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Sequences. A sequence is a list of numbers in a definite order: a 1 , a 2 , L ,a n , L or {a n } or Suppose n 1
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Sequences A sequence is a list of numbers in a definite order:
a1, a2,,an, or {an} or
Suppose n1<n2<<nk<, then we call
a subsequence of {an}, denoted by Some sequences can be defined by giving a formula for the
general n-th term. A sequence can be thought as a function f(n)=an, with
domain N={1,2,}
1}{ nna
,,,,21 knnn aaa
}.{kna
Example Ex. Find a formula for the general term of the sequence
Sol.
Ex. The Fibonacci sequence is defined recursively by
The first few terms are
3 4 5 6 7, , , , ,
5 25 125 625 3125
na
2( 1)
5n
n n
na
{ }nf
1 2 2 11, 1, ( 0)n n nf f f f f n
1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,
Example Ex. Find a formula for the general term of the Fibonacc
i sequence. Sol. Assume that On comparing
coefficients, we have
Solving the quadratic equation, we get
Since is a geometric sequence, we find
1, 1.
nf
1n nf f
1 5,
2
2 1 1( ).n n n nf f f f
1 11 2 1( ) (1 ) , 1, 2,k k
k kf f f f k
2 11 1 3 2 2 1
1 2 2 1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
(1 )( )(1 )[ ]
n nn n n n
n nn n n n
f f f f f f f f
Example This gives
or,
Therefore,
Question: find a formula for the general term of
1 1
(1 )( )n nn
nf f
1 1
1
(1 )( ) ( ) ( )n n n n n nn
nf
1 1
1
( ) ( )n n n n
nf
1 2 2 1, , ( 0)n n nf a f b f f f n
Limit of a sequence Definition A sequence {an} has the limit L and we write
if 8>0, 9 N >0 such that |an-L|< whenever n >N. If the limit of a sequence exists, we say the sequence converges, otherwise we say it diverges.
A sequence is a special function, so all the properties for function limits are also true for sequence limits.
lim or asn nn
a L a L n
Function limit and sequence limit The following theorem is obvious:
Theorem If and an=f(n), thenLxfx
)(lim .lim Lann
Properties The Squeeze Theorem holds also true:
If an· bn· cn for n¸ n0 and then
Ex. Find the limit of the sequence an=n!/nn.
Sol. Since 0<an·1/n, by the Squeeze Theorem,
,limlim Lca nn
nn
.lim Lbnn
.0lim n
na
Example Ex. Discuss the convergence an=rn, r2(-1,+1).
Sol. (i)When |r|>1, |r|n increasingly goes to infinity.
(ii)When |r|<1, |r|n decreasingly goes to zero.
(iii)When r=1, an1, so the limit is 1.
(iv)When r=-1, an oscillates between 1 and –1 infinitely
often, so it diverges.
To summarize, {rn} is convergent if –1<r·1 and divergent
for all other values of r. 1
11
1
0lim
r
r
if
ifr n
n
Example Ex. Find the limit
Sol.
.1
2
1
1
1lim
222
nnnnn
nn
n
nnnnnnnn
222222
111
2
1
1
1
11
1
1
11
2
1
1
1222222
n
n
nnnnnn
11
1
1lim
1lim,1
11
1limlim
2
22
nn
n
nnn
nnnnn
Monotonicity and boundedness Definition A sequence is called increasing if
for all It is called decreasing if for all
It is called monotonic if it is either increasing or decreasing.
Definition A sequence is bounded above if there is a
number M such that for all It is bounded
below if there is a number m such that for all
{ }na 1n na a 1.n 1n na a 1.n
{ }na1.nna M
na m 1.n
Monotonic sequence theoremTheorem Every bounded, monotonic sequence is convergent.
In particular, an increasing sequence that is bounded above
is convergent; a decreasing sequence that is bounded below
is convergent.
Ex prove that {an} is convergent.
Sol. It is easy to see and
That is, {an} is increasing and
bounded above, and thus converges.
1 1 1,
1 2 2 4 2n na
n
nnnn an
aa
11 2)1(
1
.12
11
2
1
4
1
2
1
nnna
Example
Ex. Suppose {an} is defined by the recursive relationship
Find the limit of {an}.
