the Rights of the Child
1. All children have the right to what follows, no matter what their race, colour,
sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, or where they were born or
who they were born to.
2. Children have the special right to grow up and to develop physically and
spiritually in a healthy and normal way, free and with dignity.
3. Children have a right to a name and to be a member of a country.
4. Children have a right to special care and protection and to good food, housing,
and medical services.
5. Children have the right to special care if handicapped in any way.
6. Children have the right to love and understanding, preferably from parents and
family, but from the government where these cannot help.
7. Children have the right to go to school for free, to play, and to have an equal
chance to develop and to learn to be responsible and useful.
The children’s parents have special responsibilities for their education and
guidance.
8. The children have the right always to be among the first to get help.
9. The children have the right to be protected against cruel acts or exploitation, e.g.
they shall not be obliged to do work which hinders their development both
physically and mentally.
Children should not work before a minimum age and never when that would
hinder their health, and their moral and physical development.
10. Children should be taught peace, understanding, tolerance, and friendship
among all people.
13.3 Basic Rights of the Child
Children are easily influenced, need care and special protection, particularly
protection by family and by the law. It confirms the need for the protection before and
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after birth and to respect the values of the child community. This is based on the
convention of the rights of the child that was adopted by the General Assembly of the
United Nations on 20 November 1989 comprising articles 1 to 54. The articles that
are related to the right to education are embedded in articles 6, 18, 27, 28 and 29.
i) Article 6
1. States Parties recognise that every child has the inherent right to life.
2. States Parties shall ensure to the maximum extent possible the survival and
development of the child.
ii) Article 27
1. States Parties recognise the right of every child to a standard of living adequate for
the child’s physical, mental, spiritual, moral, and social development.
2. The parent(s) or others responsible for the child have the primary responsibility to
secure, within their abilities and financial capacities, the conditions of living
necessary for the child’s development.
3. States Parties, in accordance with national conditions and within their means, shall
take appropriate measures to assist parents and others responsible for the child to
implement this right and shall in case of need provide material assistance and
support programmes, particularly with regard to nutrition, clothing, and housing.
4. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to secure the recovery of
maintenance for the child from the parents or other persons having financial
responsibility for the child, both within the State Party and from abroad. In
particular, where the person having financial responsibility for the child lives in a
State different from that of the child, States Parties shall promote the accession to
international agreements or the conclusion of such agreements, as well as the
making of other appropriate arrangements.
iii) Article 28
1. States Parties recognise the right of the child to education, and with a view to
achieving this right progressively and on the basis of equal opportunity, they shall,
in particular:
(a) make primary education compulsory and available free to all;
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(b) encourage the development of different forms of secondary education,
including general and vocational education, make them available and
accessible to every child, and take appropriate measures such as the
introduction of free education and offering financial assistance in case of
need;
(c) make higher education accessible to all on the basis of capacity by every
appropriate means;
(d) make educational and vocational information and guidance available and
accessible to all children;
(e) take measures to encourage regular attendance at schools and the reduction
of drop-out rates.
2. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that school discipline is
administered in a manner consistent with the child’s human dignity and in
conformity with the present Convention.
3. States Parties shall promote and encourage international cooperation in matters
relating to education, in particular with a view to contributing to the elimination of
ignorance and illiteracy throughout the world and facilitating access to scientific
and technical knowledge and modern teaching methods. In this regard, particular
account shall be taken of the needs of developing countries.
iv) Article 29
1. States Parties agree that the education of the child shall be directed to:
(a) The development of the child’s personality, talent,s and mental and
physical abilities to their fullest potential;
(b) The development of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms,
and for the principles enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations;
(c) The development of respect for the child’s parents, his or her own cultural
identity, language and values, for the national values of the country in
which the child is living, the country from which he or she may originate,
and for civilisations different from his or her own;
(d) The preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society, in the
spirit of understanding, peace, tolerance, equality of sexes, and friendship
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among all peoples, ethnic, national and religious groups and persons of
indigenous origin;
(e) The development of respect for the natural environment.
2. No part of the present article or article 28 shall be construed so as to interfere with
the liberty of individuals and bodies to establish and direct educational
institutions, subject always to the observance of the principle set forth in
paragraph 1 of the present article and to the requirements that the education given
in such institutions shall conform to such minimum standards as may be laid down
by the State.
Group Discussion
What do you think of the act above? Please give your views.
