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Statistics for Engineers
Antony Lewis
http://cosmologist.info/teaching/STAT/
1 2
46%
54%
Starter question
Have you previously done any statistics?
1. Yes
2. No
BOOKS
Chatfield C, 1989. Statistics for
Technology, Chapman & Hall, 3rd ed.
Mendenhall W and Sincich T,
1995. Statistics for Engineering
and the Sciences
Books
Devore J L, 2004.
Probability and Statistics for
Engineering and the Sciences,
Thomson, 6th ed.
Wikipedia also has good articles on many topics covered in the course.
Miller and Freund's Probability
and Statistics for Engineers
Richard A. Johnson
Workshops
- Doing questions for yourself is very important to learn the material
- Hand in questions at the workshop, or ask your tutor when they want
it for next week (hand in at the maths school office in Pevensey II).
- Marks do not count, but good way to get feedback
Probability
Event: a possible outcome or set of possible outcomes of
an experiment or observation. Typically denoted by a
capital letter: A, B etc.
Probability of an event A: denoted by P(A).
E.g. The result of a coin toss
E.g. P(result of a coin toss is heads)
Measured on a scale between 0 and 1 inclusive. If A is impossible
P(A) = 0, if A is certain then P(A)=1.
Event has not occurred
Event has occurred
If there a fixed number of equally likely outcomes 𝑃(𝐴) is the fraction of the
outcomes that are in A.
E.g. for a coin toss there are two possible outcomes, Heads or Tails
All possible outcomes
Intuitive idea: P(A) is the typical fraction of times A would occur if an
experiment were repeated very many times.
H T
A
P(result of a coin toss is heads) = 1/2.
Probability of a statement S:
P(S) denotes degree of belief that S is true.
Conditional probability: P(A|B) means the probability of A given that B
has happened or is true.
E.g. P(tomorrow it will rain).
e.g. P(result of coin toss is heads | the coin is fair) =1/2
P(Tomorrow is Tuesday | it is Monday) = 1
P(card is a heart | it is a red suit) = 1/2
Conditional Probability
In terms of P(B) and P(A and B) we have
𝑃 𝐴 𝐵 =𝑃 𝐴∩B
𝑃 𝐵
𝑃(𝐵) gives the probability of an event in the B set. Given that the event is in
B, 𝑃(𝐴|𝐵) is the probability of also being in A. It is the fraction of the 𝐵
outcomes that are also in 𝐴
Probabilities are always conditional on something, for example prior knowledge, but
often this is left implicit when it is irrelevant or assumed to be obvious from the context.
𝐵 𝐴
Rules of probability
1. Complement Rule
Denote “all events that are not A” as Ac.
Since either A or not A must happen, P(A) + P(Ac) = 1.
𝐴 𝐴𝑐
E.g. when throwing a fair dice, P(not 6) = 1-P(6) = 1 – 1/6 = 5/6.
Hence
P(Event happens) = 1 - P(Event doesn't happen)
so
𝑃 𝐴 = 1 − 𝑃 𝐴𝑐
𝑃 𝐴𝑐 = 1 − 𝑃(𝐴)
We can re-arrange the definition of the conditional probability
𝑃 𝐴 𝐵 =𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
𝑃 𝐵 𝑃 𝐵 𝐴 =
𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
𝑃 𝐴
2. Multiplication Rule
𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴 𝐵 𝑃(𝐵)
𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐵 𝐴 𝑃(𝐴) or
You can often think of 𝑃(𝐴 and 𝐵) as being the probability of first getting
𝐴 with probability 𝑃(𝐴), and then getting 𝐵 with probability 𝑃 𝐵 𝐴 .
This is the same as first getting 𝐵 with probability 𝑃(𝐵) and then getting
𝐴 with probability 𝑃 𝐴 𝐵 .
Example:
A batch of 5 computers has 2 faulty computers. If the
computers are chosen at random (without
replacement), what is the probability that the first two
inspected are both faulty?
Answer:
P(first computer faulty AND second computer faulty)
= P(first computer faulty) × P(second computer faulty | first computer faulty)
= 2
5×1
4
2
5
1
4
=2
20=1
10
Use 𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑃(𝐴)𝑃 𝐵 𝐴
1 2 3 4
46%
10%14%
31%
Drawing cards
Drawing two random cards from a pack
without replacement, what is the
probability of getting two hearts? [13 of the 52 cards in a pack are hearts]
1. 1/16
2. 3/51
3. 3/52
4. 1/4
𝑃 first is a heart AND second is a heart = 𝑃 first is a heart × 𝑃 second is a heart first is a heart)
Drawing cards
Drawing two random cards from a pack
without replacement, what is the
probability of getting two hearts?
To start with 13/52 of the cards are hearts.
After one is drawn, only 12/51 of the remaining cards are
hearts.
So the probability of two hearts is
=13
52×12
51 =1
4×12
51=3
51
Special Multiplication Rule
If two events A and B are independent then P(A| B) = P(A) and P(B| A) = P(B):
knowing that A has occurred does not affect the probability that B has
occurred and vice versa.
P(A and B) = 𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴 𝑃 𝐵 𝐴 = 𝑃 𝐴 𝑃(𝐵)
Probabilities for any number of independent events can be multiplied to get the
joint probability.
In that case
E.g. A fair coin is tossed twice, what is the chance of getting a head and then a tail?
E.g. Items on a production line have 1/6 probability of being faulty. If you select three
items one after another, what is the probability you have to pick three items to find the
first faulty one?
