REPORTS OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRAL AWARDS RECUEIL DES...

REPORTS OF INTERNATIONALARBITRAL AWARDS

RECUEIL DES SENTENCESARBITRALES

Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission - Final Award - Ethiopia's Damages Claims

17 August 2009

XXVI pp. 631-770VOLUME

ParT XViii

Final Award Ethiopia’s Damages Claims

Decision of 17 August 2009

Sentence finale Réclamations de l’Éthiopie

Décision du 17 août 2009

PartXVIII—finalAWARD ethiopia’sdamagesclaims 633

FinalAward,Ethiopia’sDamagesClaimsDecisionof17August2009

Sentencefinale,Réclamationsdedommagesdel’Éthiopie,Décisiondu17août2009

Thefinalawardsonclaims fordamagescomplete theCommission’swork—exceptforadministrati�ematters,dispositionofitsarchi�esandpotentialpost-Awardmatters .

Compensationcanonlybeawardedwhere there is e�idence sufficient in thecircumstancestoestablishtheextentofdamagecausedbyconducttheCommissionpre�iouslyfoundtoha�e�iolatedinternationallaw .TheawardsprobablydonotreflectthetotalityofdamagessufferedbyeitherPartybutratherthedamagesthatcouldbeestablishedwithsufficientcertaintythrougha�ailablee�idenceincomplexinterna-tionallegalproceedingsbetweenPartieswithmodestresourcesandlimitedtime .

E�idenceofphysicaldamage tobuildingsand infrastructure ismorereadilygatheredandpresentedthane�idenceoftheextentof injuries, includingphysical,economicandmoralinjuries,tolargenumbersofindi�iduals .Thereisnosharpdis-tinctionbetweenlossofpropertyanddeathorpersonalinjuryinpoorcountrieswheresecurityofpropertyisoften�italtosur�i�al .Awardsforlossordestructionofpropertyfrequentlystemfromseriousthreatstophysicalintegrity .

Thecompensationclaimsareentirelyfor�iolationsoflawsufferedbytheStatepartyratherthanclaimsonbehalfofitsnationals .Thecompensationawardedreflectstheseriousnessofthose�iolationsandtheireffectsontheClaimantStatePartyratherthanappropriatecompensationforindi�idual�ictims .

On13April2006,theCommissionestablishedasimplified“fast-track”dam-agesphase,in�ol�ingalimitednumberoflegalpleadingsande�idenceaswellasatightscheduleofhearings,tolimitthesignificantfinancialandotherburdensimposeduponbothParties .TheCommissionalsoreiterateditsrecurringconcernthatproceedsaccruingfromthedamagesproceedingsbeusedbythePartiestoassistci�ilian�ictimsoftheconflict .

The Parties’ limited economic capacity is rele�ant in determining damagesclaims .ThereisanintersectionofthelawofStateresponsibilitywithfundamentalhumanrightsnorms .ThefundamentalhumanrightslawruleofcommonArticle1(2)oftheInternationalCo�enantsisapplicabletothePartiesnotwithstandingthedele-tionofthisqualificationbytheInternationalLawCommission(ILC)intheArticlesonStateResponsibility .Thereisnoneedtodecidethequestionofapossiblecapondamages in lightof thePartiesobligationsunderhumanrights lawinthepresentcircumstances .

TheParties’o�eralleconomicpositionisalsorele�anttodeterminingcompensa-tionfor�iolationsofjus in bello.ThepurposeofcompensationpayablebyaresponsibleStateistowipeoutallconsequencesoftheillegalactandreestablishthepreexistingsit-uation(Chorzów FactoryandILCArticlesonStateResponsibility,art .31) .DiplomaticprotectionclaimsbyaStateonbehalfofitsnationalsarebasedoninjurytotheState,

634 ERITREA/ETHIOPIA

buttheextentofinjurytoaffectedindi�idualscanplayasignificantroleinassessingtheState’sinjury .Compensationhasalimitedrolewhichisremedial,notpuniti�e .Insituationsin�ol�ingdiplomaticprotection,compensationmustbeassessedinlightofthesocialandeconomiccircumstancesoftheinjuredindi�idualsinrespectofwhomtheStateisclaiming .Compensationdeterminedinaccordancewithinternationallawcannotremedytheworld’seconomicdisparities .

Theinternationallawrulegi�ingbindingeffecttomattersalreadyauthoritati�elydecided(res judicata)hasparticularrele�anceatthisstageoftheproceedings .TheCommission’spre�iousfindingsonclaimsof�iolationsofinternationallawarefinalandbinding,anddefinetheextentofpossibledamages .CompensationcanonlybeawardedforinjurieswhichbearasufficientlyclosecausalconnectionwithconductthattheCommissionpre�iouslyfoundto�iolateinternational law .ThetaskoftheCommissionatthisphaseisnottore�iseorexpanditspriorfindingsonliability,buttoapplythosefindingsindeterminingappropriatecompensation .

TheCommissionrequiredclearandcon�incinge�idencethatdamageoccurred,butlessrigorousproofforpurposesofthequantificationofdamageswhichrequiresexercisesofjudgmentandapproximation .TheCommissionrecognizeditsobligationtodetermineappropriatecompensation,e�eniftheprocessin�ol�esestimation,ore�enguesswork,withintherangeofpossibilitiesindicatedbythee�idence .TheCom-mission further took intoaccounta trade-off fundamental torecent internationaleffortstoaddressinjuriesaffectinglargenumberof�ictims .Compensationle�elswerethusreduced,balancinguncertaintiesflowingfromthelowerstandardofproof .

Compensationcanonlybeawardedinrespectofdamagesha�ingasufficientcausalconnectionwithconductthat�iolatesinternationallaw .Thenecessarycon-nectioncharacterizedbytheterm“proximatecause”requiresachainofcausationsufficientlycloseinaparticularsituation,takingintoaccountwhethertheparticulardamageshouldha�ebeenreasonablyforeseeabletoanactorcommittingtheinterna-tionaldelictinquestion .

Determiningcompensationinlargeinter-Stateclaimsisnotamechanicalproc-ess .TheCommissionconsideredmultiplefactors,includingthenature,seriousnessandextentofparticularunlawfulacts,whethertheactswereintentionalaswellasanymitigatingorextenuatingcircumstances .Italsoconsideredthenumberofpersonswhowere�ictimsofparticular�iolationsandtheimplicationsfortheirfutureli�es .

TheCommissiondecidednottoawardinterestsincetheclaimsandawardsarebroadlysimilar;interestonthecompensationwouldnotmateriallyaltertheParties’economicpositions;theamountsawardedinmanycasesreflectestimatesandapproxi-mateswhichmilitatesagainstinterest;andthePartiesha�ebeendiligentandcoopera-ti�ewithnoprejudiceresultingfromdilatoryconduct .

Pastdecisionandpracticesuggestelementsofalegalframeworkforanalyzingcompensationclaimsfor�iolationsof jus ad bellum,butoffer limitedguidance indeterminingthecompensationdueonaccountofsucha�iolation .TheCommissionfound,liketheU .S—GermanMixedClaimsCommission,thatresponsibilityofa�io-lationofjus ad bellumdoesnotextendtoalllossesanddisruptionsaccompanyinganinternationalconflict .Sufficientcausalconnectionmustbeestablishedbetweenthedelictandtheinjury .TheCommissionhasinthisregardassessedwhetherparticularconsequenceswere,orshouldha�ebeen,foreseenbyEritrea’sleadersintheexercise

ofreasonablejudgementatthetimeofEritrea’sdelictinMay1998 .Thetestofforesee-abilityshouldextendtoabroaderrangeofoutcomesthanmightneedtobeconsid-eredinalessmomentoussituation .Howe�er,ifallresultsareforeseeable,thetestismeaningless .SignificantweightwasplacedbytheCommissionontheseriousnessofadecisiontoresorttolarge-scaleuseofforce .Suchadecisionplacesahea�yobligationontheactingState’sleaderstoanalyzeandweighcarefullythepotentialconsequencesoftheirintendedaction .Inthisregard,aStatechoosingtoresorttoforcein�iolationofthejus ad bellumbearsresponsibilityfortheforeseeableresultsboththatitdesires,andthose itdoesnot .Liability forcertaintypesofdamages isnotsubject totimelimitation,notablyinjuriescausedbylandminesanddocumentedcostsofcareforinternallydisplacedpersons .

TheCommissionweighedse�eralfactorsinassessingtheamountofcompensa-tionthatshouldfollowfromabreachofjus ad bellum.TheCommissionconsideredwhetherdamagesshouldser�etheexceptionalpurposeofdeterringfuture�iolationsofArticle2,paragraph4oftheCharteroftheUnitedNations,orifitshouldser�ethemorecon�entionalpurposeofpro�idingappropriatecompensation .TheCommissionfoundthelattertobeitsresponsibility .Astodeterrence,theCommissionexpresseddoubtsthatpossibleawardsofmonetarycompensationwouldbelikelytodeteraStatecontemplatingactioninbreachofthejus ad bellum.Otherdeterrentsarefoundtherightsofindi�idualandcollecti�eself-defense,andintheriskofcriminalpunishmentofgo�ernmentofficialdecidingupontheunlawfulresorttoforce .Theprospectofpotentialmonetaryliabilitiesseemstobeoflittlecomparati�eweight .

TheCommissionfurtherconsideredwhetheranawardofcompensationshouldreflectaprecisequantificationofdamagecaused,nototherwisecompensableunderjus in bello,oramoregeneralassessmentofthecharacteroftheinjuryinflictedupontheStateofEthiopia .Theanswerwasdictatedbythenatureoftheclaimsandoftheunderlyinge�idence .

Ameasureofproportionmustbemaintainedbetweenthecharacterofthedelictandthecompensationdue .TheCommissionconsideredwhetheranawardofcompen-sationshouldbelimitedasnecessarytoensurethatthefinancialburdenimposedonEritreawouldnotbesoexcessi�e,gi�enEritrea’seconomiccondition,astoseriouslydamageitsabilitytomeetitspeople’sbasicneeds .Insituationsin�ol�ingunlawfuluseofforce,StatesandtheUnitedNationsha�ecreatedregimesoracceptedoutcomesin�ol�ingcompensationforfarlessthanthedamagecausedbytheunlawfuluseofforce .Cautioninsettingle�elsofcompensationshouldbeexercised,sothatprogramsofcompensationorreparationdonotthemsel�esundermineeffortstoaccomplishastablepeace .

Lestra�auxdelaCommissionsesontache�ésparlasentencefinalesurlesrécla-mationsdedommages,à l’exceptiondequestionsadministrati�es,dedispositionsrelati�esàsesarchi�esetd’é�entuellesquestionsseposantunefoislasentencepro-noncée .

Uneindemnisationnepeutêtreallouéequedanslecasoùl’étenduedudom-mage,causéparuncomportementpréalablementconsidéréparlaCommissioncom-mecontraireaudroit,aétésuffisammentprou�éeenl’espèce .LessentencesnereflètentassurémentpaslatotalitédesdommagessubisparchacunedesParties,maisplutôtles

dommagesquiontpuêtreétablisa�ecsuffisammentdecertitudeaumoyendespreu�esdisponiblesdanslecadredeprocéduresjudiciairesinternationalescomplexesentrePartiesnedisposantquederessourcesmodestesetdetempslimité .

Lapreu�edudommagematérielinfligéauxbâtimentsetinfrastructuresestplusaisémentréunieetprésentéequelapreu�edel’étenduedespréjudices,ycompriscor-porels,économiquesetmoraux,subisparungrandnombred’indi�idus . Iln’existepasdedistinctionclaireentrelapertedelapropriétéetledécèsoulepréjudicecorporeldanslespayspau�res,paysdanslesquelslagarantiedelapropriétéestsou�entindis-pensableà lasur�ie . Les indemnisationsaccordéespour laperteou ladestructiond’unepropriétédécoulentfréquemmentdemenacesgra�esàl’encontredel’intégritécorporelle .

Lesréclamationsd’indemnisationrelè�entpourlaplupartde�iolationsdudroitsubiesparl’EtatPartie,plutôtquederéclamationsintroduitesaunomdesesnationaux .L’indemnisationoctroyéereflèteda�antagelecaractèregra�edeces�iolationsainsique leurs effets sur l’EtatPartiedemandeurqu’une indemnisationappropriéedes�ictimesindi�iduelles .

Le13a�ril2006,laCommissionamisenplaceunephasesimplifiéeetaccéléréerelati�eauxdommages,impliquantunnombrelimitédeplaidoiriesetpreu�esainsiqu’unelisterestreinted’auditions,afindelimiterl’importantechargefinancièreetlesautreschargesimposéesauxdeuxParties . LaCommissionaégalementréitérésaconstantepréoccupationquelesproduitsdécoulantdesprocéduresd’indemnisationsoientutilisésparlesPartiespour�enirenaideaux�ictimesci�ilesduconflit .

La capacité économique limitée des Parties est un élément important àl’é�aluationdesréclamationsdedommages . Ledroitdelaresponsabilitédel’Etatetlesnormesfondamentalesdesdroitsdel’hommeserecoupent .Larègledesdroitsdel’hommefigurantàl’article1(2)communauxPactesinternationauxs’appliqueauxParties,nonobstantlefaitquelaCommissiondudroitinternational(CDI)n’yfaitpasréférencedanssesarticlessurlaresponsabilitédesEtats .Iln’estpasnécessairedeseprononcersurlaquestiondel’é�entualitéd’unplafonnementdesdommagesau�udesobligationsdécoulantdudroitdesdroitsdel’hommedanslescirconstancesdel’espèce .

LasituationéconomiquegénéraledesPartiesestégalementunélémentpertinentàladéterminationdel’indemnisationrelati�eaux�iolationsdujus in bello.Lebutdel’indemnisationexigibled’unEtatresponsableestd’effacertouteslesconséquencesdel’acteillégaletrétablirlasituationpréexistante(Affaire relative à l’usine de ChorzówetArticlesdelaCDIsurlaresponsabilitédesEtats,art .31) . BienquelesréclamationsdeprotectiondiplomatiqueintroduitesparunEtataubénéficedesesnationauxsefondentsurledommagecauséàl’Etatmême,l’étenduedupréjudicecauséauxindi-�idusaffectéspeutjouerunrôlesignificatifdansl’é�aluationdudommagecauséàl’Etat . L’indemnisationse limiteàunrôlecorrectif,etnonpunitif . Dans lessitua-tionsimpliquantlaprotectiondiplomatique,l’indemnisationdoitêtreé�aluéed’aprèslescirconstancessocialesetéconomiquesdesindi�iduslésésaunomdesquelsl’Etatréclameuneindemnisation .L’indemnisationdéterminéeen�ertududroitinterna-tionalnepeutremédierauxdisparitéséconomiquesdecemonde .

Larèglededroitinternationalconférantuneffetcontraignantauxaffairesbéné-ficiantdel’autoritédelachosejugée(res judicata)re�êtuneimportanceparticulièreà

cestadedelaprocédure .LesconclusionsantérieuresdelaCommissionsurlesrécla-mationsde�iolationsdudroitinternationalsontdéfiniti�esetcontraignantes,etdéfi-nissentl’étenduedesé�entuelsdommages . Uneindemnisationnepeutêtreattribuéequepourlesdommagesprésentantunliendecausalitésuffisammentétroita�eclecomportementquelaCommissionaprécédemmentjugé�iolantledroitinternational . Acestade,latâchedelaCommissionn’estpasdere�oiroud’étendresesprécédentesconclusionssurlaresponsabilité,maisd’appliquercesconclusionsdansladétermina-tiond’uneindemnisationappropriée .

LaCommissionaexigédespreu�esclairesetcon�aincantesdel’occurrencedudommage,maisdespreu�esmoinscontraignantespourcequiestdelaquantificationdudommage,quiappelleàdesexercicesdejugementetapproximation .LaCommis-sionareconnusonobligationdedétermineruneindemnisationcon�enable,mêmesi leprocédéimpliqueuneestimation,�oiremêmeuntra�aildesupposition,dansl’é�entaildescasdefigureindiquésparlapreu�e .LaCommissionaégalementprisencompteuncompromisfondamentalauxrécentseffortsinternationauxdepriseenconsidérationdespréjudicesaffectantungrandnombrede�ictimes .Ainsi,lesni�eauxd’indemnisation ont été réduits, pondérant les incertitudes découlant de critèresd’établissementdespreu�esmoinséle�és .

Uneindemnisationpeutuniquementêtreaccordéepourcequiestdedommagesprésentantunliendecausalitésuffisammentétroita�eclecomportement�iolantledroitinternational . Leliennécessaire,caractériséparlanotionde«causedirecte»,requière une chaîne de causes suffisamment proches dans une situation donnée, prenantenconsidérationsi ledommagespécifiqueauraitraisonnablementdûêtrepré�isiblepourunacteurcommettantledélitinternationalenquestion .

Ladéterminationdel’indemnitédanslecadredelargesréclamationsinteréta-tiques nes’effectuepasparunprocédémécanique .LaCommissionaconsidéréplu-sieursfacteurs,ycomprislanature,lagra�itéetl’étenduedecertainsactesillégaux,l’intentionnalitédecesderniers,ainsiquetoutecirconstanceatténuante .Elleaégale-mentconsidérélenombredepersonnes�ictimesde�iolationsparticulièresetlescon-séquencespourleur�iefuture .

LaCommissionadécidédenepasaccorderd’intérêtétantdonnéquelesréclama-tionsetlesréparationssontlargementsimilaires; unintérêtsurl’indemnitén’altéreraitpasmatériellementlasituationéconomiquedesParties;dansplusieurscas,lessom-mesattribuéesreflètentdesestimationsetapproximationsquimilitentàl’encontred’unintérêt;etlesPartiesontfaitpreu�edediligenceetdecoopérationsanspro�o-queraucunpréjudicerésultantd’uncomportementdilatoire .

Décisionsetpratiqueantérieuressuggèrent lesélémentsd’uncadrejuridiquepourl’analysedesréclamationsd’indemnisationsencasde�iolationdujus ad bel-lum,maisnefournissentquedes indications limitéesquantà ladéterminationdel’indemnisationduepourunetelle�iolation . LaCommissionaconsidéré,al’instardelaCommissionmixtederéclamations Etats-Unis—Allemagne,quelaresponsa-bilitépour la�iolationdu jus ad bellumnes’étendpasà l’ensembledespréjudicesetperturbationsdécoulantd’unconflitinternational . Unliendecausalitésuffisantdoitêtreétablientreledélitetledommage .Acetégard,laCommissionaé�aluésilesconséquencesparticulièresétaient,ouauraientdûêtre,pré�uesparlesdirigeantsdel’Érythréeenexerçantunjugementraisonnableaumomentoùl’Érythréeacommis

ledélit,enmai1998 .Letestdepré�isibilitéde�raits’étendreàuné�entailpluslargedeconséquencesqu’iln’estnécessairedeconsidérerdansdessituationsmoinscapi-tales . Toutefois,letestestdépour�udesens,sitouteslesconséquencessontpré�isibles . LaCommissionaattribuéuneimportanceconsidérableàlagra�itéd’unedécisionderecoursàl’utilisationdelaforceàgrandeéchelle . Unetelledécisionconfèreauxdirigeantsdel’Etat quiagit la lourdeobligationd’analysereté�aluerprudemmentlesé�entuellesconséquencesdel’actionpré�ue .Acetégard,unEtatchoisissantderecouriràlaforceen�iolationdujus ad bellumestresponsabledetoutesconséquencespré�isibles,qu’illesaitsouhaitéesounon . Laresponsabilitépourcertainescatégoriesdedommagesn’estpassoumiseàprescription,notammentlesblessurescauséesparlesminesantipersonneletlescoûtscertifiésdessoinsallouésauxpersonnesdéplacéesàl’intérieurd’unterritoire .

LaCommissionaprisenconsidérationplusieursfacteursdanssoné�aluationdumontantdel’indemnitéquide�raitdécoulerd’unmanquementau jus ad bellum. LaCommissionaexaminésilesdommagesde�aientexceptionnellementser�iràdis-suaderdefutures�iolationsdel’article2,paragraphe4delaChartedesNationsUnies,ousiellede�aitpoursui�rel’objectifplustraditionnelqu’estl’attributiond’uneindem-nisationcon�enable . LaCommissionaconsidéréquecedernierobjectifrele�aitdesaresponsabilité .Pourcequiestdeladissuasion,laCommissionaexprimédesdoutesquantàlapossibilitéqu’uneindemnisationmonétairesoitàmêmededissuaderunEtatquien�isaged’agiren�iolationdujus ad bellum. Représententd’autresmoyensdedissuasion,lesdroitsindi�idueletcollectifdelégitimedéfense,ainsiquelerisqued’unecondamnationpénaledel’agentdugou�ernementquidécidederecouririllé-galementàlaforce .Encomparaison,laperspecti�ed’uneé�entuelleresponsabilitéfinancièrenesemblepasfairelepoids .

LaCommissionaégalementexaminé si l’attributiond’une indemnitéde�aitrefléterunequantificationexactedudommagecausé,autrementnonréparabled’aprèslejus ad bellum, ouplutôtuneestimationgénéraleducaractèredupréjudicecauséàl’Etatdel’Éthiopie . Laréponseaétédictéeparlanaturedesréclamationsetlespreu�esdisponibles .

Laproportionnalitédoitêtremaintenueentreletypededélitetl’indemnisationdue . La Commission a examiné si l’attribution d’une indemnisation de�ait êtrenécessairement limitéedans lamesureàassurerque lachargefinancière imposéeàl’Erythréenesoitpasexcessi�e,enfonctiondelasituationéconomiquedel’Érythrée,aupointdesérieusementmettreenpérilsacapacitéderépondreauxbesoinsfondamentauxdesapopulation .Danslessituationsimpliquantlerecoursillégalàlaforce,lesEtatset les Nations Unies ont créé des régimes ou accepté les conséquences impliquantuneindemnisationinférieureaupréjudicecauséparlerecoursillégalàlaforce . Delaprudencesedoitd’êtreexercéedansladéterminationdesni�eauxd’indemnisation,afinquelesprogrammesd’indemnisationouderéparationnesapentpasleseffortsentreprispourréaliserunepaixdurable .

ERITREA ETHIOPIA CLAIMS COMMISSION

FINAL AWARD

Ethiopia’s Damages Claims

between

The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

The State of Eritrea

TheHague,August17,2009

BytheClaimsCommission,composedof:

Hans�anHoutte,PresidentGeorgeH .AldrichJohnR .CrookJamesC .N .PaulLucyReed

FINAL AWARD—Ethiopia’s Damages Claims between the Claimant,

The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, represented by:

Government of EthiopiaH .E .AmbassadorFissehaYimer,PermanentRepresentati�eoftheFed-

eralDemocraticRepublicofEthiopiatotheUnitedNations,Gene�aMr .RetaAlemu,FirstSecretary(LegalAd�isor),Coordinator,Claims

Team,MinistryofForeignAffairsoftheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthi-opia,AddisAbaba

Mr .GirmaKassaye,FirstSecretary,MinistryofForeignAffairsoftheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopia,AddisAbaba

Ms .FirdosaAbdulkadir,ThirdSecretary,MinistryofForeignAffairsoftheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopia,AddisAbaba

Mr .AddisBarega,Attaché,MinistryofForeignAffairsoftheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopia,AddisAbaba

Mr .EphremBezuayhue,Attaché,MinistryofForeignAffairsoftheFed-eralDemocraticRepublicofEthiopia,AddisAbaba

Counsel and ConsultantsMr .B .Dono�anPicard,PicardKentz&RoweLLP,Washington,D .C .;

Memberof theBarof theDistrictofColumbia;Memberof theBarof theSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates

ProfessorSeanD .Murphy,GeorgeWashingtonUni�ersitySchoolofLaw,Washington,D .C .;MemberoftheStateBarofMaryland

Mr .EdwardB .Rowe,PicardKentz&RoweLLP,Washington,D .C .;Mem-beroftheBaroftheDistrictofColumbia;MemberoftheStateBarofColo-rado

Mr .ThomasR .Snider,Dewey&LeBoeufLLP,Washington,D .C .;Mem-beroftheBaroftheDistrictofColumbia;MemberoftheStateBarofMas-sachusetts

Mr .WonKidane,Pennsyl�aniaStateUni�ersityDickinsonSchoolofLaw,Uni�ersityPark,Pennsyl�ania;MemberoftheBaroftheDistrictofColumbia;MemberoftheStateBarofIllinois

Mr .Da�idG .McConkie,Washington,D .C .,ConsultantMr .BijanGanji,Washington,D .C .,ConsultantMr .BrianBurnor,Washington,D .C .,InformationTechnologyConsultantMs . Donna Edmonds, Picard Kentz & Rowe LLP, Washington, D .C .,

CoordinatorMs .LeylaMyers,Hunton&WilliamsLLP,Washington,D .C .,Profes-

sionalAssistantMs .ElizabethRghebi,Dewey&LeBoeufLLP,Washington,D .C .,Profes-

sionalAssistant

and the Respondent, The State of Eritrea, represented by:

Government of EritreaH .E .Mr .MohammedSuliemanAhmed,AmbassadoroftheStateofEri-

treatoTheNetherlandsProfessorLeaBrilmayer,Co-Agent,LegalAd�isortotheOfficeofthe

PresidentofEritrea;HowardM .HoltzmannProfessorofInternationalLaw,YaleLawSchool

Ms .LorraineCharlton,DeputyLegalAd�isortotheOfficeofthePresi-dentofEritrea

Counsel and AdvocatesProfessorJamesR .Crawford,SC,FBA,WhewellProfessorofInterna-

tionalLaw,Uni�ersityofCambridge;MemberoftheAustralianandEnglishBars;MemberoftheInstituteofInternationalLaw

Counsel and ConsultantsMs .HidatBerheMs .AuroraBewicke,Esq .Mr .GeoffreyChepigaMs .AnnaEngelmannMs .HelenFisseha,Esq .Ms .HillaryForden,Esq .Ms .JulieFreyMs .ChiaraGiorgetti,Esq .Ms .JenniferHanson,Esq .Mr .JamesHookMs .JohannaKlein-Kranenberg,Esq .Ms .AmandaCostikyanJonesMr .JeffreyJordanMr .YohannesSiumMr .IsaiasYemaneTesfalidet,Esq .Mr .ParkerWise,Esq .

Table of ConTenTs

I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643

II . ProceduralAspectsoftheDamagesPhase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645

III . TheParties’Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649

IV . ApplicableLegalPrinciples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652

A . Res Judicata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653B . E�idenceandtheBurdenofProofattheDamagesPhase . . . . . 654C . Causation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656

V . AssessingCompensationandTechnicalFinancialIssues . 657

A . CurrencyCon�ersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657B . Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658C . OtherTechnicalIssues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659

VI . TheCommission’sLiabilityFindingsandtheStructureofEthiopia’sDamagesClaims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659

A . TheCentralFront . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659

B . TheWesternFront . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660C . TheEasternFront . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661D . Ethiopia’sDamagesClaimsStructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661

VII .MoralDamagesClaims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662

A . Ethiopia’sClaims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662B . Eritrea’sResponse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663C . TheCommission’sConclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664

VIII . Fixed-SumJus in Bello DamagesClaims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665

A . DeathsandInjuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665B . Rape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675C . LossofEthiopianNationals’Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677

IX . ActualAmountJus in Bello DamagesClaims . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683

A . DestructioninZalambessa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683B . LootinginZalambessa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686C . Deaths,InjuriesandPropertyDamageinMekele . . . . . . . . . . . . 688D . OtherLootingandDamagetoProperty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690

X . Ethiopia’sOtherJus in BelloCompensationClaims . . . . . . 699

A . PrisonersofWar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699B . TreatmentofEthiopianCi�iliansinEritrea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701C . TreatmentofDiplomaticPropertyandPersonnel . . . . . . . . . . . 714

XI . Ethiopia’sClaimsforCompensationforEritrea’sViola-tionoftheJus ad Bellum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716

A . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716B . Ethiopia’sJus Ad Bellum Claims—TheScopeofLiability . . . . . . 718C . DeterminingtheAmountofJus Ad Bellum Compensation . . . 727D . FixedAmountCompensation(Ethiopia’sCategories1–5) . . . . 730E . DamagetoCi�ilianProperty,PrimarilyFromShelling

(Category4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737F . DeathsandInjuriesCausedbyLandmines(Category5) . . . . . . 745G . BusinessLossesandOtherActualAmountDamages

(Category6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747H . HarmtoNaturalResourcesandtheEn�ironment(Category7) 754I . TheMekeleBombings(Category8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755

i. introduction1 . WiththisFinalAwardinEthiopia’sclaimsfordamages,anditscom-

panionFinalAwardinEritrea’sdamagesclaims,theEritrea-EthiopiaClaimsCommission largely completes its work .1 The Commission appreciates thecooperationithasrecei�edfrombothPartiesandtheircounselthroughoutthedamagesphaseoftheseproceedings,asintheearlierliabilityphase .Ne�-ertheless,thisphasehasin�ol�edenormouschallenges .Throughtheircounsel,theStatesofEritreaandEthiopiaha�esoughttoquantifytheextentofdamageresultingfrom�iolationsofinternationallawpre�iouslyfoundbytheCom-mission .Asdiscussedbelow,theCommissionhassoughttoapplyproceduresandstandardsofe�idence that takeaccountof thechallenges facingbothParties .Ne�ertheless, theseare legalproceedings .TheCommission’sfind-ingsmustrestone�idence .AstheCommissionhasemphasizedthroughout,compensationcanonlybeawardedwherethereise�idencesufficientinthecircumstancestoestablishtheextentofdamagecausedbyconducttheCom-missionpre�iouslyfoundtoha�e�iolatedinternationallaw .2

2 . Accordingly,theCommissionnotesthatitsawardsofmonetarycom-pensationfordamagesareless—probablymuchless—thanthePartiesbelie�etobedue .TheCommissionthusstandsinthetraditionofmanyotherpastclaimscommissionsthatha�eawardedonlyafractionofthetotalamounts

1 Variousadministrati�ematters,includingthefinaldispositionoftheCommissionArchi�e,aswellasanypost-AwardmatterspotentiallyarisingundertheCommission’sRulesofProcedure,remaintobecompleted .

2 See Eritrea-EthiopiaClaimsCommissionDecisionNo .4(“E�idence”)(July24,2001)(“ThePartiesareremindedthatunderArticle5(13)oftheAgreementofDecem-ber12,2000,theCommissionisboundtoapplytherele�antrulesofinternationallawandcannotmakedecisionsex aequo et bono.TherulesthattheCommissionmustapplyincludethoserelatingtotheneedfore�idencetopro�eordispro�edisputedfacts .”)

J . PrisonersofWar(Categories9&10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755K . DeparturesfromEritrea(Category11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756L . PortsClaim(Category12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757M .EthiopianAirlines(Category14) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760N . Loss of Tourism, International De�elopment Assistance, and

ForeignandDomesticIn�estment(Categories15,16&17) . . . 763O . ReconstructionandAssistance(Categories18,19&20) . . . . . . 766

XII .Award . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768

claimed .3ItsawardsprobablydonotreflectthetotalityofdamagesthateitherPartysufferedin�iolationofinternationallaw .Instead,theyreflectthedam-agesthatcouldbeestablishedwithsufficientcertaintythroughthea�ailablee�idence,inthecontextofcomplexinternationallegalproceedingscarriedoutbythePartieswithmodestresourcesandundernecessarypressuresoftime .

3 . Inthatconnection,theCommissionnotesthate�idenceoftheextentofphysicaldamagetobuildingsandinfrastructureismorereadilygatheredandpresentedthanise�idenceoftheextentofinjuries,includingphysical,economicandmoralinjuries,tolargenumbersofindi�iduals .Thatfactmaywellha�eledtothelesserextentofe�idencethatoftenwasofferedinsupportofclaimsbasedoninjuriestoindi�iduals .Moreo�er,astheclaimsaddressedinthisAwardareentirelyclaimsbytheStatePartyforcompensationfor�iola-tionsoflawthatithassuffered,ratherthanclaimsonbehalfofitsnationals,theCommissionhasbeencompelledtomakejudgmentsnotastoappropriatecompensationforindi�idual�ictims,butinsteadastotherelati�eserious-nessofthose�iolationsoflawandtheeffectstheyhadontheClaimantStateParty .

4 . TheCommission’sAwardspro�idecompensationinrespectofclaimsbothforlossesofpropertyandfordeathsand�ariousformsofpersonalinjury .Howe�er,itwouldbewrongtodrawasharpdistinctionbetweenthetwotypesofclaims .InpoorcountrieslikeEthiopiaandEritrea,withlowincomesandlifeexpectancies,securityofpropertyoftenis�italtosur�i�al .Propertysuchasli�estock,farmers’tools,utensilsandhouseshasadirectimpactonone’spossibilitytosur�i�e .Thus,awardsofcompensationforlossordestructionofpropertyfrequentlystemfromseriousthreatstophysicalintegrity .

5 . AsdescribedinitsearlierPartialAwards,thisCommissionwascre-atedbyArticle5oftheAgreementbetweentheGo�ernmentoftheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopiaandtheGo�ernmentoftheStateofEritreaofDecember12,2000(“theAgreement”or“December2000Agreement”) .4TheAgreementwasawide-rangingdocumentconcludedbytheParties tobring about a comprehensi�e settlement of the May 1998-June 2000 warbetweenthem .UnderArticle5(1),“[t]hemandateoftheCommissionistodecidethroughbindingarbitrationallclaimsforloss,damageorinjurybyoneGo�ernmentagainsttheother”relatedtothe1998–2000conflictthat“resultfrom�iolationsofinternationalhumanitarianlaw,includingthe1949Gene�aCon�entions,orother�iolationsofinternationallaw .”

3 ManleyO .Hudson,InternationalTribunalsp .197(1944) .4 TheCommission’spre�iousworkisdescribedinitsAwards,a�ailableontheweb-

siteofthePermanentCourtofArbitration,www .pca-cpa .org .Throughoutthisprocess,theSecretary-Generalandstaffof thePermanentCourtofArbitrationha�epro�idedhighlyprofessionalandefficientsupportfortheCommission,whichrecordsitssincereappreciationforallthathasbeendoneonitsbehalf .TheCommissionexpressesparticularthankstoMs .BelindaMacmahon,whohasser�edasitsRegistrarsince2004withunstint-ingefficiencyandprofessionalism .

6 . Beginningin2001,andcontinuingthroughouttheproceedings,theCommissionengagedinextensi�econsultationswiththeParties .Followingsuchconsultations,itdecidedatanearlystagefirsttodecidethemeritsoftheParties’liabilityclaims .Then,ifliabilitywereestablishedandtheParties,oreitherofthem,wishedtodoso,theCommissionwouldholdfurtherpro-ceedingsregardingtheamountofdamages .Accordingly,theCommissionheldfourroundsofhearingsonthemeritsofbothParties’claimsbetweenNo�ember2002andApril2005 .Between July1,2003andDecember19,2005,itissuedfourgroupsofPartialandFinalAwardsaddressingclaimsofbothParties .TheCommissionrenderedthefollowingAwardsonEthiopia’sclaims: – PrisonersofWar(Ethiopia’sClaim4)(PartialAward,July1,2003); – CentralFront(Ethiopia’sClaim2)(PartialAward,April28,2004); – Ci�iliansClaims(Ethiopia’sClaim5)(PartialAward,

December17,2004); – Jus Ad Bellum (Ethiopia’sClaims1–8)(PartialAward,

December19,2005); – WesternandEasternFronts(Ethiopia’sClaims1&3)(Partial

Award,December19,2005); – Ports(Ethiopia’sClaim6)(FinalAward,December19,2005); – EconomicLossThroughoutEthiopia(Ethiopia’sClaim7)(Partial

Award,December19,2005);and – DiplomaticClaim(Ethiopia’sClaim8)(PartialAward,

December19,2005) .7 . TheCommission’sliabilityfindingsonEthiopia’sclaimsarerepro-

ducedatrele�antpointsinthetextbelow .TheAwardslistedabo�eresol�edtheextentofEritrea’sliabilitywithrespecttoallofEthiopia’sclaimsforEritrea’s�iolationofthejus in bello,thatis,theinternationallawgo�erningtheconductofthearmedconflictbytheParties .TheextentofliabilityforEritrea’s�iola-tionofthejus ad bellum,thatis,theinternationallawgo�erningtheresorttoarmedforcebyaState,wasnotfullyresol�edbytheCommission’sPartialAwardonthatsubject .Thescopeof those jus ad bellum damages,andtheamountsofcompensationappropriateforbothjus in bello andjus ad bellum liability,aredecidedinthisAward .

ii. Procedural aspects of the damages Phase8 . Beginninginthesummerof2005,theCommissionandtheParties

consultedfurther,utilizingcorrespondence,conferencecallsandaninformalmeeting,regardingthepossibilityoffurtherproceedingsfollowingcompletionofthemeritsoftheParties’claims .WhilethePartiesindicatedthattheydidnotwanttheproceedingstoendfollowingtheAwardsonliability,thesecon-sultationshighlightedafundamentalchallenge .Adamagesphasein�ol�ingpreciseassessmentoftheextentofinjuriesallegedlysufferedbylargenumbers

ofpersons,entitiesandgo�ernmentbodieswouldrequireyearsofadditionaldifficult,burdensomeandexpensi�eproceedings .

9 . ThePartieschosetoproceeddespiteconcernsairedbytheCommis-sion .Amongotherpossibilities,thePartiesandtheCommissiondiscussedaproposalbyEthiopiathat,inlieuoffurtherlegalproceedingsondamages,theCommissionshouldbecon�ertedintoamechanismworkingtoincreasetheflowofreliefandde�elopmentfundsfrominternationaldonorstoalle�iatetheconsequencesofthewarinbothcountries .Eritreaexpressedseriousreser�a-tionsregardingthisproposal .TheCommissionalso�ieweditasunlikelytobeproducti�einthecircumstances,asitcameatthecompensationphaseoftheproceedings,followingformalfindingsofliabilityagainstbothPartiesfor�iolationsofinternationallaw .IntheabsenceofagreementbytheParties,thisproposaltochangetheCommission’smandatewasnotpursued,anditwasnotpossibletoterminatetheproceedingswithoutadamagesphase .

10 . AstheCommissionconsideredoptionsforproceedingstoassessdamages,ittookaccountofitsresponsibilitiesunderArticle5(12)oftheAgree-ment,requiringtheCommissiontoendea�ortocompleteitsworkwithinthreeyearsofthefilingoftheParties’claims,thatis,byDecember2004 .(ThiswasextendedinFebruary2003inresponsetobothParties’requestsforadditionaltime .)TheCommissionwasalsomindfulofthecomplexityandcostoftheproceedingstodate,andofthesignificantfinancialandotherburdenstheyimposeduponbothParties .5Followingcarefulconsideration, inanOrderdatedApril13,2006,theCommissiondirectedthePartiestoproceedwithasimplified“fast-track”damagesphase,in�ol�ingalimitednumberoffilingsoflegalpleadingsande�idence,andatightscheduleofhearings .ThisOrderindicatedtheCommission’srecurringconcernthatproceedsaccruingfromthedamagesproceedingsbeusedbythePartiestoassistci�ilian�ictimsoftheconflict .

11 . BecauseofthesignificanceoftheApril13,2006Ordertothesubse-quentproceedings,itsoperati�eportionsaresetouthere:

1 .Inordertopermittheearliestpossibleassistancetoindi�idualswhoha�esufferedinjuryorlossandtoreducethecostoftheproceedings,theCommis-sionwillseektocompletethedamagesphasebeforetheendof2008 .In�iewofthehumanitarianpurposessetforthinArticle5(1)oftheDecember12Agreement,theCommissionrequeststhatthePartiesinformitintheirfirstfilingshowtheyintendtoensuredistributionofdamagesrecei�edtoci�ilian�ictims,includingpresentlya�ailableinformationonexistingoranticipatedstructuresandproceduresforthispurpose .

5 Allof thecostsof theseproceedings, includingthecostsofbothParties’ legalteams,ha�ebeenbornebythePartiesthemsel�es .TheCommissionhassoughttolimititsowncostsbyminimizingtra�elandPCAsupport,bymakingextensi�euseoftheInternet,andthroughothermeasures .Ne�ertheless,itismindfulthattheproceedingsha�ebeenafinancialburdenforbothParties .

2 .TheCommissionwelcomesthefactthatthePartiesareingeneralagree-mentonaconsiderablenumberoftheissuestheyha�ediscussed .

3 .TheCommissionrecognizesthatthereareafewlegalissues,suchasthescopeofdamages forbreachof the jus ad bellum, thatcouldusefullybeaddressedaspreliminaryissuestobedecidedpriortothefilingofbriefsonanycategoryofclaimeddamages .Howe�er,theCommissionhasdecidedthattheadditionalmonthsrequiredforseparateproceedingstohearanddecidethosepreliminaryissueswouldundulyextendthetimerequiredtocompletetheCommission’sworkondamages .Consequently,theCommis-sionhasdecidedthatallsuchissuesshouldbebriefedaspartofthefirstgroupofclaimeddamages .

4 .Again,forreasonsofexpeditiousresolutionofallclaimeddamages,theCommissionhasdecidedtodi�idetheclaimeddamagesintotwogroupsonly .GroupNumber1includestheWarFrontClaims,thePrisonerofWarClaims,theDisplacedPersonsClaimsandthepreliminaryissuesthePar-tiesmayraise,includingthescopeofdamagesforbreachofthejus ad bel-lum,whichisanelementofallofEthiopia’sclaims .Thus,GroupNumber1comprisesEritrea’sClaims1,3,4,5,7,9,13,17,21and22,Ethiopia’sClaims1,2,3and4,aswellasanypreliminaryissuesraisedbyeitherParty .GroupNumber2iscomposedofallremainingclaims,includingtheCi�iliansorHomeFrontclaims .Thus,GroupNumber2comprisesEritrea’sClaims15,16,20,23,24,27,28,29,30,31and32andEthiopia’sClaims5,6(jus ad bel-lum aspectsonly),7and8 .

5 . The Parties shall file their briefs and supporting e�idence on GroupNumber1ClaimsbyNo�ember15,2006andtheirreplybriefsande�idencebyFebruary15,2007 .ThePartiesmayfileanyadditionaldocumentsande�idence,togetherwithabrief(nottoexceed10pages)explanationoftherele�anceoftheadditionalmaterialfiled,atleast21dayspriortotheHear-ing .TheHearingwilltakeplaceontheGroup1ClaimsassoonaspossibleafterApril15,2007,ondatestobesetfollowingconsultationsbetweentheCommissionandtheParties .TheCommissiondoesnoten�isageauthor-izingadditionalpleadingsorextendingthesefilingdeadlines .

