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A2 PSYCHOLOGYUnit 3
Topics in PsychologyEATING BEHAVIOUR
WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW…
EATING BEHAVIOUR:
Attitudes to Eating behaviour1. Factors influencing attitudes to food and eating- Cultural influences- Mood- Health concerns
2. Explanations for the success and failure of dieting
Biological explanations of eating behaviour1. Neural mechanisms - Controlling eating behaviour
2. Evolutionary explanations of food preference
Eating disorders1. Anorexia Nervosa- Psychological explanations- Biological explanations
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For Unit 3 you need to have excellent evaluative skills. In order to gain top A02/A03 marks you need to be evaluating using
Issues, Debates and Approaches (IDA)
• Issues include bias (culture- or gender-based), ethics (for human and non-human animal participants), and methodology.• Debates include nature/nurture, free will and determinism, and reductionism.• Approaches include cognitive, biological/physiological, behavioural/learning, and psychodynamic.
The pneumonic below can help you to remember key issues and debates:
G – Gender biasR – Reductionism E – Ethical issuesN – Nature vs nurtureA – ApplicationD – Determinism vs free willE – Ethnocentrism
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Topic 1 – Attitudes to Eating Behaviour
Lesson 1: Introduction to attitudes to food and eating behaviour
Attitudes can be measured using a Likert Scale.
Rate the following 10 foods from 1 to 51= do not like at all5= like very much
Food Type Attitude (1-5)AppleChipsSalad
Chocolate cakeWholemeal bread
Salmon and potatoesFry Up
Boiled eggsPizza
Big Mac
Compare your results with the rest of the group.Which foods were most liked and disliked? Why?
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What is an attitude?………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
ABC MODEL
A
B
C
How do attitudes develop?
1.
2.
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Factors which influence attitudes to food
Lesson 2: Mood as a factor which influences attitudes to food/eating behaviour
Mood – emotional state which
affects eating practices
Give examples of different moods and how it affects your eating behaviour:
What conclusions can we draw?
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POSITIVE MOOD NEGATIVE MOOD
Key study
Garg et al, 2007Aims
Procedures
Findings
Conclusions
Evaluation
Stress and eating - Do people eat more or less when feeling stressed?
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Hypophagia – Excessive Under-Eating Hyperphagia – Excessive Over-eating
What can we conclude from the above research?
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Evaluate mood and eating behaviour research below:
G
R
E
N
A
D
E
Outline what research has shown regarding mood and eating behaviour (4 marks)
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Lesson 3: Cultural influences on attitudes to food and eating behaviour
How does diet differ in countries around the world?
UK -
Japan -
India -
Mexico -
What about different religions?
Judaism -
Christianity -
Islam -
How do the McDonald’s adverts compare across different countries?
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Research: Cultural Influences
Lawrence et al (2007)
Stead et al (2004)
Stefansson (1960)
Evaluate culture and eating behaviour research below:
G
R
E
N
A
D
E
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Lesson 4: Health concerns as a factor which effects attitudes to food and eating behaviour
The desire to eat nutritious food and avoid unhealthy diets is a motivation for eating behaviour.
Describe the perfect healthy diet:
Factors that affect health-based eating behaviour…
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Education
Accessibility
Income
Source
Social and Cultural Influences
What does the research say?
Topic Research
Sensory Qualities
Education
Health
Source
Income
Nutrition
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What can we conclude from the above research? Are health concerns an influential factor?
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Evaluation
ISSUES -
DEBATES -
APPROACHES -
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A01:
Explanation 1 –
Explanation 2 –
Explanation 3-
A02: Research support:
A03: Evaluation of researchISSUE:
DEBATE:
APPROACH:
Keywords:
Discuss the role of one or more factors that influence attitudes to food (24m)
“Attitudes to food and eating behaviour are influenced by a range of factors such as culture, mood and health concerns.”
Discuss research into factors influencing attitudes to food and/or eating behaviour. (8 marks + 16 marks)………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Topic 2 – The success and failure of dieting
What is dieting?
What do we mean by restrained and non-restrained eaters? Who would you expect to eat more? Explain your answer. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
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Up to 87% of women
diet at some point in
their lives.