P(H1 and T2) = P(H1)P(T2) = ½ x ½ = ¼.
𝑃 1st OK 𝑃 2nd OK 𝑃 3rd faulty =5
6×5
6×1
6 =25
216= 0.116. .
+ - =
Note: “A or B” = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 includes the possibility that both A and B occur.
3. Addition Rule
For any two events 𝐴 and 𝐵,
𝑃 𝐴 or 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴 + 𝑃 𝐵 − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
Throw of a die
Throwing a fair dice, let events be
A = get an odd number
B = get a 5 or 6
What is P(A or B)?
1. 1/6
2. 1/3
3. 1/2
4. 2/3
5. 5/6
Throw of a die
Throwing a fair dice, let events be
A = get an odd number
B = get a 5 or 6
What is P(A or B)?
𝑃 𝐴 or 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴 + 𝑃 𝐵 − 𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
This is consistent since 𝑃 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝑃 1,3,5,6 =4
6=2
3
= 𝑃 odd + 𝑃 5 or 6 − 𝑃 5
=3
6+2
6−1
6=4
6=2
3
“Probability of not getting either A or B = probability of not getting A and not getting B”
i.e. P(A or B) = 1 – P(“not A” and “not B”)
⇒ 𝑃 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 1 − 𝑃(𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵𝑐)
Alternative
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐 = Ac ∩ 𝐵𝑐
=
=
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐
Complements Rule
𝐴𝑐={2,4,6}, 𝐵𝑐 = {1,2,3,4} so 𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵𝑐 ={2,4}.
Throw of a dice
Throwing a fair dice, let events be
A = get an odd number
B = get a 5 or 6
What is P(A or B)?
Alternative answer
Hence
𝑃 𝐴 or 𝐵 = 1 − 𝑃 𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵𝑐
= 1 − 𝑃 2,4
= 1 −1
3=2
3
This alternative form has the advantage of generalizing easily to lots of possible
events:
𝑃 𝐴1 or 𝐴2 or … or 𝐴𝑘 = 1 − 𝑃(𝐴1𝑐 ∩ 𝐴2
𝑐 ∩⋯∩ 𝐴𝑘𝑐 )
Remember: for independent events, P 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 … = 𝑃 𝐴 × 𝑃 𝐵 × 𝑃 𝐶 .
Lots of possibilities
Example: There are three alternative routes A, B, or C to work, each
with some probability of being blocked. What is the probability I can
get to work?
The probability of me not being able to get to work is the probability of all
three being blocked. So the probability of me being able to get to work is
P(A clear or B clear or C clear) = 1 – P(A blocked and B blocked and C blocked).
e.g. if 𝑃 𝐴 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑑 =1
10, 𝑃 𝐵 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑑 =
3
5, 𝑃 𝐶 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑑 =
5
9
then
P(can get to work) = P(A clear or B clear or C clear)
= 1 −1
10×3
5×5
9
= 1 – P(A blocked and B blocked and C blocked
= 1 −1
30=29
30
1 2 3 4 5
4%
24%
9%6%
57%
Problems with a device
There are three common ways for a system to experience problems,
with independent probabilities over a year
A = overheats, P(A)=1/3
B = subcomponent malfunctions, P(B) = 1/3
C = damaged by operator, P(C) = 1/10
What is the probability that the system has one or more of these
problems during the year?
1. 1/3
2. 2/5
3. 3/5
4. 3/4
5. 5/6
Problems with a device
There are three common ways for a system to experience
problems, with independent probabilities over a year
A = overheats, P(A)=1/3
B = subcomponent malfunctions, P(B) = 1/3
C = damaged by operator, P(C) = 1/10
What is the probability that the system has one or more of these
problems during the year?
𝑃 has a problem = 𝑃 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 = 1 − 𝑃 𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵𝑐 ∩ 𝐶𝑐
= 1 −2
3×2
3×9
10
= 1 −4
10=3
5
Special Addition Rule
If 𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 0, the events are mutually exclusive, so
𝑃 𝐴 or 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴 + 𝑃(𝐵)
A
B
C
E.g. Throwing a fair dice,
P(getting 4,5 or 6)
In general if several events 𝐴1, 𝐴2, … , 𝐴𝑘, are mutually exclusive
(i.e. at most one of them can happen in a single experiment) then
𝑃 𝐴1 or 𝐴2 or … or 𝐴𝑘 = 𝑃 𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪⋯∪ 𝐴𝑘
= 𝑃 𝐴1 + 𝑃 𝐴2 +⋯+ 𝑃 𝐴𝑘 = 𝑃(𝐴𝑘)
𝑘
= P(4)+P(5)+P(6) = 1/6+1/6+1/6=1/2
• Complements Rule: 𝑃 𝐴𝑐 = 1 − 𝑃(𝐴) Q. What is the probability that a random card is not the ace of spades? A. 1-P(ace of spades) = 1-1/52 = 51/52
• Multiplication Rule: 𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴 𝑃 𝐵 𝐴 = 𝑃 𝐵 𝑃(𝐴|𝐵) Q What is the probability that two cards taken (without replacement) are both Aces?
A 𝑃 first ace 𝑃 second ace first ace =4
52×3
51=1
221
• Addition Rule: 𝑃 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴 + 𝑃 𝐵 − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) Q What is the probability of a random card being a diamond or an ace?
A 𝑃 diamond + 𝑃 ace − 𝑃 diamond and ace =1
4+1
13−1
52=4
13
Rules of probability recap
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