6 .AsimilarschedulewillbeestablishedforGroupNumber2Claimsfollow-ingtheHearingonGroupNumber1Claims .

7 .AsinglefinalAwardwillbeissuedonallClaimsfollowingthesecondHearing .Ne�ertheless,theCommissionwillissueguidanceonpreliminaryissuesandonotherissuesasappropriate,followingtheHearingonGroupNumber1Claims, inorder toassist theParties inpreparing theGroupNumber2Claims .

8 .TheCommissionintendstoconsultcloselywiththePartiesregardingimplementationofthisOrderthroughthePresident’sconferencecallswiththePartiesandothermeans,andmaycreateaWorkingGroupforthispur-pose .Themodalitiesandscheduleinthisregardwillbeestablishedfollow-ingconsultationsbetweentheCommissionandtheParties .

12 . Asen�isioned in thisOrder, theCommissioncreatedaworkinggroupof threemembers (CommissionersCrook,PaulandReed)whometinformallywiththeParties’representati�esonJuly29,2006regardingpro-ceduralquestions .Atthatmeeting,thePartiesbothaskedtodefertoalaterstagecertainissuestheycharacterizedasin�ol�ingtechnical,financialandaccountingmatters .Asrequested,onAugust16,2006theCommissionissuedthefollowinginstruction:

TakingaccountoftherecentdiscussionsbetweentheCommissionandtheParties,thefollowingmatterswillnotbeaddressedattheApril2007hear-ingandshouldnotbeaddressedintheParties’writtensubmissionspriortothathearing:

(a) Effectofthirdpartydonationsforreplacementorrebuilding:thelegaleffecttobegi�entothirdpartypayments(includinggrants,loans,andinsurancepayments) tocompensate fordamage illegallycausedduringthewar .(b) Technicalfinancialquestions .Thiscategorymightincludechoos-inganapproachtowardcurrencycon�ersion,thelegaleffect(ifany)ofinflation,interestcalculations,etc .(c) Attorney’s fees (whether they were to be allowed, disallowed,capped,nettedout,etc .)

Asappropriate,theCommissionwillpro�ideguidanceregardingthehan-dlingofthesemattersatalatertime .

13 . TheGroupNumberOnedamagesproceedingstookplaceasspeci-fiedintheCommission’sApril13,2006Order .HearingsontheGroupNumberOnedamagesclaimswereheldatthePeacePalacefromApril16to27,2007 .OnApril28,2007,theCommissionmetinformallywithcounselforthePar-ties,andofferedinformalguidanceintendedtoassistinpreparationoftheirGroupNumberTwodamagesclaims .

14 . OnJuly27,2007, theCommissionpro�idedfurtherguidancebymeansofDecisionNumber7(“GuidanceRegardingJus Ad Bellum Liability”)andDecisionNumber8(“RelieftoWarVictims”) .

15 . OnMay16,2007,theCommissionsettheschedulefortheGroupNumberTwodamagesclaims,culminatinginhearingsheldatthePeacePal-ace fromMay19 toMay27,2008 .After thosehearings,onMay28,2008,theCommissionagainmetinformallywithcounselforthePartiestodiscussremainingprocedural issues .ThePartiesaddressedall thedeferred issuesnotedinparagraph12abo�einwrittenororalsubmissions .

16 . TheCommissionwaskeenlyawarethattheexpeditedproceduresestablishedforthetwogroupsofdamagesclaimswouldputgreatpressureonthePartiesandtheircounsel .ItalsorecognizedthattheParties’prepara-tionandpresentationoftheirclaims,anditsownassessmentofthoseclaims,wouldlikelybelessinformedandprecisethanmightbepossiblefollowinglonger,moreelaborate,andmoreexpensi�eproceedings .Ne�ertheless, the

Commissionbelie�edthattheseprocedureswereappropriateinthecircum-stances,gi�entheParties’situationsandtheCommission’sobligationtocom-pleteitstaskwithinareasonablyshortperiod,asindicatedintheDecember2000Agreement .

17 . TheCommissionispleasedtorecordthatbothPartiesdidwhatwasaskedofthem .Allpleadingswerefiledontime,andbothsetsofhearingswereconductedinaprofessionalandefficientmanner .Notwithstandingthegreatdifficultiestheyfaced,bothParties’legalteamscarriedouttheGroupNumberOneandGroupNumberTwodamagesproceedings,likepre�iousCommis-sionproceedings,with�igorandinfullcooperationwiththeCommission .TheCommissionrecordsitsappreciationtobothPartiesandtheirlegalteamsfortheircontinuedgoodwillandcooperationinthisfinalstageofitswork .

iii. The Parties’ situations

18 . In assessing both Parties’ damages claims, the Commission hasbeenmindfuloftheharshfactthatthesecountriesareamongthepoorestonearth .Inbothroundsofdamagesproceedings,bothPartiessoughtamountsthatwerehuge,bothabsolutelyandinrelationtotheeconomiccapacityofthecountryagainstwhichtheyweredirected .EthiopiacalculateditsGroupNumberOnedamagesclaimsagainstEritreatoequalnearly7 .4billionU .S .dollarsanditsGroupNumberTwodamagesclaimstoequalapproximately6 .9billionU .S .dollars .TheseamountsaremorethanthreetimesEritrea’sestimatedtotalnationalproductin2005,measuredonapurchasingpowerparitybasis .6Eritrea’sclaimsagainstEthiopia,whilelessdramaticinrelationtoEthiopia’slargersizeandeconomy,approached6billionU .S .dollars .

19 . ThesizeoftheParties’claimsraisedpotentiallyseriousquestionsin�ol�ingtheintersectionofthelawofStateresponsibilitywithfundamentalhumanrightsnorms .BothEthiopiaandEritreaarepartiestotheInternationalCo�enantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(“ICESCR”)7andtheInter-nationalCo�enantonCi�ilandPoliticalRights .8BothCo�enantspro�ideinArticleI(2)that“[i]nnocasemayapeoplebedepri�edofitsownmeansofsub-sistence .”Duringthehearings,itwasnotedthatearlydraftsoftheInternation-

6 See HumanDevelopmentReport2007/2008(UnitedNationsDe�elopmentPro-gramme),available at www .undp .org .TheReportincludesanindexofhumande�elop-menttrends(“HumanDe�elopmentIndex”)inallcountries .The“indicators”measure,forexample,“publicspending,”“commitments” torealize the“right toeducation,”orimpro�ementsinthe“standardofli�ingmeasuredbythePPP[purchasingpowerpar-ity] .”Eachcountryisrankedinaccordancewithaprocessthatcombinestheseandotherindices .

7 InternationalCo�enantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights,Dec .16,1966,993U .N .T .S .p .3 .

8 InternationalCo�enantonCi�ilandPoliticalRights,Dec .16,1966,999U .N .T .S .p .171 .

alLawCommission’s(“ILC”)DraftArticlesonStateResponsibilityincludedthisqualification,butthatitwasnotretainedintheArticlesasadopted .ThatdoesnotalterthefundamentalhumanrightslawruleofcommonArticleI(2)intheCo�enants,whichunquestionablyappliestotheParties .

20 . Similarly,Article2(1)oftheICESCRobligesbothPartiestotakestepstoachie�ethe“fullrealization”ofrightsrecognizedbythatinstrument .TheCommissionismindfulthatinitsGeneralComments,theCommitteeonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRightshasidentifiedarangeofstepstobetakenbyStateswherenecessary,inter alia,toimpro�eaccesstohealthcare,education(particularlyforgirls)andresourcestoimpro�etheconditionsofsubsistence .TheseGeneralCommentsha�ebeenendorsedandtakenasguidestoactionbymanyinterestedobser�ersandtheUnitedNations’de�elopmentagencies .9Suchmeasuresareparticularlyrele�anttotheneedsoftheruralpoorincountrieslikeEritreaandEthiopia .Thesemattersareconsideredfur-therintheCommission’sDecisionNumber7,10andinitsdiscussionbelowofcompensationowedtoEthiopiaforEritrea’s�iolationofthejus ad bellum.

21 . Awardsofcompensationof themagnitudesoughtbyeachPartywouldimposecripplingburdensupontheeconomiesandpopulationsoftheother,notwithstandingtheobligationsbothha�eacceptedundertheCo�e-nants .EthiopiaurgedtheCommissionnottobeconcernedwiththeimpactof�erylargead�erseawardsontheaffectedcountry’spopulation,becausetheobligationtopaywouldfallonthego�ernment,notthepeople .TheCom-

9 UnitedNationsCommitteeonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights,GeneralCommentNo .3,TheNatureofStatesPartiesObligationsunderArt .2(1)oftheInterna-tionalCo�enantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights[ICESCR],U .N .Doc .E/1991/23,AnnexIII,atp .86(1991) .AnumberofsubsequentGeneralCommentsspellouttheobliga-tionsofStatesPartiestoachie�e“progressi�erealization”oftheparticularrightsguaran-teedbyotherarticlesoftheICESCR,suchas“therighttoeducation .”AllofthesecanbefoundinTheCompilationofGeneralCommentsAdoptedbyHumanRightsTreatyBod-ies,U .N .Doc .HRI/GEN/1/Re� .9(2006) .ExamplesoftheseGeneralCommentsincludeGeneralCommentNo .16,Theequalrightofmenandwomentotheenjoymentofalleconomic,socialandculturalrights(ICESCR,art .3);GeneralCommentNo .15,Therighttowater;GeneralCommentNo .14,Therighttothehigheststandardofhealth(ICESCR,art .12);andGeneralCommentNo .13,Therighttoeducation(ICESCR,art .13) .See also MagdalenaSepulveda,TheNatureoftheObligationsUndertheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(2003);CoreObligations:BuildingaFrameworkforEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(AudreyChap-man&SageRusselleds .,2002);MatthewCraven,TheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights:APerspectiveonitsDevelopment(IanBrownlieed .,1995);JudithV .Welling,International Indicators and Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights,30(4)Hum .Rts .Q .p .933(2008) .TheSecretary-GeneralurgedallUNde�elopmentagenciestoadoptacommon“HumanRightsBasedApproach”totheirde�elopmentmissionsand,workingtogether,commonrights-focusedcountryplans .See StrengtheningoftheUnitedNations:AnAgendaforFurtherChange,ReportoftheSec-retary-General,U .N .GAOR,57thSess .,U .N .Doc .A/57/387(2002) .

10 Eritrea-EthiopiaClaimsCommissionDecisionNo .7(“GuidanceRegardingJus ad Bellum Liability”)(July27,2007) .

missiondoesnotagree .Hugeawardsofcompensationbytheirnaturewouldrequirelargedi�ersionsofnationalresourcesfromthepayingcountry—anditscitizensneedinghealthcare,educationandotherpublicser�ices—totherecipientcountry .Inthisregard,thepre�ailingpracticeofStatesintheyearssincetheTreatyofVersailleshasbeentogi�e�erysignificantweighttotheneedsoftheaffectedpopulationindeterminingamountssoughtaspost-warreparations .11

22 . Article5(13)oftheDecember2000Agreementdirectsthat,“[i]nconsideringclaims,theCommissionshallapplyrele�antrulesofinternationallaw,”whichincluderulesofhumanrightslawapplicableasbetweenthePar-ties .Accordingly, theCommissioncouldnotdisregardthepossibility thatlargedamagesawardsmightexceedthecapacityoftheresponsibleStatetopayorresultinseriousinjurytoitspopulationifsuchdamageswerepaid .12ItthusconsideredwhetheritwasnecessarytolimititscompensationawardsinsomemannertoensurethattheultimatefinancialburdenimposedonaPartywouldnotbesoexcessi�e,gi�enitseconomicconditionanditscapacitytopay,astocompromiseitsabilitytomeetitspeople’sbasicneeds .

23 . Inthecircumstances,theCommissionconcludedthatitneednotdecidethequestionofpossiblecappingoftheawardinlightoftheParties’obligationsunderhumanrightslaw .

24 . TheParties’o�eralleconomicpositionsarerele�anttodeterminingcompensationinanothermanneraswell .InconsideringbothParties’claimsfor�iolationofthejus in bello,theCommissionhasbeenmindfuloftheprin-ciple,setoutbythePermanentCourtofInternationalJusticeinChorzów Fac-tory,thatthepurposeofcompensationpayablebyaresponsibleStateis“toseek towipeoutall theconsequencesof the illegalactandreestablish thesituationwhichwould,inallprobability,ha�eexistedifthatacthadnotbeencommitted .”13ThisnotionunderliesArticle31oftheILC’sArticlesonStateResponsibility,that“[t]heresponsibleStateisunderanobligationtomakefullreparationfortheinjurycausedbytheinternationallywrongfulact .”

25 . Chorzów Factory offersanimportantreferencepointforassessingbothParties’compensationclaims .Forreasonsthatarereadilyunderstand-able,gi�enlimitsoftimeandresources,bothPartiesfiledtheirclaimsasinter-

11 Id.,pp .6–7 .12 See WilliamW .Bishop,General Course of Public International Law, 1965,in II

RECUEILDESCOURS,Tome115p .403(1965);RichardFalk,Reparations, International Law, and Global Justice,in THEHANDBOOKOFREPARATIONSp .492(PablodeGreiffed .,2006);ChristianTomuschat,Reparations in Favour of Individual Victims of Gross Violations of Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law,in PromotingJus-tice,HumanRightsandConflictResolutionThroughInternationalLaw/La promotion de la justice, des droits de l’homme et du reglement des conflits par le droit international,LiberAmicorumLuciusCaflischp .569,atpp .581et seq.(MarceloG .Kohened .,2007) .

13 FactoryatChorzów,Merits,1928P .C .I .J .(Ser .A .)No .17,p .47 .

Stateclaims .AlthoughEritreafiledclaimsonbehalfofsixindi�iduals,neitherPartyutilizedtheoption,a�ailableunderArticle5(8)oftheAgreementandtheCommission’sRulesofProcedure,ofpresentingclaimsdirectlyonbehalfof largenumbersof indi�iduals .Ne�ertheless, someofbothStates’ claimsaremadeintheexerciseofdiplomaticprotection,inthattheyarepredicateduponinjuriesallegedlysufferedbynumbersoftheClaimantState’snation-als .14WhiletheinjuryinsuchcasesisinjurytotheState,theextentofinjurytoaffectedindi�iduals—insofaras itcanbequantified—canplayasignifi-cantroleinassessingtheState’sinjury .Inthisregard,initsDecisionNumber815andelsewhereinthisFinalAward,theCommissionhasencouragedthePartiestoconsiderhow,intheexerciseoftheirdiscretion,compensationcanbestbeusedtoaccomplishthehumanitarianobjecti�esofArticle5(1)oftheAgreement .

26 . Chorzów Factory teachesthatcompensationhasalimitedfunction .Itsroleistorestoreaninjuredparty,insofaraspossible,tothepositionitwouldha�eoccupiedbutfortheinjury .Thisfunctionisremedial,notpuni-ti�e .Accordingly,insituationsin�ol�ingdiplomaticprotection,compensationmustbeassessed in lightof theactualsocialandeconomiccircumstancesoftheinjuredindi�idualsinrespectofwhomtheStateisclaiming .Thedif-ficulteconomicconditionsfoundintheaffectedareasofEthiopiaandEritreamustbetakenintoaccountinassessingcompensationthere .Compensationdeterminedinaccordancewithinternationallawcannotremedytheworld’seconomicdisparities .

27 . BothPartiesrecognizedthis,andgenerallyframedtheirclaimsinwaysthat,inthefirstinstanceatleast,tookaccountofthelowincomesandlimitedpropertyofmostofthoseaffectedbythewar .

iV. applicable legal Principles

28 . Under Article 5(13) of the Agreement, the Commission must“applyrele�ant rulesof international law”and“shallnotha�e thepowertomakedecisionsex aequo et bono.”Thefollowingsectionsconsiderthreeelementsofgeneralinternationallawaffectingtheseproceedings:(a)thepre-clusi�eeffectoftheCommission’searlierdecisionsonliability(resjudicata);(b)theroleofe�idenceandtheburdenofproof;and(c)therequirementofa

14 UnderArticle5(9)oftheAgreement,“[i]nappropriatecases,eachpartymayfileclaimsonbehalfofpersonsofEthiopianorEritreanoriginwhomaynotbeitsnationals .SuchclaimsshallbeconsideredbytheCommissiononthesamebasisasclaimssubmittedonbehalfofthatparty’snationals .”Thisunusualpro�isionwasnotutilized .WhileEritreasoughttobringclaimspredicateduponinjuriestoEthiopiannationals,itdidsoonbehalfoftheStateofEritrea,andnotonbehalfoftheinjuredindi�iduals .

15 Eritrea-EthiopiaClaimsCommissionDecisionNo .8(“RelieftoWarVictims”)(July27,2007) .

legallysufficientconnectionbetweenwrongfulconductandinjuryforwhichdamageisclaimed .

a. Res Judicata29 . Theinternationallawrulegi�ingbindingeffecttomattersalready

authoritati�elydecided(res judicata)hasparticularrele�anceatthisstageoftheproceedings . In itsearlierPartialAwards, theCommission foundthatsomeclaimsof�iolationsofapplicableinternationallawhadbeenpro�ed,anditdismissedotherclaims .Thesefindingsarefinalandbinding,anddefinetheextentofpossibledamages . It isnotpossibleat thisstage tore-litigateclaimsthattheCommissionhasdecided,ortopresentnewones .Compensa-tioncanonlybeawardedforinjuriesnowifthoseinjuriesbearasufficientlyclosecausalconnectionwithconductthattheCommissionpre�iouslyfoundto�iolateinternationallaw .

30 . TheCommission’saffirmati�efindingsofliabilityaresetoutinthedispositifs attheendofeachPartialAward .Whilesomeargumentaboutthescopeandmeaningofthosefindingsisine�itableinthecontextofabifur-catedproceeding,bothPartiesha�esometimessoughttolimittheirpotentialliability(ortobroadentheother’s liability)byconstruingthedispositifs inartificialways,ad�ancingtechnicalorrestricti�einterpretationstonarrowtheCommission’sfindings,orurgingbroadandflexiblereadingstoexpandthem .ThetaskoftheCommissionatthisphaseoftheproceedingsisnottore�iseorexpanditspriorfindingsonliability,buttoapplythosefindingsindeter-miningtheappropriatecompensationtobeawarded .Indoingso,theCom-missionisguidedprincipallybythedispositifs ofthoseAwards,construedinaccordancewiththeordinarymeaningofthetermscontainedtherein,16tak-ingaccountoftheParties’claimsandargumentsleadingtothefindingsandtheCommission’sappreciationofthefactsandlegalreasoningasexplainedinthebodyoftheAwards .17

31 . Inpleadingtheirdamagesclaims,thePartiesfiledabroadrangeofnewe�idencebearingonthequantumofdamageassociatedwiththeCom-

16 See, e.g.,TheLaguna del Desierto Arbitration(Arg ./Chile),(Award),113I .L .R .1,194,atpara .70(1995)(“Internationallawpro�idesrulesforinterpretationofanylegalinstrument,whetheritbeatreaty,aunilateralact,anarbitralawardoraresolutionofaninternationalorganization .Theyinclude:thenaturalandordinarymeaningofthewordsused;theircontext;andtheireffet util.”) .

17 AsnotedinarecentjudgmentoftheInternationalCourtofJustice,“ifanyques-tionarisesastothescopeofres judicata attachingtoajudgment,itmustbedeterminedineachcaseha�ingregardtothecontextinwhichthejudgmentwasgi�en .”ApplicationoftheCon�entiononthePre�entionandPunishmentoftheCrimeofGenocide(Bosn .&Herz .� .Serb .&Mont .),2007I .C .J .p .48,atpara .125(Feb .26) .See also ShabtaiRosenne,IIITheLawandPracticeoftheInternationalCourt1920–2005p .1603(4thed .2006)(discussingtheimportanceattachedtowrittenandoralpleadingsinascertainingthescopeofres judicata) .

mission’sliabilityfindings .AlthoughthePartiespresentedthesedamagesclaimsinbroadtermsthatdidnotalwayscorrespondtotheCommission’sliability findings, the Commission has considered this e�idence strictlywithinthescopeofitsliabilityAwards .Insomecases,theCommissionhasfounditnecessarytomeasurethedamagesphaseclaimsalsoagainste�i-denceofferedat the liabilityphase, leading todiscussionof thee�idenceunderlyingtheliabilityAwardsthroughoutthisAward .TheCommissionhasbeencautioustoremainwithinthelimitsofitsliabilityfindingsinmakingitsawardsofcompensation .

32 . Unlike the Commission’s findings of liability, its dismissals ofclaims,exceptdismissalsforlackofjurisdiction,arenotrestatedinthedis-positifs.Ne�ertheless, theyalsoaredefiniti�eresolutionsof thoseclaims,withres judicata effect .

33 . TheCommissiondismissedclaims,bybothParties,forfailureofproof .Thesedismissalsareconclusi�edispositionsoftheseclaimsforthepurpose of these proceedings, but their effect is otherwise limited . BothPartiessometimesha�eurgedthatthesedismissalsreflectedanaffirmati�edecisionbytheCommissionthatcertaine�entsdidnotoccur .Thisisnotcorrect .ExceptasindicatedinitsAwards,theCommissiondidnotmakesuchfactualjudgments,findinginsteadonlythattheclaimantPartyhadnotpresentedsufficiente�idencetopro�eitsclaim .Thesefindingsdonotreflectaffirmati�efactualdeterminationsbytheCommissionthatparticulare�entsdidordidnotoccur .

b. evidence and the burden of Proof at the damages Phase

34 . E�idencenecessarilyhasplayedacentralroleintheseproceed-ings .Keyissuesoftenha�eboileddowntoproofoffacts,notissuesoflaw .Itisfundamentaltothelegalprocessthatjudgmentsregardingfactsmustbebaseduponsufficiente�idence .Thisposedspecialchallengesinthesepro-ceedings .BoththePartiesandtheCommissionrecognizethatconclusi�eproofoffactsinawarthatbeganele�enyearsagooftenisnotfeasible .How-e�er,thedifficultiesofproofdonotrelie�etheCommissionofitsobligationtomakedecisionsonlyonthebasisofsufficiente�idence .

35 . Attheliabilityphase,theCommissionrequiredclearandcon�inc-ingproofofliability .ItdidsobecausetheParties’claimsfrequentlyin�ol�edallegationsofserious—indeed,sometimesgra�e—misconductbyaState .AfindingofsuchmisconductisasignificantmatterwithseriousimplicationsfortheinterestsandreputationoftheaffectedState .Accordingly,anysuchfindingmustrestuponsubstantialandcon�incinge�idence .Thisiswhythe

InternationalCourtofJusticeandotherinternationaltribunalsrequirethatfactsbeestablishedwithahighdegreeofcertaintyinsuchcircumstances .18

36 . InthehearingsontheGroupNumberOnedamagesclaims,Ethi-opiaarguedthatdecisionsrelatingtodamagesshouldbebasedonthepre-ponderanceofthee�idence .EritreaurgedthattheCommissioncontinuetoutilizeastandardof“clearandcon�incing”e�idence .Likesomeothercourtsandtribunals,theCommissionbelie�esthatthecorrectpositionliesinanamalgamofthesepositions .19TheCommissionhasrequiredclearandcon�incinge�idencetoestablishthatdamageoccurred,withintheliabilityparametersofthePartialAwards .Howe�er,forpurposesofquantification,ithasrequiredlessrigorousproof .Theconsiderationsdictatingthe“clearandcon�incingstandard”aremuchlesscompellingforthelesspoliticallyandemoti�elychargedmattersin�ol�edinassessingthemonetaryextentofinjury .Moreo�er,theCommissionrecognizestheenormouspracticalprob-lemsfacedbybothPartiesinquantifyingtheextentofdamagefollowingthe1998–2000war .Requiringproofofquantificationofdamagebyclearandcon�incing e�idence would often—perhaps almost always—preclude anyreco�ery .ThiswouldfrustratetheCommission’sagreedmandatetoaddress“thesocio-economicimpactofthecrisisontheci�ilianpopulation”underArticle5(1)oftheAgreement .20

37 . ThepresenttaskisnottoassesswhetherthetwoStatePartiescom-mittedserious�iolationsofinternationallaw .Thathasbeendone .Now,theCommissionmustdetermine,insofaraspossible,theappropriatecompen-sation foreachsuch�iolation .This in�ol�esquestionsofadifferentorder,requiringexercisesofjudgmentandapproximation .Asdiscussedbelowinconnectionwithparticularclaims, thee�idenceregardingsuchmattersastheegregiousnessorseriousnessoftheunlawfulaction,thenumbersofper-sonsinjuredorpropertydestroyedordamagedbythataction,andthefinan-cialconsequencesofsuchinjury,destructionordamage,isoftenuncertainorambiguous . Insuchcircumstances, theCommissionhasmade thebestestimatespossibleonthebasisofthea�ailablee�idence .Likesomenational

18 See, e.g.,ApplicationoftheCon�entiononthePre�entionandPunishmentoftheCrimeofGenocide,2007I .C .J .pp .76–77,paras .209–210(“TheCourthaslongrecognizedthatclaimsagainstaStatein�ol�ingchargesofexceptionalgra�itymustbepro�edbye�i-dencethatisfullyconclusi�e . . . .InrespectoftheApplicant’sclaimthattheRespondenthasbreacheditsundertakingstopre�entgenocideandtopunishandextraditepersonschargedwithgenocide,theCourtrequiresproofatahighle�elofcertaintyappropriatetotheseriousnessoftheallegation .”) .

19 Mark Kantor, Valuation for Arbitration: Compensation Standards, ValuationMethodsandExpertE�idencepp .72–73(2008) .

20 See ChittharanjanAmerasinghe,E�idenceinInternationalLitigationpp .241–242(2005) .

courts21andinternationallegislators,22ithasrecognizedthatwhenobligatedtodetermineappropriatecompensation,itmustdosoe�eniftheprocessin�ol�esestimation,ore�enguesswork,withintherangeofpossibilitiesindicatedbythee�idence .Ne�ertheless,insomecasesthee�idencehasnotbeensufficienttojustifyanyawardofcompensation .

38 . TheCommissionalsohastakenaccountofatrade-offfundamen-taltorecentinternationaleffortstoaddressinjuriesaffectinglargenumbersof�ictims .InstitutionssuchastheUnitedNationsCompensationCommis-sion(“UNCC”)and�ariouscommissionscreatedtoaddressbank,insuranceandsla�elaborclaimsstemmingfromtheNazieraha�eadoptedlessrigorousstandardsofproof,eithertoshowthatanindi�idualsufferedinjuryorregard-ing theextentof that injury .Asa trade-off,compensation le�elsalsoha�ebeenreduced,balancingtheuncertaintiesflowingfromthelowerstandardofproof .23WhiletheclaimsaddressedinthisAwardareStateclaims,notmassclaims,theCommissionhasinsomeinstancesappliedsimilaranalysiswithrespecttoclaimsforinjuriesordamagesthatweresufferedbylarge,butuncer-tain,numbersof�ictimsandwherethereislimitedsupportinge�idence .

C. Causation39 . Compensationcanonlybeawardedinrespectofdamagesha�ing

asufficientcausalconnectionwithconductthat�iolatesinternationallaw .Intheirwrittenpleadings,andintheGroupNumberOnedamageshearingsinApril2007,thePartiesaddressedthenatureofthecausalconnectionrequiredby international lawbetweenadelictandcompensable injury .InDecisionNumber7ofJuly2007,theCommissionaddressedtheissueofcausation,andhasbeenguidedinthecurrentproceedingsbytheprinciplesarticulatedthere .InthatDecision,theCommissiondeterminedthat:

thenecessaryconnectionisbestcharacterizedthroughthecommonlyusednomenclatureof“proximatecause .”Inassessingwhetherthistestismet,andwhetherthechainofcausationissufficientlycloseinaparticularsituation,theCommissionwillgi�eweighttowhetherparticulardamagereasonably

21 See Chaplin� .Hicks[1911]2K .B .786,972C .A .(whereprecisionoraccuracyisnotpossibleinassessingcontractdamages,“thejurymustdothebesttheycan,anditmaybethattheamountoftheir�erdictwillreallybeamatterofguesswork .Butthefactthatdamagescannotbeassessedwithcertaintydoesnotrelie�ethewrongdoerofthenecessityofpayingdamagesforhisbreach . . . .”) .

22 See UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts, available at www .unidroit .org, art . 7 .4 .3, para . (3) (“Where the amount of damages cannot beestablishedwithasufficientdegreeofcertainty,theassessmentisatthediscretionofthecourt .”) .

23 See JacomijnJ .�anHaersolte-�anHof,Innovations to Speed Mass Claims, New Standards of Proof,in REDRESSINGINJUSTICESTHROUGHMASSCLAIMSPROC-ESSES: INNOVATIVE RESPONSES TO UNIQUE CHALLENGES p . 13 (PermanentCourtofArbitrationed .,2006) .

shouldha�ebeenforeseeabletoanactorcommittingtheinternationaldelictinquestion .Theelementofforeseeability,althoughnotwithoutitsowndif-ficulties,pro�idessomedisciplineandpredictabilityinassessingproximity .Accordingly,itwillbegi�enconsiderableweightinassessingwhetherpar-ticulardamagesarecompensable .

TheCommissionnotesthat,inmanysituations,thechoiceof�erbalformulatodescribethenecessarydegreeofconnectionwillresultinnodifferenceinoutcomes .Inthisregard,bothPartiesagreedthatasignificantrangeofpossibledamagesrelatedtowarliebeyondthepaleofStateresponsibility . . . .24

V. assessing Compensation and Technical financial issues

40 . Astheirclaimsdemonstrate,bothPartiesrecognizedthatthe�iola-tionsofinternationallawidentifiedbytheCommissiongi�erisetoanobliga-tiontopaycompensation .25Determiningtheamountofsuchcompensation,particularlyinlargeinter-Stateclaimssuchasthese,cannotbeamechanicalprocess .Inweighingitsawardsofcompensationfordamages,theCommis-sionhashadtotakeintoaccountmultiplefactors,oftennotsubjecttoprecisequantification .Ithasweighedthenature,seriousnessandextentofparticularunlawfulacts .Ithasexaminedwhethersuchactswereintentional,andwheth-ertheremayha�ebeenanyrele�antmitigatingorextenuatingcircumstances .Ithassoughttodetermine,insofaraspossible,thenumbersofpersonswhowere�ictimsofparticular�iolations,andtheimplicationsofthese�ictims’injuriesfortheirfutureli�es .

a. Currency Conversion

41 . ThePartiesagreedthattheFinalAwardsrenderedbytheCommis-sionshoulddenominatecompensationinUnitedStatesdollars,andEthiopia’s

24 DecisionNo .7,supra note10,atparas .13–14 .25 See HagueCon�ention(IV)RespectingtheLawsandCustomsofWaronLand,

Oct .18,1907,36Stat .p .277,1Be�ansp .631,art .3(“Abelligerentpartywhich�iolatesthepro�isionsofthesaidRegulationsshall,ifthecasedemands,beliabletopaycompensa-tion .”);ProtocolAdditionaltothe1949Gene�aCon�entionsofAug .12,1949,andRelatingtotheProtectionofVictimsofInternationalArmedConflicts,June8,1977,1125U .N .T .S .p .3,art .91(“APartytotheconflictwhich�iolatesthepro�isionsoftheCon�entionsorofthisProtocolshall,ifthecasedemands,beliabletopaycompensation”)[hereinafterProtocolI] .

claimsforcompensationareexpressedlargelyintermsoftheU .S .currency .26TheCommissiongenerallyhasmadecon�ersionstoU .S .dollarsutilizingtheofficialexchangeratepre�ailingatthetimeoftheinjuryunderlyingthecom-pensationclaim .Inafewcases,wheree�idencequantifyinglosses(forexam-ple,estimatesofrebuildingcosts)waspreparedsometimeaftertheinjury,andwherethereweresignificantchangesinexchangerates,theCommissionhasutilizedtheexchangeratepre�ailingwhenthee�idencewasprepared .Thishasbeennecessaryinordertopre�entwindfallstoeitherPartyresultingfromchangesinexchangerates .Asapracticalmatter,thismadeseparateassess-mentsofinflationunnecessary .

42 . WhileEthiopiapresenteditsclaimsindollars,itoftensubmittede�idencedenominatedinEthiopianbirr .EritreapointedoutthattheexchangerateEthiopiausedtocon�ertthose�aluesintodollarswas6 .8819birrtothedollar,whichEritreacontendedwasunrealisticandinflatedthedollaramountsindicatedbythee�idence .TheCommissionagrees,notingthattheapplicableofficialrateduringtheperiodofthewar,fromMay1998toDecember2000,wasapproximately8:1 .Consequently,inthecaseofEthiopia’sclaimsbasedone�idencedenominatedinbirr,Ethiopia’spresentationsoftheclaimeddollaramountsreflectanexchangeratemorefa�orabletotheClaimantthantheratesutilizedbytheCommission .

b. interest43 . Article5(14)oftheDecember2000Agreementpro�ides“interest

. . .maybeawarded .”Thus,theCommissionhasdiscretionwhetherornottoawardinterest .BothPartiesaskedtheCommissiontodoso .Howe�er,theCommissionhasdecided,intheexceptionalcircumstancespresentedbytheseclaims,nottocalculateandawardinterestontheamountsawardedtoeitherParty .

44 . TheCommissionhasparticularlytakenintoaccountthefactthattheParties’claims,andtheamountsawardedinrespectofthoseclaims,arebroadlysimilar .Accordingly,thisisararecaseinwhichinterestonthecom-pensationawardedwouldnotmateriallyaltertheParties’economicpositionsfollowingthetimelypaymentbyeachoftheamountsduetheother .Further,theamountsawardedinmanycasesreflectestimatesandapproximations,notprecisecalculationsrestinguponcleare�idence .Likesomeothercommis-sions,theCommissionbelie�esthatthiselementofapproximationreinforcesthedecisionagainstawardinginterest .Finally, theCommissionnotes thattheseproceedingsha�etakense�eralyears,reflectingthemagnitudeandcom-

26 AnyreferenceinthisAwardtoamountsclaimedinU .S .dollars,wheretheunder-lyingclaimin�ol�esamountsdenominatedinnakfaorbirr,issolelyforpurposesofillus-tration .Exceptwhereotherwisestated,con�ersionsofclaimedamountsintoU .S .dollarsarethosepro�idedbyaParty,anddonotreflectanyjudgmentbytheCommissionregard-ingtheappropriatenessoftheexchangerateemployedorrelatedmatters .

plexityofthetask .BothPartiesha�ebeendiligent,andtheperiodrequireddoesnotreflectalackofcooperationonthepartofeither .Accordingly,thereisnoneedforpre-awardinteresttoprotecteitherPartyfromprejudiceresultingfromdilatoryconductbytheother .

C. other Technical issues45 . ThePartiesagreednottorequestpaymentofattorneys’feesorcosts

againsteachother .46 . TheCommissionhasaddressedtheeffectofthirdpartydonations

orotherthirdpartypaymentsforreplacementorrebuildingwheresuchissuesariseinspecificclaims .Withfewexceptions,theCommissionhasnotaward-edamountsreflectingdonationsorpaymentsnotrequiredorexpectedtoberepaid .

Vi. The Commission’s liability findings and the structure of ethiopia’s damages Claims

47 . InitsPartialAwardsrenderedduringtheearlierliabilityproceed-ings,theCommissiondecidedtheextentofEritrea’sliabilitytoEthiopiawithrespecttothelatter’sclaimsfor�iolationofthejus in bello ontheCentral,WesternandEasternFrontsofthewar .TheCommissionalsofoundEritreatobeliablefor�iolationofthejus ad bellum.Onthebasisofthosedecisions,thisFinalAwarddecidesthedamagesappropriatetocompensateEthiopiaforeachoftheCommission’sfindingsofliability .

a. The Central front48 . InitsPartialAwarddatedApril28,2004,theCommissiondecided

Eritrea’s liabilitywithrespect toEthiopia’sClaim2, in�ol�ing theCentralFront .ItfoundEritrealiabletoEthiopiaforninespecific“�iolationsofinter-nationallawcommittedbyitsmilitarypersonnelorbyotherofficialsoftheStateofEritrea:”

1 . ForpermittinginMerebLekheWeredafrequentphysicalabuseofci�il-iansbymeansofintentionalkillings,beatingsandabductions,aswellaswidespreadlootingandpropertydestructionintheareasthatwereoccupiedbyitsarmedforcesfromMay1998toMay2000;2 . ForpermittinginAhferomWeredafrequentphysicalabuseofci�iliansbymeansofintentionalkillings,beatings,abductionsandwoundscausedbysmall-armsfire,aswellaswidespreadlootingandpropertydestructionintheareasthatwereoccupiedbyitsarmedforcesfromMay1998toMay2000;3 . For permitting in Gulomakheda Wereda frequent physical abuse ofci�iliansbymeansofintentionalkillings,beatingsandabductionsduring

thein�asioninJune1998andlessfrequent,butrecurring,physicalabuseofci�iliansandfrequentlootinganddestructionofci�ilianpropertyintheareasthatwereoccupiedbyitsarmedforcesfromJune1998toJune2000;4 . ForpermittingthelootingandstrippingofZalambessaTown;5 . Forthedeliberate,unlawfuldestructionof75%(se�enty-fi�epercent)ofthestructuresinZalambessaTown;6 . ForpermittinginIrobWeredaarecurringpatternofexcessi�e�iolencebyEritreansoldiersagainstci�ilians,includingfrequentbeatingsandinten-tionalkillings,andfrequentse�erebeatingandotherabuseofci�ilianstakenintocustody,aswellaswidespreadlootingandpropertydestructionintheareasthatwereoccupiedbyitsarmedforcesfromMay1998toJune2000;7 . Forfailingtotakeeffecti�emeasurestopre�entrapeofwomenbyitssoldiersinIrobWereda;8 . Forfailingtoreleaseci�ilianstakenintocustodyinIrobWeredaandtopro�ideinformationregardingthem;and9 . Forfailingtotakeallfeasibleprecautionstopre�enttwoofitsmilitaryaircraftfromdroppingclusterbombsinthe�icinityoftheAyderSchoolanditsci�ilianneighborhoodinthetownofMekeleonJune5,1998,andfortheresultingdeaths,woundsandsufferingbyci�iliansandthephysicaldamagetoci�ilianobjects .

b. The Western front49 . In its Partial Award dated December 19, 2005, the Commission

decidedEritrea’s liabilitywithrespect toEthiopia’sClaim1, in�ol�ing theWesternFront .TheCommissionfoundEritrea liable toEthiopia forse�enspecific“�iolationsofinternationallawcommittedbyitsmilitarypersonnelorbyotherofficialsoftheStateofEritrea:”

a . For permitting frequent beatings of ci�ilians in Tahtay AdiaboWereda;b . ForpermittingthefrequentabductionofEthiopianci�iliansfromTahtayAdiaboWeredatoEritreaandforunexplaineddisappearances;c . ForpermittingthelootingofpropertyinareasinTahtayAdiaboWeredaoccupiedbyEritreanarmedforces;d . ForpermittingthefrequentabductionofEthiopianci�iliansfromLaelayAdiaboWeredatoEritreaandforunexplaineddisappearances;e . Forpermittingthelootingofproperty,inparticularli�estock,inareasinLaelayAdiaboWeredaoccupiedbyEritreanarmedforces;f . ForpermittingthefrequentabductionofEthiopianci�iliansfromKaftaHumeraWeredatoEritreaandforunexplaineddisappearances;andg . Forpermittingthelootingofpropertyandli�estockinareasinKaftaHumeraAdiaboWeredawhereEritreanarmedforceswerepresent .

C. The eastern front50 . The Commission also decided Eritrea’s liability with respect to

Ethiopia’sClaim3, in�ol�ingtheEasternFront, initsPartialAwarddatedDecember19,2005 .TheCommissionfoundEritrealiabletoEthiopiaforfi�especific“�iolationsofinternationallawcommittedbyitsmilitarypersonnelorbyotherofficialsoftheStateofEritrea:”

a . Forpermittingintentionalandindiscriminatekillingsofci�iliansinDalulandElidarWeredasfromJune11,1998toDecember12,2000;b . Forfailuretotakeeffecti�emeasurestopre�enttherapeofwomeninDalulandElidarWeredas;c . Forpermittingbeatingsofci�iliansinDalulandElidarWeredas;d . ForpermittingthelootinganddestructionofpropertyinDalulandElidarWeredas;ande . Forabduction,forcedlaborandconscriptionofci�iliansinDalulWereda .

d. ethiopia’s damages Claims structure51 . Ethiopiadidnotpresentitspleadingswithrespecttocompensation

fordamagesindi�iduallyforeachoftheseliabilityfindings .InitsDamagesGroupOneMemorial,Ethiopiaassembledthesejus in bello liabilityfindings,alongwithothers,intosixlargegroups,claimingfixed-sumdamagesinsomegroupsandactualamountdamagesinothers .(EthiopiaalsoclaimedlargeamountsforEritrea’s�iolationofthejus ad bellum.TheseclaimsarediscussedbelowinSectionXI .)

52 . Ethiopia’ssixgroupsofclaimsarefor:–Fixed-sumdamagesforinjuriesanddeathsinflictedupon

Ethiopiannationals;–Fixed-sumdamagesforlossofEthiopiannationals’prop-

erty;–Actualamountdamagesfordamagetothetownof

Zalambessa,damagetohundredsofchurchesandgo�ern-mentfacilitiesinEthiopia,anddamagesallegedlysufferedbynumerousEthiopianentitiesandgo�ernmentagencies;

–MaterialdamagesresultingfromEritrea’saerialoperationsinMekele,useoflandmines,andharmtonaturalresourc-esandtheen�ironment;

–Damagesinrespectofprisonersofwar;and–Moraldamages .

53 . TheCommissionfirstaddressesEthiopia’sclaimsformoraldamagesinSectionVIIbelow .TheCommissionthenaddressesthefixed-sumdamagesclaimsinSectionVIII;theactualamountclaims,includingclaimsforjus in bello damagetopublicproperty,inSectionIX;andEthiopia’sotherjus in bello

compensationclaims,thatis,thosewithrespecttoprisonersofwar,EthiopiannationalsinEritrea,andEthiopiandiplomaticagentsandfacilities,inSectionX .Ethiopia’sjus ad bellum claimsareaddressedinSectionXI .

