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Rocks and Minerals on Earth’s surface
By Doba D. Jackson, Ph.D.
Associate Professor of Chemistry & Biochemistry
Huntingdon College
Outline of Lecture 3• Part I: Minerals and Rocks
– Structure of inorganic compounds– Silicates– Carbonates– Common Rocks– Mineral Activity
• Part II: The Igneous Rocks– Types of Igneous Rocks– Types of Magma– Bowen’s Rock formation
Outline of Lecture 3• Part III: Volcanoes and Volcanism
• Part II: Weathering, Erosion
Introduction to Chapter 3
• What is a mineral? A mineral is – Naturally – Inorganic– Crystalline solid– Characteristic physical properties– Specific chemical composition.
The Rock Cycle
• What is a rock?– A rock is an aggregate of minerals.
Granite Limestone Conglomerate
Slate GneissQuartzite
The Rock Cycle
The Rock Cycle• What are the characteristics of each of
the three major rock groups?
• Igneous rocks result from the crystallization of magma or the consolidation of volcanic ejecta.
The Rock Cycle• Sedimentary rocks are typically
deposited in layers formed by the:
– consolidation of rock fragments
– precipitation of mineral matter from solution
– compaction of plant or animal remains
The Rock Cycle• Metamorphic Rocks- that result from the
alteration of other rocks;
– Metamorphic rocks usually form beneath Earth’s surface, by• Heat• Pressure• Chemically active
fluids.
The Rock Cycle connects the internal and external processes of the earth
Matter, Atoms, Elements, and Bonding
• What are the atomic number and atomic mass of an atom?– The number of protons in an atom’s nucleus
determines its atomic number, whereas an atom’s atomic mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
Matter, Atoms, Elements, and Bonding
• Chemical bonding– Atoms are joined to
one another by forces known as bonding.
– Atoms of different elements which are bonded to one another form compounds.
Types of Chemical Bonds
• Ionic Bonds– Ionic bonds form when ions with opposite
electrical charges attract one another
Types of Chemical Bonding
• Covalent Bonds– Covalent bonds atoms share electrons.
Native Elements vs Minerals
By definition native elements are made up of only one chemical element, such as:
– Gold (Ag) – Silver (Ag)– Aluminum (Al)– Copper (Cu) – Diamond (pure C)
Elements of the Earth’s Crust
• Why are there so few common minerals?– Even though there are 92 naturally occurring
elements, only 8 of them are very common in Earth’s crust.
– Most common minerals are made up of oxygen, silicon, and one or more other elements.
Definitions of Ionic and Covalent Bonds
• Ionic bonds are a result of a combination of a metal (electropositive element) and a non-metal (electronegative element). – In ionic bonds, atoms are attracted to each other by
opposite charges.
• Covalent bonds are a result of the combination of two non-metals (two electronegative elements).– In covalent bonds, atoms are attracted to each other
by a shared pair of electrons.
Points to consider: Ionic verses Covalent compounds
Point 1: Ionic compounds are usually solids (when pure)
Point 2: Ionic compounds have very high boiling and
melting points
Point 3: Covalent compounds can be either solids, liquids
or gases
Point 4: Covalent compounds have relatively lower boiling
and melting points
A chemical representation of a covalent compound (ethanol)
Some Chemical Properties of the Elements
MetalsNonmetals
Mineral Groups categorized by the non-metalic component
• Most of the more than 3,500 known minerals are silicates.
Silicates are composed of silicon and oxygen
• Silicates – – composed of
the silica tetrahedra
Structures of Silicates in the crystalline rocks
Ferromagnesium silicate
Non-Ferromagnesium silicate
Types of Silicates• Ferromagnesian silicates - made up of iron,
magnesium, or both combined with other elements.
• Usually dark colored
Types of Silicates
Nonferromagnesian silicates - lack iron and magnesium
• light colored
Carbonate rocks are sedimentary rocks
• Carbonates – All carbonate minerals have the
carbonate radical (CO³)-² as in calcite (CaCO³) and dolomite [CaMg(CO³)²].
– Carbonate minerals are found mostly in the sedimentary rocks limestone and dolostone.
– Carbonates are derived from the shells and hard parts of marine organisms or are precipitated as seawater evaporates.
Mineral Identification must be confirmed by specific tests
• Mineral composition and structure produce unique physical properties.
– Color– Hardness– Cleavage pattern– Crystal form– Density– M.P. (if applicable)– Elemental analysis– Diffraction
Rocks are a collection of many minerals
The Origin of Minerals• As molten rock material known as magma
(lava at the surface) cools, minerals begin to crystallize and grow, thus determining the composition of various igneous rocks.
The Rock Cycle• What are the characteristics of each of
the three major rock groups?
• Igneous rocks result from the crystallization of magma or the consolidation of volcanic ejecta.
Types of Igneous Rocks
All Igneous rocks fall into two categories based on how they were formed:
• Volcanic (extrusive) Rocks- These Igneous rocks come from volcanic eruptions. The rocks form through cooling of lava flows or condensation of volcanic ash. In this case, the cooling process is fast over several days, weeks.
• Plutonic (intrusive) Rocks- These Igneous rocks form underground beneath the earth’s surface. In this case, the cooling is slow over millions of years.