Why do people diet?
Who would eat more in a study, dieters (restrained eaters) or non-dieters (unrestrained eaters)? Herman and Mack (1975) actually found that restrained eaters eat more!
Procedure:Which research design was used?
There were three were three conditions, what were they?
What were p’s asked to do?
All p’s were then given a questionnaire to establish whether or not they were on a diet.Results:Low restraint p’s:
High restraint p’s:
Across all p’s: they also found that the higher the p’s scored on the questionnaire the more ice cream they ate after two milkshakes (positive correlation)Conclusion:
Results support the boundary model theory because:
Evaluation: The questionnaire was administered post hoc so:
A positive correlation was found between level of restraint and amount of ice cream eaten – shows that dieters will eat more if pushed over an already established ‘cognitive limit’
Data is correlational so:
The study could be considered ethical because:
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The boundary model – resulting in the ‘what the hell effect’
When we go on a diet the body’s physiological processes (homeostasis) have to compete with cognitive limits (personal goals, calorie limits) we set ourselves.
Evaluation of the boundary model
Strengths Weaknesses
Other reasons diets can be problematic
Become fixated with food: we may eat more because we have suppressed thoughts about food – called the ‘rebound effect’
Food has the ability to raise our mood: linked to the ‘what the hell’ effect of restrained eaters & low self-esteem
Weight loss may slow: Our BMR slows down if less calories are consumed, so we burn less calories and weight loss is difficult
Weight loss can be successful if the following things are done
1.
2.
3.
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Describe the interaction between cognitive a physiological processes and how they influence dieting:
A further explanation for the success and failure of dieting – The role of detail (Redden, 2008)
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Outline:
Supporting Evidence:
Evaluation of research and explanation:
The role of neural mechanisms involved in controlling eating and satiation
Learning objectives:
To be able to describe the role of neural mechanisms involved in eating and satiation To describe and evaluate research into the mechanisms of feeding and satiation
What is homeostasis?
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The digestive tract (pg. 153)
Complete the boxes to show what happens during the digestion process at each of these key stages:
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STOMACH
OESOPHAGUS
SMALL INTESTINE
More enzymes break down the food and then the small molecules are absorbed into the blood stream. The small intestine has villi (finger like projections) which increase the surface area for absorption.
LIVER
The liver makes bile which is stored in the gall
bladder. Bile neutralises the acid from the
stomach as it is an alkali
PANCREAS
Makes enzymes which are released into the small intestine to carry on breaking down food.
MOUTH
What are adipose cells?
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Insulin and glucagon (pg. 153)
Insulin Glucagon
What is diabetes?
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What is the difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes?
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Explain the role of insulin plays in diabetes
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Neural mechanisms and eating behaviour (pgs. 153 - 154)
What evidence is there that the hypothalamus plays a role in the control of eating behaviour?
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Produce a diagram to show how hunger is controlled by dual centres in the hypothalamus
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Signals for starting a meal (pg. 154 – 155)
In _____________ countries we normally have set meal times, and the ___________ system will prepare
itself by releasing __________ and _________ just before this set time (Pinel, 2007). _________________
would suggest this represents a ____________ response because we which we anticipate the presence of
food due to the fact we associate food with certain times of the day
The __________ and _______ of food also prepare the digestive system, and can cause a _________ to
eat; despite not actually being hungry.
The hormone __________ is released by the __________. The amount of __________ released depends on
how ________ our ___________ is. When injected _________ can cause a _________ to eat more and as
such gain weight. The role of ________ can also be seen when looking at people who have had a
___________ _______ fitted. This is because, the amount of _________ released by the stomach
_____________after a person has had a ____________ ________ fitted.
Cummings et al. (2004) – A study into the changes in participants (p's) blood ghrelin levels between meals:How many p's were used?
What gender were they?
P's ate lunch, and their ghrelin levels were monitored. How often was blood taken?
How was the blood sample taken?
Blood was taken until p's asked for their evening meal. How frequently did P's have to assess their hunger?
What did Cummings et al (2004) find?