Vii. moral damages Claims

a. ethiopia’s Claims54 . Ethiopia contended that, in addition to damages determined in

accordancewiththesegeneralprinciples,theCommissionshouldawardanenormousseparateincrementofdamagestoreflectmoralinjury .InitsGroupNumberOnedamagesclaims,Ethiopiaclaimedanamountitcon�ertedtoequalmorethanUS$5 .1billionasmoraldamages,roughly70%ofitstotalGroupNumberOneclaims .InitsGroupNumberTwodamagesclaims,Ethio-piacombineditsclaimsforactualandmoraldamages,andgenerallydidnotclearlysetoutorsummarizetheamountssoughtasmoraldamages .Totheextenttheycanbeidentified,moraldamagesappeartoconstitutemorethanUS$600millionofthetotalGroupNumberTwoclaims .

55 . Ethiopiaallegedthat“[m]oralinjuriesweresufferedbyhundredsofthousandsofEthiopiansandbytheStateitself .”Inits�iew,eachoftheseindi�idualsexperiencedphysicalpainandsuffering,mentalanguishorotherinterferencewiththeir“abilitytoenjoylifeandtofunctionnormallyintheworld”becauseofEritrea’sactions .ItalsourgedtheCommissiontoconsiderEthiopia’snationalinterestsandinternationalstandinginassessingthemoralinjuryinflicteduponitsnationals .Theseincludedsuchfactorsastheserious-nessofEritrea’sillegaluseofforce(describedas“thelaunchingofanaggres-si�ewar”),“therefusaloftheresponsibleStatetoacknowledgewrongfulnessoftheaction,”harmtoEthiopia’s“integrity,unityandstandingintheinter-nationalcommunity,”and“thecontinuingthreattothepopulationandStateofEthiopiafromEritrea’sthreatsofforce .”

56 . Ethiopia claimed moral damages with respect to a �ery largenumberofpeople,perhapsasmanyasoneandahalfmillion .Itcalculatedtheclaimbymultiplyingtogetherse�eralcomponents,beginningwithEthiopia’sestimatesofthenumberof�ictimsofselectedbreachesofinternationallaw .27(Asdiscussedbelow,theCommissionquestionsmanyoftheseestimates .)Thepopulationestimatesweremultipliedbythea�eragenumberofpersons infamiliesintheaffectedareas(either4 .4or5 .8),onthetheorythatallofa�ic-tim’sfamilymemberssufferedmoralinjuryequi�alenttothatoftheoriginal�ictim .Theresult,thenumberofpersonssaidtoexperiencemoralinjury,was

27 InEthiopia’sGroupNumberOnedamagesclaims, these includedallpersonsallegedlyaffectedbyEritrea’sjus in bello �iolationsin�ol�inginjuriestopersons;personskilledorinjuredbythebombingsneartheAyderSchool;almost350,000internallydis-placedpersons;andotherdeathsandinjuriesEthiopiaattributedtoEritrea’s�iolationofthejus ad bellum,suchascasualtiesfromlandmines .

multipliedby“abaseimpact�alue”ofUS$374,saidtoequaltheweighteda�er-ageofincomesinTigrayandAfarforthetwoyearsofthewar .

57 . Theresultingsumwasthenmultipliedanothertime,bythesumofse�eral“se�erityfactors”withassignednumerical�aluesrangingfroma“7”toa“15 .”These�erityfactorswereweightingsthatinEthiopia’s�iewreflectedtherelati�ese�erityofEritrea’soffenses .Foreachofthelargenumberofpeopleforwhomitclaimedmoraldamages,Ethiopiaaddedtogetherse�erityfac-torsof“2”(forEritrea’sillegaluseofforce)and“3”(forEritrea’s“refusaltoacknowledgewrongfulness;refusaltoagreetonon-repetition”),plusatleastoneotherfactor .Otherse�erityfactors in�ol�edkilling(“4”);offensesthatwerefrequentandper�asi�e,indicatinganintenttoinflictmoralinjury(“3”);offenses“shockingtotheconscience”(“3”);orthatin�ol�edaffrontstotheper-sonin�ol�inghonorandreputation(“2”) .Afewgroupshadaggregatese�erityfactorsofonly“7,”butmostgroups’se�erityfactorsrangedfrom“10”to“15 .”Thisprocessresultedinenormousclaims .

58 . Ethiopiacontendedthatmoraldamagesfor�ictimsandtheirfami-liesareawell-establishedelementofthelawofStateresponsibility .Itempha-sizedthejurisprudenceoftheInter-AmericanCourtofHumanRights,notingthatCourt’sroleasaproponentofsubstantialreparationfor�ictimsofrights�iolations .28 Ethiopia cited numerous cases in which the Inter- AmericanCourtawardedsubstantialmoraldamagestoindi�idual�ictims,andalsotofamilymembersindeathordisappearancecases .ItalsocitedthepracticeoftheUNCC,whichallowedcompensationforcertaintypesofmoral injurywheretherewasproofofunderlyinginjury .Ethiopiamaintainedthatthepercapitatotalscalculatedusingitsapproachwere“extremelymodest”incom-parisonwithawardsrenderedbyothertribunals .

b. eritrea’s response

59 . Eritrea contended that Ethiopia’s moral damages claims wereunprecedentedandlackedfoundationinfactorlaw .Eritreaagreedthatmoraldamagessometimescanbeanelementofcompensationforabreachofinter-national law affecting indi�idual dignity and rights . Howe�er, in its �iew,suchdamagesmustbeassessedaspartofatribunal’so�erallassessmentofthenatureandextentoftheinjurywroughtbya�iolation .ForEritrea,moralinjuryispersonal,andrequiresassessmentofindi�idualcircumstancesor,atmost,ofthecircumstancesofidentifiablegroups(suchasprisonersofwar)knowntoha�ehadsimilarexperiences .MoraldamagescannotbeaddedasanadditionalelementtoreflectthesupposedegregiousnessofaState’sconduct,inthemanneroftrebledamagesundersomenationallaws .Doingsomakesthempuniti�edamages,whicharenota�ailableininternationallaw .

28 See Tomuschat,supra note12,atpp .579,582–84 .

60 . Eritreadeniedthatclaimscouldbebasedon“unnamed,unidenti-fied,percentage-based�ictimsandtheirunnamed,unidentifiedstatistically-generatednextofkin .”Ethiopia’s“se�erityfactors”weresaidtolacklegalorlogicalfoundation .EritreaalsorespondedtoEthiopia’ssuggestionthatithadexperiencedmoralinjuryinitsownright(asopposedtointherightofdip-lomaticprotection),arguingthatinternationallawdoesnotauthorizemon-etarycompensationformoralinjurytotheState .AsEthiopiadidnotclaimaseparateamountofcompensationforanymoraldamagetotheStateinitsownright,theCommissionneednotmakeanydecisioninthisregard .

C. The Commission’s Conclusions

61 . TheCommissionhasgreatreser�ationsregardingEthiopia’smoraldamagesclaims .Theseclaimsseekbillionsofdollars,amountswhollydispro-portionatetoEritrea’slimitedeconomiccapacity .Theyrealisticallycouldnotbepaid,orcouldbepaidonlyatunacceptablecosttoEritrea’spopulationforyearstocome .Largepercapitaawardsofmoraldamagesmaybelogicalandappropriateinsomecontextsin�ol�ingsignificantinjuriestoanindi�idualortoidentifiablemembersofsmallgroups .Theconceptcannotreasonablybeexpandedtosituationsin�ol�ingclaimedmoralinjurytowholepopulationsoflargeareas .29

62 . Inanycase,asexplainedbelow,theCommissiondoesnotacceptmanyoftheestimatesofpopulationsandofthefrequencyofinjuriesunder-lyingtheseclaims .Italsorejectstheuseof“familymultipliers”toincreasetheclaimsfi�e-fold .Note�eryfamilymembersuffersmoralinjuryequaltothatofa�ictim,withoutreferencetothetypeofinjuryorotherindi�idualcircumstances . Such assessments must be fact-based, reflecting particularcircumstances,asthejurisprudenceoftheInter-AmericanCourtofHumanRightsillustrates .ThatCourt’sdecisionsfrequentlydifferentiateamongfam-ilymembers,reflecting�ariablefactorssuchasthedegreeofrelationshipanddependency .

63 . TheCommissionalsodoesnotacceptthemechanicaluseof“se�er-ityfactors”toswelltheclaim .Thissystemhasnoprecedentininternationallaw .Thefactorsthemsel�es,andthemanneroftheirapplication,arequestion-able .Twoofthefactors(Eritrea’sillegaluseofforceanditssupposedrefusaltoacknowledgewrongfulness)in�ol�emattersbearinguponinter-Staterela-tions .Thesemightberele�anttocertainclaimsfordamagepurelytotheState,butnottoassessingmoralinjurytoindi�iduals;inanycase,theunlawfuluseofforceisthebasisforEthiopia’sseparatejus ad bellum claim .SomeofEthio-pia’sotherfactorsmightbegermanetoassessingmoralinjurytoindi�iduals,butthenumeric�aluesgi�enthem,andthemechanicaladditionofmultiplefactors,arearbitraryandwithoutlegalfoundation .

29 Id.,p .584 .

64 . Ethiopiadeniedthatitsoughtpuniti�edamages,butitsmoraldam-agesclaims,atthe�eryleast,beartheappearanceofsucharequest .Itistrue,asEthiopiaargues,thattheamountsgeneratedbyitssystemarenolargerpercapitathansomemoraldamagesawardsmadebytheInter-AmericanCourtandothertribunalsincasesin�ol�ingmanyfewerpeople .Howe�er,Ethiopiaclaims thesehighdamages inrespectofe�eryoneofmore thanamillionunidentifiedpersons .ThemoraldamagesawardsofthecourtsandtribunalsEthiopiacitesreflectapainstakingassessmentofdetailedrecordsinindi�idualcases .Therecanbenosuchassessmentinaclaimin�ol�inghugenumbersofhypothetical�ictims .

65 . Inappropriatecases,theCommissionhasweighedsomeofthecon-siderationsidentifiedbyEthiopia,suchasthegra�ityofaparticulartypeof�iolation,andtheextentandconsequencesoftheresultinghumaninjury,indeterminingthedamagestobeawarded .Howe�er,ithasdonesoasaninte-gralelementofitsdamagesawards,notbyusingaseparatecalculusof“moraldamage .”Accordingly,Ethiopia’smultipleclaimsformoraldamagesasanadditionalandseparateincrementofdamagesaredismissed .

Viii. fixed-sum Jus in Bello damages Claims

a. deaths and injuries66 . ThissectionaddressesEthiopia’sfirstgroupofclaims,forfixed-sum

damagesforinjuriesanddeathssufferedbyEthiopiannationalsin�iolationofthejus in bello.EthiopiaclaimedUS$434,726,251forsuchinjuries,onthethreefrontsofthewar(Western,CentralandEastern) .EthiopiapresentedthisclaiminamannerthatdidnotdirectlycorrespondtotheCommission’sliabilityAwards .TheCommissionregardsitsspecificfindingsofliabilityasthenecessarystartingpointforassessingliability .Accordingly,here,aswithsomeotherclaims,ithashadto“deconstruct”theclaimstoassesswhethertheyareco�eredbytheearlierliabilityfindings .

67 . Ethiopiacontendedthatmanythousandsofindi�idualEthiopianswere�ictimsofwrongfulconduct .Theirinjuriesoccurredyearsago,ofteninremotelocations .InEthiopia’s�iew,itwasnotfinanciallyorpracticallyfeasible—eitherfortheclaimantStateorfortheCommission—toassembleandassesse�idenceregardingeachofthousandsofindi�iduale�ents .Instead,Ethiopia urged a damages assessment methodology in�ol�ing a degree ofapproximation .

68 . Ethiopia’sclaims(likeEritrea’s)are inter-Stateclaims .Howe�er,Ethiopia(likeEritrea)contendedthat thecompensationduetoaclaimantStateoftencouldbeassessedbyestablishingafixed-sumwithrespecttoeachpersonsufferingaparticular�iolation .Thissumwouldthenbemultipliedbythenumberof�ictims,gi�ingthetotalcompensationallegedlydueforeachtypeof�iolation .Ethiopiacontendedthatwhereindi�idualssufferedmulti-

pletypesof�iolations,additionalfixed-sumsshouldbea�ailableinrespectofeachtype .Ethiopiaadoptedthisapproachforitsdamagesclaimsfordeathsandinjuries,forcertainpropertylosses,formoraldamages,andforinjuriestoprisonersofwar .

69 . Informulatingitsfixed-sumcompensationclaims,Ethiopiamadese�eral interconnected judgments . Depending on the type of claim, thesecouldincludejudgmentsregarding: – theamountoffixed-sumcompensationper�ictimfor�arious

�iolations(i .e .,killings,beatings,rapes,etc .); – thepopulationsintheareasinEthiopiawhereparticular�iola-

tionsoccurred; – thepercentageofeachsuchpopulationsufferingaparticular

�iolation; – inthecaseofclaimsformoraldamages,theextentofincreasesto

reflecttheimpactof�iolationsonmembersof�ictims’families .70 . Ethiopia indicated that the Commission could modify any of

thesejudgmentsastoanyparticularclaim,buturgedthatitsbasicapproachwasreasonableandlegallyappropriateinthecircumstances,notasa“massclaimstechnique,”butratherasanappropriatemethodtoquantifycompen-sationfortheclaimingState .

1. Ethiopia’s Claims

71 . Tocalculateitsclaimforoffensesagainstpersons,Ethiopiadi�idedtheCommission’srele�antliabilityfindingsintogroupsitbelie�edin�ol�edoffensesofsimilargra�itywarrantingthesamefixedpercapitasum .Ethiopiaidentifiedfi�esuchgroups:(a)intentionalkillings;(b)rape;(c)beatingsandwoundscausedbysmallarmsfire;(d)abductions;and(e)forcedlaborandconscription .

72 . Fixed Compensation Amounts. Ethiopiaclaimed�aryingpercent-agesofprojectedlifetimeearningsofruralpeopleinTigrayorAfarasfixedcompensationamounts .Lifetimeearningswerecalculatedstartingwiththea�erageannualpercapitaincomeineachregion,asderi�edfromcensusdata .Theyweresaidtobe1,255birr(whichEthiopiacon�ertedtoequalUS$182)forTigrayor1,385birr(US$201)forAfar .Ethiopiathenestimated�ictims’a�erageremaininglifespan,bysubtractingthemedianageofallEthiopiansfromthea�erageprojectedlifespanofallEthiopiansofmedianage .Thedif-ferencewasmultipliedbypercapitaannualincome,gi�inganotionallifetimeearningsfiguresaidtoequalUS$5,060forpersonsinTigrayandUS$5,588inAfar .Theseamountswerenotdiscountedtopresent�alueoradjustedinanyothermanner .

73 . Ethiopianextestimatedtheimpactof�arious�iolationsonpro-jectedlifetimeearnings .Itestimatedfixedcompensationforakillingtoequalalifetime’searnings .Arapewasestimatedtocauseinjuryequalto50%of

lifetimeearnings;beatingsandwoundswerealsoestimatedat50%;abduc-tionsat75%;andforcedlaborandconscriptionat85% .Accordingly,thebaseamountsoughtinrespectofadeathinTigraywasUS$5,050,andforabeating,US$2,530 .Ethiopiamaintainedthattheseestimatedpercentageswere“reason-able”inlightofthee�idenceinearlierproceedingsandthenatureofeachtypeofinjury .Howe�er,itpresentednonewe�idenceoranalysistosupporttheseestimates,nordiditrelatethemtoe�idencepre�iouslyonrecord .

74 . Frequency of Injuries. Ethiopianextestimatedthenumberof�ic-timsofeachtypeof injury,basedonthepre-warpopulationsofthegeo-graphic areas co�ered by the Commission’s liability findings . Ethiopia’sliability claimswereoftenpresentedon thegeographicbasisofweredas,andtheCommission’sliabilityAwardstypicallyfoundthatinaparticularwereda,certaintypesof�iolationsoccurred .(Weredasarelocalgo�ernmen-talentitiesdescribedbyEthiopiaasroughlycomparabletoU .S .counties .Theyaredi�idedintokebeles,smallerareasofperhapsonehundredsquarekilometers,saidroughlytocorrespondtoaU .S .townshiporsmallerarea .Kebelesaredi�idedintotabias .)

75 . EthiopiabeganbyidentifyingtheweredaswheretheCommissionfoundspecifictypesof�iolations .Itthenidentifiedthekebeleswithineachweredawhereitbelie�edtheseoccurred .Theseincludedbothkebelesnearthefrontlines,andothersawayfromthelinesthatallegedlysufferedfromdepre-dationsbyEritreanpatrolsorotherconductunlawfulunderthejus in bello.Ethiopiaestimatedthepopulationofeachaffectedkebele,takingpopulationfiguresfromEthiopia’s1994census,increasingthemtoreflectnation-widea�erageincreasesinpopulationsince1994,andmakingfurtheradjustmentstoreflectsomechangesinkebeleboundaries .Intheaggregate,Ethiopiacon-tendedthatalmost242,000peoplewerepotentiallyexposedtoEritrean�iola-tionsofonekindoranother .

76 . Afterestimatingthepopulationsofareasaffectedbythewar,Ethio-piaestimatedthepercentageofeachsuchpopulationthatsufferedspecifictypesof�iolations .Ethiopiamaintainedthatsignificantproportionsofeachpopulationsufferedabuses,althoughitsestimates�ariedtoreflectdifferencesintheCommission’sfindingsregardingparticularweredas .Thus,Ethiopiacontendedthatinmostaffectedkebeles,Eritreanforcesunlawfullykilledfully9%ofthepre-warpopulation .Thepercentageofallegedkillingswaslower(7%)inGulomakhedaWereda,andhigher(12%)inIrobWereda .Inall,EthiopiacalculatedthatEritreanforcesunlawfullykilled13,394people .ItassertedthatfortheCommissiontofindfewerunlawfulkillingswould“renderitsawardsregardingthis�iolation�irtuallymeaningless .”

77 . Inasimilar�ein,Ethiopiaassertedthato�erathirdoftherele�antpopulations(almost83,000persons)sufferedbeatingorwoundingatthehandsofEritreanforces .(HalfofthepeopleinAhferomWeredaweresaidtoha�ebeenbeatenorwounded,butonly30%inGulomakhedaWereda .)Ethiopiaalsoclaimedthat1%ofthepre-warfemalepopulationsufferedrapeinthose

areaswheretheCommissionfoundEritrealiableforallowingrapetooccur(236women);andthatmanythousandsofpeoplesufferedabductions,forcedlabororconscription .

78 . Ethiopiapresentednonewe�idencesupportingitsallegationsthattherewerewello�er100,000�ictims,nordiditdirectlyrelatethemtospecifice�idencepre�iouslyintherecord .Instead,itarguedthattheCommission’spre�iousliabilityfindingsauthoritati�elyestablishedthat�arious�iolationswerefrequentandper�asi�einkebelesaffectedbythewar .InEthiopia’s�iew,thesefindingsestablished“serious�iolationsofthelawbytheparties,whichareusuallyillegalactsoromissionsthatwerefrequentorper�asi�eandconse-quentlyaffectedsignificantnumbersof�ictims .”Ethiopiacontendedthatthiswassufficienttoestablishthat�iolationsoccurredo�erwideareasandwiththefrequencyitasserted .

2. Eritrea’s Response

79 . Eritrea�igorouslydisputedallaspectsofEthiopia’sdamagesclaim,beginning with Ethiopia’s proposed compensation amounts . Eritrea ques-tionedboththemannerinwhichEthiopiacalculatedlifetimeearnings,andtheappropriatenessofusingthemasameasureofcompensation .EritreaurgedthatEthiopia’sproposalstocalculatedamagesbaseduponpercentagesoflife-timeearningswerewhollyarbitraryandwithoutfoundationintherecord .

80 . Regardingthefrequencyofinjury,Eritrea�igorouslycontestedEthi-opia’spopulationestimates,maintaining,inter alia,thatEthiopiasignificantlyo�erstatedtheareaswhereEritreanforceswerepresent,andthattheareasEthiopianowclaimedinthedamagesphasetoha�ebeenoccupiedbyEritreawerelargerthanthosecitedintheearlierliabilityproceedings .EritreaalsocontendedthatpopulationsnearthefronthadbeengreatlyreducedbecausetensofthousandsofEthiopianswereinternallydisplacedonaccountofthefighting,andbecause thousandsofethnicEritreanswere forciblyexpelledfromborderregionsofEthiopia,orleftoftheirownaccord .EritreaattackedEthiopia’sestimateofthepercentageofthepopulationsufferingparticulartypesof injuries,�iewingthemasartificialandwithout foundation intherecord .

81 . InEritrea’s�iew,particularlygi�enthemuch-reducedpopulationsremaininginaffectedareasfollowingtheexpulsionsofethnicEritreansanddeparturesforcampsforinternallydisplacedpersons(“IDPs”)andotherlocationsinEthiopia,Ethiopia’sestimatesofthousandsofkillings,beatingsandother�iolationswerewhollyimplausible .Eritreacitedse�eralreportspreparedbyEthiopianofficialsincludedinEthiopia’searlierliabilityphasee�idence listing far fewer�iolations thanthosenowclaimed . Italsopre-sentedadetailedre�iewofthehundredsofdeclarations,signedclaimsformsandothere�idencesubmittedbyEthiopiaintheearlierproceedings .Erit-reacontendedthatthisearliere�idenceoftencontainedfew—ifany—refer-

encesto�iolationsinmanylocationswhereEthiopianowclaimedtheywerefrequent,manytimesindicatingonlyoneortwo�iolationsinareaswhereEthiopianowclaimedhundreds .

3. The Commission’s Conclusions

82 . Theclaimshereareinter-Stateclaims,notclaimsonbehalfofspe-cificindi�iduals .AnycompensationgoestotheclaimantState,nottoinjuredindi�iduals(althoughtheCommissionremainsconfidentthatthePartiesaremindfuloftheirresponsibility,withinthescopeoftheresourcesa�ailabletothem,toensurethattheirnationalswhoare�ictimsoftheconflictrecei�erelief) .Thus,theCommission’staskdiffersfromthatfacing,forexample,theUNCC,whichconsideredclaimsonbehalfofnamedindi�iduals .

83 . TheCommissionrecognizesthattheo�erallapproachdescribedbyEthiopiamaybeausefulreferenceforassessingcompensationininter-Stateclaims,ifproperlyappliedinappropriatecases .Itmaypro�idearoughmeas-ureofaState’sinjurywhereagroupofitsnationalsofknownsizehassufferedsimilarinjuries .SomeofthetechniquesproposedbyEthiopiaha�ebeenusedinmodernmassclaimsprocessesdesignedtocompensateindi�idualsin�ol�-ingwidespreadinjury,utilizingrelaxedstandardsofe�idencecombinedwithreducedcompensationamountsreflectingtheselowere�identiaryburdens .30Inrecognitionofthis,ChapterThreeoftheCommission’sRulesofProcedure,co�ering“MassClaimsProcedures,”ga�ethePartiestheoptionoffilinglargenumbersof indi�idualclaimsforfixedamountdamages,althoughneitherPartydidso .

84 . Howe�er,Ethiopiaproposedsomethingdifferent .Itdidnotclaimreducedcompensationamountsreflectingalesserburdenofproof .Instead,itsoughtfixedamountssaidtoreflectthefullextentoftheinjuriessufferedbyitsnationals .Thiscreatesmanydifficulties .Theamountsclaimedperindi�iduallargelyrestonestimateandhypothesis .Further,theapproachdoesnotpermit�erificationorcheckingregardingtheclaimednumberof�ictims(the“claim-antclass”) .Othermodernprocedures, suchas thoseof theUNCCand inChapterThreeofthisCommission’sRulesofProcedure,requirethatmembersoftheclaimantclassbeidentifiedinawaythatallowslaterrandomsamplingofthee�idenceorothermeasuresto�erifywhetherclassmemberssufferedthequalifyinginjuryorotherwisewereproperlyincluded .Ethiopia,howe�er,defineditsclaimantclassesintheabstract,multiplyingpopulationestimatesbyestimatesofthepercentagesofthosepopulationsthoughttoha�esufferedparticular�iolations .Thislea�estheCommissionwithnowayto�erifytheanalysis .Itcannotsamplethee�idenceregardingtheparticularindi�iduals

30 See REDRESSING INJUSTICES THROUGH MASS CLAIMS PROCESSES:INNOVATIVERESPONSESTOUNIQUECHALLENGES(PermanentCourtofArbi-tration,ed .,2006) .

saidtobelongtoaclaimantclass,becausenoindi�idualswereidentified,andtherewasnosupportinge�idence .

85 . TheCommissionacceptsthatasystemin�ol�ingfixedamountcom-pensationinrespectofmultiple�ictimsrequiresapproximation,but—par-ticularlyinclaimsseekingmanymillionsofdollars—approximationmustbebasedonmorethansubjecti�eassertionsof“reasonableness .”

86 . Base Compensation Amounts. The Commission also has doubtsregarding specific elements of Ethiopia’s analysis, beginning with the useofestimatedlifetimeearningsasabasisfordeterminingcompensationforoffensesin�ol�ingpersons .Inthecaseofdeathsorlifelongdisabilities,pro-jectedlifetimeearningsmaybeanappropriatereference .Thecaseforusingthemisfarlesscompellingforinjuriessuchasabeatingthatlea�esnophysi-calimpairment,afewhoursordaysofforcedlabor,orothersimilar�iolationwithoutlastingphysicaleffects .Moreo�er,Ethiopia’sestimatesofthe�alueoflifetimeearningsinTigrayandAfarappearsignificantlyinflated .Theesti-matesoffutureincomewerenotdiscountedtopresent�alue,norweretheyadjustedforfactorssuchasthepossibleeffectofagingonearningpower .

87 . The Affected Population. Ethiopia’spopulationestimatesalsoappeartoo�erstatesignificantlythenumberofpersonspotentiallyatrisk .Forexam-ple,therele�antpopulationmustbereducedtotakeaccountoftheapproxi-mately15,000ruralEthiopiansofEritreanancestrywhowereexpelledfromborderareas,mostofthemearlyinthewar .31Italsomustbereducedtoreflectthetensofthousandsofpersonsinternallydisplacedfromlocationsnearthefightingfronts,andforwhomEthiopiaseparatelyclaimedcompensationinitsjus ad bellum claims .IDPsmayha�esufferedgreatlyonaccountoftheirdisplacementtoplacesawayfromthefront,buttheirrelocationsignificantlyreducedtheirriskofinjuriesorabusesatthehandsofEritreanforces .

88 . Initsjus ad bellum damagesclaims,Ethiopiacontendedthat,atitspeak,internaldisplacementintheWesternandCentralFrontareasinTigraytotaledabout316,000persons .ThousandsmorewereinternallydisplacedinIrobandAfar .ThereisafundamentalincongruitybetweenEthiopia’sjus ad bellum claimofmassi�einternaldisplacement,andthepresentclaimthattheentirepre-warpopulationremainedinareasclosetothefront,exposedtoabusesbyEritreanforces .Thelargenumbersof�ictimsassertedinbothclaimscannotbecorrect .Inthisregard,theCommissionnotesthatEthiopiapre-sentedmuchdetailede�idenceinitsjus ad bellum claim,showingsignificantinternal displacement, including much documentation from internationalorganizationsandotheroutsideobser�ers .Gi�en this e�idence, theCom-missionbelie�esthatalargeproportionofthepopulationsofthekebelesatornearthefrontlinesjoinedtheranksoftheinternallydisplaced,andwere

31 PartialAward,Ci�iliansClaims,Eritrea’sClaims15,16,23&27–32BetweentheStateofEritreaandTheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopia(December17,2004)[hereinafterPartialAwardinEritrea’sCi�ilianClaims],atp .20 .

largelyabsentfromtheirhomeswhenEthiopiacontendedtheywereatriskofEritrean�iolations .Moreo�er,theCommissionbelie�esthatEthiopiaclaimedlargenumbersof�iolationsinareasthatwereatsubstantialremo�efromthefightingfronts,andthatwereexposed—atmost—onlytoepisodicraidsbysmallgroupsofEritreanforces .

89 . Ethiopia’srebuttalarguments—thatIDPsmightha�esufferedinjurybeforetheylefttheirhomes,whiletheywerefleeing,orwhilereturningtotheirhomestocheckontheirli�estockorotherproperty—didnotresol�ethesedifficulties .TherecordindicatedthatsomeIDPswereinjuredinthesecircum-stances,butitdidnotshowthatsuche�entsweresofrequentastoaltertheo�erallpicture .Inthisregard,thee�idenceincludedse�eralaccountsofmenwhowereshotbysoldiersduringhoursofdarknesswhilenearingEritreanpositionsorattemptingtore-enteroccupied�illages .Thesecircumstancesraisequestionsaboutwhetherthosedeathsin�ol�edajus in bello �iolation .

90 . Thea�ailablee�idencepermitsonly rough judgmentsas tohowmanyEthiopiansmayha�eremainedin�illagesandfarmsclosetothefight-ingfronts,atriskofEritreanjus in bello�iolationsagainsttheirpersons .ThenumbersclearlyweremuchsmallerthanEthiopianowclaims .Thepopulationpotentiallyexposedtosuch�iolationswasfarsmallerthanthe242,000per-sonsclaimedbyEthiopia—perhapshalf,butprobablyfewer .

91 . TheCommissionalsodoesnotacceptEthiopia’sestimatesofthelargepercentagesofthe�ulnerablepopulationwhoallegedlyexperienced�io-lationsagainsttheirpersons .TheseestimatesarenotsupportedbytherecordorbytheCommission’s liabilityfindings .TheCommissiondidsometimesconcludethatparticulartypesof�iolationswere“frequent”inparticularwere-das,butthisisfarshortoffindingthat40%ofthetotalpre-warpopulationofalargeareawasbeatenorshot,or9%killed .32“Frequent”isatermwhosemeaningdependsuponcontext .Thefrequencyof�iolationsfallingwithintheCommission’sliabilityfindingsmustbebasedone�idence,notassertionorartificialexegesisofliabilityAwards .

92 . TheCommissionalsonotesthatEthiopia’spopulationispredomi-nantlymadeupofwomenandchildren .Withtheexceptionofrape(discussedseparatelybelow),theaccountsofkillingsorattacksonpersonscontainedintherecordo�erwhelminglyin�ol�edattacksin�ol�ingadultoradolescentmales .Whate�erthefrequencyofattacksmayha�ebeenonmenandadoles-cents,therecorddidnotsupportEthiopia’sclaimthatwomenandchildrensufferedsimilarratesofdeathsorinjuries .

93 . Lackingadditionale�idencetosupportEthiopia’sclaimsthatEri-trean�iolationsresultedinthousandsofdeathsorinjuries,theCommissionhashadtomakeitsownappraisalofthee�idencepre�iouslyadduced .The

32 CounselforEthiopiaalsocontendedthattheCommissionfoundthatcertain�io-lationswere“per�asi�e,”butthedispositifs oftheCommission’sPartialAwardsonlyusedthetermonce,concerninga�iolationin�ol�ingEritrea’streatmentofprisonersofwar .

CommissionfoundEritreatobeliableforthefollowingrele�ant�iolationsontheCentralFrontinareasoccupiedbyitsarmedforcesfromMay1998toMay2000:

1 . ForpermittinginMerebLekheWeredafrequentphysicalabuseofci�il-iansbymeansofintentionalkillings,beatingsandabductions . . .;2 . ForpermittinginAhferomWeredafrequentphysicalabuseofci�iliansbymeansofintentionalkillings,beatings,abductionsandwoundscausedbysmall-armsfire . . .;3 . For permitting in Gulomakheda Wereda frequent physical abuse ofci�iliansbymeansofintentionalkillings,beatingsandabductionsduringthein�asioninJune1998andlessfrequent,butrecurring,physicalabuseofci�ilians . . .; . . .6 . Forpermitting in IrobWeredaa recurringpatternofexcessi�e�io-lencebyEritreansoldiersagainstci�ilians,includingfrequentbeatingsandintentionalkillings,andfrequentse�erebeatingandotherabuseofci�ilianstakenintocustody . . .;33

94 . OntheWesternFront,Eritreawasfoundliableforpermitting“fre-quentbeatingsofci�iliansinTahtayAdiaboWereda .”34FortheEasternFront,theCommissionfoundliability:

a . Forpermittingintentionalandindiscriminatekillingsofci�iliansinDalulandElidarWeredasfromJune11,1998toDecember12,2000; . . .c . Forpermittingbeatingsofci�iliansinDalulandElidarWeredas;and . . .e . For abduction, forced labor and conscription of ci�ilians in DalulWereda .35

a. Killings95 . TheCommissionbeginswiththemostseriousofthese�iolations,

Ethiopia’sclaimthat13,935ci�ilianswerekilledintentionallyorotherwisein�iolationofthejus in bello onthethreefrontsofthewar .Thereisnodoubtthatunlawful,intentionalandindiscriminatekillingsofci�iliansoccurred,astheCommissionfound .Menorboyscaringforli�estockinthefieldsappear

33 PartialAward,CentralFront,Ethiopia’sClaim2BetweentheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopiaandtheStateofEritrea(April28,2004)[hereinafterPartialAwardinEthiopia’sCentralFrontClaims],dispositif,SectionV .D .

34 PartialAward,WesternandEasternFronts,Ethiopia’sClaims1&3BetweentheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopiaandtheStateofEritrea(December19,2005)[hereinafterPartialAwardinEthiopia’sWesternandEasternFrontClaims],dispositif,SectionVI .F .2 .

35 Id.,dispositif,SectionVII .F .2 .

toha�ebeenparticularlyfrequent�ictims .Thereweremultipleaccountsintherecord,manybyeyewitnesses,describinghowraidingpartiesofEritreansoldiersshotnamedindi�idualsandstoletheiranimals .Suchkillingswere�eryseriousoffenses,anddeser�eanawardofsignificantdamages,aswellasuni�ersalcondemnation .

96 . Ne�ertheless,Ethiopia’sclaimregardingthefrequencyorextentofsuchkillingwasfundamentallyatoddswiththenumbersofci�iliandeathsfromallcausesreportedbyrelieforganizationsandEthiopianofficialsine�i-dencesubmittedpre�iously .Thesereportsoftenreferredingeneraltermstodeathsofci�ilians,usuallyfromartilleryfireorlandmines(forwhichEthiopiamadeseparatejus ad bellum claimsdiscussedbelow) .Theymadenomentionofthousandsofci�ilianssupposedlykilledintentionallyorindiscriminatelybyEritreansoldiers .TheCommissionwouldha�eexpectedEthiopianofficialsandrelieforganizationstoha�ein�estigatedanddescribedsuchmasskillingsindetail,hadtheyoccurredtoanythingliketheextentnowclaimed .

97 . Reports by Ethiopian officials and Ethiopian and internationalaidagenciesthataddresscasualtyfiguresindicatedaquitedifferentpictureregarding the number of ci�ilian deaths—from all causes—related to thewar .AreportbyaninternationalaidgroupcitedinEthiopia’sCentralFrontMemorialdescribedfi�ehundredci�iliandeathsfromallcausesinTigrayasofAugust2000 .Anotherreportcitedatotaloffortyci�iliandeathsinGulo-makheda .AthirdfromJune1999cited241ci�iliandeathscausedbyartilleryfire;therewasnomentionofintentionalkillingsbyEritreansoldiers .Numer-ousdeclarationsbykebeleortabiaadministratorsorotherEthiopianlocalofficialsdescribedwartimecasualtiesintheirareasofresponsibility;thesearediscussedfurtherbelowinconnectionwithEthiopia’sjus ad bellum claims .Withfewexceptions(particularlyinIrob),theselocalofficials’accountsmadeno mention of intentional killings of ci�ilians by Eritrean soldiers . Takentogether,thereportsandaccountsofEthiopianofficialsindicatedthatthetotalnumberofci�iliandeathswasfarbelowthenumberEthiopianowclaimswereintentionallykilled .

b. Beatings and Woundings

98 . Ethiopiaclaimedthat82,223peoplesufferedfrombeating,wound-ingorotherformsofphysicalabuseatthehandsofEritreanforces .Thee�i-denceintherecordagainfellfarshortofsupportingthisclaim .TherewasasufficientnumberofcredibleaccountsbylocalresidentsdescribingpersonsbeingbeatenorwoundedtojustifytheCommission’sholdingsthatsuchbeat-ingswerefrequent .Howe�er,therewerenoreportssuggestingphysicalassaultsonmorethan80,000Ethiopians,ordescribinglargenumbersofpeoplerecei�-ingmedicalcareorsufferinglastingdisabilitiesonaccountofsuche�ents .Afewwitnessstatementsbylocalpriestsorofficialslistedmuchsmallernumbersof�ictims;onesuchdocumentlistedeighty-fi�epersonswhowere“injuredor

tortured”inIrobo�erthecourseofthewar .Takenasawhole,thee�idenceagainfellfarshortofsupportingtheenormousnumbersof�ictimsclaimedbyEthiopia .

c. Abductions and Disappearances

99 . Ethiopiaclaimedthat20,354peoplewereabductedontheWestern,CentralandEasternFronts .Asnotedabo�e,theCommissionfoundthatci�il-ianswereabductedinMerebLekhe,AhferomandGulomakhedaWeredas .InIrobWereda,theCommissionfoundEritreatobeliablefor“frequentse�erebeatingandotherabuseofci�ilianstakenintocustody,”andfor“failingtoreleaseci�ilianstakenintocustodyinIrobWeredaandtopro�ideinformationregardingthem .”FortheEasternFront,theCommissionfoundliabilityfor“abduction,forcedlaborandconscriptionofci�iliansinDalulWereda .”OntheWesternFront,theCommissionfoundEritrealiableforpermittingthefre-quentabductionofEthiopianci�ilians,andforunexplaineddisappearances,fromTahtayAdiabo,LaelayAdiaboandKaftaHumeraWeredas .

100 . Thee�idenceagainidentifiednumbersofabductionsanddisap-pearancesfarshortofthosenowclaimed .AnofficialfromthetownofZal-ambessalistedse�enteenpersons“disappeared”orabductedfromthetown,whichhadapre-warpopulationtheCommissionestimatedat7,000to10,000 .AJune1999assessmentbytheTigrayRegionalBureauofPlanningandEco-nomicDe�elopmentstatedthat641ci�ilianswereabductedfromTigray .Someaccountsbylocalofficialsandpriestspro�idedadditionaldetail;adeclarationbyapriestinIrobWeredalistedtwenty-ninenamedindi�idualssaidtoha�ebeenabducted .Notallabductionsresultedindisappearances .Se�eralaccountsdescribedhowgroupsofpersonstakenawaybyEritreanforcesduringthewarsubsequentlyreturned,eitherwiththeassistanceoftheInternationalCom-mitteeoftheRedCross(“ICRC”)orontheirown .Thee�idencefellfarshortofsustainingEthiopia’sclaimthato�er20,000personswereabducted .

d. Forced Labor and Conscription

101 . Asnotedabo�e,theCommissionfoundliabilityforthe“abduction,forcedlaborandconscriptionofci�iliansinDalulWereda,” locatedinthenorthoftheAfarregion .Ethiopiaclaimedthat9,443personsweremadetoperformforcedlabororwereforciblyconscriptedthere,basedontheassump-tionthat40%of thepopulation in theoccupiedareasof thatweredaweresubjecttothese�iolations .Ethiopiaweightedthe�alueoftheseharmssepa-rately,seekingoneyear’searningsforthoseforcedtoperformlaborand85%oflifetimeearningsforthoseforciblyconscripted,contendingthatahigheramountwasjustifiedtoaccountfortherisktoone’slifeofbeingconscriptedtomilitaryser�ice .Ethiopiaestimatedthattwo-thirdsofthispopulationgroupwasrequiredtodoforcedlaborandthatone-thirdwasconscripted .

102 . Attheliabilityphase,Ethiopiasubmittedtestimonyofse�eralwit-nesseswhoperformedforcedlabor,someforbriefperiodsofafewdaysandothersforuptoayear .Thisincludedabroadrangeoflabor,includingcookingforsoldiers,buildingroads,diggingtrenches,buildingfortificationsandfarm-ing .EthiopiasimilarlysubmittedtestimonyofEthiopianswhoallegedtheyweretakentoEritrea’smilitarytrainingcampatSawaandforcedtoser�eintheEritreanmilitary .EritreahadclaimedmuchoftheterritoryithadoccupiedinthisregionasitsownandbysomewitnessaccountslocalsweretoldtheywereEritreancitizenspriortoandatthetimeofconscription .Manyofthosewhotestifiedthattheywereconscriptedstatedthattheywerealsorequiredtoperformlaboreitherpriortoorduringtheperiodofconscription .Whiletheliabilityphasee�idenceshowedthatforcedlaborandconscriptionoccurred,itdoesnotsupportEthiopia’sclaimofo�er9,000�ictims .IntheCommission’s�iew,thise�idenceindicatedaconsiderablysmallerquantumofpersonssub-jecttoforcedlaborandconscription .

e. Award

103 . Gi�en the manner in which Ethiopia presented its claims, theCommissionhashadtomakeitsbestestimatesofthegra�ityandextentofEritrea’sjus in bello �iolationsonthethreefrontsin�ol�ingdeath,physicalinjury,disappearance,forcedlaborandconscriptionofci�iliansbasedonthee�idencepre�iouslyintherecord .Indoingso,ithasgi�enimportantweighttotheseriousnessoftheoffensesagainstlifeandhumandignitypro�edattheliabilityphase .Basedonitsanalysisofthee�idence,theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$11,000,000inrespectoftheseclaims .

b. rape104 . AsitdidinconnectionwithitslimitedfindingsinbothParties’

claimsof liability forrape, theCommissionconsiders that thequestionofdamagesconnectedtoincidentsofrapedeser�esseparategeneralcomment .AlthoughtheCommissionreiteratesitsgratificationthat“therewasnosug-gestion,muchlesse�idence,thateitherEritreaorEthiopiausedrape,forcedpregnancyorothersexual�iolenceasaninstrumentofwar,”36theCommis-siondidfinde�idencethatbothPartiesfailedtoimposeeffecti�emeasures,asrequiredbyinternationalhumanitarianlaw,topre�ent“se�eral”rapesofci�il-ianwomenandgirlsincertainareas .TheCommission,whichacknowledgedtheculturalsensiti�itiessurroundingrapeinbothcountriesandtheunwill-ingnessof�ictimstocomeforward,hasnoillusionthattherecordbeforeit

36 E.g.,PartialAwardinEthiopia’sCentralFrontClaims,para .24;PartialAward,CentralFront,Eritrea’sClaims2,4,6,7,8&22BetweentheStateofEritreaandTheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopia(April28,2004)[hereinafterPartialAwardinEritrea’sCentralFrontClaims],para .36 .

re�ealsthefullscopeofrapeduringtheextendedarmedconflict .TheCom-missionisacutelyawarethatthefullnumberof�ictimsandthefullmagnitudeoftheharmtheysufferedcannotandwillnote�erbeknown .