Volcanic Rock Formation
• Volcanic rocks come from two sources:
–Lava: Molten magma flowing along the earth’s surface
–Pyroclastic materials: gases, dust, smoke purged into the air and settles on the ground around the surface of a volcano
Introduction to Magmas
• Magmas are differentiated based on the relative proportions of silica (SiO4), Iron (Fe), and Magnesium (Mg).
– Felsic magma – silica rich (>65%) – Intermediate magma- silica content (53-65%)– Mafic – silica poor (45-53%)– Ultra-Mafic- silica very poor (<45%)
• A single magma can, however, yield different rock types.
The Properties and Behavior of Magma and Lava
External analysis of Igneous rocks
• What does the term texture mean? – Texture refers to the size, shape, and
arrangement of mineral grains composing a rock. • Aphanitic, meaning very
fine-grained (usually extensive origins)
• Phaneritic, meaning very course-grained (usually intensive origins)
Major Igneous Rocks
Common Igneous Rocks
Diorite
BasaltAndesite
Diorite
Granite
Rhyolite
Gabbro
Common Igneous Rocks
• Peridotite is an ultramafic rock, meaning that it contains more iron and magnesium than basalt and gabbro which are mafic. Its composition is close to that of the mantle.
Density- 3.5-5.7 g/cm3Form- PlutonicMagma- Ultramafic%Silica- <45%Minerals
- Olivine- Pyroxene- Plagioclase
Common Volcanic Rocks
Basalt- is the most abundant rock of oceanic crust.
- Plutonic form- Gabbro- Density- 3.0 g/cm3
- Texture- rough (extensive)- Magma- Mafic- % Silica- 45-53%- Minerals:
- Plagioclase- Olivine- Pyroxene- Horneblende
Basalt from a lava flow
Basalt from water-cooled lava
Common Volcanic Rocks
Rhyolite- rock found in the continental crust.
- Plutonic form- Granite- Density- 2.7 g/cm3
- Texture- rough (extensive)- Magma- felsic- % Silica- >65%- Minerals:
- Plagioclase- Quartz- Biotite- Horneblende
Pink Rhyolite
Porphylitic Rhyolite
Common Volcanic Rocks
Andesite- rock found in the continental crust.
- Plutonic form- Diorite- Density- 2.7 g/cm3
- Texture- rough (extensive)- Magma- intermediate- % Silica- 53-65%- Minerals:
- Plagioclase- Pyroxene- Horneblende
Pyropholitic Andesite
Andesite
Common Plutonic Rocks
Diorite- rock found in the continental crust.
- Plutonic form- Andesite- Density- 2.7 g/cm3
- Texture- fine (intensive)- Magma- intermediate- % Silica- 53-65%- Minerals:
- Plagioclase- Pyroxene- Horneblende
Diorite
Diorite
Common Plutonic Rocks
Gabbro- is the most abundant rock in mid oceanic ridges.
- Volcanic form- Basalt- Density- 3.0 g/cm3
- Texture- fine (intensive)- Magma- Mafic- % Silica- 45-53%- Minerals:
- Plagioclase- Olivine- Pyroxene- Horneblende
Gabbro
Gabbro
Common Plutonic Rocks
Granite- common rock found in the continental crust.
- Volcanic form- Rhyolite- Density- 2.7 g/cm3
- Texture- fine (intensive)- Magma- felsic- % Silica- >65%- Minerals:
- Plagioclase- Quartz- Biotite- Horneblende
Granite Rocks
Mount Rushmore (Granite)
Introduction to Volcanoes• Volcanism is the eruption of magma,
and associated gases at the surface. • Some magma erupts explosively as
pyroclastic (fire-broken) rock and other erupts as lava flows.
Volcanism and Volcanoes• What gases do
volcanoes commonly emit?– Gases, primarily water vapor,
constitute only a small weight-percent of magmas.
– Lesser amounts of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide
– Very small amounts of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and chlorine gas.
– Erupted sulfide and sulfur dioxide can have widespread, significant effects on climate.
What is a Volcano
A volcano is a hill or mountain that forms around a vent, where lava, pyroclastic materials and gases erupt. There are several kinds of volcanoes.
Types of Volcanoes• Cinder Cones are small volcanoes• Shield volcanoes are long wide volcanoes• Composite volcanoes are tall volcanoes
Distribution of Volcanoes
• Volcanoes are not randomly distributed, but occur in well-defined zones or belts.
– 60% circum-Pacific belt
– 20% Mediterranean belt
– 20% are at or near
mid oceanic ridges
Volcanoes at Divergent Boundaries are rare
• Volcanic activity at or near mid-oceanic ridges is mainly submarine, but in a few places such as Iceland, it occurs above sea level. The volcanoes that form are mostly mafic shield volcanoes.
Most volcanoes are at convergent boundaries
• The volcanism in the circum-Pacific and Mediterranean belts is the result of subduction along convergent plate boundaries.
Some Volcanoes are not near any plates (intraplate volcanism)
• The Hawaiian Islands formed as a series of volcanoes originating from a stationary mantle plume as the Pacific Plate moved over it.
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