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Self-Regulation in Chronic Disease
Noreen M. Clark, Ph.D.March 23, 2002
The day to day manager of chronic disease is the patient. Under best circumstance the physician provides guidelines for effective at home management.
Most chronic diseases are variable and an individual must exercise a significant degree of judgment regarding management.
Many factors help or hinder individuals in their management tasks.
Management by Management by PatientPatient
Family InvolvementFamily Involvement
Clinical ExpertiseClinical Expertise
Work/School SupportWork/School Support
Community Awareness, Support & ActionCommunity Awareness, Support & Action
Community-Wide Environmental Control MeasuresCommunity-Wide Environmental Control Measures
Conducive PoliciesConducive Policies
Self-regulation is the means by which people learn how to manage disease utilizing internal resources and external factors.
Self-regulation is a dimension of social cognitive theory - a comprehensive explanation of human behavior.
Our research group has been examining three aspects of self-regulation:a) its constituents or elements
b) how these are integrated into a model
c) how they predict outcomes related to chronic disease management
Patient efforts to manage asthma and heart disease serve as the context for studying self-regulation.
The elements of self-regulation we have identified are:
• observation• judgment• reaction:
- expectation - efficacy
These elements are very useful constructs because means to improve one’s capacities are evident within them.
A Model of Self-Regulation
Intrapersonal Factors • Knowledge• Attitudes• Feelings• Beliefs
External Factors• Role models
• Technical advice and service• Social support
• Money and material resources
Judgments
Observations
Reactions (outcomeexpectations
& self-efficacy)
Internal and External Factors
Use of ManagementStrategies• Prevention
• Disease control
Reactions (outcome
expectations& self-efficacy)
Judgments
Observations
Management Strategies
End Points• Reaching personal goals
• Physiological status• Functioning
• Health care use• Perceptions of quality
Reactions (outcomeexpectations
& self-efficacy)
Observations
Judgments
End Points
Elements of Self-Regulation
Intrapersonal Factors
• Knowledge• Attitudes• Feelings• Beliefs
External Factors• Role models
• Technical advice and service• Social support
• Money and material resources
Judgments
Observations
Reactions (outcome
expectations& self-efficacy)
Use of ManagementStrategies
• Prevention
• Disease control
Reactions (outcome
expectations& self-efficacy)
Judgments
Observations
End Points• Reaching personal goals
• Physiological status• Functioning
• Health care use• Perceptions of quality
Reactions (outcomeexpectations
& self-efficacy)
Observations
Judgments
We have conducted a number of studies to examine the elements of self-regulation (observation, judgment, reaction) as presented in this model:• stability• predictive ability
A Study of Parent Management
of a Child’s Asthma• N=637 families in Michigan
and New York• Data Collection:
– Baseline– 6 months– 1 year later
Data Analysis• Poisson regression models with
generalized estimated equation (GEE) analysis (baseline to 12-month, 12 to 24-month, and baseline to 24 months).
• Previous response regarding the outcome variables of interest and prior and current inhaled anti-inflammatory medication use were controlled in each model.
* Cronbach alpha = .77
Measures
Observation• look for early warning signs• watch child when symptoms begin• determine if symptoms are
improving• monitor child after giving
medications
* Cronbach alpha = .62
Measures
Judgment• decide to adjust medicine• use criteria for changing dose or type of
medicine• distinguish from non-harmful substances
potential triggers in environment• assess changes made in the child’s
environment
* Cronbach alpha = .70
Measures
Reaction• Self-efficacy or confidence to:
– prevent symptoms– keep symptoms from getting worse– stop symptoms without an MD visit– take care of asthma in general
Measures
Reaction - Outcome Expectations• Agreement that specific actions
produce results:– give prescription medicine when
symptoms appear– staying calm and calming the child– getting child to rest at onset of symptoms– identifying environmental factors
Measures
Outcome Expectations, cont’d.
– removing child from source of symptoms
– giving medications preventively– keeping child away from irritants/
allergies– asking for help/advice
* Cronbach alpha = .80
Management Strategies
The extent to which parents used the specific actions described.
Intrapersonal Factors
• Asthma knowledge/beliefs• Awareness of treatment plan
* Cronbach alpha = .82
External Factors
• Role models• Social support• Technical services
* Cronbach alpha = .65 -.77
Outcomes
• Quality of life• Severity of asthma in past year• Hospitalizations• ED visits• Office visits
Baseline
.175(.000)
IntrapersonalFactors
External Factors
ManagementStrategies
Judgment
Observations
Confidence
.021(.026)
.015(.042)
Stable elements of Self-Regulation
.535 (.000)
.357(.000)
Follow-up 1
.184(.000)
IntrapersonalFactors
External Factors
ManagementStrategies
Judgment
Observations
Confidence
.299(.000)
.061(.000)
Stable elements of Self-Regulation
.399 (.003)
.464(.000)
Follow-up 2
.126(.000)
IntrapersonalFactors
External Factors
ManagementStrategies
Judgment
Observations
Confidence
.191(.000)
.251(.000)
Stable elements of Self-Regulation
.447 (.000)
. 624(.000)
Elements of Self-Regulation
.126 (.000)
.184 (.000)
.175 (.000)
Baseline Follow-up 1 Follow-up 2
Intrapersonal Factors
Intrapersonal Factors
Intrapersonal Factors
ExternalFactors
ManagementStrategies
Judgment Judgment
Observations
Confidence
Observations Observations
Confidence & Outcome
Expectations
.021 (.026)
.535 (.000)
.299 (.000)
.399 (.003)
.191 (.004)
.447 (.000)
.251
.624
(.018)
(.000)
.161 (.000)
.464 (.000)
.015 (.042)
.357 (.000)
ExternalFactors
ExternalFactors
ManagementStrategies
ManagementStrategies
Confidence & Outcome
Expectations
Judgment
Predictive Ability of Constructs
Quality of Life
Severity
Hospitalization
ED Visit
Follow-up Visit
Baseline Follow-up 2
External Factors
Management Strategies
Judgment
Observations
Confidence
Intrapersonal Factors
-.722 (.060)
-.524 (.003)
-.394 (.007)
.537 (.036)
-.290 (.000)
-.969(.011)
Baseline to two years later
Tentative Conclusions
• Observation, judgment and reaction are interrelated and reciprocally reinforcing.
• Observation and judgment are directly associated with use of disease management strategies.
• Disease management strategies may indirectly influence outcomes by sharpening skills of observation and judgment.
• Intrapersonal factors, when measured as knowledge, beliefs and feelings, are less important in control of asthma than having self-regulation skills.
• Health care use is influenced by the ability to make judgments -- Quality of life by observation.
• External factors, perhaps because they enhance self-regulation, are significant in reducing severity and health care use.
The elements of self-regulation lend themselves to interventions for enhancing chronic disease management.
Focusing on self-regulation rather than on information seems warranted for interventions.
Specific Techniques May Enhance Self-Regulation
Skills
Observation
• Diaries• Record keeping• Physiologic monitoring• Practice
Judgment
• Setting criteria• Rehearsing decision-making
Reaction
• Self-efficacy– realistic assessments– social support– role models
Reaction
• Outcome expectations–analysis of means-ends relationships
–persuasive communicators–role models
Self-regulation holds promise for enabling individuals to make optimum their control of chronic disease.
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