105 . ItisthereforeperhapspredictablethateachPartyfailedtopro�eitsdamagesclaimforrape,eitherastoareasonablenumberof�ictimsorastoareasonablemeasureofeconomicharm .NordidthePartiespro�idetheCom-missionwithanagreedorusefulmethodologyforassessingcompensation .

106 . Ethiopiauseditsgeneralmethodologytoliquidateitsjus in bello damagesclaimsforEritrea’sliability,asfoundbytheCommissioninitsPartialAwards,for“failingtotakeeffecti�emeasurestopre�entrapeofwomenbyitssoldiersinIrobWereda”37andfor“failuretotakeeffecti�emeasurestopre-�enttherapeofwomeninDalulandElidarWeredas .”38Inathree-stepproc-ess,Ethiopia(a)estimatedthat1%ofthepre-warfemalepopulationsufferedrapeinIrob,DalulandElidarWeredas,totaling236women;(b)estimatedtheresultantinjuryat50%ofthetotala�eragelifetimelostearningsinTigrayandAfar;and(c)addedlargemoraldamagesintendedtoreflectthegra�ityoftheinjuryto�ictimsandtheirfamilies .Onthisbasis,Ethiopiasoughtmate-rialdamagesofUS$637,821andmoraldamagesofUS$6,101,820,foratotalawardofUS$6,739,641fordamagesconnectedtorape .(InSectionVIIabo�e,theCommissionaddressesanddismissesEthiopia’sclaims,calculatedusingalegallyunjustifiedandmechanisticmethodology,forlargeseparateawardsofmoraldamagesinthisandotherclaims .)

107 .E�enwiththeextremelyroughapproximationsnecessarilyunder-lyingthedamagesphase,theCommissionissurprisedthatEthiopiaclaimsthatonly1%oftherele�antfemalepopulationsufferedrape .Thispercentageappearsunduly lowin lightof thesocial stigmaofreportingrapeandthecomparati�elylargenumberofwomenandgirlsinthe�ulnerablepopulation .NorcantheCommissionacceptthatestimatedlifetimeearningsha�eanyusefulnessinthiscontext,orequatethefinancialimpactofarapewiththatofabeating .Therele�antpopulationisalsoimpossibletoascertain,asitwouldbethatwhichremainedinoccupiedareas .

108 . EritreaoriginallyproposedthateachPartysetasideUS$500,000toUS$1,000,000ofitsownfundsforitsownlocallyadministeredprogramsforwomen’shealthcareandsupportser�icesintheareaswheretheCommissionfoundliabilityforrape .WhenEthiopiadidnotagreetothisproposal,Erit-rearequestedanawardofUS$6,750,000,withoutexplanationoftheamount .Assetout intheparallelFinalAwardforEritrea, theCommissioncannotassessEritrea’sunexplainedmethodology,butcanonlyassumetheamountwasintendedtomirrorEthiopia’s .

37 PartialAwardinEthiopia’sCentralFrontClaims,dispositif,SectionV .D .7 .38 PartialAwardinEthiopia’sWesternandEasternFrontClaims,dispositif,Section

VII .F .2 .b .

109 . DespitetheshortcomingsofbothParties’damagesmethodologies,theCommissionconsidersthatthisserious�iolationofinternationalhumani-tarianlawdemandsseriousrelief .Neithersymbolicnornominaldamageswillsufficeinthefaceofthephysical,mentalandemotionalharmknowntobesufferedbyrape�ictims .

110 . Accordingly,theCommissionawardsEthiopia(asitdoesEritreainitsparallelAward)US$2,000,000indamagesforfailingtopre�enttherapeofknownandunknown�ictimsinIrob,DalulandElidarWeredas .Insodoing,theCommissionexpressesthehopethatEthiopia(andEritrea)willusethefundsawardedtode�elopandsupporthealthprogramsforwomenandgirlsintheaffectedareas .

C. loss of ethiopian nationals’ Property111 . Intheliabilityphase,theCommissionfoundthatEthiopianci�il-

iansfrequentlylostpropertytolootingorunlawfuldestructionbyEritreanforces .OntheCentralFront,Eritreawasfoundliablefor“widespreadlootingandpropertydestructionintheareasthatwereoccupied”byEritreanarmedforcesfromMay1998toMay2000inMerebLekhe,AhferomandIrobWere-das .TheCommissionfoundsuchlootingandpropertydestructiontoha�ebeen“frequent”inGulomakhedaWereda .

112 . OntheWesternFront,EritreawasfoundliableforpermittingthelootingofpropertyinareasinTahtayAdiaboWeredaoccupiedbyEritreanarmedforces;forpermittinglooting,inparticularofli�estock,insuchareasinLaelayAdiaboWereda;andforpermittinglootingofpropertyandli�e-stockinareasinKaftaHumeraAdiaboWeredawhereEritreanarmedforceswerepresent .OntheEasternFront,EritreawasfoundliableforpermittingthelootinganddestructionofpropertyinDalulandElidarWeredas .Thus,theCommissionfoundEritrealiableforfrequentdestructionofpropertyinsixweredas,andforlootinginnine .

113 . EthiopiaclaimedUS$30,073,424onaccountoflootingintheareasco�ered by the Commission’s liability findings described in the precedingparagraphs,estimatingthat75%ofthepopulationinthe“frontline”kebelesinallnineweredaslostalloftheirpropertytolootingbyEritreanforces .ItalsoclaimedUS$24,879,342onaccountofdestructionin�ol�ingrealprop-erty,estimatingthat35%ofthepopulationofthe“frontline”kebelesinthesixweredaswheretheCommissionfoundpropertydestructionsufferedsuchdamage .

114 . Ethiopiacalculated its jus in bello propertyclaimsinamannersimilartothatusedinitscorrespondingclaimsforinjurytopersons .Ethiopiabeganwiththesameestimatesofthepopulationsofthe“frontline”kebeles .

Itestimatedthat75%ofthesepersonslostalloftheirpersonalpropertytoEritreanlooting .Noadditionale�idencewasofferedtosupportthisestimate .Instead,EthiopiacontendedthatEritreanforceswerepresentintheaffectedareasforsubstantialperiods,gi�ingthemampleopportunitytoloot .Ethiopiaalsoestimatedthat35%of thesepersonshadallof theirhousesandotherrealpropertydestroyed .Again,nonewe�idencewasofferedtosupportthisestimate .EthiopiainsteadarguedthatEritreadestroyed“the�astmajority”ofthesocialandeconomicinfrastructureinaffectedareas,and“thereisnoe�idencetosuggestthatEritreansdestroyedasignificantlylesseramount”ofci�ilianproperty .

115 . Ethiopia estimated per capita losses of property from lootingbaseduponofficialgo�ernmentstatistics .Theseindicateda�erageindi�idualholdingsofpersonalproperty(includingli�estock,amajorformofwealth,andcrucialformanyfamilies’sur�i�al)tobeUS$78percapitainTigrayandUS$683inAfar .Ethiopiacalculatedthe�alueofdamagedordestroyedrealpropertybasedonpre-wargo�ernmentdataindicatingthea�erage�alueofhousesinTigray(17,753,70birr,saidtoequalUS$2,580)andAfar(14,325,14birr,saidtoequalUS$2,082) .Thesea�eragesweremultipliedbythenumberofhousesinthekebeleswhererealpropertywasdamaged,gi�ingthetotal�alueofallhousesintheseareas .Ethiopiathendi�idedthisamountbytheareas’populations,gi�ingapercapitaamountreflectingthe�alueofrealproperty,whichEthiopiacon�ertedtoequalUS$506perpersoninTigrayandUS$339inAfar .Thesepercapitaamountswerelatermultipliedbytheestimatednumberofinjuredindi�iduals(thatis,the35%ofthetotalpopulationintheaffectedareas)togi�etheamountclaimedfordamagetoproperty .

116 . Ethiopia’sDamagesGroupOneMemorialcontendedthat therewere71,301housesinTigray“intheareaswheredestructionoccurred,”withanother5,707inAfar .Thistotaledslightlyo�er77,000housesintheaffectedareas .Ethiopiaestimatedthat35%ofthetotal�alueofallthesehouseswasdestroyedbyconductfoundto�iolatethejus in bello;itofferednonewe�i-dencetosupportthisestimate .Theestimatedidnotallocatetheassumeddam-ageamonghousesthatwerewhollydestroyed,partiallydestroyed,orsufferedonlymodestdamage .EthiopiaclaimedUS$24,879,342forthisdamage,equal-ingapproximatelyUS$925perhouse .

117 . Eritrea�igorouslycontestedtheamountofEthiopia’sclaimsforpropertydamage,inter alia,recallingitsearlierobjectionstoEthiopia’spor-trayaloftherele�antareasandpopulations,andmaintainingthattheestimat-edfrequencyofinjuriesrestedonassumptionandconjecture,note�idence .

118 . TheCommissionwillnotrepeatitsearliercommentsregardingEthiopia’smethodforcalculatingitsjus in bello claimsforinjurytopersons .Similarconcernsapplyhere .Ethiopiaclaimedlargeamounts,butkeyfactorsincomputingthem—particularly,theassumedfrequencyoflossesattributabletoEritreanconduct—werenotbasedupone�idenceintherecord .TheCom-missionalsohassubstantialdoubtsregardingEthiopia’sestimatesofhousing�alues .IntheareasofruralTigrayandAfarmostaffectedbythewar,occu-pantsoftenbuildtheirownhouses,usinglocalmaterials;damageoftencouldberepairedorreplacedbytheoccupants’laborutilizinglocalmaterials .Lossesofli�estockandagriculturalimplementscouldposeamuchgreaterthreatto�ictims’welfareandsecurity,but,inthecaseofTigray,suchlossesseemedtobeasmallpartofEthiopia’sclaim .

119 . Gi�enthesedifficulties,theCommissionagainmadeitsownre�iewofEthiopia’se�idenceintheearlierproceedings,seekingtoapproximatetheextentoflossescausedbylooting,orin�ol�ingdamagetoordestructionofrealproperty,fallingundertheCommission’sjus in bello liabilityfindings .

a. Looting

120 . Thea�ailablee�idenceregardingtheextentoflossesfromlootingbyEritreanforceswasfragmentaryandimprecise .Howe�er,thenumberofIDPspro�idesonereferencepointforassessinghowmanypeoplemayha�ebeen affected . Many thousands of IDPs left behind property such as li�e-stock,metalroofs,householdgoods,furniture,handtools,farmimplements,grainstoresandbeehi�es,all�ulnerabletolooting .TherecordincludedmanyaccountsdescribinghowIDPslefttheirfarmsand�illagestoa�oidthecon-flict,frequentlyunderconditionsmakingitdifficulttosafeguardpropertyandli�estock .Manyreturnedhometofindthatalloftheirgoodsweregone .

121 . Such lossesofpropertycouldbede�astating for thoseaffected .Manylooting�ictimslosttheirmeansofsubsistenceandwereleftdestitute,witho�erwhelmingeconomicandpsychologicalconsequences .Atbest,such�ictimswereleftwhollydependentonassistancefromgo�ernmentagenciesorinternationalreliefagencies,whichwerethemsel�esstrugglingtomeetneedswithlimitedresources .

122 . Howe�er,notallIDPsloste�erything .TherecordincludesaccountsofIDPswhobroughtalongatleastsomeoftheirli�estockandgoods,orwhowereabletomo�etheirli�estocktomoresecureareas .Inthisconnection,thee�idenceshowedthatmanythousandsofIDPsinTigraylefthomesinareaspotentiallyexposedtoshellingatgo�ernmenturginginlate1998orearly1999,whentherewasnohea�yfightinginthe�icinityandbothpeopleandpropertycouldbee�acuatedinanorderlyway .

123 . Thepre-warpopulationofareasexposedtolootingpro�idesanoth-er,albeitimprecise,referencepoint .TheCommissionpre�iouslyaddressedEthiopia’scontentionsregardingthenumberofpersonspotentiallyexposedtojus in bello �iolationsin�ol�ingkillingsorotherabusebyEritreanforces .39Ethiopiacontendedthatthisgroupnumberedabout242,000people .Howe�er,theCommissionconcludedthatthisestimatehadtobereducedtoremo�ethousandsofruralexpelleesofEritreanorigin .Thesameadjustmentisneces-saryhere .EthiopiashouldnotbeabletoclaimforlootedpropertyleftbehindbypersonswithEritreanantecedentswhowereexpelledfromEthiopia .Thenumbermustbefurtherreducedtoreflectmanythousandsofpeopleli�inginareasatsomedistancefromthefightingfronts,wherelootingbyEritreansoldiers—ifitoccurred—waslessfrequentandextensi�e .Howe�er,itisnotnecessarytomakeadjustmentstotakeaccountofdisplacedpersons .Asdis-cussedabo�e,muchIDPpropertyremainedaftertheownersdeparted,lea�ingitatriskoflooting .

124 . Estimating the extent of looting damage is further complicatedbecausemanypropertylossesbyIDPsandbypersonswhoremainedintheirhomesresultedfromothercauses .Therewase�idencethatmanyanimalswerelosttostar�ation,shellingorothercausesunrelatedtolooting .Muchpropertywaslosttoshellingorotherbattledamage,forwhichthereisnojus in bello liabil-ity .And,Ethiopianci�iliansandsoldierssurelyengagedinsomelooting .InitsPartialAwardonEritrea’sclaimforlootinglossesinthelargelydesertedbordertownofTserona,theCommissionaddressedthisproblembyfindingEthiopiatobeliableforonlyapercentageoflossesfromlooting .40TheCommissionwilladoptasimilarapproachhere .O�erall,howe�er,theCommissionconcludesthatIDPsinparticularlostmuchpropertytolootingbyEritreanforces .

125 . EstimatingtheValueofLootedProperty .Thea�ailablee�idenceisalsosketchyregardingthe�alueofpersonalpropertyandli�estock lost,althoughitunderscoresthepo�ertyofmanyresidentsofruralTigrayandAfar .Incalculatingitslootingclaim,Ethiopiautilizedgo�ernmentdataindicat-ingthatthea�eragepersoninTigrayhadproperty,includingli�estock,worth535 .69birr,whichEthiopiacon�ertedtoequalUS$78 .Thissuggestspropertyworthroughly3,200birrforafamilyofsixinTigray .Thisisbroadlyconsistentwithothere�idenceintherecord .A2000WorldBank/InternationalDe�elop-mentAssociationdocumentdescribedapackageofbasichouseholditemspro-�idedtobeneficiaryhouseholdsinTigrayandAfar,includingdiningutensils,sleepingmaterialsandwatercontainers,all�aluedatabout600–800birr .AnEthiopiango�ernmentstudyofdamagetoresidentsofZalambessaestimateda�eragepropertylossesat10,268birrperhousehold .Theseweretowndwell-ers,whotypicallyhadlargerandbetter-equippedhouses,withmorefurniture,electricalappliances,andotherformsof�aluablepropertynotownedbyrural

39 See SectionVIII .Asupra.40 PartialAwardinEritrea’sCentralFrontClaims,paras .67&69 .

people .AJune1999Ethiopiango�ernmentdamageassessmentestimatedthe�alueoflootedordestroyedpropertyofdisplacedpersonsuptothattimeat33 .9millionbirr .Thisestimateappearsnottoha�eincludedanimalsorfarmimplements,whichweresignificantelementsoftheIDPs’totallosses .

126 . Asnotedabo�e,lossofli�estock,toolsandotherpropertyrequiredforsubsistenceplacedmanypoorruralfamiliesindependencyanddespair .Takingthisintoaccount,andinlightofthegapsanduncertaintiesinthee�i-dence,theCommissionconcludesthatUS$12,000,000fairlyreflectsthe�alueofpropertylosttolootingbyEritreansoldiers .

b. Destruction of and Damage to Houses and Real Property127 . TheCommissionhassoughtthroughouttotreatEthiopia’sdam-

agesclaimsbasedonthejus in bello separatelyfromthosebasedonthejus ad bellum.ThishasbeendifficultinthecaseofEthiopia’sclaimsfordamagetohousingandrealproperty .Ethiopiamadeparallelclaimsforsuchinjurybasedonbothlegalgrounds,butdidnotallocateparticulardamagetooneortheother .Further,thegeographicareasco�eredbyEthiopia’sparallelclaimsfordamagetohousingandrealpropertylargelyo�erlapped,asdotheclaims’factualfoundations .

128 . TheCommissiondidnotmakeliabilityfindingsexplicitlyaddress-ingdamagetohousesorrealproperty,althoughitmadese�eralfindingsofliability for destroying property . On the Central Front, Eritrea was foundliablefor“widespread . . .propertydestruction”inareasoccupiedbyEritreanarmedforcesfromMay1998toMay2000inMerebLekhe,AhferomandIrobWeredas .Propertydestructionwasfoundtobe“frequent”inGulomakhedaWereda .OntheWesternFront,theCommissionfoundinsufficiente�idenceofunlawfulpropertydestruction .OntheEasternFront,EritreawasfoundliableforpermittingdestructionofpropertyinDalulandElidarWeredas .Thus,theCommissionfoundEritrealiableforpropertydestructioninsixweredasontheCentralandEasternFront .EthiopiadidnotaddresstheCommission’sspecificfindingsinframingitsjus in bello compensationclaimfordamagetohousesandrealproperty .

129 . TheCommissionrejectedasunpro�enEthiopia’sclaimthatEritreaengagedinshellingthatwasindiscriminateorotherwisecontrarytothejus in bello.Accordingly,destructionofpropertyduetoshellingisnotcompensableunderthejus in bello.

130 . Ethiopiadescribedbothitsjus in bello andjus ad bellum claimsasembracingdamagetohousesandtootherformsofrealproperty .Howe�er,therele�antdiscussioninEthiopia’sDamagesGroupOneMemorialandatthehearingfocusedonhouses,andtheCommission’sanalysisrespondstotheclaimsasEthiopiapleadedthem .Accordingly,theCommissionsoughttoassesstheextentofdamagetohousesfallingwithinthescopeofitsjus in bello liabilityfindingsfortheCentralandEasternFronts .

131 . Ethiopia’sDamagesMemorialcontendedthattherewere71,301housesinTigray“intheareaswheredestructionoccurred,”withanother5,707inAfar .Thistotaledslightlyo�er77,000housesintheaffectedareas .Ethiopiaestimatedthat35%ofthetotal�alueofallthesehouseswasdestroyedbycon-ductfoundto�iolatethejus in bello;itofferednonewe�idencetosupportthisestimate .Theestimatedidnotallocatetheassumeddamageamonghousesthatwerewhollydestroyed,partiallydestroyedorsufferedonlymodestdam-age .EthiopiaclaimedUS$24,879,342forthisdamage .

132 . Ethiopia’searliere�idence,includingreportsfromEthiopiango�-ernment sourcesanddamageassessmentsby international relief agencies,showsthatwartimedamagetohouses,whilesubstantial,wasfarlessextensi�ethanEthiopianowclaims .AnAugust1999assessmentcitedinEthiopia’sCen-tralFrontMemorialidentified7,684destroyedhomes .Post-warassessmentsbyUnitedNationsandinternationalreliefagenciesfrequentlyreferredtoaWorldBankassessmentidentifyingabout16,400housesinTigrayasha�ingbeendamagedordestroyedbyallcauses;aJanuary2002UNEmergenciesUnitforEthiopiaassessmentestimatedthatabout35%ofthese16,400werecompletelydestroyed .Howe�er,laterassessmentssuggestedthatinitialesti-matesofthenumberofhousesdamagedordestroyedmayha�ebeenhigh .TheJanuary2002assessmentmissionreported“thatonly33%(5,586houses)ofthehousingunitscountedinthepreliminaryassessment(16,848)wereinfacteligibleforrepairorreconstruction .”

133 . Asnoted,Ethiopiadidnotallocateparticularhousingdamagetoeitheritsjus in bello orjus ad bellum claims .Howe�er,Ethiopia’sjus ad bel-lum housingclaims,discussedinfra,41indicatedthatshellingcausedbyfarthelargestamountofdamagetohousing .Gi�enthis,damagetoordestructionofhousingbyEritreanforcesinareaswheretheCommissionfoundliabil-itywouldha�etobeless—indeed,substantiallyless—thanhalfofthetotalnumberofhousesdamagedordestroyed .

134 . Moreo�er,notalldamage tohousing resulted fromactions forwhichEritreaisliable .Somehousesdecayedfromlackofmaintenancedur-ingtheirowners’absences;traditionalhouseswereparticularlyatriskofthis .Somehouseslostcomponentssuchasstructuralsupports,roofsanddoors,to ci�ilian looters, or to Ethiopian soldiers seeking building materials fortrenchesorfortifications .Inaddition,initsjus in bello claimforthedestruc-tionofZalambessa(consideredbelow),Ethiopiaclaimedforthedestructionof1,220houses .Absentanycontraryindicationintherecord,theCommis-sionmustassumethatthosehouses,orsomesignificantproportionofthem,wereincludedinUNandotherestimatesoftheextentofhousingdamageinTigray .

135 . Theextensi�egapsandambiguitiesintherecord,andthelimitedgeographicscopeoftheCommission’sliabilityfindings,compeltheCommis-

41 See SectionXI .E .1supra.

siontoestimatetheextentofdamagetohousingforpurposesofEthiopia’sjus in bello claim .Indoingso,theCommissionhasgi�enconsiderableweighttointernationalagencies’estimatesofthenumberofdamagedordestroyedhousespreparedduringandafterthewar .Ithasalsogi�enweighttoe�idenceindicatingthatshellingwasamajorcauseofdamagetohousing .Suchdam-agefromshellingcanonlybeconsideredinconnectionwithEthiopia’sjus ad bellum housingclaim .TheCommissionaccordinglyawardsEthiopiathesumofUS$1,900,000forthejus in bello componentofitsclaimsfordamagetohousing .

iX. actual amount Jus in Bello damages Claims136 . ThisportionofEthiopia’sjus in bello claimsincludedmultipleele-

ments .Ethiopiaclaimedanamount itcon�ertedtoapproximatelyUS$120millionfordamagetothetownofZalambessa,tochurchesandgo�ernmentfacilities,andtonumerousEthiopianenterprisesandgo�ernmentagencies .Ethiopiaalsoclaimedactualamountsofdamagessaidtoresult fromErit-rea’sbombingattheAyderSchoolinMekele .Ethiopia’sDamagesGroupOneMemorialpresentedthesejus in bello claimsalongsidecertainjus ad bellum claimsforspecificamountsofactualdamages,includingclaimsfordeathsandinjuriescausedbylandminesandforinjuryfromthebombingoftheMekeleairport .Theseclaimswillbetreatedseparatelybelow,togetherwithEthiopia’sotherjus ad bellum claims .

a. destruction in Zalambessa137 . Zalambessa,anEthiopianbordertownwithapre-warpopulation

ofse�entotenthousand,liesonthemainroadbetweenAsmaraandAddisAbaba .ItwasafocalpointofthewarontheCentralFront .ThetownwasoccupiedforalmostallofthewarbyEritreanforces,andsufferedmassi�ephysicaldamageandextensi�elooting .InitsCentralFrontPartialAward,theCommissionfoundthatEritreawasliablefor75%ofthephysicaldamageandfor100%ofthelooting .Ethiopiaclaimedanamountitcon�ertedtoequalUS$29,489,000asmaterialdamagesforthedestructionandlooting,reflectingthefullamountofdamageallegedlyinflicted .Inthisregard,Ethiopiacon-tendedthatEritreashouldberesponsiblebothforthe75%ofphysicaldamagetheCommissionattributedtothejus in bello �iolation,andfortheremaining25%becauseofEritrea’s�iolationofthejus ad bellum.

138 . Ethiopiaallegedthat1,489buildingswerese�erelydamagedordestroyedinZalambessa .Inall(includingboththejus in bello andjus ad bel-lum elementsofitsclaim),Ethiopiaclaimedanamountitcon�ertedtoequalUS$23,677,400forthefullamountofthisphysicaldamage,equalingaboutUS$15,900perbuilding .Theclaimincludedamosqueandse�eralchurchesandtheirassociatedstructures,aswellas1,220“residentialhouses;”a�erage

damagetohouseswassaidtobeUS$10,266each .Thisamountwasconsider-ablylargerthanthea�erageamountclaimedbyEthiopiafordestructionofhousesinruralTigray .Howe�er,thee�idence(includinganumberofdeclara-tionsandsignedstatementsbyformerZalambessaresidentsfiledwithEritrea’sCounter-Memorial)indicatedthatmanyhousesinZalambessaweresubstan-tial,multi-roomedstructures .AnApril2002studyonthereconstructionofZalambessapreparedbytheTigrayEmergencyReco�eryProgrammega�efur-thercredencetotheamountclaimedforhouses .The2002studyusedaslightlyhigherper-housefigure,81,000birr,oraboutUS$11,740attheexchangerateusedinEthiopia’spleadings .

139 . Theprimarye�idenceforEthiopia’sclaimsfordamagetostructuresinZalambessawasanextensi�eanddetailedengineeringsur�eypreparedfortheTigrayWorksandUrbanDe�elopmentBureau .Ateamofengineers,assistantengineers,sur�eyors,localeldersandotherspreparedthissur�eyinOctoberthroughDecember2000,beforethisCommissionwascreated .Thesur�eywassupplementedbye�idenceshowingactualreconstructioncostsofsomepublicbuildings .Theengineeringsur�eyestimatedtotalrebuildingcostsat149,441,206birr .Atbirr6 .9:$1(thefa�orableexchangerateEthiopiausedinitspleadings),thiswasapproximatelyUS$21 .66million,roughlyUS$2millionlessthanEthiopiaclaimed .Thedifferencewasnotclearlyexplained,althoughthee�idenceincludedadeclarationbyaseniorEthiopianpublicworksofficialstatingthat,becauseofpriceincreases,“theactualcostsofrebuildingthesestructureswouldbesubstantiallyhigherthanourinitialestimate .”

140 . The Commission finds the engineering study to be thorough,reasonable and credible . It in�ol�ed a building-by-building assessment ofdamagedstructures,oftenincludingdrawingsshowingeachbuilding’stype,locationandsize .Thee�idenceincludednumerousindi�idualbuildingwork-sheetspreparedtoestimaterebuildingcosts .Therewerecarefulestimatesofthecostsofrepairingorreplacingeach,basedupontheextentofdamage,typeofconstruction,andsurfacearea .Thesecostestimateswerede�elopedsoonafterEthiopiareco�eredZalambessa,forgo�ernmentalpurposesunre-latedtolitigation .TheestimatesappearreasonabletotheCommissioninthecircumstances .Theyweremoredetailedandprofessionalthanmuchoftheothere�idenceadducedbyeitherPartyinotherclaimsin�ol�ingdamagetostructures .Thespecifiedcostsweretypicallywellwithin(orbelow)therangeofper-square-meterrepairorreplacementcostscitedinotherclaimsforsomesimilarstructures .

141 . Eritrea’s principal defense to Ethiopia’s claim for damages tostructureswasthattheclaimshouldbesignificantlyreducedbecausemorethanthreehundredpersonssaidtobeEritreannationalsownedmanyofthedestroyedstructures .InEritrea’s�iew,Ethiopiacouldnotassertaclaimfordamagetothesestructuresintheexerciseofdiplomaticprotection .Eritrea’sDamagesGroupOneCounter-Memoriale�idenceincludednumerousshortpreprintedformscompletedandsignedbypersonsli�inginSenafewhopre-

�iouslyli�edinZalambessa,ortheirrelati�es .TheseformsrecitedthatthesignerwasanEritrean,andhadbeen“sinceEritreabecameindependent .”Theythendescribedinafewhandwrittenwordspropertiesthesignerorthesigner’srelati�eallegedlyownedinZalambessa .Thise�idencealsoincludedlistsofEritreanssaidtoha�eownedpropertyinZalambessa,includingonelisting289owners .

142 . EthiopiarespondedwiththedeclarationofaseniorTigraysecurityofficialallegingthatfamilymembersoragentsofmanypersonsonEritrea’slistsremainedinEthiopia,andhadrecei�edgo�ernmenthousingreconstruc-tiongrantsandrehabilitationfunds .Thiswasaccompaniedbytheofficial’srebuttallistofthe289properties,saidtoshowthat,formany,Ethiopianown-ersoragentshadobtainedEthiopiango�ernmentconstructionorrehabilita-tionfunds .Ethiopiaaddedthat,inanycase,anyEritreanownerswouldha�ebeendualnationals,sinceEthiopianlawlimitsrealpropertyownershiptonationals .EthiopiaalsoarguedthatitwasclaiminginitsownrightforinjuryincurredonaccountofthedestructionofanEthiopiantown,aswellasforexpensesincurredortobeincurredinrebuildingthattown,notintheexerciseofdiplomaticprotection .

143 . TheCommissionhasnotreconciledtheParties’duelinglistsofhundredsofpropertiesinZalambessathatwere,orwerenot,ownedbyEritre-ans .ItagreeswithEthiopia’scharacterizationofitsclaimasbeingbasedupondamagedirectlyfallingupontheStateofEthiopia,intheformofsubstantialpublicexpenditurerequiredtorepairorreplacedamagedpublicstructuresandtoassistpri�ateowners .TheCommissionalsobelie�esthattheconsidera-tionofdamagesduemusttakeaccountofthenatureoftheunderlying�iola-tion,whichin�ol�edmassi�eanddeliberatedestructionofatownbyEritreanforceswithoutmilitaryjustification .

144 . Theengineeringsur�eydocumentingtheextentofphysicaldam-agetoZalambessaestimatedthecostsofrepairandreconstructionofchurch-es,housesand�ariouspublicbuildingsasofDecember2000tobe149,441,206birr .Asnotedabo�e,aseniorEthiopianpublicworksofficialprojectedthattheactualcostsofreconstructionafterDecember2000wouldbehigher,becauseofpost-war increases inconstructioncosts . IndeterminingcompensationforEritrea’sclaimsfordamagetoordestructionofalargenumberofidenti-fiedbuildings,theCommissionhastakenaccountofdocumentedpost-warshiftsinexchangeratesandincreasesinconstructioncostsinEritrea .InordertotreatthePartiesequally,itshouldaccordsimilartreatmenttoEthiopia’sclaim .Astherecorddidnotclearlyindicatetheamountofpost-warincreasesinconstructioncosts inEthiopia, theCommissionestimatesthemtoha�ebeen 20% . Increasing the December 2000 engineering study’s estimate by20%equals179,329,400birr .TheCommissionawards75%ofthisamount,orUS$16,815,000,ascompensationfordamagetoanddestructionofbuildingsinZalambessain�iolationofthejus in bello.

145 . Ethiopia’sclaimfor theremaining25%is treated inSectionXIalongwithEthiopia’sotherjus ad bellum claims .

b. looting in Zalambessa146 . Looting from Private Homes .PursuanttotheCommission’sfinding

thatEritreawasliablefor100%ofthelootinglossesinZalambessa,Ethio-piaclaimedUS$3,056,771forpersonalpropertyallegedlylootedfrompri�atehomes inZalambessa .ThisequalsaboutUS$2,500perhouseholdforeachofthe1,220“residentialhouses”thatallegedlysuffereddamage .Theclaimedamountwasderi�edfromasur�eycarriedoutinOctoberthroughDecember2001forreconstructionpurposesbytheRegionalStateofTigray .Thesur�eyutilizedquestionnairesadministeredto,andinter�iewswith,personsdisplacedfromZalambessa .Thedollaramountclaimedappearstobeacon�ersionoftheestimated�alueofhouseholdpropertydamageidentifiedinthe2001study(slightlyo�er21,000,000birr,10,268birrperhousehold),con�ertedatbirr6 .9:US$1 .Thereportdidnotincludethequestionnaires,butitcontainedareason-ableexplanationofthequestionnaireandinter�iewprocessusedtogatherandrefinethedata .Thenumbersstatedareinternallyconsistent,andappearrea-sonabletotheCommissioninthecircumstances .WhiletheamountsclaimedforlootingdamageperhouseholdwereappreciablyhigherthanlootinglossesEthiopiaclaimedinthewarzonesatlarge,theclaimsin�ol�edresidentsofathri�ingbordercommunitywhoweretypicallymoreprosperousandmorelikelytoownelectricalappliancesandother�ulnerableproperty .

147 . Because theTigray sur�eywasprepared forgo�ernmentalpur-posesotherthanlitigation,utilizingareasonablemethodology,theCommis-sionacceptsitasameasureofthelossesofpersonalpropertysufferedbytheresidentsofZalambessa .Howe�er, the reportdidnotdistinguishbetweenlossesattributabletolootingandtoothercauses .UndertheCommission’sliabilityAwards,only75%oflossesofpersonalpropertynotduetolootingare compensable, and some limited adjustment is required to reflect this .Basedontherecord,theCommissionbelie�esthatlossesofpersonalpropertywerepredominatelyattributabletolooting,andaccordinglyawardsEthiopiaUS$2,500,000inrespectofthisdamage .

148 . Other Looting Losses .Ethiopiaalsoclaimedsmalleramountsinrespectofpropertyallegedlylootedfrombusinesses,go�ernmentagenciesandotherentities .(Forclarity,theamountsoftheclaimedlootinglossesha�ebeencon�ertedtoU .S .dollarsbytheCommissionatthebirr8:US$1rate .)Ethiopiaclaimed: – US$11,798forsafesandotherpropertylootedfromtheCommer-

cialBankofficeinZalambessa; – US$64,079forpropertyallegedlylootedfromtwochurchesanda

mosqueinthetown; – US$12,945forpropertylootedfromtheZalambessacustoms

house,includingUS$1,000foramini�anandUS$2,500forcon-trabanditemsstoredatthecustomswarehouse;

– US$7,246forpropertylostbytheTigrayRegionalDisasterPre-�entionandPreparednessBureau(thenarrati�eaccompanyingthisclaimstatedthatthisamountincluded300,000quintalsofgrain,alargequantitythatpresumablyreflectedatypographicalerror);and

– US$3,269forfurnitureandrecreationalequipmenttakenfromtheTigrayYouthAssociationoffice .

Theseamountswereappropriatelydocumentedandappearreasonableinthecircumstances .TheCommissionawardsUS$99,000ascompensationfortheselootingclaims .

149 . Ethiopia claimed US$107,355 for a Rubb hall (a portable grainstorehouse)lootedfromtheReliefSocietyofTigray .Thee�idenceshowedthattheRubbhallwasoriginallydonatedbyCatholicReliefSer�icesin1993,andwasplacedontheSociety’sbooksinthatyearataninitial�alueof858,840birr .Gi�enthatthepropertywasse�eralyearsoldatthetimeofitsloss,theCom-missionawards80%oftheamountclaimed,orUS$86,000 .

150 . EthiopiaclaimedUS$167,578 forproperty looted fromtheTig-rayRegionalAgricultureBureaufollowingthein�asionofZalambessa .The�aluationwasbasedonthedeclarationofaseniorAgriculturalandNaturalResourcesDe�elopmentOfficeofficialandaccompanying listsofpropertylostatse�erallocations .Theofficialstatedthatthelistswere“compiledbasedonestimatesofthe�alueandin�entoryoftheseitemsasofthetimeofthewar,”butdidnotstatea�alueofpropertyallegedlylootedinZalambessa .Theaccompanyingtablesappearedtobebasedontheauthorizedle�elsofsupplies,notonamountsactuallyonhand .TheyalsolistedsomesupplieslostfromBadme(andperhapsalsootherlocations)aswellasfromZalambessa .Theclaimedlossesdonotappearunreasonableinthecircumstances .Howe�er,asthee�idencewasbasedonestimates(albeitbyaknowledgeableofficial),andwasimpreciseinotherrespects,theCommissionawards75%oftheclaimedamount,orUS$126,000 .

151 . EthiopiaallegedthatEritrealootedconstructionmachineryandmaterialbeingusedbytheTigrayRegionalRuralRoadsAuthorityintheZal-ambessaareaattheoutbreakofthewar,tothe�alueofUS$1,132,694 .Morethanhalfofthisclaimwasfortheoriginalacquisitioncostofthreebulldozersandtwodumptrucksallegedlylooted .Therewasnoe�idenceshowingthatthismachineryandmaterialactuallywastakenbyEritrea;therewase�idenceshowingthat,priortothewar,muchofitwasstoredinafacilityse�eralkil-ometerssouthofZalambessa .Roadbuildingmaterialandhea�yconstruc-tionequipmentwouldha�ebeenequally�aluabletobotharmiesforbuildingtrenchesandothermilitaryengineeringworksonthestaticZalambessafront .Inthisregard,therewasuncontestede�idencethatbotharmieswereusingbulldozerstodigtrenchesintheZalambessaareainmid-May1998,priorto

Eritrea’sattack .Gi�entheambiguitiesofthee�idence,theCommissionawardsEthiopiathedollarequi�alentof50%oftheamountclaimed,orUS$566,000 .

152 . Finally,EthiopiaclaimedUS$3,269forlootingoftables,chairs,atennistableandrackets,andapooltablefromtheofficeoftheTigrayYouthAssociation .Whilethee�idenceforthisclaimwaslimited,thecharacterandamountoftheclaimappearreasonableinthecircumstances .TheCommissionaccordinglyawardsUS$3,000inrespectofthisclaim .

153 . WithrespecttoEthiopia’sclaimsforlootinginZalambessaasdis-cussedinthissubsection,theCommissionawardsthetotalofUS$3,380,000 .

C. deaths, injuries and Property damage in mekele154 . TheCommissionpre�iouslyfoundthatEritrea�iolatedthejus in

bello intheconductofitsairoperationsinMay1998,inconnectionwithtwoattacksthatdroppedclusterbombsneartheAyderSchoolinMekele .Thesee�entscausedextensi�edeathsandinjuries,aswellassomepropertydam-age .Ethiopiaclaimedanamountitcon�ertedtoequalUS$882,539fordeaths,injuriesanddamagefromthebombings .ThisamountwasthenincreasedbyaboutUS$4milliontoreflectmoraldamagetothedeadandinjuredandtheirfamilies .Ethiopiaalsoclaimeddamagesfordeath,damageandinjuryfromastrafingattackontheMekeleAirportearlieronthesameday .WhiletheCommissionpre�iouslyfoundtheairporttobealegitimatemilitarytarget,Ethiopiaclaimedcompensationforthisattackonjus ad bellum grounds .TheCommissionaddressesthisclaiminSectionXIofthisAward,inconnectionwithEthiopia’sotherjus ad bellum claims .

155 . EthiopiaclaimedUS$322,392forthedeathsofsixtypersons inthebombingintheAyderSchool�icinityandUS$333,997forinjuriesto168others .Ethiopiacalculatedtheseamounts in themannerusedtocomputeitsfixed-sumclaims,withadjustmentsreflectingtheagesofthosekilledandinjuredandafurtheradjustmenttoreflect�ariationsintheextentofinjuriesrecei�ed .Thus,Ethiopiasought100%ofprojectedlifetimeearningsforthosewhowerekilled,andapercentageofareducedle�eloflifetimeearningsforthosewhowereinjured .AswithEthiopia’sfixedamountclaims,projectedlifetimeearningswerenotdiscountedtopresent�alue .

156 . Eritreadidnotcontestthenumbersofpersonskilledandinjured,butarguedthatEthiopiacouldnotreco�ermorethanUS$1,500per�ictim,themaximumamountindicatedintheCommission’s2001Decisionsregard-ingelementsofapossiblemassclaimssystem .42(Asnotedpre�iously, thatsystemwasnotcompletedoradopted,inlightoftheParties’decisionstofile

42 Eritrea-EthiopiaClaimsCommissionDecisionNo .2(“ClaimsCategories,FormsandProcedures”);DecisionNo .5(“MultipleClaimsintheMassClaimsProcess,Fixed-SumCompensationatthe$500and$1500Le�els,MultiplierforHouseholdClaims”)(bothdatedAugust2001) .

theirclaimsasState-to-Stateclaims .)Eritreaalsocontended,inter alia,thatEthiopia’sclaimsformedicalcareinEthiopia(approximatelyUS$43,000fortreating168injuredpersons)wereexcessi�e,andthatitsclaimsfordamagetotheAyderSchoolandsurroundingbuildingswereexcessi�eandunpro�en .

157 . Ethiopia’se�idenceincludeddeathcertificates,extensi�ehospitalrecords, and other contemporaneous documents . These pro�ed numerousdeathsand thehospitalizationandsubsequent treatmentofmanypersonswoundedinthebombings .Thise�idencewasnotcontested .Basedonthissubstantialrecord,theCommissionacceptsEthiopia’scontentionthatsixtypersonswerekilledand168injuredinthebombingsattheAyderSchool .

158 . Howe�er,theCommissiondoesnotacceptEthiopia’smethodofcalculatingthecompensationdueonaccountoftheseriouslossoflifeandinjuryin�ol�edhere .Ethiopia’smethodofcalculationresultedinabasicawardofaboutUS$5,400foreachdeath,reflectingthe�ictims’estimatedlifetimefutureearnings,undiscountedandcon�ertedatanexchangerateselectedbyEthiopia .Thisamountthenwasroughlydoubledbyadditionalmoraldam-ages,calculatedusingEthiopia’selaboratematrixofbaseimpact�alues,familymultipliersandse�erityfactors .TheCommissionpre�iouslynoteditsreser-�ationsregardingtheuseofundiscountedprojectionsoffutureearningsincomputingdamages .ItalsohasrejectedEthiopia’smechanisticapproachtocalculatingmoraldamages,althoughitbelie�esthatsome�iolationsofinter-nationallaw,takingaccountoftheirseriousness,characterandconsequences,requireanadditionalmeasureofdamages .

159 . Ethiopiaalsoclaimedanamountitcon�ertedtoequalUS$96,326formedicaltreatmenttopersonsinjuredinthebombingsincludingUS$40,050forcostsoftreatmentpro�idedattheMekeleHospitalandUS$3,087fortreat-mentinAddisAbaba .TheclaimfortreatmentinMekeleandAddisAbabawasadequatelydocumentedandreasonableinthecircumstances,subjecttoadjustmentoftheexchangerate .ThebalanceofUS$53,189wasforexpensesincurredindollarsbyasingleindi�idualwhowenttoIsraelfortreatment .TheCommissionappro�estheclaimsreflectingthisindi�idual’smedicalexpensesandairlinetickets,intheamountofUS$15,900 .Howe�er,thee�idencedidnotpermitassessmentofthereasonablenessoftheremainingelementsoftheclaim,whichweresupportedbyaone-page lettermentioningthepatient’seightannual�isitsoftwentydaystoIsraelfor“medicaloperationandcheckup .”Theyaredenied .