Therefore, ghrelin levels directly reflect the emptiness of the stomach and can be linked to personal hunger feelings.
Evaluation:List the extraneous variables (EV's) that were eliminated:
Why is it important to control/eliminate EV's?
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Why does the study lack population validity?
Data was correlational, what is the problem with this?
Short-term factors which may stop us eating (pg. 156)
Food in the stomach:
Digestion – from stomach to duodenum:
Fall in ghrelin levels:
Blood glucose levels:
Long term factors controlling how much we eat – body weight (pg. 156 – 157)
Body weight is determined by both muscle mass and body fat Fat is stored in adipocyte cells, and these cells make up fatty tissue. The number of adipocytes a
person has are determined by diet and fixed after the first few years of life We control how much we eat so we can maintain a relatively constant weight In order to do this the mechanisms that control feeding need to know how much fat we are storing,
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so these mechanisms receive a signal about our fat reserves (the main factor which determines our weight)
Signals indicating body weight (pg. 157)
Evidence of this signal comes from studies of genetically obese mice.
What are 'ob' mice?
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What is leptin?
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Why do 'ob' mice eat continuously? What can be done to treat them?
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Why can't the same treatment be used for humans?
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Evaluation of the biological explanations of eating behaviours (pg. 157 – 158)
Understanding the complex biological systems regulating human eating behaviour can help us understand not only normal regulations of eating but can also give an insight into the biological influences on eating disorders such as AN
This approach is based solely on biological factors therefore,
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Most research within this area has been conducted on non-human animals; therefore,
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Discuss neural mechanisms involved in the control of eating behaviour. (8 marks + 16 marks)
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Evolutionary explanations of food preference
Learning objectives:
To be able to describe evolutionary explanations for food preferences – including the influence of taste and smell
To be able to evaluate research into evolutionary explanations of food preference
Taste and smell (pg. 159)
Gustation (the psychological term referring to our sense of taste) depends on receptors on the tongue.
Explain how taste receptors are activated:
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Taste receptors are specialised cells which identify five key taste qualities. Each of these can be linked to a certain aspect of our diets:
Taste receptor Aspect of diet receptor is linked to
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How does Olfaction (our sense of smell) influence our food preferences?
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Evolutionary origins of the human diet
The human evolutionary line split from the apes around 6 million year ago. So the easiest way to investigate our evolutionary past is by comparing our diets to our nearest relatives – the great apes and monkeys.
Using pg. 160 answer the following questions:
1. Are humans biologically suited to eat meat? Explain your answer.…..........................................................................................................................................................................
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2. ‘Becoming omnivores enabled humans to evolve in many ways’. Provide evidence to support this statement.
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3. When humans became omnivores, they began to live in hunter-gatherer societies. This had implications for the nature of our society. Explain how gender roles could be said to have an evolutionary basis.
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Becoming omnivores had the above evolutionary advantages, but also had the disadvantage of exposing humans to a number of toxins and bacteria present in raw meat.
In order to cope with these risks humans developed a number of methods:
Evolved coping method Explanation & supporting research
Cooking
The use of spices – passed on via cultural transmission
Taste receptors & facial expressions
Food neophobia
Taste aversion learning
Further evidence that food preferences and the human diet have evolutionary advantages comes from the diets of _______________ women. Speak to any ______________ women or mother and they will most likely provide you with stories of _______________ sickness, cravings, and being completely put of food they previously loved. This would; however, be anecdotal evidence. In order to discuss this in your essays you will need to provide empirical evidence.
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Use pg. 162 to find research which supports the above anecdotal evidence:
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Evaluation of the Evolutionary explanation for food preferences
Strengths Weaknesses
A – approach
Evolutionary approach
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I – issue
Reductionism
D - debate
Nature V Nurture
Eating disorders (pgs. 177 – 185)
Learning objectives:
To be able to define the term ‘eating disorder’ To be able to list the clinical characteristics of Anorexia Nervosa (AN)
What are ‘eating disorders’?
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Most pieces of research on eating disorders considered oestrocentric, why?
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How could this problem be addressed?