Sol. so an>1 for all n.
so {an} is decreasing. Let
Using the recursive relationship, we have
Solving the equation for L, we get L=1 or L=0. Since an>1,
we eliminate L=0. Therefore
).1(1
2,1 11
n
a
aaa
n
nn
,12
1
21,1 11
kk
k
k
kkk aa
a
a
aaaa
,11
2
1
21 n
n
n
nn a
a
a
aa
.1lim n
na
.1
2
1
2limlim 1
L
L
a
aaL
n
n
nn
n
.lim Lann
Example {an} is defined by Show that {an} is
convergent and find its limit.
Sol. We can easily prove an>1 for all n by induction. Then we
have an+1<an. So {an} is decreasing and bounded below.
Let Taking limits on both sides of the recurrence
equality, we obtain
Solving the equation for L, we get Since an>1, we
discard L=-1 to get L=1.
).1(3
13,1 11
na
aaa
n
nn
.lim Lann
.3
13
3
13limlim 1
L
L
a
aaL
n
n
nn
n
.1L
Series If is a sequence, then is called an
infinite series (or just a series) and is denoted by
We call the n-th partial sum of the series.
The partial sums form a new sequence If it converges,
then the series is called convergent and the number
is called the sum of the series. We denote
{ }na
1
orn nn
a a
1 2 na a a
1 21
n
n n ii
s a a a a
{ }.ns
nalim nn
s s
1
nn
s a
Example Ex. Discuss the convergence of the geometric series
Sol. If r=1, then so the series
diverges.
If then so the series converges
when and diverges otherwise. To summarize, the
geometric series is convergent if and only if and the
sum is
2 1 1
1
0n n
n
a ar ar ar ar a
1
1
(1 ),
1
nni
ni
a rs ar
r
1
,n
ni
s a na
1,r 1 1r
| | 1r .
1
a
r
Example Ex. Is the series convergent or divergent?
Sol. Since
it is a series with thus is divergent. Ex. Find the sum of the series Sol.
2 1
1
2 3n n
n
4 / 3 1r
2 1 1 1
1 1 1
42 3 4 3 4( )
3n n n n n
n n n
1 1 1.
1 3 2 4 ( 2)n n
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1( ) (1 )
2 2 2 2 1 2
n
nk
sk k n n
3lim
4nn
s s
Example Ex. Show that the harmonic series
is divergent? Sol.
1
1 1 1 11
2 3 4n n
1 2
1 1 1 2 11, 1 ,
2 3 4 4 2s s
1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 8 1,
5 6 7 8 8 2 9 16 16 2
21
2n
ns
Necessary condition for convergence Theorem. If the series is convergent, then
Proof.
The test for divergence If does not exist or if
then the series is divergent.
Remark. is only a necessary condition, but not sufficient.
1n
n
a
1 lim 0n n n nna s s a s s
lim 0.nn
a
lim 0,nn
a
lim nn
a
nalim 0nn
a
Properties Theorem If and are convergent, then
Question: converges, diverges, then
both and diverges, then
Remark A finite number of terms doesn’t affect the convergence or divergence of a series.
na nb
1 1 1 1 1
(i) (ii) ( )n n n n n nn n n n n
ca c a a b a b
na nb ( )?n na bna nb ( )?n na b
Convergence test for positive series Theorem Suppose is a series with positive terms,
then it converges if and only if the sequence of the partial
sum is bounded, i.e., there exists a constant M such that
for all n. Proof. Note that for a positive series, the sequence of the p
artial sum is always increasing. So the theorem follows immediately from the monotonic sequence theorem.
na
ns
ns M
The integral test Theorem Suppose f is a continuous, positive, decreasing
function on and let Then the series
is convergent if and only if the improper integral
is convergent.
Ex. For what values of p is the series convergent?
Sol. The p-series is convergent if p>1 and divergent
if
na1
( )f x dx
( ).na f n[1, )
1
1p
n n
1
1p
n n
1.p
Example Ex. Determine whether the series converges
or diverges. Sol. The improper integral
So the series diverges.
2
11
ln ln
2
x xdx
x
1
ln
n
n
n
1
ln
n
n
n
Question Ex. Determine whether the series converges or
diverges. Sol.
2
1
lnqn n n
diverge for 1q
converge for 1q
Homework 23 Section 11.1: 22, 35, 36, 51, 61, 62
Section 11.2: 23, 44
Section 11.3: 7, 20, 24
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