160 . Ethiopianextclaimedanamountitcon�ertedtoUS$42,882fordamage to the Ayder School and its contents (US$26,974 for repairs, andUS$15,908toreplacebooks,schooldesks,otherfurniture,and�ariousfixturesandeducationalmaterials),andUS$86,942fordamagetohomesandotherbuildingsandpropertyneartheschool,includingaprintingplantthatwasextensi�elydamaged .Eritreaarguedthattheclaimfordamagetotheschoolanditscontentswasexcessi�e,buttheCommissiondoesnotfindtheamounttobeunreasonableinthecircumstances .Italsofindstheamountsclaimedin

regardtodamagetohomes,businessesandotherstructuresdamagedbythebombingtobesufficientlydocumentedandreasonableinthecircumstances,allsubjecttoadjustmentoftheexchangerateforcon�ersion .

161 . Takingaccountof theconsequences followingfromtheserious�iolationofinternationallawin�ol�edhere,theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$2,500,000inrespectofdeathsandinjuries,medicalexpensesandpropertydamageresultingfromthedroppingofclusterbombsinthe�icinityoftheAyderSchoolinMekele .

d. other looting and damage to Property1. Government Buildings and Infrastructure

162 . EthiopiaclaimedUS$13,963,982indamagesforthedestructionandlootingof“atleast”331administrationbuildings,schools,clinics,�eteri-naryclinics,watersupplysystemsandagriculturaltrainingcentersinTigrayontheCentralandWesternFronts,includingUS$536,765formo�eableprop-ertyallegedlylootedfromthoselocations .EthiopiaalsosoughtUS$2,566,002forthedestructionandlootingofatleast35schools,clinics,�eterinaryclinicsandwatersupplysystemsinAfarontheEasternFront,includingUS$93,891formo�eablepropertyallegedlylootedfromthoselocations .

163 . Ethiopiapleadedentitlement tocompensationundereither theCommission’sjus in bello orjus ad bellum liabilityfindingsand,accordingly,didnotspecifytheliabilitybasisforitsclaimsforspecificproperty .Howe�er,theCommissionhassoughtthroughouttheseproceedingstoassesscompen-sationonthebasisofliabilityforeitherbreachofthejus ad bellum orthejus in bello.Ethiopia’sfailuretorelateitsclaimstotheCommission’sspecificliabil-ityfindingshasgreatlycomplicatedassessmentofthisclaim,andhaslimitedEthiopia’sreco�eryofjus in bello damages .

164 . Thejus ad bellum damages,whichcomprisealargercomponentoftheseclaims,areaddressedseparatelyinSectionXIofthisAward .Amoreextensi�ere�iewofe�idenceandargumentrelatedtotheseclaimsisreser�edfor that section .Ashorter re�iewof thee�idencebearingondeterminingamountsawardedunderthejus in bello followshere .

165 . Eritrea’sliabilityforlootinganddestructionofpublicbuildingsonthethreefrontswasnotuniform .OntheCentralFront,theCommissionfoundEritrealiablefor�iolatingthejus in bello bypermitting“widespreadlootingandpropertydestruction in theareas thatwereoccupied”byEri-treanforcesinAhferom,IrobandMerebLekheWeredas .TheCommissionalsofoundEritrealiableforpermitting“frequent”lootinganddestructioninGulomakhedaWereda .

166 . OntheWesternFront,theCommissiondidnotfindjus in bello liabilityfordestructionofproperty .Itfoundliabilityonlyforlootinginare-asoccupiedbyEritreantroopsinTahtayAdiabo,LaelayAdiaboandKafta

HumeraWeredas(thefindingsinLaelayAdiaboandKaftaHumeraWeredasemphasizedlootingofli�estock) .Gi�enthelimitedscopeofthesefindings,theCommissionmustexcludeEthiopia’sjus in bello claimsfordamagetobuild-ingsontheWesternFront,exceptinsofarasthee�idenceshowsthatdamagein�ol�edlooting .Asdiscussedbelow,thee�idencerarelyofferedsuchdetail .

167 . OntheEasternFront,EritreawasliableforpermittinglootinganddestructionofpropertyinDalulandElidarWeredas .

168 . Intheearlierproceedings,theCommissionrejectedasunpro�enbothParties’claimsthattheotherengagedinshellingthatwasindiscriminateorotherwisecontrarytothejus in bello.Accordingly,destructionofpropertyduetoshellingisnotcompensableunderthejus in bello.Thejus ad bellum liabilitycomponentoftheseclaimsisconsideredseparatelyinSectionXIofthisAward .

169 . Foritsclaimofdamagestothe331buildingsontheCentralandWesternFronts,EthiopiaproducedinAnnex66toitsDamagesGroupOneMemorialanitemizedlistofalltheclaimedgo�ernmentbuildingsandinfra-structure .This list identified their locationbyweredaand listed�aluesofallegeddamageandlosstostructuresandmo�eableproperty .Eachentryonthelistreferredtoaseparateannex .Theseannexescontained�aryingamountsofsupportinge�idence,suchaspurchaseorders,in�oicesandconstructioncontracts .FortheEasternFront,EthiopiaproducedasimilarlistinAnnex242toitsDamagesGroupOneMemorial, itemizingallegedlossesrelatingtothirty-fi�ebuildings .Annex242alsoreferencedseparateannexesforeachstructure,containingpayment�ouchersandconstructioncontractsforrecon-structionwork .Ethiopiaalsosubmitteddeclarationsoflocalofficialsin�ol�edwithemergencyreco�eryprogramsattestingthatthee�idencerelatedtowardamage .

170 . EritreaarguedthatmuchofthedamageforwhichEthiopiasoughtreco�erywascausedbyshellingforwhichEritreawasnotfoundliable .EritreaalsoarguedthatitwasnotpossibletodeterminefromEthiopia’se�idencethelocationsofmanystructures,andthatthosethatcouldbelocatedoftenwerefarfromthebattlefronts .EritreanotedinthiscontextthatundertheCom-mission’sliabilityAwards,itwasonlyliableforpropertydestructioninareasofthoseweredasthatitoccupied .

171 . Eritreaalsocontendedthatmuchoftheconstructionacti�ityforwhichEthiopiaclaimedcompensationwasnottorepairorreplacestructuresdamagedduringwartime,andinsteadwasnewconstructionrelatingtoEthio-pia’sinternalde�elopmentplans .Withrespecttowatersupplysystems,EritreaarguedthatmanywaterpointsforwhichEthiopiaclaimedwereunderde�el-opmentbecauseofdrought,notthewar .

172 . Ethiopia’se�idenceforjus in bello damagetopublicbuildingsandinfrastructureisproblematicinse�eralregards .Itgenerallydidnotshowtheallegedcauseofparticularpropertydestruction,whethershellingorother-

wise .ItoftendidnotidentifylocationsoffacilitieswithsufficientdetailtoallowEritreaortheCommissiontolocatetheminordertodeterminewhetherallegeddamageorreconstructionwasrelatedtothewarandfellwithinthescopeoftheCommission’sjus in bello liabilityfindings .In�iewoftheimpos-sibilityinascertainingthecauseofmuchoftheclaimeddamage,theCommis-sioncannotassumethatitwascausedbyactionsforwhichEritreawasliableunderthejus in bello.Inthisregard,wheretheliabilitye�idencedidindicateacauseforparticulardamage,itgenerallyreferredtoshellingdamage .Gi�enthelackofspecificityinEthiopia’se�idence,andtheabsenceofliabilityforpropertydestructionontheWesternFront,Ethiopia’sclaimsforjus in bello propertydamagefailonallthreefronts .

173 . Thislea�esEthiopia’sclaimsforjus in bello damageresultingfromlooting .AsexplainedinmoredetailinSectionXIonjus ad bellum compensa-tion,thee�identiaryinconsistenciesandlackofdetailinthedamagesphasee�idencefortheseclaimsrequiredtheCommissiontorelyonliabilityphasee�idencetocorroborateclaimsofdamagetoparticularstructures .Becausethedamagesphasee�idenceoflootingalsoincludedpurchaseordersfornewitemswithoutfurthercorroborationofactuallooting,theCommissionreferredtotheliabilityphasee�idencetodeterminewhethercompensationwasappropri-ateforlossesclaimedtoresultfromlooting .

174 . Duringtheliabilityphaseproceedings,Ethiopiasubmittedexten-si�ee�idencerelatedtolootingofci�ilianproperty,churches,healthinstitu-tionsandeducationalinstitutions .Withrespecttothepublicbuildingsandinfrastructureaddressedhere,howe�er,thedeclarationssubmittedtoshowlootingdamageweregenerallynotspecificinidentifyingspecificlootedprop-ertiesand/ortheir�alue .AlthoughtheCommissionestablishedliabilityfortheseclaimsintheearlierproceedings, itcannotderi�efiguresfor lootingdamagewithoute�idence .

175 . Someofthematerialssubmittedattheliabilityphase,howe�er,pro�ided sufficient information upon which the Commission can base anawardofcompensationforlootingtopublicbuildingsandinfrastructureontheCentralandWesternFronts .

176 . OntheCentralFront,Ethiopia’sliabilityphasefilingsincludedaDecember2000reportoftheTigrayRegionalStateHealthDepartmentoftheEasternZonecataloguinglootingtohealthinstitutionsforwhichEritreawasfoundtobeliableinIrobWereda .Thisreportcrediblyitemizedandpro�idedamountsforpropertieslootedintheamountof1,148,160birr .AJune1999DamageAssessmentReportoftheTigrayBureauofRegionalPlanningandEconomicDe�elopmentalsonotedthatmaterialstobeusedforawaterpumpinAlitena,inthe�alueof132,000birr,werelootedduringthewar .ASeptem-ber2000ReportofDamagesSustainedbyEducationalEstablishmentsoftheTigrayRegionalBureauofEducationseparatelyidentified1,040birrforloot-ingattheAdiFitawSchoolinthiswereda(butthatreportdidnototherwisepro�ideasufficientbasisseparatelytoidentifyanyotherlootedproperties) .

Consequently, theCommissionfindsadequatee�identiarysupport for thedollarequi�alentof1,281,200birrincompensationforthelootingofpublicbuildingsandinfrastructureontheCentralFront .

177 . OntheWesternFront, theTigrayRegionalBureauofPlanningandEconomicDe�elopmentnotedinitsJune1999reportthatawatersup-plyfacilityinBadmewaslootedofpropertyinthe�alueof256,000birrandanotherwatersupplyfacilityinSheraroTownwasburned,causinglossesof125,000birr .TheCommissionfindsadequatee�identiarysupportfor381,000birrincompensationforthelootingofpublicbuildingsandinfrastructureontheWesternFront .

178 . OntheEasternFront,Ethiopiapro�idedcrediblewitnesstestimo-nyindicatingthatEritreansoldierssetfiretoaschool,�aluedat436,355Birr,andahealthclinic,�aluedat413,340birr,inBada-AdiMurug .TheCommis-sionfindsadequatee�identiarysupportfor849,695birrindamagefortheseinstitutions .

179 . The total amount awarded for Ethiopia’s jus in bello actualamountclaimstopublicbuildingsandinfrastructureonallthreefrontsisUS$315,000 .

2. Religious Institutions

180 . EthiopiaclaimedUS$9,238,669incompensationformaterialdam-agesresultingfromEritrea’slooting,destructionanddamageto“atleast”164churches,monasteries,mosques,church-runclinicsandparochialschoolsintheregionsofTigrayandAfar .Ethiopiapleadedthatitisentitledtocompensa-tionundereithertheCommission’sjus in bello orjus ad bellum findings,butdidnotspecifytheliabilitybasisforitsclaimsinspecificinstances .Eritrea’sjus in bello claimforcompensationfordamagetoreligiousinstitutionswasgener-allybasedontheCommission’sfindingsofpropertydestructionand/orloot-ingonallthreefronts .Thejus ad bellum componentofthisclaimisaddressedinSectionXIofthisAward .

181 . Attheliabilityphase,Ethiopiasubmittedtestimonyregardingthelootinganddestructionofreligiousinstitutionsonallthreefronts,portray-ingaseriousdisregardofthesanctityofthoseinstitutionsbyEritreanforces .Credibletestimonyindicatedthatmanychurcheshadbeenransacked,des-ecrated,destroyedandusedfor�ariouspurposesotherthanworship .E�idenceofsuchreprehensibleconductcomprisedacomponentoftheCommission’sfindingsonlootingandpropertydestructionatthatstageoftheproceedings .TheCommissionismindfulofthecentralroleofreligiousinstitutionsinthelifeofEthiopiansandrecognizestheconcernanddistressmanycongrega-tionsexperiencedfromthedamageanddesecrationoftheirplacesofworship .TheCommissionhassoughttoaccountfortheseriousnessofthisharminitsassessmentofcompensationforthisclaim .

182 . Thee�idencesubmittedatthedamagesphasetosupportthisclaimconsistedgenerallyofreportsfromOrthodoxandCatholicdiocesanauthori-ties,aswellaslettersandclaimsformssubmittedbypriestsorotherofficialsofindi�idualOrthodoxandCatholicchurches,charitiesandotherreligiousinstitutionsregardingdamagedandlootedproperties .

183 . Thenatureofthee�idence�ariedwidelyfromclaimtoclaim .Someofthelocalreportswereaccompaniedbyoathsfromchurchofficialsattestingtodamageandamounts,somecontainednosupportingdocumentation,andsomecontainedlettersfromchurchofficialsthatpro�idedin�oicesandpay-ment�ouchersshowingthepurchaseofnewitemsorconstruction .Insomeinstances,Ethiopiacitedtothedeclarationsoflocalreligiousfiguressubmittedattheliabilityphasetocorroboratereportsoflocalofficialsthatcontainednosupportingdocuments .Ethiopiaindicatedatthedamageshearingsthatithadsubmittedallclaimsfordamagetoreligiousinstitutionsthatappearedtobereasonable,buthadnototherwisesoughtto�erifytheextentoramountofthedamagesclaimed .

184 . Eritreaarguedthatshellingcausedmuchoftheclaimeddamage,soitwasnotcompensableundertheCommission’sjus in bello findings .Eri-treafurtherarguedthatlargeportionsoftheEthiopiane�idenceconcernedareasthatwerenotoccupiedbyEritreaduringthewarandthereforepro�idednobasisforliability .EritreaallegedthatEthiopia’se�idencedidnotpro�ideenoughinformationand/orcorroborationtodeterminethatdamageactuallyoccurred,particularlywherenewconstructioncontractsandpurchasein�oic-eswereusedase�idence .EritreanotedinthisregardthatEthiopiaundertooknoeffortsindependentlyto�erifytheamountscitedinthereportsoflocalofficials .

185 . On theCentralFront, theCommission foundEritrea liable forwidespreadlootingandpropertydestructioninoccupiedareasoftheIrob,AhferomandMerebLekheWeredas,andforfrequentlootingandpropertydestruction inGulomakhedaWereda .During the liabilityphase,Ethiopiapro�idedextensi�ewitnesstestimonyoflootinganddestructionofreligiousinstitutionsinIrob,AhferomandGulomakhedaWeredas,indicatingasignifi-cantlossof�aluablereligiousarticles,damagetochurchesusedbyEritreanforcesfor�ariousacti�ities,anddestructionofmanyoftheseinstitutions .InMerebLekhe,incomparison,Ethiopiadidnotpro�idespecifice�idenceofdamagetoandlootingofreligiousinstitutionsattheliabilityphase .

186 . OntheWesternFront,theCommissionfoundEritrealiableforpermittingthelootingofpropertyintheTahtayAdiabo,LaelayAdiaboandKaftaHumeraWeredas .Thee�idenceEthiopiapresentedattheliabilityphaseregardingLaelayAdiaboandKaftaHumeraWeredasemphasizedlootingofli�estock,while,intheTahtayAdiaboWereda,Ethiopiapresentedlimitede�i-denceoflootinganddamagetoreligiousinstitutions .

187 . OntheEasternFront,Eritreawasfoundliableforpermittingthelootinganddestructionofproperty inoccupiedareasofDalulandElidar

Weredas .Theliabilityphasee�idenceinthoseweredasalsoemphasizedloot-ingofli�estock .Noe�idencewasputforwardforthelootingofreligiousinsti-tutionsontheEasternFrontattheliabilityphase .

188 . With regard to the assessment of the �alues of religious itemsdestroyedor looted thatmayha�euniquecultural�alue, theCommissiongenerallyacceptsthatthereligiousofficialswhoattestedtothe�aluesoftheseitemswouldbebestpositionedtomakethose�aluations .

189 . On the Central Front, Ethiopia claimed US$5,229,389 in com-pensationforlooting,destructionanddamagetoreligiousinstitutions .TheliabilityphasetestimonypresentedfortheCentralFront,inparticularintheIrob,AhferomandGulomakhedaWeredas,con�eyedaseriousdisregardforthesanctityofreligiousinstitutions,manyofwhichwereusedbyEritreansoldiersduringthewarfor�ariouspurposesorotherwisedamaged,lootedordesecrated .

190 . Thee�idencepresentedinsupportofEthiopia’sdamagesclaimsforthesethreeweredasincludedliabilityphasedeclarations,acollectionofreportsfromtheEthiopianOrthodoxChurchinAhferomcontainingindi-�iduallyswornaccountsofdamagetoparticularchurches,andareportoftheEasternTigrayDiocesefordamageinIrob .Additionalreportssubmittedatthedamagesphasefortheseweredasweregenerallysupportedbytheliabilityphasetestimony;swornstatementsfromlocalreligiousofficialsattachedtothereportspro�idedfurthercorroborati�esupport .

191 . TheCommissionfoundEritrealiableforfrequent(asopposedtowidespread)lootinganddestructionofpropertyinGulomakhedaWereda .Thedamagese�idencepresentedforthatweredaduplicatedthatproducedattheliabilityphase,whichtheCommissionfoundtobecrediblee�idenceoffrequentlootingandpropertydestructionatthatphaseoftheproceedings .Ethiopiasubmittedthoroughlydocumentedreportsofextensi�edamagetoCatholicchurchesinGulomakhedaandIrobWeredaspreparedbytheAdi-gratDioceseCatholicSecretariat,includingstatementsfromlocalofficialsastothecauseofdamageanddocumentationoflossassociatedwithmo�eableandimmo�eableproperty .TheCommissionfindsthesematerialstobecred-ibleandawardssuchdamagesthatarecompensableunder�iolationsofthejus in bello.

192 . InMarebLekheWereda,EthiopiareliedonacollectionofreportssubmittedatthedamagesphasefromtheEthiopianOrthodoxChurch,whichwereswornbylocalchurchofficialsattestingtodamageandlootingcausedtotwochurches .TheCommissionfindstheswornreportsofthoselocalofficialstobegenerallycredible .

193 . Someofthee�idenceonwhichtheCommissionreliesforassessingcompensationontheCentralFrontindicatedthatclaimeddamagewascausedbyshellingorpro�idednobasistodeterminethecauseofdamage .Consider-ingthatshellingisnotcompensableundertheCommission’sjus in bello find-

ings,theCommissionhassegregatedthoseinstancesforseparatetreatmentunderthejus ad bellum inSectionXIofthisAward .Inconsiderationofallofthea�ailablee�idenceandtheseriousnessofthe�iolationsin�ol�ed,theCom-missionawardsEthiopiaUS$4,000,000incompensationfordamagecausedtoreligiousinstitutionsontheCentralFront .

194 . OntheWesternFront,EthiopiaclaimedUS$3,956,528incompen-sationforlooting,destructionanddamagetoreligiousinstitutionsinTahtayAdiaboandKaftaHumeraWeredas .

195 . InKaftaHumera,EthiopiaofferedareportoftheHumeraDio-ceseitemizinglossesassociatedwiththelootingof�ariouschurchesandotherdamageforwhichthecausewasunclear .TheCommissionacceptsthee�idenceoflootingforthepurposeofassessingjus inbello compensationinthisclaim,yetnotesthatEritreawasnotfoundliableunderthejus in bello forpropertydamageontheWesternFrontandwillthereforetreate�idenceofsuchdam-ageseparatelyunderthejus ad bellum.Ethiopiasubmittedfurthere�idenceofdamagetotheHumeraMosque,whichwillalsobere�iewedseparatelyunderthejus ad bellum componentofthisclaim .

196 . InTahtayAdiabo,Ethiopiareliedona letteroftheManageroftheNorthwesternZoneofTigrayDioceseof theOrthodoxChurch listingdestroyedanddamagedchurchproperties .Thisletterwasnotaccompaniedbyswornreportsoflocalofficials,howe�er .Insomeinstances,theclaimeddam-agewascorroboratedbyliabilityphasedeclarations .Thecauseofthedamageinthoseinstanceswasunclear,howe�er,andwillthereforebetreatedinthejus ad bellum componentofthisclaim .Inconsiderationofallofthea�ail-ablee�idenceandtheseriousnessofthe�iolationsin�ol�ed,theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$475,000incompensationfordamagecausedtoreligiousinstitutionsontheWesternFront .

197 . OntheEasternFront,EthiopiaclaimedUS$52,752incompensa-tionforlooting,destructionanddamagetoreligiousinstitutionsintheweredaofElidar .Ethiopia’se�idenceconsistedofareportoftheAfarDioceseSecretar-iatthatsummarizeditsin�estigationintowardamageandpro�ideddetailedreportsofdamageandlootingtochurchesintheregion .Ethiopia’sliabilityphasee�idencealsoincludedwitnessdeclarationsregardingthedestructionofse�eralmosques,althoughtheseinstitutionswerenotspecificallyidentifiedinEthiopia’sdamagescalculations .Thecauseofdamagetothosemosquesfurthermore remained unclear . In consideration of the a�ailable e�idenceandthese�erityofthe�iolationsin�ol�ed,theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$25,000incompensationfordamagecausedtoreligiousinstitutionsontheEasternFront .

198 . TheCommissionawardsatotalofUS$4,500,000incompensationformaterialdamagestoreligiousinstitutionsonallthreefrontsunderjus in bello liability .

3. Saba Marbles Quarry

199 . EthiopiasoughtUS$3,252,961forlootedequipmentandtwoyears’lostprofitsonaccountofSabaDimensionalStonesShareCompany(“SabaMarbles”),whichhadalargemarblequarryandassociatedcamplocatedinthe�icinityofDichinamainTahtayAdiaboWereda .Theclaimisbasedonalle-gationsoflootinginTahtayAdiaboWereda,anareawheretheCommissionfoundEritrealiableforpermittinglooting .Astheclaimfallswithinthescopeofafindingofjus in bello liability,theCommissionwillconsiderithere .

200 . ThequarryandcampwereinanareaenteredandoccupiedbyEri-treanforcessoonaftertheirattackonBadmeinMay2008 .Eritrea’se�idencerecognizedthatEritreanforcestookthequarry;thestatementofanEritreanofficerinEritrea’sDamagesGroupOneCounter-Memoriale�idencereferredtoa“[m]arblefactorytakenbyourside”intherele�antarea .Thebulkoftheclaim,US$3,005,264,wasforlootedmachineryandequipment .Ethiopiaalsosoughtapproximately3 .5millionbirrforlostprofitsbetween1998and2000,and1 .7millionbirrforsalarypaymentsmadetoretainskilledworkersfromMay1998toSeptember1999 .

201 . Theclaimidentifiedthemachineryandequipmentallegedlyloot-ed,andwassupportedbyawitnessdeclarationfromtheSabaMarblesGeneralManagerandsubstantialdocumentationastotheexistenceand�alueofthelostmachineryandequipment .Thee�idencealsoincludeddeclarationsbyfourcompanyemployeesdescribinghowinMay1998theywitnessedEritreanforcesarri�ingatthequarryanditsassociatedcamp,andlaterlootinghea�ymachinery,equipment,partsandpersonalproperty .ThesewitnessesdescribedEritreantroopsremo�ingbulldozers,exca�ators,trucks,generators,compres-sors,drillsandothertypesofequipmentusedinquarrying .Theirstatementswereconsistentwitheachotherandwiththedocumentarye�idenceregardingtheequipmentatthequarry .

202 . InitsStatementofDefenseattheliabilityphase,Eritreaassertedthat thequarrywas locatedon the front lines,and thatanydamage therewas“incidentalwardamage”andnotcompensable .Eritreafurtherallegedthat“theDichinamamarblequarryisinEritrea,notinEthiopia,”andthat“[d]amagesufferedatDichinamaisdamagetotheEritreaneconomy,nottotheEthiopianeconomy .”Eritreasubmittednoe�idencetosupportthesecon-tentions .TheCommissionsoughttoclarifytheexactlocationofthequarryduringthehearings,buttheissuewasnotresol�ed .Inanye�ent,theclaimatissuewasforlootingofequipmentandlossesstemmingfromtheinterruptionofthequarryingbusinessinanareapre�iouslyunderpeacefuladministra-tionbyEthiopia .Forthesepurposes,regardlessofwhetherthequarrywasinEritreaorEthiopia,itwasnotlawfulforEritreantroopstoseizethecompany’sequipmentandotherpropertyandremo�eitbyforceinthemannerdescribedbythewitnesses .

203 . TheCommissionconcludesthatthee�idencesupportsEthiopia’sclaimfortwel�ecategoriesoflootedmachineryandequipmentinthetotalamountofUS$2,882,285(applyingtheMay12,1998U .S .dollarexchangeratespro�idedbyEthiopiaforthein�oicedItalian,BelgianandSwedishcurrencies) .TheCommissiondisallowstheclaimfornineallegedlylootedtankersandrelatedsparepartsworth844,435birrasunsupportedbythee�idence .

204 . TurningnexttoEthiopia’slostprofitsclaim,theCommissionissatisfiedfromtherecordintheliabilityphaseandthedeclarationoftheGen-eralManagerthatSabaMarblesdidloseprofitsfromMay1998untilsomepointin2000 .Itisreasonablethat,asrecountedbytheGeneralManager,thecompanyhadtoclearlandminesafterOperationSunsetinFebruary1999andsocouldnotresumequarryingoperationsuntilSeptember1999,afterwhichproductionwaslimitedbecauseofthelackofequipmentcausedbythelooting .Howe�er,thee�idenceofferedtosupportthequantumofthoselostprofitswassparse .InadditiontotheGeneralManager’sdeclaration,itconsistedofaone-pageProductionPlanfor1989–1992E .C .andin�oicesshowingasalepriceformarbleof3,322birrpercubicmeter .AlthoughtheProductionPlanindicatedananticipated10%growthinproductioneachyear,andtheGeneralManagerstatedthatSabaMarbleshadenjoyeda25%profitratepriortothewar,therewasnodocumentarysupportforthesefigures .Onbalance,theCommissionhasdeterminedtomeasurelostprofitsagainsttheactualpre-warannualpro-duction,whichwas1,684cubicmetersofmarblein1989E .C .,andtoacceptthe25%profitrateinlightofanacti�epost-warconstructionmarket .Apply-ingthesecriteria,theCommissioncalculatesEthiopia’slostprofitsrelatedtoSabaMarblestoequalUS$333,446 .

205 . TheCommissiondeniesEthiopia’sclaimforsalarypaymentsmadefromMay1998toSeptember1999toretainskilledworkers,notforlackofmeritbutforfailureofproof .TheGeneralManagerattachedtohisdeclara-tiontwoundatedchartslistingthetotalsalarypaymentsallegedlymadepermonth,withreferencesto“Journal�oucherNo .”and“PaymentorderLettersNo .,”butwithoutanysupportingdocumentation .Thislea�estheCommissionwithnowayofassessinghowmanyworkersmayha�ebeenin�ol�edorthereasonablenessofsalaryamounts .

206 . TheCommissionawardsEthiopiaatotalamountofUS$3,216,000forEritrea’sillegalseizureandlootingofSabaMarbles .

X. ethiopia’s other Jus in Bello Compensation Claims

a. Prisoners of War

1. The Commission’s Liability Findings

207 . Eritreawas found liable for the following�iolationsof interna-tionallawcommittedbyitsmilitarypersonnelandotherofficialsoftheStateofEritrea:

1 . Forrefusingpermission,fromMay1998untilAugust2000,fortheICRCtosenddelegatesto�isitallplaceswhereEthiopianPOWsweredetained,toregisterthosePOWs,tointer�iewthemwithoutwitnesses,andtopro�idethemwithreliefandser�icescustomarilypro�ided;2 . ForfailingtoprotectEthiopianPOWsfrombeingkilledatcaptureoritsimmediateaftermath;3 . ForpermittingbeatingsorotherphysicalabuseofEthiopianPOWs,whichoccurredfrequentlyatcaptureoritsimmediateaftermath;4 . Fordepri�ingallEthiopianPOWsoffootwearduringlongwalksfromtheplaceofcapturetothefirstplaceofdetention;5 . ForpermittingitspersonneltothreatenandbeatEthiopianPOWsdur-inginterrogations,whichoccurredfrequentlyatcaptureoritsimmediateaftermath;6 . For the general confiscation of the personal property of EthiopianPOWs;7 . Forpermittingper�asi�eandcontinuousphysicalandmentalabuseofEthiopianPOWsinitscampsfromMay1998untilAugust2002;8 . ForseriouslyendangeringthehealthofEthiopianPOWsattheEmbaka-la,Digdigta,AfabetandNakfacampsbyfailingtopro�ideadequatehous-ing,sanitation,drinkingwater,bathingopportunitiesandfood;9 . Forfailingtopro�idethestandardofmedicalcarerequiredforEthio-pianPOWs,andforfailingtopro�iderequiredpre�enti�ecarebysegre-gatingprisonerswithinfectiousdiseasesandconductingregularphysicalexaminations,fromMay1998untilAugust2002;10 . ForsubjectingEthiopianPOWstounlawfulconditionsoflabor;11 . ForpermittingunnecessarysufferingofPOWsduringtransferbetweencamps;and12 . ForfailingtoallowtheEthiopianPOWsinitscampstocomplainabouttheirconditionsandtoseekredress,andfrequentlypunishingPOWswhoattemptedtocomplain .43

43 PartialAward,PrisonersofWar,Ethiopia’sClaim4BetweentheFederalDemo-craticRepublicofEthiopiaandtheStateofEritrea(July1,2003)[hereinafterPartialAwardinEthiopia’sPOWClaims],dispositif,SectionV .D .

208 . WhilebothPartiesrequestedfixed-sumdamagesascompensa-tionforcertain�iolationsofinternationalhumanitarianlawthattheCom-missionfoundduringtheliabilityphaseinrelationtoPOWs,theCommissionhasdecidedonadifferentmannerofassessingtheappropriatecompensation .Toaconsiderableextent,thisdecisionflowsfromtheCommission’sgeneralapproachtoitsdeterminationsofliability .TheCommissionseesitstasknotasbeingtodetermineliabilityforeachindi�idualincidentofillegalitysuggestedbythee�idence,butratherasbeingtodetermineliabilityforserious�iolationsofthelaw .Theseareusuallyillegalactsoromissionsthatwerefrequentorper�asi�eandconsequentlyaffectedsignificantnumbersof�ictims .

209 . TheclaimsbeforetheCommissionaretheclaimsoftheParties,not the claims of indi�idual �ictims . Particularly when deciding damagesowingforunlawfultreatmentofPOWs,thosedamagescanappropriatelybeassessedonlyfortheClaimantState,becausefixed-sumdamagesdesignedtobedistributedtoeachindi�idualwhowasaprisonerofwarwouldnotreflectthepropercompensationforthatindi�idual .DifferentPOWswereheldunderdifferentconditionsat�ariouscampsfor�ariousperiodsoftime .Somewereinjuredinthecamps,andsomediedofthoseinjuries .Otherswereaffectedad�erselyinotherwaysthat�ariedfromindi�idualtoindi�idual .WhiletheCommissionencourages theParties tocompensateappropriately the indi-�idual�ictimsofwarfare,itcalculatesthedamagesowedbyonePartytotheother,includingformistreatmentofPOWs,onthebasisofitse�aluationofthee�idencewithrespecttotheseriousnessoftheunlawfulactsoromissions,thetotalnumbersofprobable�ictimsofthoseunlawfulactsoromissions(wherethosenumberscanbeidentifiedwithreasonablecertainty)andtheextentoftheinjuryordamagesufferedbecauseofthoseunlawfulactsoromissions .

210 . SeriousnessoftheViolations. WhiledamagesmustbeawardedforallPOW�iolations,theCommissionfindsthat�iolations1,2,3,5,7and8(asquotedabo�efromthedispositif inthePartialAwardonliability)werethemostserious,andrequirethehea�iestdamages .Theseriousnessofthefirst�iolationflowsfromtheexperienceofmanywars,whichhasshownthatproperaccesstoPOWcampsbyICRCofficialsandbyrepresentati�esofPro-tectingPowers is themosteffecti�emeansofrestrainingabusesofPOWs .Theabsenceofanysuchexternalobser�ersmakessuchabusesmorelikely .TheseriousnessofkillingPOWsneedsnoexplanation,nordoespermittingfrequentbeatingsofPOWs .Such�iolationsoflaw,aswellasper�asi�eandcontinuousphysicalandmentalabuse,seriouslyandad�erselyaffectallPOWs,includingthosewhomayha�ehadthegoodfortunenotthemsel�estobe�ic-tims .AsnotedintheCommission’sPartialAwardonliability,theCommis-sionwasalsotroubledbye�idencethatEritreaunlawfullytreatedsomePOWsfromTigrayworsethanothers,andunlawfullytreatedcertainotherPOWs

asdeserterstowhomitga�efa�oredtreatment .44Failuretopro�ideadequatehousing,sanitation,drinkingwater,bathingopportunitiesandfoodatfourofthefi�ePOWcamps,therebyseriouslyendangeringthehealthofthePOWsheldinthosecamps,wasaserious�iolationthatad�erselyaffected�irtuallyallEthiopianPOWs .

211 . NumbersofVictims. ThetotalnumberofEthiopiansdetainedasPOWsduringthearmedconflictapproached1,100 .BetweenMay2000andthefinalrepatriationinAugust2002,1,017wereheldinEritrea’sNakfaCamp,butthee�idenceindicatesthat628werereleasedandrepatriatedbetweenDecem-ber2000andMarch2001 .TheotherswerenotreleasedandrepatriateduntilAugust,2002 .

212 . SeriousnessofInjuries. Thenatureofthemostserious�iolationswassuchthatseriousandlingeringphysicalandmentalinjurieswereine�i-table .TheCommissionalsonotedinitsPartialAwardonliabilitythatitwas“sadlyimpressed”bythehighnumber(saidtobeapproximatelyfifty)oftheEthiopianPOWswhodiedintheEritreanPOWcamps .45

213 . Award .Onthebasisof theabo�econsiderations, theCommis-sionawardsEthiopiaUS$7,500,000fortheunlawfultreatmentofEthiopianPOWs .

b. Treatment of ethiopian Civilians in eritrea

214 . In its Group Number Two damages claims, Ethiopia claimedUS$2,055,188,660inrespectof injuries, includingmoral injuries,allegedlyinflicteduponmore than120,000Ethiopianci�ilianspresent inEritreaatsometimeduringthewar .Aswithsomeofitsotherclaims,Ethiopiablendedtogetherclaimsbasedon�iolationsofthejus in bello andthejus adbellum.Thefollowingdiscussiontreatstheportionsofthisclaimin�ol�ingtheCom-mission’s jus in bello liabilityfindings .The jus ad bellum elementsaredis-cussedbelow,togetherwithEthiopia’sotherjus ad bellum claims .EarlierinthisAward,theCommissionhasdiscussedandrejectedEthiopia’sclaimsforlargeseparateawardsofmoraldamages .Ethiopia’sGroupNumberTwoclaimsforadditionalmoraldamageswillnotbefurtherconsideredhere .

215 . Ethiopia’sClaim5in�ol�edEritrea’streatmentofEthiopianci�ilianspresentinEritreaduringthewar .TheCommissionfoundEritrealiable:

Forthefollowing�iolationsofinternationallawin�ol�ingactsoromissionsbyitsci�ilianofficials,militarypersonnelorothersforwhoseconductitisresponsible:

44 Id.,para83 .45 Id.,para .110 .

1 . ForfailingtoensurethatEthiopiansinEritreawhowerenotindeten-tionwereprotectedagainstactsorthreatsof�iolencebyci�ilianandmili-tarypoliceandtheci�ilianpopulationasrequiredbyArticle27ofGene�aCon�entionIV;

2 . ForfailingtoensureEthiopianstherighttofindpaidemploymentonthesamebasisasnationalsaftertheJune2000Cease-FireAgreement,con-trarytoArticle39ofGene�aCon�entionIV;

3 . ForfailingtoensurethatEthiopianswereabletorecei�emedicaltreat-menttothesameextentasEritreannationalsasrequiredbyArticle38ofGene�aCon�entionIV;

4 . FordetainingEthiopiansinpolicestations,prisonsandjailswithoutclear legalbasis,withoutchargeor trialorminimumprocedural rights,includingthoseunderArticle75ofProtocolI,andforconcealingsomeoftheseEthiopiansfromtheICRCin�iolationofArticle143ofGene�aCon-�entionIV;

5 . ForpermittingEthiopianssodetainedtobesubjectedtophysicalandpsychologicalabuseandsubstandardli�ing,sanitaryandhealthconditionscontrarytoArticles27and37ofGene�aCon�entionIV;

6 . FordetainingEthiopiansatHawshaitecampinwesternEritreaduringandafterFebruary1999withoutlegaljustification,andforpermittingtheEthiopianssodetainedtobesubjectedtoinhumanetreatmentandtoinad-equatefood,sanitaryandhealthconditionscontrarytoArticle27and37ofGene�aCon�entionIV;

7 . Fordetainingse�eralthousandEthiopianci�iliansduringandafterMay2000withoutsufficientjustificationsatisfyingArticle42ofGene�aCon�en-tionIV;

8 . Forfailingtopro�idethesedetaineeshumanetreatmentandthemini-mumstandardsoffoodandaccommodationin�iolationofArticles27,89and90ofGene�aCon�entionIV;

9 . Forpermittingthesedetaineestobesubjectedtoactsof�iolenceandphysicalabusebycampguards,andinparticular,forpermittinguntrainedandundisciplinedcampguardstouseindiscriminateandexcessi�elethalforceagainstdetaineesatWi’adetentioncampinJuly2000,causingnumer-ousdeathsandseriousinjuries;

10 . Forexpellingse�eralthousandEthiopiansfromEritreadirectlyfromdetentioncamps,prisonsandjailsduringthesummerof2000undercondi-tionsthatdidnotallowthemtoprotecttheirpropertyorinterestsinErit-rea;

11 . ForfailingtoensurethesafeandhumanerepatriationofdepartingEthiopiansintransportsthatwerenotconductedorsuper�isedbytheICRC;and

12 . ForallowingtheseizureofpropertybelongingtoEthiopiansdepartingotherthanfromdetentioncamps,prisonsandjails,andotherwiseinterferingwiththeeffortsofsuchEthiopianstosecureordisposeoftheirproperty .46

216 . Ethiopia’sGroupNumberTwocompensationclaimsdidnotspecif-icallyaddresstheCommission’sliabilityfindings .EthiopiainsteadcontendedthattheCommission’sliabilityfindingsshowedEritrean�iolationsofinterna-tionallawtoha�ebeensoseriousandper�asi�eastoestablishthate�eryoneofthe120,000EthiopiansinEritreaexperiencedsome�iolation .Hence,Ethiopiaasserted,itshouldbeawardedadditionalcompensationinrespectofe�eryoneofthe120,000 .Ethiopiadidnotpresentnewe�idenceregardingthefrequencyorextentof�iolations,butitdidsubmitlistsofwitnessdeclarationspre�iouslyintheliabilityrecordsaidtoshowthese�erityandextentof�iolations .

217 . Ethiopiacalculateditsclaimsusinga�ariantoftheapproachusedinitsGroupNumberOneclaims .Itfirstdi�idedalloftheestimated120,000EthiopianslocatedinEritreawhenthewarbeganintothreecategories,contend-ingthatpersonsineachcategorysufferedbroadlysimilarle�elsofmistreat-mentwarrantingsimilarcompensation .Inde�isingitsthreecategories,EthiopianotedthattheCommission’sliabilityAwardindicatedthatthenatureandextentofEritrea’s�iolations�ariedo�ertime,withasignificantdeteriorationofEthio-pians’treatmentduringandafterEthiopia’sin�asionofEritreainMay2000 .

218 . Ethiopia’sfirstcategory(“CategoryI”),saidtocontain35,000per-sons,includedEthiopianswholeftEritreabeforeMay2000,includingsomedetainedunderabusi�econditionsattheHawshaitecampbeginninginFebru-ary1999 .(ThePartiesdisputethenumberdetainedatHawshaite .)Thesecondcategory(“CategoryII”),with69,700persons,includedallEthiopiansremain-inginEritreaasofMay2000,butwhowerenotdetainedinEritreandeten-tioncamps .Thethirdcategory(“CategoryIII”),of15,300persons,includedEthiopiansremaininginEritreaasofMay2000whoweredetainedinsuchcamps .Thesegroupswerethenfurtherdi�idedincalculatingEthiopia’sdam-agesclaims,reflectingdifferentdeparturedatesandother�ariablefactors .

219 . Forall threecategories,EthiopiaclaimeddamagesbasedonanestimateofthelifetimeearningsofEthiopiannationalsworkinginEritrea,hadtheyworkedtherealltheirli�esundisturbedbypoliticalchange,agingorothere�ents .Lifetimeearningswereestimatedthroughacomplexproc-ess .EthiopiafirstestimatedtheoccupationsofEthiopiansworkinginEritrea,basedonastatisticalsampleof384personsdrawnfrom30,073personslistedina“CompilationofEthiopianNationalsWhoSufferedLoss,Damage,or

46 PartialAward,Ci�iliansClaims,Ethiopia’sClaim5BetweentheFederalDemo-craticRepublicofEthiopiaandtheStateofEritrea(December17,2004)[hereinafterPar-tialAwardinEthiopia’sCi�iliansClaims],dispositif,SectionVIII .D .

InjuryUnderStatementofClaimNo .5”preparedbyEthiopia’sDisasterPre-�entionandPreparednessCommission(the“DPPCCompilation”) .The384indi�idualsinthesamplethenweregroupedintonineoccupationalgroups .Salariesforeachgroupwereobtainedfrom“aregionalgo�ernmentofficialfamiliarwiththeeconomicconditionsofEthiopiansli�inginEritreaduringthewar,”andfromEthiopiansli�inginEritreawhenwarbegan .