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There are three types of eating disorders:
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Anorexia Nervosa (AN) Bulimia nervosa (BN) Eating Disorders Not Otherwise Specified (EDNOS)
Anorexia Nervosa (AN) – how is it diagnosed?
AN can be divided into two types: restricting AN and binge/purge AN
Restricting AN – involves a refusal to eat (starving themselves) Binge/purge AN – involves binge eating and then attempting to purge (remove the food from the
body)
What do sufferers do to purge?
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In order to diagnose a person as suffering from an eating disorder a doctor will have look out for certain
symptoms/behaviours.
List the symptoms of AN below:
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Case studies – read the studies and decide whether they are suffering from AN, if so what type? Or whether you think they do not meet the criteria for AN. Provide evidence for your decision in the table below:
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Case 1 - Jane is 17; she goes to the local supermarket and buys crisps, biscuits, and cakes most evenings. She hides them in her room – her family do not know she does this. After eating most of her purchases Jane goes out running and will do 200 sit ups and 200 press ups. Jane used to
be a healthy 10 stone – she is now eight stone
Case 2 - Alice is 15, she lies to her mum and tells her she has breakfast at school, and lunch at her best friends house. In fact, Alice eats neither. Her
periods started when she was 13, but for the past few moths she has not had a period. Alice used to be a size 12, she is now a size eight – but still thinks she
is fat.
Case 3 - Andrew is 16, he worries that he is fat, because he is bigger than most of his friends. Andrew is restricting
what he eats. He used to need a size L in t-shirts and jumpers. He has lost a 1 ½ stone, so he is
now a size S. He goes to the gym 4 times a week.
Case 1 – Jane Case 2 – Alice Case 3 - Andrew
Psychological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa (AN)
Sociocultural Explanation:
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Case 1 - Jane is 17; she goes to the local supermarket and buys crisps, biscuits, and cakes most evenings. She hides them in her room – her family do not know she does this. After eating most of her purchases Jane goes out running and will do 200 sit ups and 200 press ups. Jane used to
be a healthy 10 stone – she is now eight stone
Case 2 - Alice is 15, she lies to her mum and tells her she has breakfast at school, and lunch at her best friends house. In fact, Alice eats neither. Her
periods started when she was 13, but for the past few moths she has not had a period. Alice used to be a size 12, she is now a size eight – but still thinks she
is fat.
Influence of the media:
Supporting Evidence:
Cognitive Explanation:
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Faulty thinking:
Supporting Evidence:
Psychodynamic explanations for AN
The psychodynamic approach to behaviour is based on the assumptions that:
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Research carried out by Idea(s) held Explanation
Restricting eating to gain self-efficacy
Restricting eating to delay on-set on adulthood like characteristics
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Evaluation of explanation:
Restricting eating for a distraction
Evaluation of the Psychodynamic explanation of eating disorders
Treatments based on the assumptions of this approach are commonly used and have been found to be effective.
It is difficult to establish a cause and effect relationship between ……………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
The assumptions this approach are based on cannot be tested because
…………………………………………………………........................................................................…; therefore, the
approach is unfalsifiable.
Evidence comes mainly from case studies which lack reliability because …………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Explanations of eating disorders – Biological explanationsThe Evolutionary perspective
Learning objectives:
To be able to outline and evaluate the evolutionary explanation of eating disorders
The Evolutionary approach assumes three basic things about all human behaviour:
1. All behaviour is inherited from…...………………………………, therefore; it is …………………….. and considered to be an…………………….. Response to our ……………………..
2. In order for a behaviour to continue it must be beneficial for either …………………………….. or ……………………………….
3. Any behaviour that is not beneficial will not……………………………………………….
Q: What is the EEA?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…
Q: What similarities do AN sufferers have with our hunter-gatherer ancestors?
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………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Strengths of the evolutionary explanation Weaknesses of the evolutionary explanation
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Genetics, and the role of neurotransmitters in AN
AO1 Explanation AO2 Research evidence AO2/3 for studies
Genetics
Neurotransmitters
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Discuss one psychological and one biological explanation for an eating disorder (8+16 marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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