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CHAPTER 14
SETTING EARLY CHILDHOOD CENTRE
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
know the measures to be taken to set up a child care centre
explain the factors that influence the planning of a child care centre
plan the establishment of a child care centre
14.1 Introduction
This module will examine on the measures to be taken to plan and set up child care
centre. It covers the objective of the establishment, the construction and infrastructure
of the area, location, space, and the surroundings. In addition, it will also discuss on
such aspects as financing of the centre, organisational management, rules and
regulations in setting the of the child centre.
The quality of the preschool depends on how the management is planned as a whole.
In Malaysia preschool education is a programme implemented outside the formal
statutory education. Nevertheless, it expanded rapidly and 10,350 preschools were
established with 447,420 students by 1995.
In planning the setting up of a preschool, the following areas should be given due
attention.
14.2 Planning the Setting Up of Child Care Centre
14.2.1 Setting up Goals and Objectives
The aim of setting up child care centre is to provide equal opportunity for
education to all children below four years old. It reflects the hope and expectation
that should be attained by the preschool children.
The aim of preschool education is to explore the potentials of children between 4-
6 years old in terms of the physical, emotional, spiritual, intellect, and social
through a safe, learning environment which is creative, enjoyable, and
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meaningful. This is to improve the skills, instil confidence, and to build positive
self concept so that they can be successful in the exiting environment and ready to
face any challenges dan responsibilities in primary school later on.
Preschool is a place where children learn to familiarise with their peers and adults.
They can interact with their friends, improve their skills, and upgrade their
communicative ability. It encourages the optimum exploitation of children’s
potentials in the preschool environments.
14.2.2 Feasibility Study
In planning the setting up of a preschool, a feasibility study should be done by taking
into account on the followings:
suitability of the site and location
target group/clients
financial resources
infrastructure and facilities
curriculum/planning
human resources
regulations and laws
equipment and furniture
The specifications of the above factors/aspects are set in Act 267 (Planning) Federal
Territory 1982. The feasibility study should take into account of the followings:
a) Infrastructure of the area, location, space, building environment, etc.
According to Act 267 (Planning) Federal Territory 1982 Section 19, a building
that is to be used as a preschool cannot be used simultaneously as residential area,
shop house, or clinics. Each preschool building should be suitable in terms of
design, structure and safety. The local authorities have determined the category of
building to be used as preschool.
Suitable Building for Preschool:-
Bungalow house with the size of more than 7,000 square feet with 30% the
circulation area
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Semi-detached corner lot, or if it is an intermediate lot, it should be
combined with another lot to be one preschool
Corner lot of a terrace or linked house with a total area of not less than
3,000 square feet.
Single unit traditional house or in the Malay’s kampong
Flat or apartment with a special area for preschool
Building in a mosque, surau, or religious school area
Building in a church and Chinese or Hindu temple
Community hall or multipurpose hall
Building which is specially built to be used for preschool
According to the Fire Department, if the building consists of two storeys, a safety
ladder/step should be made available to escape from the upper floor. The most
important factor in planning for setting up the preschool is the safety aspects and
the comfort of the children.
b) Finance
Funds are required in order to obtain all the resources required for the setting up
and running of a preschool.
Four categories of resources are required to build a preschool. The materials
required to build the centre, the equipment, and facilities such as play things,
kitchen, office, transport and decoration. As for the space which includes the
building, play garden an decorations. It also include the insurance and human
resources which embedded the knowledge, skill and capabilities to produce and
deliver the services. The Management of the preschool requires a good budget
allocation as the followings:
i) Food and Budget Allocations
Planning of the food/drinks allocation
Planning monthly menu
1. Estimated expenditure
Wet supplies
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Dry supplies
2. Monthly claims on expenditure
3. Cash Book – Income & expenditure
4. Financial records/file
Letters on the claims of expenditure
Payment vouchers (with receipt)
ii) Per Capita Allocation
1. Expenditure Performa
2. Stock Register of Office supplies
Fixed Asset
Consumables
iii) Annual Budget and Financial Allocation for Food
This plan should be prepared annually before the beginning of the
preschool terms. The budget estimated will enable the management of the
preschool to know the total financial requirement for the school term. It
can be used as a guide to the preschool manager so that the fund will be
made available for the teachers and other staffs and for the purchase of all
the required stocks and supplies for a certain month.
iv) Monthly Financial Statement
The monthly financial statement should be prepared in a specific cash
book which can be used for the purpose of auditing.
Group Work
Identify the guidelines and regulations for setting up a ‘Taman Asuhan Kanak-Kanak’
(TASKA).
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