220 . Theensuingcalculationsproducedanestimatedweighteda�erageannualincomeofEthiopiansinEritreaofUS$1,684,se�eraltimesthecor-respondingfigureforEthiopiaandtheamountof�ariousestimatesofpercapitagrossdomesticproductinEritrea .Lifeexpectancieswerecalculatedbydeterminingthea�erageageofasampleofreturningEthiopians(28 .9years),andsubtractingthisfromthea�eragelifeexpectancyofpersonsofthatage(44 .3years),gi�ingaremaininglifeexpectancyof15 .4years .A�erageannualincomewasmultipliedbythatremaining lifeexpectancy,gi�ingprojectedlifetimeincomeofEthiopiansinEritreaofUS$25,934 .Thisamountwasnotreducedtopresent�alue,orotherwiseadjustedtoreflectfactorssuchastheeffectofagingonearningcapacity .AswithitsGroupNumberOnedamagesclaims,Ethiopiacontended that�ariouspercentagesof lost future incomereflectedthegra�ityandfrequencyofparticulartypesof�iolations .

221 . Ethiopia’s Category I Claims .EthiopiaclaimedUS$509,932,000withrespectto35,000personssaidtofallinCategoryI .ThisincludedUS$9,012,000inrespectof3,000personsheldforaperiodatHawshaitecampafterEthio-pia’ssuccessinOperationSunset,plusclaimsformaterialandmoraldamagesandforlostpropertyforthe35,000 .TheseequaledUS$14,312perindi�idual,includingUS$9,077 inmaterialdamages(lost income),US$4,114 inmoraldamages,andUS$1,121forlostproperty .Forthiscategory,Ethiopiasubmit-tedthat35%offutureearnings(US$9,077perperson)was“anappropriatedifferential .”Ethiopiaofferednonewe�idenceorstatisticalorotheranalysistosupporttheestimateof35% .

222 . Asindicatedabo�e,Ethiopia’sclaimsformoraldamagesasasepa-rateandadditionalelementoftheCommission’sdamagesAwardsha�ebeendismissedandwillnotbeconsideredfurther .TheclaimforUS$1,121percap-itaforpropertylosswasderi�edfromanotherstatisticalsampleofpropertylossesclaimedbypersonslistedintheDPPCCompilation .

223 . Ethiopia’s Category II Claims .EthiopiaclaimedUS$1,213,362,700foritsCategoryII .Thisgroupincludedanestimated69,700personsremain-inginEritreaasofMay2000,butwhowerenotdetainedinEritreandetentioncamps .Ethiopiadi�idedthiscategoryintosubgroups,becausesomeoftheCommission’sliabilityfindingsappliedonlytolimitedgroupsofpersonsoronlyduringMaythroughDecember2000(whichEthiopiaregardedastheendoftheCommission’sjurisdictionalperiod) .Ethiopiacontendedthate�erypersoninCategoryIIexperiencedoneormoreofthe�iolationsaffectingper-sonsinCategoryI,andwasalsoatriskofadditional�iolationsfoundbytheCommissionafterMay2000 .

224 . EthiopiaarguedthatpersonsinCategoryIIwereexposedtomoreegregious forms of Eritrean beha�ior and were at risk for a longer periodoftime,andhencethatpercapitacompensationle�elsshouldbeincreasedaccordingly .Ethiopiaclaimed45%ofprojectedlifetimeearningsasmaterialdamagesinrespectofeachof36,700peopleinonesubgroup(US$11,670perperson) .Itclaimed50%(US$12,967)withrespecttoeachof33,000peoplesaidtobeco�eredbytheCommission’sliabilityfindingregardingdeparturefromEritreaunderunsafeandinhumaneconditions .

225 . Ethiopiaagainsoughtlargemoraldamages;theseclaimsha�ebeendismissed .EthiopiaalsoclaimedUS$1,121percapitaforpropertylossforeachof31,200persons;thelowernumberreflectsthefactthatmanydepartures(andassociatedpropertylosses)occurredafterDecember2000 .

226 . Ethiopia’s Category III Claims . Finally, Ethiopia claimedUS$331,893,960 for Category III, in�ol�ing persons detained under harshconditionsinEritreandetentioncampsafterMay2000 .Ethiopiapre�iouslycontendedthattherewere7,000suchdetainees;itmaintainedatthisstagethatfurtheranalysisshowedthecorrectnumbertobe15,300 .Ethiopiaclaimeddifferentamountsforsub-groupswithinthiscategory,belie�ingthatforjuris-dictionalreasonsitcouldnotclaimforpropertylossesandpoorconditionsofdepartureforpersonswholeftafterDecember2000 .

227 . EthiopiacontendedthatpersonsinCategoryIIIexperiencedpar-ticularlyse�eresufferingandabuse,and itaccordinglysoughthigherper-centagesofprojectedlifetimeearningsandlargerdamagesformoralinjuryforthem .Bywayofillustration,EthiopiasoughtUS$21,824inrespectofthelossesofeachof13,800people(thelargestsinglegroupinCategoryIII) .ItalsosoughtadditionaldamagesforpersonskilledorinjuredbytheJulyshootingsatWi’acamp,andforpropertylosses .Italsosoughtsubstantialmoraldam-ages,claimsthatha�ebeendismissed .

228 . Eritrea�igorouslycontestedthesizeofEthiopia’sdamagesclaimandmuchofitsanalysis .Amongotherthings,EritreacontendedthatEthiopiamisconstruedordisregardedtheCommission’sliabilityfindings,andsoughtcompensationforthousandsofpeoplewholeftEritreaforreasonsforwhichEritreaisnotlegallyresponsible .ItmaintainedthatEthiopia’spercentagesofassumedlostfutureearningswerewhollyarbitraryandunpro�en,andcriti-cizedbasingtheclaimoninflatedhypotheticalannualearningsinEritrea .ItmaintainedthatEthiopia’se�idencedidnotpro�elossesofsalaryincomeofthemagnitudeasserted,andthatclaimsformsandothere�idencepre�iouslyfiledbyEthiopiashowedthatthesalaryle�elsofEthiopiansinEritreawerefarlowerthanEthiopiaclaimed .Eritreaalsourgedthate�idencepre�iouslyfiledbyEthiopiadidnotbearoutitspresentclaimsofwidespreadunemploymentordisabilityamongEthiopianswholeftEritrea .

229 . EritreadisputedinformationinthesampleEthiopiausedtodeter-minea�eragesalaryle�els,introducingEritreango�ernmentrecordsshowingincomesformanypersonsinthesamplethatweremuchlowerthanEthiopiaclaimed .EritreaalsocriticizedEthiopia’slistsofpre�iouswitnessdeclarationssaidtoshowthefrequencyofEritrea’s�iolations .ItcontendedthatEthiopiamischaracterizedmanyof thesedeclarations,andthat itcontinuedtorelyuponwitnesseswhohadbeenimpeachedduringtheearlierproceedings .Eri-treaalsoaccusedEthiopiaofextensi�edoublecounting,bothintheselistsandincalculatingitsdamagesclaims .

230 . EritreaquestionedEthiopia’sdoublingofthenumberofci�iliansallegedlyheldinEritreandetentioncamps,andrespondedinconsiderabledetailtoEthiopia’sclaimsfordamagesforpersonswholeftEritreaafterMay2000ingo�ernmenttransports .Eritreamaintainedthatthee�idenceshowedthattheICRCplayedasignificantroleinmostdepartures,andthatonlyafewpeopleleftwithoutICRCin�ol�ement .

4. The Commission’s Conclusions: Introductory Comments

231 . TheCommissionunderstandsthelogicofthemannerinwhichEthiopiaorganizeditsGroupNumberTwodamagesclaims .Ne�ertheless,thisapproachhascreateddifficulties for theCommission .TheclaimswerenotdirectlyrelatedtotheCommission’sactualjus in bello liabilityfindings .Keyestimatesregardingthefrequencyof�iolationsandthenumbersof�ictimswerenotconnectedtothee�idence .Jus in bello andjus ad bellum elementswerewo�entogether .Damageswerecalculatedusingtechniquesthatdidnotappearappropriateinthecircumstances .

232 . AswithsomeofEthiopia’sGroupNumberOnedamagesclaims,theCommissiondoesnotaccepttheuseofpercentagesofprojectedlifetimeearnings inEritreaas thebasis fordeterminingcompensation .Itdoesnotbelie�ethesepro�ideanappropriatereference,absente�idenceofpermanentorlong-lastinglossorimpairmentofindi�iduals’physicalorpsychologicalabilities . Moreo�er, if projected earnings were to be used, the benchmarkwouldha�etobepotentialearnings inEthiopia,not inEritrea .Indi�idualEthiopiansworkinginEritreadidnotha�etheassuredlegalrighttoremainthere permanently, and there was insufficient basis for Ethiopia’s seemingpremisethat“butfor”thewar,theywouldha�edoneso .TheCommissionalsodoubtsthehugedifferentialEthiopiaportrayedbetweenEthiopians’earningsinEritreaandtheirearningsinEthiopia .TheCommissionfoundinitsPartialAwardinEthiopia’sCi�iliansClaimsthatmanyEthiopiansinEritrea“hadlimitedfinancialresourcesandheldlowpayingjobs .”47Ethiopia’se�idenceattheliabilityphasealsosuggestedadifferentpicture .A2002UNreportintherecordindicatedthatmostreturneesfromEritreawerepersonswithrelati�ely

47 Id.,para .11 .

lowle�elsofeducationandskills .Further,theclaimedamountswerenotdis-countedtopresent�alue,orotherwiseadjustedtoreflectfactorssuchasagingthatmayaffectearnings .

233 . Gi�enthelackofclearcorrelationbetweense�eralofEthiopia’sdamagesclaimsandtheCommission’sspecificliabilityfindings,andthelackof persuasi�e e�idence regarding the claimed frequency of �iolations, theCommission’sanalysisdoesnotmirrorEthiopia’spresentationofitsclaims .TheCommissionhasinsteadsoughttoassessdamagesduewithintheframe-workofitsactualliabilityfindingsandonthebasisofthee�idencepre�iouslyintherecord .

234 . ThisassessmentmusttakeaccountofthenumberofEthiopiansinEritreapotentiallyaffectedbyEritrean�iolations .InitsPartialAwardinEthiopia’sCi�iliansClaims,theCommissionestimatedapre-warEthiopianpopulationinEritreaintheorderof110,000–120,000 .48TheCommissionesti-matedthatbetween20,000and25,000EthiopiansleftEritreainthesummerandfallof1998,soonafterthewarbegan .49Indeed,therecordincludedmul-tiplereportssuggestingthatthenumberlea�ingduringthisearlyperiodmayha�ebeencloserto30,000 .

235 . SomeEthiopianslea�ingEritreaduringtheearlymonthsofthewardoubtless suffereddifficultyanddiscomfort,but thee�idencedidnotindicatefrequentabuseofthekindsidentifiedintheCommission’sliabilityfindingsduringthisperiod .Thus,approximately25,000personswholeftearlyinthewarshouldbesubtractedfromtherele�antpopulation .TheCommis-sionalsofoundthat“perhaps5,000EthiopiansleftEritreaduring1999,”50fur-therreducingthenumberpotentiallyexposedtothesignificant�iolationstheCommissionidentifiedinthefinalstagesofthewaranditsaftermath .

236 . TheCommissionfoundEritrealiableforanumberof�iolationsofthejus in bello,of�aryinggra�ityandextent .Insomecases,itwaspossiblefromtherecordtodeterminewithreasonablecertaintytheprobablenumberof�ictims,pro�idinganimportantreferencepointinassessingthecompensa-tiondue .Inothercases,thee�idencedidnotsupportsuchquantification .

237 . FailuretoProtectFromThreatsandViolence. TheCommissionfirstfoundEritrealiable“forfailingtoensurethatEthiopiansinEritreawhowerenot indetentionwereprotectedagainstactsor threatsof�iolencebyci�ilianandmilitarypoliceandtheci�ilianpopulationasrequiredbyArti-cle27ofGene�aCon�entionIV .”AsindicatedintheCommission’sPartialAward,theliabilityphasee�idenceincludednumerousaccountsdescribing

48 Id.,para .6 .49 Id.,para .7 .50 Id.

suchacts .51 Indeed,a fewdeclarationsallegedmurdersandotherextreme�iolenceagainstEthiopianci�ilians,althoughthesewereuncorroboratedandphrasedinwaysthatledtheCommissionnottogi�ethemmuchweight .Erit-reapresentedrebuttale�idenceshowingthatsomeoftheseaccountsin�ol�edbarroombrawlsorlegitimatelawenforcementactions,butthiswasnotsuf-ficienttoalterthecumulati�epicture .

238 . It is apparent fromthe record thatmany threatsweredirectedagainstEthiopians,andthatthreatssometimesturnedtoofficialorpri�ate�iolence .Conditionsworsenedasthewarprogressed,leadingtoawidespreadclimateofanxietyandfearamongEthiopiansinEritrea .Thiswasaseriousmatter,butitwasnotpossibletodetermineaccuratelythenumberofincidentsorthenumberofEthiopiansaffected .ThesizeoftheEthiopianpopulationinEritreaofferedonereferencepoint,particularlythemalepopulationwhoappearedtoha�ebeentheprincipaltargetsofseriousabuseonthestreets .Takingaccountoffactorssuchasthesizeofthe�ulnerablepopulationandthenumberofaccountsallegingthreatsor�iolence,theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$2,000,000 for failure toprotectEthiopianci�ilians inEritreafromthreatsand�iolence .

239 . FailuretoEnsureAccesstoEmployment . TheCommissionfoundEritrealiable“[f]orfailingtoensureEthiopianstherighttofindpaidemploy-mentonthesamebasisasnationalsaftertheJune2000Cease-FireAgree-ment,contrarytoArticle39ofGene�aCon�entionIV .”ThisfindingwasbasedupontheCommission’sassessmentofthetotalityofthecircumstancesaftertheceasefire,“includingthewidespreaddischargeofEthiopiansbypublicandpri�ateemployers,theirejectionfrompublichousingandthewidespreadifnottotalterminationofEthiopians’businesslicenses .”52

240 . Thee�idencedidnotclearlyshowhowmanypersonslostorcouldnotobtainemploymentonaccountofconductattributable totheGo�ern-mentofEritrea,althoughmanypeopleapparentlywereaffected .Analysiswasfurthercomplicatedbecausetheperiodco�eredbythisfindingwasatimeofeconomicandsocialturmoilinEritreaafterEthiopia’sin�asioninMayandJune2000,affectingbothEritreansandEthiopians .And,whilemanyEthio-piansmayha�ejoinedthepost-warexodusfromEritreabecausetheywereunemployed,othersleftforotherreasons .

241 . Inassessingtheextentofdamages,theCommissionhastakenasonereferencepointtheearningsthatindi�idualsmightha�elostinEthio-piaonaccountofbecomingunemployedinEritreaandha�ingtoreturntoEthiopia .IthasalsotakenintoaccountthatmanyEthiopiansinEritreawereemployedincasualoragriculturallabor,asdomestics,orinotherlowpay-ingjobs .Takingaccountoftheseandothercircumstances,theCommission

51 Id.,paras .40–43 .52 Id.,para .52 .

awardsEthiopiaUS$1,500,000forfailuretoensureEthiopianci�iliansinEri-treaaccesstoemployment .

242 . AccesstoMedicalCare. TheCommissionfoundEritrealiable“forfailingtoensurethatEthiopianswereabletorecei�emedicaltreatmenttothesameextentasEritreannationalsasrequiredbyArticle38ofGene�aCon�en-tionIV .”Thisfindingwasbasedonalimitedamountofe�idenceindicatingthatpublichospitals,particularly inAsmarawheremostEthiopians li�ed,“often”or“byandlarge”refusedtotreatEthiopians .Se�eralwitnessdeclara-tionsindicatedthatmedicalcarewasa�ailabletoEthiopiansthroughpri�ateclinicsandphysicians,butthatithadtobepaidfor .Somedeclarantsdidnotclaimtoha�ebeendeniedcareinpublichospitals,insteadindicatingtheydidnotseekcareinthebeliefitwouldberefused .Otherdeclarationscomplainedaboutthepoorqualityofcare,notthatitwasuna�ailable .Therewasrebuttale�idenceshowingthatsomeEritreanhospitalsdidcareforsomeEthiopians .

243 . Thee�idencedidnotshowthatthis�iolationbyEritreaaffectedlargenumbersofpeopleorcausedwidespreadorsignificantinjury,andErit-rea’srebuttale�idencesuggestedthattherewasnotauniformgo�ernmentpol-icyofrefusingaccesstocare .Accordingly,theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$50,000forfailuretoensurethatEthiopianci�iliansinEritreahadequalaccesstomedicalcare .

244 . WrongfulDetentionandAbusi�eTreatmentWhileinCustody. TheCommissionfoundEritrealiablefor“detainingEthiopiansinpolicesta-tions,prisonsandjailswithoutclear legalbasis,withoutchargeortrialorminimumproceduralrights,”“forconcealingsomeoftheseEthiopiansfromtheICRC,”andforpermittingthosedetained“tobesubjectedtophysicalandpsychologicalabuseandsubstandardli�ing,sanitaryandhealthconditions .”

245 .TheCommissionfoundthat“anunknownbutappreciablenumberofEthiopianswasdetainedinEritreanprisonsandjailspriortoMay2000”incircumstancesco�eredbytheseliabilityfindings .53Thesewereserious�iola-tionsofhumanitarianlaw .TheCommissionwasparticularlyconcernedbythecredibleindicationsintherecordthatEthiopianauthoritiessometimesmo�edorhiddetaineestopre�entaccessbytheICRC .54Howe�er,thenumberofthese�iolationsagainwasunclear,andtherecordcontainedconflictingindications .AstheCommissionnotedinitsPartialAward,approximately15%ofEthio-pia’s402declarantsclaimedthattheyweredetained .Se�eralclaimedtheywereheldforlongperiodsonsuspicionsrelatedtosecurity .Former“Fighters”ormembersoftheTigrayanPeople’sLiberationFrontorTigrayanDe�elopmentAuthorityappearedtoha�ebeenparticularlyatriskofprotractedandharshdetentiononsecuritygrounds .55

53 Id.,para .75 .54 Id.,paras .74&75 .See also PartialAwardinEthiopia’sPOWClaims,paras .55–62 .55 PartialAwardinEthiopia’sCi�iliansClaims,para .74 .

246 . Howe�er, the U .S . Department of State’s 2001 Human RightsReport(co�eringthesensiti�eperiodin2000)tookacautiouspositionregard-ingthefrequencyofimproperorabusi�edetentions .Itconcludedthat“[a]nunknownbut believed to be small number ofEthiopians,particularlymen,arebelie�edtobeheldinpolicestations,prisons,andjailsinAsmaraandpossiblyinotherareas . . . .Internationalmonitorsha�eaccesstothemajorityofdetain-eesinpolicestationsandjails .”56Foritspart,Eritreacontendedthatdeten-tionswereforordinarycriminaloffensesorimmigration�iolations .Eritreapresentede�idencethattherewere3,000to4,000arrestsforimmigrationlaw�iolations,whichtheCommissionfounddidnot�iolateinternationallaw .57

247 . Takingaccountoftheseriousnessofthe�iolationsin�ol�ed,butalsooftheuncertaintiesregardingtheirfrequencyandextent,theCommis-sionawardsEthiopiathesumofUS$2,000,000forwrongfuldetentionandabusi�etreatmentofEthiopiansinEritreancustody .

248 . Hawshaite Camp . The Commission found Eritrea liable “fordetainingEthiopiansatHawshaitecampinwesternEritreaduringandafterFebruary1999withoutlegaljustification,andforpermittingtheEthiopianssodetainedtobesubjectedtoinhumanetreatmentandtoinadequatefood,sani-taryandhealthconditions .”TheCommissionnotedthatthee�idenceregard-ingdetentionsatHawshaite,while“notextensi�e,”establishedanunrebuttedprimafacie casethat“asignificantnumberofEthiopians”wasdetainedthereforse�eralmonthsduring1999 .58InthecaseofHawshaite,EthiopiaframeditsdamagesclaimonthebasisoftheCommission’sliabilityfinding,claimingUS$3,004per�ictim,consistingofUS$2,593formaterialdamagescalculatedonthebasisofpurportedlostearningsandUS$411foramoraldamagescom-ponent .EthiopiaclaimedatotalofUS$9,012,000forthe3,000detaineesitallegeswereatHawshaite .

249 . Inthedamagesproceedings,thePartiessharplydisagreedregard-ingthenumberofpersonsdetainedatHawshaite .Eritreacontendedthattherewerefarfewerthanthe3,000Ethiopiaallegedtobeheldthere .TherecordregardingHawshaite,whilesparse,wassufficienttoshowthataconsiderablenumberofpeoplewereheldthere,someforsubstantialperiods,under�erypoorandabusi�econditions .Takingaccountofthea�ailablee�idence,theCommissionawardscompensationintheamountofUS$1,500,000inrespectoftheharshtreatmentofdetaineesatHawshaite .

250 . DetentionsAfterMay2000 . TheCommissionmadese�eralrelatedliabilityfindingsin�ol�ingthedetentionoflargenumbersofEthiopianci�il-iansinEritreaunderharshconditionsduringandafterMay2000 .Itfound

56 CountryReportsonHumanRightsPracticesfor2001,Eritrea(U .S .DepartmentofState,Mar .4,2002),available at http://www .state .go�/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2001/af/8370 .htm(�isitedAug .14,2009) .(Emphasisadded .)

57 PartialAwardinEthiopia’sCi�iliansClaims,para .71 .58 Id.,para .78 .

Eritrealiable“fordetainingse�eralthousandEthiopianci�iliansduringandafterMay2000withoutsufficient justification,”andfor“failingtopro�idethesedetaineeshumanetreatmentandtheminimumstandardsoffoodandaccommodation .”ItalsofoundEritrealiable“forpermittingthesedetaineestobesubjectedtoactsof�iolenceandphysicalabusebycampguards,andinparticular,forpermittinguntrainedandundisciplinedcampguardstouseindiscriminateandexcessi�elethalforceagainstdetaineesatWi’adetentioncampinJuly2000,causingnumerousdeathsandseriousinjuries .”TheCom-missionaddressesitsfindingsrelatingtotheuseofforceatWi’acampsepa-ratelybelow .

251 . Inthecurrentproceedings,theprincipaldisagreementbetweenthePartiesin�ol�edthenumbersofEthiopianswhoweredetainedbyEritreadur-ingthisperiod .Attheliabilityphase,Ethiopiacontendedthatapproximately7,000Ethiopiansweredetained,andthisclaimwasnotedintheCommission’sPartialAward .59Howe�er,thePartialAwardalsocitedICRCreportsreferringtosmallernumbersofEthiopianci�iliansheldincamps(althoughitwasnotcleariftheICRC�isitedallofthelocationswheredetaineeswereheld),aswellasaU .S .StateDepartmentreportcitingarangeof10,000to20,000personsin�aryingformsofconfinementorrestraint .60

252 . At the damages phase, Ethiopia contended that further studyshowedthattherewereapproximately15,000detainees,morethantwicethenumberpre�iouslyclaimed .Eritreadisputedthisclaim .

253 . TheCommission’sre�iewoftheconflictinge�idencesuggeststhatthenumberofdetaineesprobablywaslargerthanthe7,000citedbyEthiopiaattheliabilityphase,butwasnotaslargeasnowclaimed .(WhiletheCom-mission’sPartialAwardnotedEthiopia’sclaimthattherewere7,000detainees,itdidnotmakeafindingthatthiswasthenumber,andindeedcitedothere�idenceseeminglyinconsistentwiththatclaim .Accordingly,questionsofres judicata donotarise .)Thee�idencedidshowthatdetaineeswereheldunderharsh,impro�isedconditions,andoftenexperiencedbrutaltreatment .

254 . Takingaccountofthea�ailablee�idence,andoftheharshcondi-tionsunderwhichsignificantnumbersofEthiopiansweredetainedwithoutsufficientjustification,theCommissionawardscompensationofUS$10,000,000forthesedetentions .

255 . DeathsandInjuriesatWi’aCamp .TheCommissionfoundEritrealiableforpermittingdetainees“tobesubjectedtoactsof�iolenceandphysi-calabusebycampguards,andinparticular,forpermittinguntrainedandundisciplinedcampguardstouseindiscriminateandexcessi�elethalforceagainstdetainees atWi’adetentioncamp in July2000, causingnumerousdeathsandseriousinjuries .”Theawardofcompensationimmediatelyabo�etakesintoaccountthe�iolenceandabusedirectedagainstdetaineesbysome

59 Id.,para .100 .60 Id.

campguards .Howe�er, theCommissionwasparticularlyconcerned in itsliabilityfindingaboutaseriousshootingincidentattheWi’aCamponJuly11,2000,inwhichguardskilledatleastfifteendetaineesandinjuredatleastanothersixteen .Anadditionalawardisrequiredinrelationtothisincident .Inconsiderationofthatincidentandotherconditionsatthecamp,theCom-missionawardscompensationintheamountofUS$500,000fordeathsandinjuriesatWi’aCamp .

256 . Expelled Detainees’ Property . The Commission found Eritrealiable“forexpellingse�eralthousandEthiopiansfromEritreadirectlyfromdetentioncamps,prisonsandjailsduringthesummerof2000undercondi-tionsthatdidnotallowthemtoprotecttheirpropertyorinterestsinEritrea .”Therecordindicatedthatmost,ifnot�irtuallyall,oftheEthiopiansdetainedduringandafterMay2000weredirectlyexpelledtoEthiopiafromtheplaceswheretheywereheld .Ethiopiacontendedthatthesedetaineesona�eragesuf-feredpropertylossesitcon�ertedtoequalUS$1,121perperson,basedonastatisticalsampleofpropertylossesclaimedbypersonsreturningtoEthiopialistedintheDPPCCompilation .

257 . TheCommissionquestionswhetherthissur�eyofferedareliableguidetothetrueamountofpropertylossesexperiencedbyexpelleddetainees .Theclaimedamountappearsexcessi�e,gi�entheeconomicpositionofmostEthiopiansinEritrea,andisinconsistentwithotherindicationsintherecord .Forexample,aJune1999damageassessmentreportbytheGo�ernmentofTigraysubmittedbyEthiopiaintheearlierproceedingsindicatedthat14,600personswhohadleftEritreaandresettledinTigrayasofMay1999claimedtoha�elostpropertyestimatedat34,000,000birr .Thisself-appraisaloflossesequaledabout2,330birrpercapita,roughlyUS$290atanexchangerateofbirr8:US$1 .Thisfigure(whileperhapshigh,asself-appraisalsoflossesoftenare)seemedamorereliablepointofreference .

258 . Basedonitsre�iewofalimitedrecord,theCommissionawardsEthiopia the sumofUS$2,000,000 fornotprotectingexpelleddetainees’property .

259 . OtherDepartingEthiopians’Property .TheCommission foundEritrealiablefor“allowingtheseizureofpropertybelongingtoEthiopiansdepartingotherthanfromdetentioncamps,prisonsandjails,andotherwiseinterferingwiththeeffortsofsuchEthiopianstosecureordisposeoftheirproperty .”EthiopiaagaincalculateditsclaimbasedonanassumedlossofUS$1,121worthofpropertypercapita,asderi�edfromtheDPPCCompilation .Ethiopiaclaimedthisamountinrespectofe�eryEthiopianadultandchildwholeftEritreaatanytimeduringtheCommission’sjurisdictionalperiod,includingthoselea�ingbeforeMay2000,contendingthattheCommission’sliabilityfindingregardinglossofdepartees’propertyappliedthroughoutthisperiod .Thisisnotcorrect .TheCommission’sfindingrelatedonlytoEthiopi-answhodepartedbetweenMay2000andtheendofDecember2000 .Thefind-ingwassetoutinaseparatesectionofthePartialAwardcaptioned“Claims

AfterMay2000,”andtherelateddiscussioninthetextofthePartialAwardclearlyconcernedonlye�entsduringandafterMay2000 .61

260 . Ethiopiapro�idednoadditionale�idencetosupportitsclaimthatEthiopianswholeftEritreaduringtherele�antperiodpossessedandlostsig-nificantamountsofproperty(althoughtherewase�idencethatmanyEthiopi-ansreturningtoEthiopiawerelargelydestituteandrequiredassistancefromreliefagencies) .Ethiopia’sclaimthattherewereextensi�elossesofpropertyfromactionsattributabletoEritreawasatoddswiththeobser�ationintheCommission’sPartialAwardthatdepartingEthiopianswhowerenotexpelledhadreasonableopportunitytoarrangetheiraffairspriortodeparture .62Ethio-pia’scontentionsregardingthenumbersaffectedwerealsounsustainable .Toassess thenumberofpersonswhopotentially lostproperty, it isnecessarytoexcludethosewholeftin1998,1999and2001 .ThosewhowereexpelleddirectlyfromEritreandetentioncampsalsomustbeexcluded,astheirprop-ertylossesareco�eredabo�e .TheCommissionalsomusttakeaccountoftheeconomicsituationofEthiopiansinEritrea,manyofwhomhadlow-payingjobsandlittleopportunitytoacquireproperty .Basedonthetotalityoftherecord,theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$1,000,000fornotprotectingthepropertyofotherdepartingEthiopians .

261 . Failure to Ensure Safe and Humane Repatriation . Finally, theCommissionfoundEritrealiable“forfailingtoensurethesafeandhumanerepatriationofdepartingEthiopiansintransportsthatwerenotconductedorsuper�isedbytheICRC .”Ethiopiaclaimedthatthisfindingco�eredmorethan33,000people .Eritreacontendedthatthenumbersweremuchlower,refer-ring,inter alia,toe�idencepre�iouslysubmittedbyEthiopiasuggestingthatICRCpersonnelfrequentlyorganizedandassistedEthiopiansreturningtotheircountry .

262 . Thee�idencecitedbyEritreadidrefertosubstantialICRCin�ol�e-ment, but was ambiguous as to time, referring to repatriations occurringthroughJune2002 .Otherdocumentsintherecord,includingtheICRC’sownreportsandinformationoriginatingfrombothgo�ernments,indicatedthatmanyEthiopiansmadethereturnjourneyduringtheperiodatissuewithoutICRCin�ol�ement .Indeed,theICRC’sAnnualReportfor2000referredtoha�ingrepatriatedonly12,000EthiopiansfromEritreaduring2000,theyearinwhichthelargestnumberofrepatriationsoccurred .Basedonitsre�iewofthee�idence,theCommissionconcludesthatmanythousandsofEthiopianswerereturnedtotheircountryintransportsthatwerenotarrangedorsuper-�isedbytheICRC .Theirexperiencescouldbeharshandsometimesdanger-ous,asillustratedbya�ideoinEthiopia’se�idenceshowingagedandinfirmdeporteesandsmallchildrencrossingtheMarebRi�erfromEritrea,someonthebacksofEthiopiansoldiers .Ne�ertheless,thediscomfortsanddistress

61 Id.,paras .132–135 .62 Id.,para .134 .

ofthetripwerelimitedinduration,andthee�idencedidnotestablishanysignificantlossoflifeorphysicalinjuryconnectedwiththesethousandsofrepatriations .Accordingly,theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$1,100,000inrespectoftheseinjuries .

C. Treatment of diplomatic Property and Personnel

263 . EthiopiaandEritreaeachfiledextensi�eclaimsforallegeddamagesufferedfrominjuriessustainedbyitsdiplomaticmissionandconsularpostandpersonnelasaresultoftheother’salleged�iolationsoftheinternationallawofdiplomaticandconsularrelations .

264 . In its Partial Awards in the Diplomatic Claims, the Commis-sionnotedtheParties’commendabledecisionsnottose�erdiplomatictiesthroughoutthearmedconflict,“despiteuna�oidablefrictionande�engreatpersonalriskfordiplomatsandstaff .”Furthernotingthat“thisunusualsitu-ationhascreatedunusualchallengesfortheapplicationofdiplomaticlaw,”theCommission,inassessingliability,lookedtothe“foundationalprincipleofdiplomaticreciprocity”andappliedthecriticalstandardof“theimpactofthee�entscomplainedaboutonthefunctioningofthediplomaticmission .”Onthisbasis,theCommissionmadelimitedfindingsofliabilityagainsteachPartyfor“serious�iolationsimpedingtheeffecti�efunctioningofthediplo-maticmission .”

265 . InthecaseofEthiopia,theCommissionfoundEritrealiablefortwosuchserious�iolations:

a . for�iolatingArticle29oftheViennaCon�entiononDiplomaticRelations by arresting and briefly detaining the Ethiopian Chargéd’AffairesinSeptember1998andOctober1999withoutregardtohisdiplomaticimmunity;andb . ha�ingretainedaboxcontainingEthiopianEmbassycorrespond-enceincludingblankpassportsforfi�eyears,for�iolatingofficialEthio-piandiplomaticcorrespondenceandinterferingwiththefunctioningofthemissioninbreachofArticles24and29oftheViennaCon�entiononDiplomaticRelations .

2. Ethiopia’s Claim

266 . Atthedamagesphase,EthiopiatookthepositionthattheCom-mission’s liability findings for the diplomatic claims, for both Parties,“should be regarded as sufficient reparation in the form of satisfaction .”Ethiopianotedthattherele�antharmwassuffereddirectlybytheStateoritsdiplomaticemployeesand,comparedtotheharmcausedtoci�iliansinotherclaims,wasrelati�elyminor .Inthealternati�e,Ethiopiarequesteda

monetaryawardcommensuratewiththoseawardedforpersonalinjuryandpropertyloss .Ethiopia,whichpresentednonewe�idenceatthedamagesphase,explicitlywithdrewitsjus ad bellum claimasitrelatedtodamagestodiplomaticpersonnelandproperty .

267 . Inresponse,Eritrearejectedanynotionofreciprocalfindingsofsatisfaction without monetary awards . Eritrea argued that Ethiopia couldrefrainfromseekingsuchdamagesifitsochose,butEritreawasentitledtofullmonetarydamagesforthecomparati�ely“fargreater”diplomaticliabili-tiesassessedbytheCommissionagainstEthiopia .

268 . Ha�ingre�iewedtheParties’submissionsande�idencesubmittedattheliabilityphase,theCommissionagreeswithEthiopiathattheharmitsuf-feredwasindeednonmaterialandcomparati�elyminor .Ethiopiafailedtopro�eaneconomicallymeasurableinterferencewithdiplomaticfunctionineitherofitssuccessfulclaims .ThearrestanddetentionoftheChargé,whileaserious�iolationofhisimmunity,kepthimfromhisofficialdutiesonlyfortwoshortperiods .AstotheofficialcorrespondenceretainedbyEritrea,therewasnosug-gestionthattheEmbassyorEthiopiannationalssufferedeconomicharm;Ethio-piadidnotclaimforthe�alueofthelostblankpassportsorotherdocuments .

269 . AsrecognizedbytheInternationalCourtofJustice intheCorfu Channel case,whereinjuryisnon-materialandhencenotcompensablebyresti-tutionorcompensation,theappropriateformofreparationforaState’swrongfulactissatisfaction .63Intheinstantcase,gi�enEritrea’sseriousbutnon-materialinterferencewithEthiopia’sChargéandofficialcorrespondence,theappropriatereliefissatisfactionintheformofadeclarationofwrongfulness .

270 . Accordingly,asappropriatereparation,theCommissionreiteratesits liabilityfindingsanddeclaresthatEritrea�iolatedtheViennaCon�en-tiononDiplomaticRelationsbyarrestinganddetainingtheEthiopianChargéd’AffairesinSeptember1998andOctober1999withoutregardtohisdiplo-maticimmunity,andby�iolatingofficialEthiopiandiplomaticcorrespondenceandinterferingwiththefunctioningoftheEthiopiandiplomaticmission .

63 CorfuChannelCase(U .K .� .Alb .),Judgment,1949I .C .J .REP .p .244(Dec .15) .

Xi. ethiopia’s Claims for Compensation for eritrea’s Violation of the Jus ad Bellum

a. introduction271 . The Commission’s Liability Findings . In response to Ethiopia’s

Claims1–8,in�ol�ingtheJus Ad Bellum,theCommissionmadethefollowingfindingsofliabilityfor�iolationofinternationallawbyEritrea:

1 . TheRespondent�iolatedArticle2,paragraph4,oftheCharteroftheUnitedNationsbyresortingtoarmedforceonMay12,1998andtheimme-diatelyfollowingdaystoattackandoccupythetownofBadme,thenunderpeacefuladministrationbytheClaimant,aswellasotherterritoryintheClaimant’sTahtayAdiaboandLaelayAdiaboWeredas .2 . TheClaimant’scontentionthatsubsequentattacksbytheRespondentalongotherpartsoftheircommonborderwerepre-plannedandcoordi-natedunlawfulusesofforcefailsforlackofproof .3 . ThescopeofdamagesforwhichtheRespondentisliablebecauseofits�iolationofthejus ad bellum willbedeterminedinthedamagesphaseoftheseproceedings .64

272 . ThequestionofthescopeorextentofEritrea’sresponsibilityforbreach of the jus ad bellum per�aded Ethiopia’s Group Number One andGroupNumberTwodamagesclaims . Many�erylargeclaimsresteduponthecontentionthatEritreaislegallyresponsibleforparticulardamageasthecon-sequenceoftheCommission’sDecember2005findingthatEritrea�iolatedthejus ad bellum,theinternationallawrulesregulatingtheresorttoarmedforce,inrelationtoitsMay1998armedattackintheBadmearea .65

273 . Ethiopiasought�erylargefixed-sumandactualamountdamagesforthesejus ad bellum claims,frequentlymakingseparateclaimsforsimilardamageonaccountof�iolationsofboththejus ad bellum andthejus in bello.Ethiopiainitiallyad�ancedclaimsforjus ad bellum damagesfortwenty-threeseparatetypesofdamage: 1 . internallydisplacedpersons; 2 . ci�iliandeathsonthewarfronts; 3 . ci�ilianinjuriesonthewarfronts; 4 . ci�ilianpropertydamage,includingreligiousinstitutions,

primarilyfromshelling; 5 . deathsandinjuriescausedbylandmines; 6 . propertydestructionandlossesbybusinesses;

64 PartialAward,Jus Ad Bellum,Ethiopia’sClaims1–8BetweentheFederalDemo-craticRepublicofEthiopiaandtheStateofEritrea(December19,2005)[hereinafterPar-tialAwardinEthiopia’sJus Ad Bellum Claims],dispositif,SectionIV .7 .

65 PartialAwardinEthiopia’sJus Ad Bellum Claims;DecisionNo .7,supra note10 .

7 . harmtonaturalresourcesandtheen�ironment;

8 . strafingandbombingoftheMekeleairportin1998;

9 . deathsofEthiopianprisonersofwarwhileinEritreancamps;

10 . costsofoperatingEthiopianPOWcamps;

11 . departuresofEthiopiansfromEritrea;

12 . lossesofpropertyatEritreanportsbyEthiopiango�ernmententities,businesses,NGOsandpersons;

13 . lossoftaxre�enues,includinglossofcustomsre�enuerelatedtopropertylostatEritreanports;

14 . damagesufferedbyEthiopianAirlines;

15 . damageassociatedwithlossoftourism;

16 . declinesininternationalde�elopmentassistance(lossoffor-eignloans,grantsandassistance);

17 . lossofforeignanddomesticin�estment;

18 . costsofreconstructingandrehabilitatingareasinEthiopiadamagedbythewar;

19 . costsofassistinginternallydisplacedpersons;

20 . costsofassistingpersonsexpelledordisplacedfromEritrea;

21 . loss,damageandinjurysufferedbyEthiopia’sRoadAuthority;

22 . lossofre�enuesfromimportsandexportsduetodisruptionoftradethroughEthiopiaports;and

23 . lossesduetoharassmentandintimidationofEthiopianEm-bassystaffinEritreaand�isitorstotheEmbassy .

274 . PriortotheMay2008hearingonEthiopia’sGroupNumberTwodamagesclaims,Ethiopiawithdrewaclaimformigrationorlossofwildani-malspre�iouslyincludedaspartofitsClaim7foren�ironmentaldamage .ItalsowithdrewClaims10(costsofadministeringprisonerofwarcamps),13(lossoftaxre�enues),21(lossbyEthiopia’sRoadAuthority)and22(lossesfromdisruptionofinternationaltrade) .

275 . TheCommissionconsiderseachofEthiopia’sseparatecategoriesofclaimsbelow .Beforedoingso,itmustaddresstwopreliminaryissues:(a)thegeographicalandtemporalscopeofliabilityfollowingfromthe�iolationofthejus ad bellum identifiedbytheCommission,and(b)theprinciplesapplicabletodeterminingcompensationforsucha�iolation .

b. ethiopia’s Jus Ad Bellum Claims—The scope of liability

1. The Parties’ Positions

276 . ThePartiesportrayedthepotentialextentofjus ad bellum liabil-ityindramaticallydifferentterms .Ethiopiamaintainedthatallofthetypesofinjurylistedabo�ewereproximatelycausedbyEritrea’sMay1998armedattackandEthiopia’sdefensi�eresponses .AllweresaidtobearareasonableconnectiontoconductthattheCommissionfoundtobeunlawful,suchthatEritreashouldbeartheirfullcosts .InEthiopia’s�iew,theconsequencesoftheCommission’sjus ad bellum PartialAwardcouldnotbelimitedeithertempo-rallyorspatially .Instead,“thejus ad bellum �iolationinescapablyresultedinthiswidercondition[ofwidescalehostilities]and,totheextentthatthereisloss,damageorinjuryassociatedwithit,thenthatiscompensable .”

277 . InalettertotheCommissiondatedDecember26,2005,Eritrea’sPresidentwrotethat“despitestrongreser�ationsaboutthemannerinwhichthefactsande�entsofMay1998wereappraisedandthesubsequentjudgmentrendered,”hisGo�ernmentwouldrespecttheCommission’sad�ersejus ad bel-lum ruling“in�iewofitspriorcommitmentsandtreatyobligationstoabidebyalltherulingsoftheCommissionestablishedinaccordancewiththeAlgiersPeaceAgreement,”andEritrea’scounselacknowledgedEritrea’sresponsibilitytopro�idereparationforinjuriespro�entoresultfromthespecific�iolationtheCommissionidentified .Howe�er,EritreacontendedthatEthiopia’sclaimsfarexceededthescopeofdamagesproximatelycausedbythat�iolation,andthatEthiopiafailedtopro�emanyoftheclaimedinjuries .Eritreaurgedthat,gi�entheseshortcomings,reliefshouldbelimitedtosatisfaction,perhapsintheformofafurtherdeclarationbytheCommissionthatEritreahad�iolatedinternationallaw .

278 . TheCommissionaddressedtheParties’conflictingpositionsininformalguidancepro�idedatameetingfollowingtheApril2007hearing,andingreaterdetailinDecisionNumber7ofJuly27,2007 .66ItdidnotaccepteitherParty’sinitialpositionsregardingthescopeofcompensationforthejus ad bellum �iolation .Ontheonehand,itdidnotacceptEthiopia’sconten-tionthatEritrealaunchedanaggressi�ewartriggeringfinancialresponsibilityforextensi�eliabilityfore�entsthroughoutthetwo-yeardurationandwidegeographicextentoftheconflict(andafter,inthecaseofEthiopia’sclaimsforthecostsofoperatingitsprisonerofwarcamps) .Ontheotherhand,itdidnotacceptEritrea’scontentionthatEthiopia’sclaimsformonetarycompensationforthejus ad bellum �iolationshouldbedismissed .

279 . InDecisionNumber7,theCommissionre�iewedthetestspro-posedbythePartiesandthe�iewsoftribunalsandcommentatorsregardingthelegalconnectionbetweenaninternationaldelictandthescopeofcom-pensableinjury .Itconcludedthat,notwithstandingtheconcept’slimitations,

66 Id.

thisconnectionwasbestunderstoodthroughtheconceptofproximatecause,informedbyjudgmentsonwhetherparticulartypesofdamagewereforesee-ableconsequencesofadelict .TheCommissionalsore�iewedpastprecedentsin�ol�ingcompensationforusesofforce,concludingthatthehistoricalrecordcounseledcaution .Becauseoftheimportanceoftheissue,andtoallowfurtherreflectionbybothParties,theCommissionreser�eddecisiononmostelementsofEthiopia’sjus ad bellum compensationclaims,resumingconsiderationoftheissueinconnectionwithEthiopia’sGroupNumberTwodamagesclaims .

280 . InitsDamagesGroupTwoMemorialandattheMay2008hearing,Ethiopiaagainarguedforbroadjus ad bellum liability .InEthiopia’s�iew,thenecessaryimportoftheCommission’sliabilityholdingwasthattheentiretyof thearmedconflictbetweenEritreaandEthiopiaresultedfromtheMay1998jus ad bellum �iolation .Ethiopiaarguedinthisregardthatthereshouldbeliabilityforthefullrangeofadelict’spotentiallyforeseeableconsequenc-es,notjustthosethatappearmostlikely .InEthiopia’s�iew,thepotentiallyforeseeableconsequencesofEritrea’sMay1998actionsincludedthatwhichoccurred—acostlytwo-yearwaralongalongfrontier .Accordingly,Eritreashouldpaycompensationformultipletypesofdamages,onallthreefrontsforthewar,fortheentiretyofthewar,aswellasfor�ariouskindsofpublicexpendituresrelatedtothewar,extensi�eeconomicdamagetoci�ilians,andothertypesofdamage .

281 . EritrearespondedbyreaffirmingargumentsitmadeattheApril2007hearing .InEritrea’s�iew,thescopeofitsliabilityshouldbeconfinedtothespecificareasandtimesidentifiedintheCommission’sJus Ad Bellum PartialAward .Eritreaalsocontestedthecausalconnectionofse�eraloftheclaimedtypesofdamage to theCommission’s liabilityfinding,andmain-tainedthatEthiopiafrequentlyfailedtopro�etheextensi�einjuriesforwhichitsoughtcompensation .

282 . TheCommission’sDecember19,2005liabilityfindingonEthio-pia’sjus ad bellum claimwascarefullydrawn,anditsmeaningisilluminatedbytheexplanationsinthePartialAwardandinDecisionNumber7 .Notwith-standingEthiopia’scharacterizationofthePartialAward,theCommissiondidnotfindthatEritreaboresolelegalresponsibilityforallthathappenedthroughoutthetwoyearsoftheconflict .TheCommissionidentifiedabreachofthejus ad bellum limitedastoplaceandtime .

TheRespondent�iolatedArticle2,paragraph4,oftheCharteroftheUnitedNationsbyresortingtoarmedforceonMay12,1998andtheimmediatelyfollowingdaystoattackandoccupythetownofBadme,thenunderpeaceful

administrationbytheClaimant,aswellasotherterritoryintheClaimant’sTahtayAdiaboandLaelayAdiaboWeredas .67

283 . Inmakingthisfinding,theCommissiondismissedasunpro�enEthiopia’sclaimthattheattackatBadmewaspartofawider,pre-plannedassault .

TheClaimant’scontentionthatsubsequentattacksbytheRespondentalongotherpartsoftheircommonborderwerepre-plannedandcoordinatedunlawfulusesofforcefailsforlackofproof .68

284 . TheCommissionnowmustdeterminetheextentofcompensa-bledamagesfollowingfromthespecificdelictitidentified .Itisnotthecase(asEritreaurges)thattheCommission’sfindinglimitedtheextentofdam-agestothespecificplacesandperiodsitcited .Instead,theCommissionmustdeterminewhatinjurywasproximatelycausedbyEritrea’sdelict,informedbyjudgmentsregardingtheconsequencesthatshouldha�ebeenreasonablyforeseeabletoEritrea’smilitaryandci�ilianleadersatthetimeofitsunlawfulaction .Thisin�ol�esbothlegalandfactualconsiderations .

285 . Legal Considerations. The International Court of Justice hasemployedbroadlanguagetodescribethereparationthatshouldfollowfromabreachofthejus ad bellum,butitsjudgmentsha�enotaddressedconcretelythetypesorextentofdamagetoberegardedasproximatelycausedbyadelict .Mostrecently,theCourtinCongo v. Uganda affirmedinbroadterms“thataStatewhichbearsresponsibilityforaninternationallywrongfulactisunderanobligationtomakefullreparationfortheinjurycausedbythatact,”butitleftittothepartiestodetermineinthefirstinstancewhatthismeantthroughnegotiations .69Thisprocesshasnotyetbornefruit .InCameroon v. Nigeria,theCourtfoundthatNigerianarmedforcesandpolicewerepresentinlargeareasfoundtobelongtoCameroon,but itdeniedfurtherrelief,concludingthat“bythe�eryfactofthepresentjudgmentandofthee�acuationoftheCam-eroonianterritoryoccupiedbyNigeria,theinjurysufferedbyCameroonbyreasonoftheoccupationofitsterritorywillinalle�entsha�ebeensufficientlyaddressed .”70Nicaragua v. United States affirmedtheUnitedStates’respon-sibilityforunlawfulusesofforce,butthecasewaswithdrawnbyNicaraguawhilethedamagesphasewasunderway .71

67 PartialAwardinEthiopia’sJus Ad Bellum Claims,dispositif,SectionIV .B .1 .68 Id.,SectionIV .B .2 .69 ArmedActi�itiesontheTerritoryoftheCongo(Congo� .Uganda),Judgment,

2005I .C .J .REP .p .82,paras .259–260(Dec .19) .70 CaseConcerningTheLandandMaritimeBoundaryBetweenCameroonAnd

Nigeria(Cameroon� .Nig .:Eq .GuineaInter�ening),Judgment,2002I .C .J .REP .p .153,para .319(10Oct .) .

71 MilitaryandParamilitaryActi�itiesinandagainstNicaragua(Nicar .� .U .S .),Orderof26Sept .1991,1991I .C .J .REP .p .47 .

286 . Someotherinternationalcourts,tribunalsandcommissionsha�ewrestledwithwhetherparticulartypesofdamageha�etherequisitecausalconnectiontoadelict .Theirdecisionsoffersomeguidance,attwole�els .First,somedecisionssuggesttheouterboundariesofcompensabledamage .SinceatleasttheAlabama arbitration,panelsha�erejectedclaimsfordamagestogeneralizedeconomicinterestsofthe�ictoriousStateoritsnationals,ortoitsexpensesinwagingwar .TheAlabama CommissionersthusconcludedthattheclaimsoftheUnitedStatesforthetransferofAmericanmerchant�esselstoBritishregistry,increasedinsurancecosts,andtheprolongationofthewarandassociatedcosts“donotconstitute,upontheprinciplesofinternationallawapplicabletosuchcases,goodfoundationforanawardofcompensation .”72TheUnitedStates-GermanMixedClaimsCommission,citedwithappro�albybothParties,emphasizedtheneedforadirectcausalconnectionbetweenalossandtheactionsofthedefendantState,andrejectedclaimsfor“alldam-ageorlossinconsequenceofthewar .”73Morerecently,increatingtheUnitedNationsCompensationCommission,theSecurityCouncilsoughttolimittheextentofcompensabledamagebyconfiningjurisdictionto“direct”claimsagainstIraq .74

287 . MostofEthiopia’sjus ad bellum damagesclaimsrespectedtheprin-ciplesreflectedinthesepastdecisions,andEthiopiahaswithdrawnsomethatarguablydonot .Ne�ertheless,asdiscussedbelow,someofEthiopia’sclaimsin�ol�edtypesofdamagetobroadereconomicintereststhatweresubstantiallyremo�edfromEritrea’sdelict .

288 . Onasecondle�el,pastdecisionsofferinformati�eprecedentsforsomespecifictypesofdamagenowclaimed .Thus,inthecaseofpost-conflictinjuriesfromminesofunknownorigin,theCommissionfoundpersuasi�eUmpireParker’sanalysisinaclaimbeforetheU .S .-GermanMixedClaimsCommission .75TheUNCCalsoaddressedsomequestionsandtypesofinjuryakintothosehere;theCommissionfoundpersuasi�etheUNCC’spracticeof includingdamageresulting fromactionsby the forcesofbothparties

72 RecordoftheProceedingsoftheTribunalofArbitration,June19,1872,reprinted in IIIMarjorieM .Whiteman,DamagesinInternationalLawp .1773(1943) .

73 Id.,pp .1793–94 .74 SeeN .Wühler,CausationandDirectnessofLossasElementsofCompensability

BeforetheUnitedNationsCompensationCommission,inTheUnitedNationsCom-pensationCommissionp .205(R .Lilliched .,1995) .

75 EisenbachBrothers&Company(U .S .� .Germ .),Administrati�eDecisionsandOpinionsofaGeneralNatureandOpinionsandDecisionsinCertainIndi�idualClaimspp .857–858(Parker,Umpire,1933),quoted in WHITEMAN,supra note72,atpp .1796–97(thelosswhenacargo�esselstruckaminein1919wasdirectlyattributabletothehostileactofplantingthemine,e�enifthelossoccurredafterhostilitiesended,andtheminecouldha�ebeenplacedeitherbyGermanyorbyanopposingbelligerent) .

toaconflict .76Howe�er,forse�eraltypesof injuriesclaimedbyEthiopia,Whiteman’sobser�ationremainsapt:“Whiletherehasbeenmoreor lessagreementthatcertaintypesofdamageareunreasonable,therehasbeennosuchagreementastothereasonablenessorunreasonablenessofawide�arietyoftypesofdamage .”77

289 . Factual Considerations, Proximate Cause and Foreseeability .Pastdecisionsandpracticesuggestelementsofalegalframeworkforanalyzingcompensation claims for �iolation of the jus ad bellum, but they do notanswerotherbasicquestions .LiketheU .S .-GermanMixedClaimsCom-missionbeforeit, theCommissiondoesnotbelie�ethataState’s interna-tionalresponsibilityinacasesuchasthisextendstoallofthelossesanddisruptionsaccompanyinganinternationalconflict .Abreachofthejus ad bellum byaStatedoesnotcreateliabilityforallthatcomesafter .Instead,theremustbeasufficientcausalconnection .TheCommissionconcludedinDecisionNumber7thatthiswasbestexpressedthroughtheconceptofproximatecause .ThenatureandextentofthecausalconnectionbetweenEritrea’sconductinMay1998andensuinge�entsin�ol�esassessmentsoffactsregardingthecharacterandcourseofthearmedconflict .Thistaskhasbeencomplicatedanduncertain .Astimepassed,theconflictwasdri�enorshapedbybothParties’actions,bytheactionsofoutsideparties,andbytheelementofchance thatper�adesbattlefields .Notsurprisingly, therecordrarelyilluminatedeitherParty’smoti�ationsandintentions .

290 . Inassessingcausation, theCommissionhastried, inter alia, toweighwhetherparticularconsequenceswere,orshouldha�ebeen,foreseenbyEritrea’sleadersintheexerciseofreasonablejudgmentatthetimeofEritrea’sdelictinMay1998 .Inthisregard,Ethiopiaurgedabroadnotionofforesee-ability,contendingthatEritreashouldha�eforeseen,andshouldbeheldtoaccountfor,awiderangeofresultsofitsMay1998actions,includingeachofthetypesofinjuryforwhichEthiopiaclaimedcompensation .TheCommis-sionbelie�esthatamorenuanced�iewisrequired .Itagreesthatthetestofforeseeabilityshouldextendtoabroaderrangeofoutcomesthanmightneedtobeconsideredinalessmomentoussituation .Asubstantialresorttoforceisaseriousandhazardousmatter .Apartyconsideringthiscourseisboundtoconsidermatterscarefully,weighingthecostsandpossiblebadoutcomes,aswellastheoutcomeitseeks .Thisisparticularlysogi�entheuncertaintiesof

76 See, e.g.,UNCCDecision17,S/AC .26/1991/Re�/1(March17,1992)(co�eredclaimsinclude“anylosssufferedasaresultof . . .[m]ilitaryactionorthreatofmilitaryactionbyeitherside . . . .”) .

77 WHITEMAN,supra note72,atp .1767 .

armedconflict .78Atthesametime,ifapartyisdeemedtoforeseetoowidearangeofpossibleresultsofitsaction,reachingtoofarintothefuture,ortoofarfromthebattlefield,foreseeabilitylosesmeaningasatooltoassessproximatecause .Ifallresultsareforeseeable,thetestismeaningless .

3. The Temporal and Territorial Scope of Liability

291 . Basedon itsassessmentof the factsa�ailable,andasdescribedmorefullybelow,theCommissionconcludesthatinjuriesin�ol�ingEthio-pianci�iliansandci�ilianpropertyconnectedwiththeconflictintheareasandduringtheperiodsdescribedbelowwereproximatelycausedbyEritrea’sMay1998delict .

292 . The Western Front. Theclearestcasein�ol�esinjurytoci�iliansanddamagetoci�ilianpropertyresultingfromtheconflictontheWesternFrontofthewar,fromMay1998untilEthiopia’smilitarysuccessinitsOpera-tionSunset,concludinginMarch1999 .Duringthisperiod,EritreanforcesoccupiedareasontheWesternFrontthatwereclaimedbyEritreabutpre�i-ouslypeacefullyadministeredbyEthiopia,aswellasEthiopianterritorythatwasnotindispute .Gi�enthatthepurposeoftheoperationatBadmewastogaincontrolofterritoryEritrearegardedasitsown,itwas,orclearlyshouldha�ebeen,foreseeabletoEritrea’sleadersthatEritreanforceswouldseizeandoccupytheareas in�ol�ed inthe initialattacks,aswellasadditionalareasclaimedbyEritreaorthatwererequiredtosecureandholdterritoryoccupiedbyEritreanforces .

293 . Moreo�er,itwas,orshouldha�ebeen,readilyforeseeabletoErit-rea’sleadersthatEthiopiawouldresistthein�asionofBadmeandassociatedareas .Itwas,orshouldha�ebeen,readilyforeseeablethattheresultwouldbeasubstantialconflictontheWesternFrontforsolongasEritreanforcesoccupiedBadmeandotherareasonthatfronteitherinEthiopiaorpre�iouslyunderEthiopianadministration .Indeed,thele�elofEritreanforcesinitiallydeployedatBadmeinMay1998—whichtheCommissionfoundin�ol�edse�-eralbrigadessupportedbytanksandartillery—suggeststhatEritrea’scom-mandersdidanticipatethepossibilityofsignificantEthiopianresistanceandofasubstantialconflict .

294 . Itwas,orclearlyshouldha�ebeen,foreseeablethatthesemilitaryoperationswouldresultinEthiopianci�iliancasualtiesanddamagetoEthio-pianci�ilianproperty,bothintheareasontheWesternFrontoccupiedbyEritrea’sforces,andontheEthiopiansideoftheopposingarmies’lines .

78 TheCommissionthusdoesnotsharethe�iewoftheBritishandAmericanCom-missionersassessingtheSamoanclaimswhobelie�edthat,inapre-Chartercasein�ol�-ingresorttoforce,damagesshouldbelimitedonlytothose“whichareasonablemaninthepositionofthewrong-doeratthetimewouldha�eforeseenaslikely toensuefromhisaction .”WHITEMAN,supra note72,atp .1780(emphasisadded) .

295 . OperationSunsetin�ol�edextensi�emilitaryoperationsthroughwhichEthiopianforcesretooktheBadmeareaandotherdisputedorEthiopianterritoryoccupiedbyEritreaontheWesternFront .Thereafter,theprincipallinesofengagementonthatfrontmo�edintoterritorythatwasunquestion-ablyEritrean .79Afterthattime,manydisplacedci�ilianswereabletoreturntotheirlocalities,althoughsomereturnsweredelayedbytheneedtoclearlandmines .Howe�er,asdiscussedmorefullybelow,someadditionalcasualtieswerecausedbylandminesplantedwhiletheconflictwasacti�e .

296 . Eritrea is liable topro�idecompensation for injuries in�ol�ingEthiopianci�iliansandci�ilianpropertyresultingfromthemilitaryconflict(a)intheareaincludingBadmeanditsen�irons,and(b)throughoutallotherareasontheWesternFrontwhereEthiopianforcesfacedEritreanforcesoccu-pying,orengaginginhostilitieswithin,territoryinEthiopiaorpeacefullyunderEthiopianadministrationpriortoMay1998 .Exceptforcertaintypesofdamagenotsubjecttotemporallimitation(notablyinjuriescausedbyland-mines,andcontinuingcostsofcareforinternallydisplacedpersonsunabletoreturntotheirhomes),therele�antperiodextendedfromMay1998untilEthiopia’sOperationSunsetoffensi�eendedinMarch1999,bringingabouttheremo�alofEritreanforcesasdescribedabo�e .

297 . Assessments of proximate causation and foreseeability becomemorecomplexandlesscertainastoinjuriesoccurringatgreaterremo�einspaceandtimefromtheinitialfightinginBadmeandontheWesternFront .Inmakingtheseassessments,theCommissionhasgi�ensignificantweighttotheseriousnessofadecisionbyaStatetoresorttothelarge-scaleuseofforce .Suchamomentousdecisionplacesahea�yobligationontheactingState’sleaderstoanalyzeandweighcarefullythepotentialconsequencesoftheirintendedaction .Inthisregard,aStatechoosingtoresorttoforcein�iolationofthejus ad bellum bearsresponsibilityfortheforeseeableresultsboththatitdesires,andthoseitdoesnot .

298 . The Central Front .TheCommissionrejectedasunpro�enEthio-pia’scontentionthatthelarge-scaleclashesbetweenEritreanandEthiopianforcesastheconflictspreadeastinMayandJune1998reflectedapre-plannedEritreancampaignofattacks�iolatingthejus ad bellum.80Ne�ertheless,fol-lowingtheattackonBadme,powerfulnewforcescameintooperationthatshouldha�ebeenreadilyforeseenbyEritrea’sleadersandmilitarycommand-ersatthetimeoftheattackonBadmeinMay1998:theimperati�esofmili-tarystrategyandgeography .Zalambessaislocatedatakeystrategiclocation

79 OnFebruary27,1999,followingsignificantre�ersesinthecourseofOperationSunset,EritreasentlettersacceptingtheOrganizationofAfricanUnity(“OAU”)Frame-workAgreementforsettlementofthedispute .Ethiopiahadpre�iouslyacceptedtheagree-mentaswell .Thatsameday,theUNSecurityCounciladoptedapresidentialstatementwelcomingEritrea’saction,anddemandingthatthepartiesceasehostilities .ForreasonsthataredisputedbetweentheParties,hostilitiescontinued .

80 PartialAwardinEthiopia’sJus Ad Bellum Claims,para .18 .

onwhatbecameknownas theCentralFront .Theprincipal roadconnect-ingAddisAbabaandAsmara—oneofthefewall-weatherroadsconnectingEthiopiaandEritrea,andtheprincipalandmostdirectroutebetweenthetwocapitals—crossesthefrontierthere .Itwas,orshouldha�ebeen,readilyapparenttoEritrea’sleadersthat,onceaconflictbegan,neitherPartycouldlea�etheprincipala�enueconnectingtheircapitalsopenforcontrolbytheotherParty .

299 . Gi�enthis,theCommissionbelie�esthattherapidspreadoftheconflictalongthegenerallineofthebordereastwardtowardsZalambessa,andtheseriousfightingthatensuedatZalambessaandatotherlocationsontheCentralFront,wastheproximateresultofEritrea’sbreachofthejus ad bel-lum.Itwas,orshouldha�ebeen,readilyforeseeabletoEritrea’sseniorleadersthat,followingtheseizureofBadme,fightingwouldquicklyspreadeastwardtowardtheZalambessaareaandintoIrobWereda,andthatEthiopiawouldmountastiffresistancethroughouttheCentralFrontarea .

300 . OntheCentralFront,thePartiessettledintolinesofengagementthatremainedlargelystablethroughoutthewar .Inmanyareas,EritreanforcesheldpositionsinEritreanorthoftheMarebRi�er,orinotherareasunques-tionablylocatedwithinEritrea .Howe�er,Eritreanforcesalsooccupiedorcon-ductedshellingorotherwiseengagedinhostilitiesinotherterritorythatwaseitherinEthiopiaorwasunderpeacefuladministrationbyEthiopiapriortoMay1998 .Intheseareas,EritreaisliableforinjurytoEthiopianci�iliansorci�ilianpropertythroughouttheperiodofEritreanforces’presenceoropera-tions,whichinsomecasesextendeduntilJune2000 .Further,asinthecaseoftheWesternFront,Eritreaisliableforcertaintypesofdamagenotsubjecttotemporallimitation,notablyinjuriescausedbylandmines,andpro�encostsofcareforinternallydisplacedpersonsunabletoreturntotheirhomes .

301 . The Eastern Front .TheEasternFrontofthewarwasthemostgeo-graphicallydistantfromEritrea’sinitialattackonBadme .ItwaslocatedinthesparselypopulatedAfarRegion,whichincludessomeofthehottestandharshestterrainonEarth,withfewroadsandlittlewater .Thefightingwasmost intense inElidarWereda in theeastof theAfarRegion,particularlyaroundtheEthiopianbordertownofBure .Therewasalsofightingelsewhere,particularlyinDalulWereda,asparselypopulatedborderareaadjoiningIrobWeredainthenorthwestoftheRegion .

302 . Bureislocatednearthetri-pointofEthiopia,EritreaandDjibou-ti,ontheroadconnectingEthiopiatotheEritreanportatAssab .AssabwasEthiopia’sprimaryoutlettotheseabeforeEritrea’sattackonBadmeinMay1998,andmuchofEthiopia’socean-borneexportandimportcargotra�eledthisroad .AsdiscussedintheCommission’sAwardinEthiopia’sPortsClaim,81

81 FinalAward,Ports,Ethiopia’sClaim6BetweentheFederalDemocraticRepub-licofEthiopiaandtheStateofEritrea(December19,2005)[hereinafterFinalAwardinEthiopia’sPortsClaim] .

thoseinEritrearesponsibleforoperatingtheportatAssaballowedsignificantamountsof�aluablecargotocontinuetomo�etoEthiopiaforsometimeaftertheattackonBadme,perhapshopingthatthegeographicscopeoftheconflictwouldsomehowbecontained .

303 . Ne�ertheless,theCommissionbelie�esthatitwas,orshouldha�ebeen,readilyforeseeabletoEritrea’sleadersthattheconflictcouldnotbecon-tained,andthatitwouldspreadtoElidarWereda,particularlyaroundBure,withassociatedhea�ycoststoEthiopianci�iliansandci�ilianinfrastructure .JustaswithZalambessa,theimperati�esofmilitarystrategyandgeographyga�erisetoasituationthatwaslikelyto,anddid,leadtointensefighting .Inthisharshsetting,theall-weatherroadconnectingAssabinEritreawithEthi-opia,andultimatelywithAddisAbaba,hadenormousstrategicimportance .AsuccessfulEthiopianattackuptheroadintoEritreatowardtheRedSeamightbringthecaptureofAssab,gi�ingEthiopiacontrolofanoceanportandagreatpoliticalandpsychological�ictory .AsuccessfulEritreanattackintheoppositedirectionmightallowEritreatocuttheroadandraillinksbetweenEthiopiaandtheportofDjibouti .Thiswoulddepri�emostofEthiopiaofaccesstoaseaportformostofitsimportsandexports .Neithersidecouldriskallowingtheothersucha�ictory,asEritrea’sleadersshouldha�eforeseen .

304 . Accordingly,theCommissionconcludesthatthecausalconnec-tionbetweenEritrea’sinitialattackatBadmeandtheconflictthatsubsequent-lyde�elopedinElidarWeredaissufficientlyclearanddirecttoholdEritrearesponsiblefortheensuinginjuriestoEthiopianci�iliansandci�ilianinfra-structureinthatweredathroughouttheperiodofEritreanforces’presenceoroperations,whichsometimesextendeduntilJune2000 .Further,asinthecaseoftheWesternandCentralFronts,Eritreaisliableforcertaintypesofdamagenotsubjecttotemporallimitation,notablyinjuriescausedbylandmines,anddocumentedcostsofcareforinternallydisplacedpersonsunabletoreturntotheirhomes .

305 . DalulWeredaisanarealargelypopulatedbynomadicAfarPeopleintheareaofthescorchingandaridDanakilDesertandDepression .Itsgeo-graphicandstrategicsituationdiffersfromthatofElidarWereda .Ne�ertheless,theCommissionbelie�esthat,gi�entheParties’pastmilitaryencountersinthearea,itshouldha�ebeenreasonablyforeseeabletoEritrea’sleadersthatthecon-flictwouldspreadheretoo,withensuinginjurytoci�ilians .EritreahadallegedthatEthiopiaunlawfullyintrudeduponitsterritoryinthisregioninJuly-August199782whenEthiopiapurportedlysenttroopsintodealwithinternalarmedoppositionoftheAfarpeople,establishingbasesonwhatEritreaconsideredtobeitsterritory .Gi�enthishistoryandEritrea’sterritorialclaims,itshouldha�ebeenforeseeabletoEritreanleadersthat,ifEthiopiarefusedtoaccepttheEritreanoccupationofBadme,thentheconflictwouldine�itablyspreade�entotheAfararea,inwhiche�entEritreawouldoccupyitsclaimedterritoriesin

82 See OAUFrameworkAgreement,supra note79 .

thatarea .Accordingly,asinthecaseofElidarWereda,EritreaisliablefortheresultinginjurytoEthiopianci�iliansorci�ilianproperty .

C. determining the amount of Jus Ad Bellum Compensation

306 . TheCommissionfacesdifficultandunsettledquestionsregardingtheprinciplestobeappliedinassessingtheamountofcompensationdueonaccountofEritrea’sjus ad bellum�iolation .

307 . PastjudicialdecisionsandStatepracticeofferlimitedguidance .Whiledecisionspro�idesomeassistanceinidentifyingtypesofdamagesthatmaybecompensableincasesin�ol�ingusesofforce,theyrarelyexamineques-tionsrelatingtoquantification .Asnotedearlier,afewInternationalCourtofJusticejudgmentsha�ecalledfor liabilityinbroadtermsincircumstancesin�ol�inguseofforce,buttheCourthasonlyoncedeterminedcompensationinaconcretesituation .Thatcase—Corfu Channel—in�ol�eddamageclaimsmuchdifferentfromthosehere .83

308 . Gi�enthelimitedguidancea�ailablefrompastdecisions,theCom-missionweighedse�eralfactorsinassessingtheamountofcompensationthatshouldfollowfromabreachofthejus ad bellum.Athresholdquestionwaswhetheranyawardofdamagesshouldbedesignedtoser�etheexceptionalpurposeofhelpingtodeterfuture�iolationsofArticle2,paragraph4oftheCharterof theUnitedNations,orshould, instead,ser�ethemorecon�en-tionalpurposeofpro�idingappropriatecompensationwithintheframeworkofthelawofStateresponsibility .Astothis,theCommissionunderstandsthelattertobeitsresponsibility,anditdoubtsthatpossibleawardsofmonetarycompensationwouldbelikelytodeteraStatecontemplatingactioninbreachofthejus ad bellum. UndertheCharteroftheUnitedNations,theSecurityCouncilhasprimaryresponsibilityforaddressing(anddeterring)�iolationsofArticle2,paragraph4oftheCharter,inter alia,byitsauthoritytoimposesanctions .Otherdeterrentsarefoundintherightsofindi�idualandcollecti�eself-defense,andintheriskofcriminalpunishmentofgo�ernmentofficialsresponsiblefordecidingupontheunlawfulresorttoforce .Theprospectofpotentialmonetaryliabilitiesseemsoflittlecomparati�eweight .

309 . TheCommissionconsideredwhetheranawardofcompensationshouldreflectaprecisequantificationoftheamountsofparticularphysical,economicorother�arietiesofdamagecausedbyEritrea,nototherwisecom-pensableunderthejus in bello,oramoregeneralassessmentofthecharacteroftheinjuryinflictedupontheStateofEthiopiainlightoftheCommission’sdecisionsregardingEritrea’sjus ad bellum liability .

83 See CorfuChannel,supra note63,atp .244 .

310 . Theanswerwasdictatedbythenatureof theclaimsandof theunderlyinge�idence .Theseclaimsoftenin�ol�eddamagethatwasuncertaininextentandeffect,andthatoccurred inremote locations .Clearproofofspecificinjurywasoftenlacking,butrequiringrigorousproofinthecircum-stancescouldbothdefeattheobjecti�eofpro�idingcompensationforinjuryandexceedthecapacitiesofboththePartiesandtheCommission .Accord-ingly,aswithotherclaims,theCommissionmadeitsbestassessment,draw-ingupona�arietyofindicators .Theextentofcompensableinjuryanddam-age,andtheamountofappropriatecompensation,frequentlyin�ol�edroughapproximations .

311 . Inassessingcompensation for�iolationsof the jus in bello, theCommissionsoughttolinktheamountofcompensationtothegra�ityofeachtypeof�iolation .Suchconsiderationsha�efarlessweightinassessingdam-agescompensablesolelyonaccountof�iolationofthejus ad bellum.Ethiopia’sjus ad bellum claimsoftenallegedinjuryconnectedwithmilitaryacti�itiesthattheCommissionearlierdeterminedwerenotthemsel�esunlawful .Forexample,Ethiopiaclaimedfordamagetohousingcausedbyartillery,ci�iliancasualtiesfromlandmines,anddamageandci�iliancasualtiesfromEritrea’s1998bombingoftheMekeleAirport .TheCommissionearlierdeterminedthatalloftheseactionsdidnot�iolatethejus in bello. Theseunderlyingacts,bydefinition,werenotthemsel�esunlawful,andshouldnotgi�erisetocompen-sationonthesamebasisas�iolationsofthejus in bello.

312 . Inasimilar�ein,theCommissionbelie�esthatthelawofStateresponsibilitymustmaintainameasureofproportionbetweenthecharacterofadelictandthecompensationdue .Ethiopiastronglyurgedthisprincipleinadifferentsetting,inclaiminghugemoraldamages,onthegroundthatEritreahadcommittedegregiousdelictsmeritingmassi�eadditionalcompen-sation .Eritrea’s�iolationofthejus ad bellum inMay1998asfoundbytheCommissionwasserious,andhadseriousconsequences .Ne�ertheless,that�iolationwasdifferentinmagnitudeandcharacterfromtheaggressi�eusesofforcemarkingtheonsetoftheSecondWorldWar,thein�asionofSouthKoreain1950,orIraq’s1990in�asionandoccupationofKuwait .TheCom-missionbelie�esthatdeterminationofcompensationmusttakesuchfactorsintoaccount .

313 . TheCommissionalsoconsideredwhetheranawardofcompensa-tionshouldbelimitedasnecessarytoensurethatthefinancialburdenimposedonEritreawouldnotbesoexcessi�e,gi�enEritrea’seconomicconditionanditscapacitytopay,asseriouslytodamageEritrea’sabilitytomeetitspeople’sbasicneeds .Asdiscussedpre�iously,claimsofcompensationinclaimsofthismagnitudemayraisesignificantquestionsattheintersectionofthelawofStateresponsibilityandfundamentalhumanrightsnorms,notablythosecontained

incommonArticleI(2)of theICESCRandtheInternationalCo�enantonCi�ilandPoliticalRightsandinArticle2(1)oftheICESCR .84

314 . Inthisregard,theCommissionnotesthat, insituationsin�ol�-ingunlawfuluseofforce,StatesandtheUnitedNationsha�ecreatedregimesoracceptedoutcomesin�ol�ingcompensationforfarlessthanthedamagecausedbytheunlawfuluseofforce .Doubtlesstheexperienceof1918whenthe�ictorstriedtoextractsubstantialcompensationfromGermanywasanimportantlearningexperience,asitcontributedtodreadfulconsequences .NeitherGermanynorJapanwasmadetobearfinancialresponsibilityformorethanafractionoftheinjurycausedbytheirconductinstartingandwagingtheSecondWorldWar,althoughbothsufferedsomemandatedcessionofter-ritory .TheexperienceoftheUNCC,frequentlycitedbybothParties,isalsoinstructi�e .UnlikethePartiesintheseproceedings,Iraqisacountrywithgreatnaturalwealth .Ne�ertheless,whentheUNCCwascreated,theUNSec-retary-GeneralandtheSecurityCounciltookpainstoassurethatanyfundspro�idedtotheUNCCtopayclaimswereinexcessofamountsrequiredforIraq’simportsanddebtser�ice .85

315 .Thecautioninsettingle�elsofcompensationreflectedinthesepastexperienceshighlightsanother importantconcern .Theprocessofmo�ingfromwartoastableandmutuallybeneficialpeaceoftenisdifficultanduncer-tain,astheParties’currentrelationsshow .Informedbytheunhappyconse-quencesofreparationsundertheTreatyofVersailles,mostStatesha�ebeenconcernedtoensurethatprogramsforcompensationorreparationdonotthemsel�esundermineeffortstoaccomplishastablepeace .TheCommissionwouldbegreatlyconcernedifitseffortstocarryoutthemandategi�enitbythePartiesledtoafurtherdeteriorationoftheirrelations,andimpairedtheprospectsforadurablepeace .86

316 . Furtherconsiderationswarrantcaution .IfcompensationtoaStatefora�iolationofthejus ad bellum istobecalculatedonthesamebasisasforthe�iolationofthejus in bello,andif,asEthiopiacontends,aStateinitiatingaconflictthroughabreachofthejus ad bellum isliableunderinternationallawforawiderangeofensuingconsequences,theinitiatingStatewillbearexten-

84 See para .19et seq.supra.85 ReportoftheSecretary-Generalpursuanttoparagraph10ofSecurityCouncil

Resolution687,S/22559(May2,1991);LetterfromtheSecretary-GeneraltothePresidentoftheSecurityCouncil,S/22661(May31,1991) .O�ertheyearsofitsoperation,theUNCCfoundliabilityagainstIraqinaprincipalamountofaboutUS$52billiondollars,roughly15%oftheamountclaimed .Lessthanhalfofthatamounthasbeenpaid,andfurthersubstantialpaymentsthroughtheUNCCmechanismdonotappearlikely .See StatusofProcessingandPaymentofClaims,available at www2 .unog .ch/uncc/status .htm(�isitedMarch31,2009) .

86 See CarstenStahn,“Jus ad Bellum,” “Jus in Bello” . . .”Jus post Bellum”?: Rethinking the Conception of the Law of Armed Force,17EUR .J .INT’LL .pp .921–943(2006),reprint-ed in INTERNATIONALLAW:CLASSICCONTEMPORARYREADING(CharlotteKu&PaulF .Diehleds .,3ded .2009) .

si�eliabilitywhetherornotitsactionsrespectthejus in bello.Indeed,muchofthedamageforwhichEthiopiaclaimsjus ad bellum compensationin�ol�esconductthattheCommissionpre�iouslyfoundtobeconsistentwiththejus in bello.Imposingextensi�eliabilityforconductthatdoesnot�iolatethejus in bello riskserodingtheweightandauthorityofthatlawandtheincenti�etocomplywithit,totheinjuryofthoseitaimstoprotect .TheCommissionbelie�esthat,whileappropriatecompensationtoaclaimingStateisrequiredtoreflectthese�erityofdamagecausedtothatStatebythe�iolationofthejus ad bellum,itisnotthesameasthatrequiredfor�iolationsofthejus in bello.

317 . AsnotedthroughoutthisAward,determiningcompensationincasessuchastheseisoftennecessarilyanimpreciseanduncertainmanner .ThisisparticularlysoindeterminingcompensationforEritrea’sjus ad bel-lum �iolation .Guidedbytheprinciplesdescribedabo�e,theCommissionhasuseditsbestjudgmentindeterminingappropriatecompensationforEritrea’s�iolationofthejus ad bellum inparticularinstances,whichcompensationisadditionaltothatforthe�iolationsofthejus in bello dealtwithinSectionsVIIIthroughXabo�e .

d. fixed amount Compensation (ethiopia’s Categories 1–5)

1. Introduction

318 . Ethiopiaclaimedlargeamountsasfixed-sumcompensationforse�eralofthetypesofinjurylistedabo�e .Theseclaimsallin�ol�edinjuriessaidtoha�ebeensufferedbylargegroupsofpeopleastheresultofmilitaryoperations—bybothParties—thattheCommissionfounddidnot�iolatethejus in bello.Ethiopiabroughtsuchclaimsforinternallydisplacedpersons(cat-egory1),ci�iliandeathsandinjuriesonthewarfronts(categories2and3),ci�ilianpropertydamage(category4),deathsandinjuriesattributedtoland-mines(category5),deathsofEthiopianprisonersofwarinEritreancamps(category9)anddeparturesofEthiopians fromEritrea (category11) .Thissectionaddressesthefirstfi�eofthese;theothertwo(prisonersofwaranddeparturesfromEritrea)arediscussedseparatelybelow .

319 . TheCommissionagreesthatmostofthesetypesofinjuriesaretheproximateandforeseeableresultsofEritrea’sdelict,andwarrantcompensa-tiontoEthiopia .Thechallengeliesinidentifyingcompensabledamages,gi�enthelimitationsofthee�idenceandthemannerinwhichtheclaimswerepre-sented .ManyofEthiopia’swrittenpleadingstooktheformofmulti-pagerecit-alsofindi�idualwitnesses’allegations .Theunderlyingwitnesses’statements,howe�er,oftendidnotindicatewhene�entsoccurred,orwheretheyoccurredinrelationtoplacesidentifiableoneitherParty’smaps .

320 . The liability phase e�idence often pro�ided little informationregardingthefrequencyofparticulartypesof�iolations,andEthiopiadidnot

offeradditionale�idenceonthisatthedamagesphase .Moreo�er,theamountsclaimedasdamagesoftenappearedexcessi�eandunsupportedbythee�i-dence .Gi�entheselimitations,theCommissionhashadtomakeapproximatejudgmentsregardingthefrequencyofinjuryandthele�elofcompensation .

2. Internally Displaced Persons (Category 1)

321 . Militaryoperationsfrequentlyresult inci�iliansbeinginternallydisplaced,oftenwithgreathumanandeconomiccosts .Attheliabilityphase,theCommissionfoundthatinternaldisplacementwasnotitselfa�iolationofthejus in bello.Howe�er,large-scaleinternaldisplacementintheareasandtimesindi-catedabo�ewasthedirectandforeseeableresultofEritrea’sbreachofthejus ad bellum.Accordingly,EritreaisliableforinjurytoEthiopianswhowereinternallydisplacedfromthoseareasandduringthosetimesonaccountofthewar .

322 . ThedisplacementofmanythousandsofpersonsonaccountofEri-trea’s�iolationofthejus ad bellum wasamostseriousconsequenceofthecon-flict .Manydisplacedpersonssufferedthelossofshelter,animalsandessentialhouseholdandfarmingimplements .Thoselossesproduceddestitutionanddependencyonthereliefpro�idedbytheirgo�ernmentandbyinternationalagencies .The foodandhealthconditions inmanyreliefcampswereofteninadequatetomeetthebasicneedsofmanyfamilies,particularlyyoungchil-dren .TheCommissionbelie�esitispeculiarlytheofficeofthejus ad bellum topro�ideabasisforcompensationinthecaseofIDPswhosedisplacementwasproximatelycausedbya�iolationofthejus ad bellum.

323 . Mostofthosedisplacedwerewomenandchildren .IDPsincludedbothpersonswhofledtheirhomestoescapeongoingmilitaryoperationsnear-by,andotherswholeftareasneartheborderasaprecaution .TherecordshowsthatTigrayofficialsencouragedextensi�ee�acuationsfromborderareasinlate1998,whenhostilitieswereatacomparati�elylowle�el,significantlyincreas-ingthenumberofIDPs .Therecorddidnotexplainthecircumstancesleadingtothesee�acuations,althoughEritrea’sOctober1998shellingofthetownofSheraroapparentlywasafactor .87TheCommission�iewsthee�acuationofci�iliansfromareaspotentiallyaffectedbyconflictattheurgingofgo�ern-mentauthoritiesasareasonableandforeseeableconsequenceofabreachofthejus ad bellum.Thus,therele�antpopulationincludedbothpersonswhofledtheirhomestoescapenearbyfighting,andotherswholeftattheurgingofgo�ernmentofficials .

324 . EthiopiaallegedthatEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolationcausedthedisplacementof349,837Ethiopians,andclaimedo�erUS$1 .5billionascom-pensation .TheclaimedamountincludedUS$209,913,910inmaterialdam-ages(approximatelyUS$600perindi�idual)ando�erUS$1 .3billioninmoraldamages .Ethiopiacalculateditsmaterialdamagesclaimbymultiplyingthe

87 See para .340infra.

a�erageannualincomeofpersonsinregionsaffectedbythewarbyanelabo-ratecalculationofthetotalnumberof“displacedpersonsyears .”Ethiopiaalsomadeseparateclaimsthatincluded(althoughtheywerenotlimitedto)IDPs’propertylossesfromlootinganddamagetotheirhousesandrealestate,aswellasclaimsforexpendituresinrecei�ingandcaringforIDPs .Theseaddi-tionalclaimsareaddressedbelow .

325 . EritreadidnotdirectlyjoinissuewiththeaccuracyofEthiopia’snumbersofdisplacedpersons .Rather,Eritreausedthosefigurestoarguethatthehighproportionsofpeopledisplacedfromwar-affectedregionsunder-minedthecredibilityofthefiguresEthiopiapro�idedforfixedamountdam-agesincurredbytheremainingpopulationonthebasisofjus in bello �iola-tions .Inadditiontodisputingitsjus ad bellum liabilityforinternallydisplacedpersons,EritreaarguedthatEthiopiasoughttoreco�erdamagesforharmscausedbyitsownactions,contendingthatitwasthepresenceoflandminesand Ethiopia’s military operations that pre�ented displaced persons fromreturningtotheirhomes .

326 . As noted pre�iously, the Commission has rejected Ethiopia’sclaimsforlargeadditionalincrementsofmoraldamages,andtheclaimforo�erUS$1 .3billioninadditionalmoraldamageswillnotbeconsideredfurtherhere .Howe�er,ithastakenintoaccountthee�idenceofthenatureofIDPs’injuriesandexperiencesinconsideringthele�elofcompensation .

327 . Thestartingpointforassessingthisclaimisthenumberofinter-nallydisplacedpersonsfallingwithinthescopeoftheCommission’sjus ad bellum liabilityfinding .Therecordincludednumerousdocuments,reportsandbriefingsemanatingfromtheEthiopiango�ernment,theauthoritiesinTigray,and�ariousUNandrelieforganizationsregardingthenumbersdis-placedonaccountofthewar .ThesefrequentlycitedatotalprofferedbytheGo�ernmentofEthiopiaof349,837displacedpersons,315,836ofwhomweredisplacedinTigrayand33,901inAfar .ThesefiguresappearedtobethebasisforEthiopia’scalculationofthisclaim .

328 . TherepetitionbymultiplesourcesofEthiopia’sestimatednumbersofdisplacedpersonsdidnotnecessarilymakethosenumbersmorereliable,andthee�idenceregardinginternallydisplacedpersonswasnotwhollycon-sistent .Somereportsbylocalofficialssuggestedthatthenumbersofinternallydisplacedpersonsintheirareasofresponsibilityweresignificantlysmallerthanestimatedbythenationalauthorities .Ethiopia’snumbersappearedtobeanaggregateofestimatedpeaknumbersofdisplacedpersonsrecordedatspe-cificpointsintime,althoughthenumbersofdisplacedpersonsandthelengthoftheirdisplacement�ariedo�ertheperiodoftheconflict,castingfurtheruncertaintyastotheaccuracyofthosenumbers .

329 . Documentsintherecordalsoindicatedthattheestimateofnearly350,000internallydisplacedpersonsincludedmanythousandsofEthiopianswhoreturnedtoEthiopiafromEritrea .Thesepeople,saidbyEthiopiaulti-matelytonumberabout120,000,wereaddressedinothersubstantialjus ad

bellum andjus in bello claimsbyEthiopia .88Includingthemforpurposesofthisclaimwouldresultindoublecounting .Consequently,theestimatednum-bersofIDPsmustbereducedsignificantlytotakeaccountofpersonslea�ingEritreaforwhomEthiopiaalsoclaimedelsewhere .

330 . AfurthercomplicationisthatsomeareasinTigraywereplaguedatrele�anttimesbothbywarandbydrought,andbothafflictionscauseddis-placement .Thee�idencedidnotdistinguishbetweenpersonswholefttheirhomesonaccountofthewar,andthosewholeftforotherreasons .Howe�er,itwasclearthatthewarwasbyfarthemostsignificantcauseofinternaldis-placement,andtheCommissionhasnottakendroughtintoaccountinseekingtoassessthenumbersofpersonsdisplacedonaccountofthejus ad bellum �iolation .

331 . TheCommissionconcludesthatthenumberofpersonswhosedis-placementwasproximatelycausedbyEritrea’sMay1998�iolationofthejus ad bellum issubstantiallylessthanthetotalclaimedbyEthiopia,perhapstwothirdsofthatnumber,perhapssomewhatless .Periodsofdisplacement�aried .SomepersonsdisplacedontheWesternFrontwereable toreturn to theirhomesfollowingthesuccessofOperationSunsetinearly1999,althoughsomereturnsthereweredelayedbytheneedtoremo�elandminesorotherimpedi-mentstoreturn .OtherIDPs,suchasthosefromtheZalambessaarea,weredisplacedformuchlongerperiods .ThesepeoplecouldreturntotheirhomesonlybeginninginJune2000,ore�enlaterinareasaffectedbylandminesorotherimpediments .

332 . Ethiopia’sclaimforinternallydisplacedpersonssoughtredressforthehumansufferingandincomelossassociatedwiththeirdisplacement .(Asnoted,IDPs’propertylossesfromlooting,damagetotheirhousesandrealestate,andEthiopia’sexpendituresinrecei�ingandcaringforIDPs,wereallsubjecttoseparateclaimsbyEthiopiaaddressedelsewhereinthisAward .)Takingaccountof,inter alia,thenumberofinternallydisplacedpersonsfall-ingwithinthescopeofEritrea’sjus ad bellum liability,the�aryingdurationsoftheirdisplacement,thepersonalandeconomicconsequencesofdisplacement,andEthiopia’sotherrele�antclaims,theCommissionawardsUS$45,000,000toEthiopiaonaccountofthisclaim .

3. Civilian Deaths and Injuries (Categories 2 and 3)

333 . Ethiopia’s Claim. EthiopiaclaimedUS$205,167,028asjus ad bellum materialdamageswithrespectto39,881ci�ilianswhosedeathsweresaidtoresultfromthewaronallthreefronts,butwhowerenotco�eredbyEthiopia’sotherclaims .EthiopiaallegedthesedeathsincludeddeathsfromintentionalandindiscriminateshootingsontheWesternFrontanddeathsthroughoutallthreefrontsfromshellingandaerialbombardments .Ethiopia’sclaimreflects

88 See SectionsX .Bsupra andXI .Kinfra.

fixedamountsofmorethanUS$5,000percapitaforthealleged�ictims .ItclaimedanadditionalUS$102,583,514onaccountofanequi�alentnumberofinjuries,withapercapitaamountforeachinjuryequaltohalftheamountclaimedfordeaths .

334 . Attheliabilityphase,theCommissionrejectedasunpro�enbothParties’claimsthattheotherengagedinshellingthatwasindiscriminateorotherwisecontrarytothejus in bello.TheCommissionfinds,howe�er,thatEritreaisliablefordeathsandinjuriescausedbyshellingandgunfireintheregionsforwhichthereisjus ad bellum liability .Deathandinjuryarepar-ticularlyse�ereconsequencesofarmedconflict;deathsandinjuriescausedbyweaponryarethedirectresultofsuchconflict .WhiletheCommissiontakesintoconsiderationtheseriousnessofsuchharminassessingcompensation,theextentofsuchinjurymustbedemonstratedbyEthiopiaonthebasisofcrediblee�idence .

335 . Thee�idencesupportingthislargeclaimforci�iliandeathsandinjuriesattributabletoEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolationwasmodest .EthiopiacalculatedthenumberofadditionaldeathsentirelyonthebasisofanEthiopi-ango�ernmentestimatereflectedinaDecember2000WorldBankloandocu-ment .Thisestimateindicatedthat36,000primarybreadwinners,includingbothci�iliansandmilitia(butnotincludingregularmilitary),losttheirli�esduringthewar .Ethiopiaincreasedthisfigureby50%,contendingthatatleastthatmanyadditionalfamilymemberswerekilled .Theresultingtotal—anesti-mated54,000deaths—thenwasreducedtoreflectci�iliandeathsco�eredbyEthiopia’sotherclaims .Thisga�ethe39,881deathsforwhichEthiopiaclaimedjus ad bellum damages; thesamefigurewasusedfor itsclaimfor injuries .WhiletheWorldBankfiguresdidnotdistinguishthegeographiclocationofci�iliandeaths,Ethiopia“assigned”deathstotheregionsofTigrayandAfarbasedontherelati�epopulationsofthoseregions .Basedonanestimatedpop-ulationof567,696peopleinthewar-affectedweredasofTigrayand106,526peopleinDalulandElidarWeredasinAfar,Ethiopiaconcludedthat33,500deathsoccurredinTigrayand6,381occurredinAfar .

336 . Although Ethiopia’s Damages Group One Memorial regularlyreferredtothe36,000figureas“theBank’s,”thetextofthecitedparagraphmakesclearthatthefigurewasanestimategi�entotheWorldBankbyEthio-pia .Althoughtheestimatewascharacterizedasin�ol�ingci�iliansandmili-tia,areportinEthiopia’se�idenceattributedtheestimateof36,000deathstotheMinistryofDefense,creatingambiguityastowhetherthenumbermayinsomewayreflectmilitarycasualties .

337 . TheCommissionhasnomeanstoassesstheestimateof36,000deathsunderlyingthisclaim .Therewasnoe�idenceshowinghoworbywhomitwasprepared,orwhetheritwasborneoutbylaterin�estigation .Therewasnoindicationwhethertheestimateincludeddeathsduetodiseaseorothernaturalcausesnotdirectlylinkedtothewar .Therewasnobasisintherecordfortheassumptionthattheestimateshouldbeincreasedby50%toreflect

additionalfamilymembers .Therealsowasnobasisfortheassumptionthatthenumberofinjurieswasequaltothenumberofdeaths .

338 . Ethiopia’sinclusionofthedeathsandinjuriesofanunspecifiednumberofmilitiamembersraisedadditionalquestions .Ethiopia’se�idenceshowedthatitsmilitiaforceswerenumerous,andfrequentlyengagedincom-batwithEritreanforces .Therewerefrequentreferencestothedeathsofmili-tiamenincombat .PursuanttotheexclusioncontainedinthelastsentenceofArticle5(1)oftheDecember2000Agreement,theCommissionhasnojuris-dictiono�erclaimsforthecombatdeathsorinjuriesofmilitiamen .

339 . Gi�entheselimitations,theCommissionhasre�iewedEthiopia’se�idencefromtheearlierproceedings,inanefforttoassesstheextentofci�il-iandeathsandinjuriespotentiallyattributabletoEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iola-tion .TheCommissionpaidparticularattentiontodeathsfromartilleryfire,whichEthiopiadescribedasamajorcauseofci�iliandeaths,andwhichindeedhascausedthegreatestproportionofcasualtiesinmoderninternationalarmedconflictsbetweenorganizedarmies .Thee�idencea�ailabletotheCommissionindicatedthatEritreanartillerydidcausemanyci�iliandeathsandinjuries,butthatthesewerefarlessnumerousthanEthiopiacontended .

340 . Forexample,therewerefrequentreferencesintheseproceedingstoartillerystrikesinandaroundthetownofRama,locatedafewmilessouthoftheMerebRi�erononeofthefewnorth-southroadsconnectingEthiopiaandEritrea .ThedeclarationofRama’stownadministratorspokeofconsiderablepropertydamagefromfi�eshellingattacksonthetown(twoinFebruary1999andthreeinMay-June2000),buthementionedonlytwopersonskilledandsixinjured .AMarch2001U .S .AIDreportcitedanotherlocalofficialreferringtofourkilledandeightwoundedbyshellingatRama .Whiche�erofficialwascorrect,thesecasualtieswerenotextensi�e .Similarly,therewerenumerousreferencestoEritrea’sartilleryattackonSheraroonOctober21,1998 .(ThisattackapparentlyledTigrayofficialstoencourageci�ilianstoe�acuatefromareaswithinartilleryrangeofthefrontasaprecaution .)Howe�er,aDecem-ber1998reportbytheReliefSocietyofTigrayreferredtoele�endeathsandtwenty-fourinjuriesintheSheraroattack .Thesecasualtiesweretragic,buttheydidnotsupportEthiopia’sclaimoftensofthousandsofci�iliandeathsfromEritreanguns .

341 . AccountsbyweredaofficialsinTigrayalsosuggestedamuchlowerle�elofci�iliancasualties .AnofficialintheGulomakhedaWeredaadminis-trationreportedthatinallofthewereda,ninety-fi�epeoplewerekilledandninety-twowereinjuredbyshellingorlandmines .TheadministratorofMarebLekheWeredapro�idedatablelistinglossesanddamageinhiswereda .Thetableidentifiedjustfourdeaths,threeinjuriesand505damagedhouses(170describedas“light,”147as“medium,”and188as“se�ere”) .

342 . Accounts by Ethiopian and international non-go�ernmentalorganizationswerealongsimilarlines .TheGulomakhedaWeredaFarmer’sAssociationpro�ideda listof thirtypeoplekilled inGulomakhedadue to

unlawfulactsofEritrea .TheNorwegianCouncilforRefugeesreportedthat,asofAugust2000,somefi�ehundredci�iliandeathswerereportedinTigray .

343 . Ethiopia’se�idencealsocontainedmultipleaccountsbylocaloffi-cialsdescribingcasualtiesintheirkebelesortabias .Se�eraldidnotmentionanycasualties,ormentionedalimitednumberofpersonskilledorinjured,incommunitiesofhundredsorthousandsofpeople .AtabiachairmaninGulo-makhedaWeredadescribedatotalofsixdeathsinhistabiafrommultipleshellingattacksduringthewar .Anotherdescribedfi�edeathsfromartilleryinhistabiaoffour�illages .AthirdtabiachairmanfromGulomakhedaWeredadescribedfi�edeaths .Thechairmanofakebeleofatleastfourthousandpeo-pleinMarebLekheWeredadescribedtwofarmersbeingshotbysoldiersononeoccasion,andotherswoundedbyartilleryonanother .AkebelechairmanfromAhferomWeredadescribedtwel�epeoplefromhiskebeleofatleastsixthousandpeoplebeingkilledbyartilleryfire .Otherreportsbykebeleandtabiaofficialsweretosimilareffect .

344 . Afewaccountsbylocalofficialsdescribedci�iliancasualtiesfromsmallarmsfire .AtabiaadministratorinMarebLekheWeredareferredtothir-teenci�iliansshotandkilledbyEritreansoldiers .Howe�er,thisaccountalsodescribedacti�eresistancetoEritreanforcesbylocalmilitia,raisingquestionsastowhethersomeofthesecasualtiesmayha�ein�ol�edmilitia .

345 . Afewaccountsintherecordreportedmoreextensi�edeathsandinjuriesinparticularlocations .TheadministratorofatabiainAhferomWere-daclaimedthatatwo-dayartilleryattackinMay1998killedthirteenci�iliansandwoundedtwenty-oneina�illageinhistabia,andthattwenty-fourotherpersonswerekilled,123injuredand330housesdestroyedordamagedduringtheconflict .TheadministratorofakebeleinGulomakhedareportednineteendeathsandthreeinjuriesfromartillery .Thesereportedcasualtieswere�eryhighincomparisonwithmostaccountsintherecord .

346 . OntheEasternFront,e�idenceofci�iliancasualtieswase�enlessclear .Ci�ilianwitnesstestimonyofferedattheliabilityphaseindicatedthatintenseshellingcausednumerousdeathsandinjuriesinElidarWereda,par-ticularlyinBureandsurroundingareas .Thee�idenceofferedbyEthiopiadidnotpro�idetheCommissionareliablebasistodetermineaprecisefigureforthosedeaths,howe�er .InDalulWereda,Ethiopianwitnessestestifiedtosig-nificantthoughlessextensi�eshellingthanoccurredinBure,particularlyatthecommencementofhostilitiespriortotheperiodofEritreanoccupation .ThewitnessesEthiopiaofferedforthatregiondidnottestifyspecificallyastoshellingdeaths,thoughtheCommissionacceptsthatitislikelythatsomeoccurred .

347 . AlthoughitappearedthatsubstantialdeathandinjuryresultedfromshellinginBure,thee�idencesubmitteddidnotfullysupportEthiopia’sclaimfortheAfarregion .

348 . Takentogether,though,thecumulati�eweightofthereportsintherecordindicatedle�elsofadditionalci�iliandeathsfarbelowthe54,000claimedonallthreefronts .

349 . Ethiopia’s e�idence did not permit a well-informed judgmentregardingthenumberofci�iliandeathsorinjuriesattributabletoEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolation .Thereweresuchcasualties,butthea�ailablee�idenceidentifieddeathsandinjuriesnumberingatmostinthehundreds,notinthetensofthousandsclaimedherebyEthiopia .Inaddition,deathsandinjuriesresultingfromsomecauses,suchaslandmines,unlawfulconductbyEritreansoldiers,andtheJune1998Mekelebombing,wereco�eredbyEthiopia’sotherclaims .Takingaccountofthea�ailablee�idence,thecasualtiesco�eredbyEthiopia’sotherclaims,andtheseriousnessoftheharmcaused,theCommis-sionawardsUS$8,500,000inrespectofci�iliandeathsandinjuriesrelatedtoEritrea’sbreachofthejus ad bellum.

e. damage to Civilian Property, Primarily from shelling (Category 4)

1. Housing

350 . TheCommissionpre�iouslyaddressedEthiopia’sclaimsfordam-agetohousingandrealpropertybasedontheCommission’sjus in bello liabil-ityfindings .89EthiopiaclaimedanadditionalUS$77millionasjus ad bellum damagesforsuchinjury .Itcontendedthat,inadditiontothehousesallegedlydamagedordestroyedduetoEritrea’sjus in bello �iolations,thousandsmoreweredamagedordestroyedbyEritreanshelling,andthatEritreaisliableforthisdamageonjus ad bellum grounds .Thisclaimwaspresentedinslightlylessthanfi�epagesofEthiopia’sDamagesGroupOneMemorial .

351 . Initsjus in bello housingclaim,Ethiopiaallegedthat35%oftheaggregate�alueofallhousesinlargeareasinsixweredaswaslostduetoactionsbyEritreanforces .Thisclaimappearedtoallegethatanadditional40%ofthe�alueofallhousesinlargeareasofthesesixweredashitbyshellingatanytimeduringthewar,andincorrespondingareasinthreeotherweredas,wasalsolost .Thus,Ethiopiaappearedtocontendthatinlargeareasinsixweredasatleast75%oftheaggregate�alueofallhouseswaslostonaccountofEritrea’s�iolationofeitherthejus in bello orthejus ad bellum.Inthreeotherweredas,itclaimedforatleast40%ofthe�alueofallhousesinlargeareasbecauseofthejus ad bellum breach .(Ethiopiadidnotmakefixed-sumjus ad bellum claimsforpropertylossesfromlootingorothersimilarcauses .)

352 . Ethiopiacalculatedtheamountofitsjus ad bellum housingclaimutilizingthesamenumbersofhousesandpercapitaamountsforallegedprop-ertydamageinTigrayandAfaraswereusedinthecorrespondingjus in bello

89 SectionVIII .Csupra.

claim .ThesepercapitaamountsweremultipliedbythepopulationsofthekebelesandtownsthatEthiopiastatedinitsMemorialsduringtheliabilityphaseweresubjectedtoshelling .Thus,thejus ad bellum claimstartedwithauni�erseofabout77,000houses .Theimplicationwasthateither40%ofthesehousesweredestroyedbyEritreanshelling,orthatalargernumbersuffereddamageinamountscumulati�elyequaling40%ofthe77,000houses’ total�alue .

353 . InitsearlierdiscussionofEthiopia’sjus in bello housingclaim,theCommissionnotedthesubstantialamountofearliere�idenceintherecordshowingwartimedamagetohousesfarlessextensi�ethanEthiopiaclaimed .Thise�idenceincludedbothreportsfromofficialEthiopiansources,anddam-ageassessmentsbyinternationalreliefagencies .90Se�eralpost-wardocumentsreferredtoaWorldBankassessmentidentifyingabout16,400housesinTigrayasha�ingbeendamagedordestroyedbyallcauses;otherlaterassessmentssuggestedthatsuchinitialestimatesmayha�esignificantlyo�erstatedthele�elofdamage .

354 . Theearliere�idencealsoindicatedthatthecostofrepairingorreplacingdamagedhousingwassignificantlylessthanclaimed .TheWorldBankallocatedUS$18 .6millionforrepairtodamagedhousing .ThisroughlycorrespondedtoanEthiopianagency’swartimeestimatethatrepairinghomeswouldcostabout120millionbirr .ApilotWorldBankprojecttorepairfourhundreddamagedhousesinMartaTabiain�ol�edanoutlayof1 .19millionbirrformaterials,about3,000birrperhouse .TheBank’shousingreconstruc-tion/rehabilitationpackageinTigrayranged“frombirr3,000forhomesthatsustainedminordamage,birr7,000forhomesthatwerehea�ilydamagedandbirr15,000forhomesthatrequirereconstructionbecausetheywerecompletelydestroyed .”Allofthise�idencewenttothecostsofrestoringhousingdamagedbyallcauses,includinglootingbysoldiersofbotharmiesandbyci�iliansandnaturaldecay .Itwasnotlimitedtodamagecausedbyartilleryfire .

355 . TheWorldBankdidnot identifysimilarhousingrehabilitationcostsinAfar,findingthat“[t]hehousingneedsinAfardonotrequirerecon-structionacti�ities .Asthebeneficiariesarelargelypastoralist,theywillbepro�idedwithtraditionalmobilehouseswhichareestimatedtocostBirr500perunit .”TheCommissionnotesinthisregardthatthebordertownofBureexperiencedhea�yshellingandprobablyexperiencedsubstantialdamagetohousingandotherstructures .Howe�er,therewasnoe�idenceintherecordregardingdamagetoBurecomparabletothatsubmittedbyEthiopiaforZal-ambessa,andtheCommissionhasnobasisforassessingtheextentor�alueofdamagetoBure .

356 . Takingaccountoftheuncertaintiesandambiguitiesinthee�i-denceregardingtheextentofdamagetohousingattributabletoEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolation,theCommissionawardsUS$6,000,000forthisclaim .

90 See para .132supra.

2. Public Buildings and Infrastructure

357 . Introduction . TheCommissionhasaddressed,inSectionIX .D .1ofthisAward,Ethiopia’sclaimsfordamagetopublicbuildingsandinfrastructurebasedontheCommission’sjus in bello findings .EthiopiapleadedthatitwasentitledtocompensationundereithertheCommission’sjus in bello oritsjus ad bellum liabilityfindingsand,accordingly,didnotspecifytheliabilitybasisofitsclaimsforspecificproperty .TheCommissionhasthereforeattemptedto“deconstruct”Ethiopia’so�erlappingclaimsinordertoassesstheproperbasisforanawardofcompensation .

358 . EthiopiaclaimedUS$13,963,982indamagesforthedestructionandlootingofgo�ernmentbuildingsandinfrastructureonallthreefronts .OntheCentralandWesternFrontsinTigray,EthiopiaclaimedUS$11,397,980for“atleast”331administrationbuildings,schools,clinics,�eterinaryclinics,watersupplysystemsandagriculturaltrainingcenters,includingUS$536,765formo�eablepropertyallegedlylootedfromthoselocations .91InAfarontheEasternFront,EthiopiasoughtUS$2,566,002for“atleast”thirty-fi�eschools,clinics,�eterinaryclinicsandwatersupplysystems,includingUS$93,891formo�eablepropertyallegedlylootedfromthoselocations .AsexplainedinSec-tionIX .D .1ofthisAward,e�identiaryproblemsandalackofclarityinassess-ingthecauseofdamagesledtothefailureofmostofEthiopia’sjus in bello claimsforthisproperty .

359 . Thejus ad bellum liabilityfortheseclaimsmayinsomecasesdupli-cateandinsomecasesbebroaderthanthetypesofdamagecompensableunderthejus in bello.Attheliabilityphase,theCommissionrejectedasunpro�enbothParties’claimsthattheotherengagedinshellingthatwasindiscriminateorotherwisecontrarytothejus in bello.Consequently,anycompensationforshellingdamagerestssolelyonEritrea’s�iolationofthejus ad bellum.

360 . Ethiopia’sClaimandSupportingE�idence . Foritsclaimofdam-agestothe331buildingsontheCentralandWesternFront,EthiopiaproducedinAnnex66toitsDamagesGroupOneMemorialanitemizedlistofalltheclaimedgo�ernmentbuildingsandinfrastructure .Thisidentifiedtheloca-tionbyweredaandlisted�aluesofallegeddamageandlosstostructuresandmo�eableproperty .Eachentryonthelistreferredtoaseparateannex .Theseannexescontained�aryingamountsofsupportinge�idence,suchaspurchaseorders,in�oicesandconstructioncontracts .FortheEasternFront,EthiopiaproducedasimilarlistinAnnex242ofitsDamagesGroupOneMemorial,itemizingallegedlossesrelatingtothirty-fi�ebuildings .Ethiopiaalsosubmit-tede�idenceattheliabilityphaserelatingtotheclaimeddamage .

361 . Insupportofitsdamagesphaseannexes,EthiopiaintroducedthedeclarationoftheRegionalManageroftheEthiopianSocialRehabilitationand

91 EthiopiaclaimedUS$5,938,314ofthisamountforthedestructionandlootingof162buildingsorpiecesofinfrastructureontheCentralFrontandUS$5,459,666for169buildingsorpiecesofinfrastructureontheWesternFront .

De�elopmentFund(“ESRDF”)forTigray,attestingthatthedocumentationinthoseannexesrelatedtostructuresdamagedordestroyedduringthewarforwhichtheESRDFhandledreconstructionfinancing .Ethiopia’srebuttale�i-denceincludedadeclarationoftheESRDF’sDeputyGeneralManager,whodeclaredthatthepurchasese�idencedbythesematerialsweremadethroughanEmergencyReco�eryProgram(“ERP”)financedbyaWorldBankcredit .Hestatedthataportionofthatcreditwasearmarked(bywhomisnotindi-cated)tofinance523infrastructureprojects“intheweredasmostaffected”bytheconflict,andthatonlyinfrastructure“damagedordestroyedasaresultofthewar”couldrecei�etheseearmarkedfunds .Howe�er,healsoindicatedthat“[m]anyoftheprojectsin�ol�edtheconstructionofentirelynewstructures,sincetheseinfrastructuresweretotallydestroyed .”

362 . TheERPCreditAgreementbetweenEthiopiaandtheWorldBankdefinedthe“emergency”toincludeboththeconflictbetweenEthiopiaandEritreaand“thedrought .”Ethiopiacontended,howe�er,thatforstructuresnotrelatedtowatersupplyforwhichfinancingwasappro�ed,droughtwouldnotha�ebeenthecauseofdamage,andthate�erystructureforwhichitclaimedwasdamagedordestroyedduringthewar .

363 . Ethiopia did not indicate whether such damage was caused byartilleryfireorotheracts .Itinsteadarguedthatifabuildingwaslocatedinanareawheretherewasjus in bello liability,therewouldbeapresumptionthatitwasdamagedinthatway,andthatotherwiseEritreacouldbeliableundertheCommission’sjus ad bellum finding .

364 . Eritrea’sReply . InadditiontodenyingthebreadthofEthiopia’sjus ad bellum claimsgenerally,EritreamadethreeprincipalassertionsinresponsetoEthiopia’sclaim .First,Eritreacontendedthatthenewconstructioncon-tractsandin�oicesofferedase�idencedidnotpro�ideareliablebasisonwhichtodeterminethatsuchdamageinfactoccurredorfromwhichtoderi�eacred-ible�alueforthatdamage .Second,EritreacitedtointernalESRDFdocumentssubmittedbyEthiopiaattheliabilityphaseindicatingthatmuchofthedam-ageforwhichEthiopiaclaimedwasforpre-warconstructionprojectsthatdidnotexistorhadnotbeendamagedduringthewar .Third,EritreacontendedthattheERPin�ol�edfundingforprojects,inparticularthosethatrelatedtothedrought,thatdidnotin�ol�ewardamage .

365 .TheCommission’sConclusions . Ethiopia’sdamagesphasee�idenceforthisclaimwasproblematic inse�eralregards .Itdidnotpro�ideareli-ablebasistodeterminewhethertheclaimedreconstructioncostsrelatedtowardamageforwhichEritreawasliable .WheretheCommissioncouldascer-tainthatdamagewaswar-related,Ethiopiaofferednoe�idencetodistinguishthecauseofthatdamage .Theliabilityphasee�idencethattheCommissionre�iewedforcorroborationofEthiopia’sclaim,howe�er,indicatedthatshell-ingwaswidespreadduringthewar .

366 . Whilepropertydestructionduringthewarmightha�ein�ol�edactsotherthanshellingforwhichEritreawasliableunderthejus in bello,itcan

onlybecompensableonmoregeneraljus ad bellum groundsintheabsenceofproofofthecauseofdamage .Lackingabasistodistinguishthecauseofdam-age,theCommissionhasre�iewedmostofthisclaiminthecontextofitsjus ad bellum finding .Moreo�er,totheextentthatEthiopiareco�eredforlootingofpublicpropertyandinfrastructureunderthejus in bello,theCommissionwillnotawarddoublereco�eryhere .

367 . Ethiopia’sdamagesphasee�idenceleftunclearwhethermanyofthebuildingsandpiecesofinfrastructureforwhichEthiopiaclaimedin�ol�edwartimedamageorwerede�elopmentprojectsunrelatedtothewar .Ethiopiaassertedthatallthenewcontracts,purchaseordersandin�oicesfornewprop-ertyinitsannexeswerepartoftheERPprogramandthusin�ol�eddamagefromthewar .TheWorldBankDe�elopmentCreditAgreementthatfundedtheERP,howe�er,wasdraftedinbroadterms .Asnotedabo�e,theagreementtargetedbothareasaffectedbythewarandbydrought;itwasnotlimitedtobuildingsactuallydamagedinthewar .92NotwithstandingtheESRDFofficials’testimony,ESRDFinternaldocumentsintherecordindicatedthatEthiopiautilizedthisfundingtodomorethanjustrepairpropertiesdestroyedorlostduringthewar .

368 . In this regard, Ethiopia’s liability phase e�idence included aNo�ember2001internalimpactassessmentdiscussingtheeffectofthewaronEthiopia’spre-warde�elopmentprojects .ThisreportstatedthattheESRDFhadconstructedanumberofbasicinfrastructureprojectsintheTigrayregion,ofwhichsixhadbeendamagedanddestroyedduetothewar .Anothereightprojectsweresimplydescribedasbeinginwar-affectedweredas .Another106projectsweredescribedasha�ingbeenplannedpriortothewarbutnotimple-mentedbecauseofthewar .IntheAfarregion,thereportnotedthatthreeschoolsandtwoclinicsbeingconstructedwithESRDFfundsweredestroyedduetotheconflict,thattwenty-threeprojectsthatwouldha�ebeenconstruct-edweresuspendedduetothewar,andthatthirty-threeprojectswereplannedpriortothewarbutnotimplementedasaresultofthewar .Thereportindicat-edthatESRDFwasalsoconsideringrequestsforfinancingfromcommunitiesinwar-affectedareasfordisbursement,estimatingthetotalamountof“dam-age”basedonthesefigurestobeapproximately56,200,00birr[sic] .ForeachoftheTigrayandAfarregions,thereportattacheda“ListofProjectsDamaged,SuspendedandPlannedButNotImplementedDuetotheWar”pro�idinganitemizationforeachde�elopmentprojectinthoseregions .

92 Intheagreement,theWorldBankundertooktopro�idefinancingforaprogramofactionsrelatingtothe“Emergency”thatbeganinMay1998,whichincludedboththeconflictbetweenEritreaandEthiopiaandthedrought .Inordertorecei�esuchfinancing,Ethiopiaaffirmedthatamountsborrowedwouldbecommittedtotheobjecti�esofthepro-gram,whichincluded(i)“toassistthepeopleaffectedbytheEmergencyrebuildtheirli�edandresumeeconomicacti�ities,”(ii)“rehabilitateandreconstructsocialinfrastructure,”and(iii)“supportmacroeconomicstability .”

369 . AlthoughtheESRDFprojectsdiscussed in theNo�ember2001reportcouldha�ein�ol�edsomeacti�itiesthatwerenotpartoftheERP,doz-ensoftheprojectsitlistedas“plannedbutnotimplemented”or“suspended”becauseofthewarwerealsoincludedinAnnexes66and242ofEthiopia’sDamagesGroupOneMemorial,listingprojectsforwhichEthiopiaclaimeddamages .EthiopiaarguedattheApril2007hearingthatsomebuildingsslatedforconstructionunderthepre-warde�elopmentplanswereexistingbuild-ingsthatwereindeeddestroyedduringthewar,butitdidnotpro�ideabasisfortheCommissiontoidentifyanysuchbuildings .WhiletheCommissionunderstandsthatthewarhaltedimplementationofmanyplannedde�elop-mentprojects,itcannotholdtheStateofEritrearesponsibleforthecostsofthoseprojectsaftertheywereresumed .

370 . ConsideringthattheERPwascreatedinparttoaddressadrought,thee�idencerelatingtowellsandreser�oirsraisedparticulardifficulties .Thewarclearlydamagedsuchfacilities .InaJune1999DamageAssessmentReport,submittedbyEthiopiaattheliabilityphase,theTigrayRegionalBureauofPlanningandEconomicDe�elopmentestimatedthatfifty-twohandpumps,twel�emanuallydugwaterwells,threemotorizedpumps,onegeneratorandone100-cubicmeterreser�oir,withatotal�alueof5,650,000birr,wereputcompletelyoutofuseasaresultofthewar .Thisseemsaplausibleassessment,bothinthenumberoffacilitiesandtheestimatedamountofdamage .How-e�er,mostofthewaterpointsforwhichEthiopiaclaimedinAnnex66didnotha�ethissortofcorroborati�esupport,andEthiopiadidnotpre�iouslycitemostofthemaswardamage .Moreo�er,manyofthewaterpointsclaimedbyEthiopiawerecitedas“plannedbutnotimplemented”bytheESRDFin2001 .

371 . Thedamageclaimedtopublicbuildingsandotherpublicinfra-structurewasalsomuchgreaterthanEthiopia’searliere�idenceindicated .Asdiscussedabo�e,theESRDF’sNo�ember2001reportstatedthatithadunder-takenreconstructionofjustsixstructuresdestroyedinthewarinTigrayandthreeschoolsinAfar .Se�eralreportsofregionalgo�ernmentalentitiesofferedbyEthiopiaattheliabilityphase,aswellasthedeclarationsofse�eralwitness-escataloguingdestructiontoschools,healthclinicsandwatersupplysources,alsoindicatedle�elsofdamagesubstantiallylessthanEthiopiaclaimedatthedamagesphase .

372 . The new construction contracts offered by Ethiopia to show theamountofdamagealsoga�erisetouncertainty .Itwasnotapparentonthefaceofmanywhethertheprojectin�ol�edrepairorreplacementofwartimedamage,orawhollynewstructure .Manycontractsdidnotincludesiteclear-anceorrubbleremo�al,whichwouldbeanecessarystepinreconstructingawar-damagedbuilding .Thecontractsthatdidappeartoin�ol�ewartimedam-agedidnotindicateitscause .Moreo�er,whilecontractpricesmightaccuratelyreflectthe�aluelostinadestroyedstructure,Ethiopiaisnotentitledtothecostofacompletelynewstructuretoreplaceonethatwaspartiallydamaged,orthatwaslargerormoreelaboratethanitspredecessor .

373 . Gi�en these uncertainties in the damages phase e�idence, theCommissionbelie�esdamageandimpactassessmentreportsoflocalofficialsattheliabilityphasepro�ideamorereliablebasistoassesstheextentofdam-agetothedisputedbuildings .TheseincludetheDamageAssessmentReportoftheTigrayRegionalBureauofPlanningandEconomicDe�elopment(June3,1999),theTigrayRegionalBureauofEducationPlanningandProgrammingReportofDamagestoEducationalEstablishments(September22,2000),aReportoftheEasternZoneEducationDepartment—Adigrat(September15,2001),theESRDFListofProjectsDamaged,SuspendedandPlannedButNotImplementedDuetotheWarintheAfarRegion(No�ember2001),andotherreportsandeyewitnessaccountsrelatingtoparticularstructures .

374 . Mostofthesematerialswerenotpreparedforthepurposesofliti-gation,andappearedtopro�ideareasonableindicationofthe�aluelostindamagedordestroyedgo�ernmentalstructures,generallylessthanEthiopiaclaimed .Whilerelyingprincipallyontheliabilityphasee�idencemaylimitthecompensationthatcanbeawarded,theCommissioncannotrelysolelyonthedamagesphasee�idence,gi�entheflawsandinconsistenciesdiscussedabo�e .

375 . TheCommissionhasre�iewedboththedamagesandliabilityphasee�idenceinsearchofsufficientproofofdamagesforeachpropertyclaimed .ItreliedprincipallyonthemunicipalandESRDFdamageassessmentssubmit-tedattheliabilityphaseanddiscussedabo�e,butalsoconsideredthedamagesphaseannexeswheretheycontainedinformationclarifyinguncertaintiesintheearliere�idence .Wheretheamountclaimedatthedamagesphaseindi-catedanactualcostlowerthantheliabilityphaseestimate,theCommissionutilizedtheloweramount .Applyingthesecriteria,theCommissionreachesthefollowingconclusionsonthecompensation .

376 . For theCentralFront,onthebasisofalla�ailablee�idence forpropertydestructioncaused topublicbuildingsand infrastructureby thewar,theCommissionfindsproofofsubstantialdamage,mostlyfromartilleryfire .

377 . FortheWesternFront,onthebasisofalla�ailablee�idenceforpropertydestructioncausedtopublicbuildingsandinfrastructurebythewar,theCommissionfindsproofoflessdamagethanontheCentralFront,butstillsignificantdamage,mostlyfromartilleryfire .

378 . FortheEasternFront,Ethiopianwitnessdeclarationsindicatedthatextensi�eshellingoccurredinthe�icinityofBureandmorelimitedshell-ingoccurredinDalulWereda .Thate�idencegenerallyportrayedextensi�epropertydamageintheregion,includingdamagetonumerouswatercon-tainers,schoolsandclinics inBureandsurroundingareas .TheNo�ember2001ESRDFinternalassessmentreportalsocitedthedestructionofaclinicandtwoschoolsinBureandManda,althoughthatreportdidnotaddressthebreadthofdamagethatoccurredintheregion .EthiopiawaslimitedbythefactthattheliabilityphasetestimonygenerallyshowingdamagetoBurewasnot

specificenoughtocorroborateclaimsforbuildingslistedfornewconstructionatthedamagesphase .TheCommissionthereforefindsproofofsubstantialdamagetopublicbuildingsandinfrastructurefromshellingontheEasternFront,particularlyinBure,althoughtheCommissionisrestrainedbythee�i-denceEthiopiaofferedatthedamagesphaseand,asaresult,thecompensationawardedlikelydoesnotreflectthefullextentofthejus ad bellum damagethatactuallyoccurredtopublicbuildingsandinfrastructureinthatregion .

379 . ConsideringthattheamountofdamagescausedbyEritrea’s�iola-tionsofthejus ad bellum issubjecttosomeuncertaintyandthatthecausesofsuchdamagearenotthemsel�es�iolationsofthejus in bello,thetotalcom-pensationforEritrea’s�iolationofthe jus adbellum withrespecttopublicbuildingsandinfrastructureisUS$3,500,000 .

3. Religious Institutions

380 . EthiopiaclaimedUS$9,238,669incompensationformaterialdam-ageresultingfromEritrea’slooting,destructionanddamageto“atleast164”churches,monasteries,mosques,andparochialschoolsintheregionsofTig-rayandAfar .EthiopiapleadedthatitisentitledtocompensationundereithertheCommission’sjus in bello oritsjus ad bellum findings,butdidnotspecifytheliabilitybasisforitsclaimsinspecificinstances .

381 . TheCommissionawardsUS$4,500,000incompensationforloot-inganddamagetoreligiousinstitutionsonallthreefrontsforthejus in bello componentofthisclaimaddressedinSectionIX .D .2ofthisAward .Thissec-tionoftheAwardexcludesthoseinjuriesforwhichtheCommissionawardscompensationforbreachofthejus in bello.TheCommissionreiteratestheconcernsaboutdamagetoreligiousinstitutionsarticulatedinitsjus in bello finding .Damagetoreligiousinstitutionsisaparticularlyse�ereconsequenceof armed conflict that tears at the fabric of the affected communities anddepri�esthemofsafeplacesofworship .

382 . OntheCentralFront,EthiopiaclaimedUS$5,229,389incompen-sationforlooting,destructionanddamagetoreligiousinstitutions .Incon-sideringthejus in bello componentofthisclaim,theCommissionacceptedascrediblethee�idenceofferedtoshowtheextentofdamagetoreligiousinsti-tutionsthere .Someofthate�idence,howe�er,eitherindicatedthatthecauseofparticulardamagewasshellingorwasunclearastothecause .TheCom-missionacceptsthatthedamageoccurredandwaswarrelated,buttheproofwasnotadequatetoawardcompensationforajus in bello �iolation .Insuchinstances,howe�er,Ethiopia’sclaimofcompensationforwardamagesur�i�esunderthejus ad bellum.

383 . OntheWesternFront,EthiopiaclaimedUS$3,956,528incompen-sationforlooting,destructionanddamagetoreligiousinstitutionsinTahtayAdiaboandKaftaHumeraWeredas .InKaftaHumera,EthiopiasubmittedacrediblereportswornbylocalofficialsoftheSetitHumeraOfficeofIslamic

Affairsclaimingjus ad bellum damagetotheHumeraMosque .EthiopiaalsoofferedareportoftheHumeraDioceseitemizinglossesassociatedwiththelootinganddamageof�ariouschurchesthroughouttheregion .Thispropertydamagewasnotcompensableunderthejus in bello ontheWesternFrontandisthereforeincorporatedasacomponentofthejus ad bellum compensationforthatregion .

384 . InTahtayAdiabo,EthiopiasubmittedaletteroftheManageroftheNorthwesternZoneofTigrayDiocesetotheDioceseBishopOfficeoftheEthiopianOrthodoxChurch,listingdestroyedanddamagedchurchpropertiesintheShireEndaSelassieDiocese .Thislistdidnotcontainswornaccountsofthelocalcongregationstocorroboratethedamageorits�alue,assomeoftheotherdamagesphasereportsdid .Someofthedamageclaimedfortheseinsti-tutionswas,howe�er,corroboratedbythedeclarantswhosubmittedtestimonyattheliabilityphase .TheCommissionhasthereforeincorporatedconsidera-tionofdamagetothosepropertiesforwhichliabilityphasecorroborationwaspro�idedintoitsawardofjus ad bellum compensationforthisclaim .

385 . OntheEasternFront,EthiopiaclaimedUS$52,752incompensa-tionfor looting,destructionanddamagetoreligiousinstitutionsinElidarWereda .Ethiopia’se�idenceconsistedofareportoftheAfarDioceseSecretar-iatthatsummarizeditsin�estigationintowardamageandpro�ideddetailedreportsofdamagetoandlootingofchurchesintheregion .Ethiopianwitnessdeclarationsofferedattheliabilityphaseindicatedthatse�eralmosquesinBureandtheDalulregionweredestroyed,thoughEthiopiadidnotpro�idedamagesfiguresforthosestructuresatthedamagesphase .

386 . Ha�ingre�iewedallofthee�idenceofjus ad bellum damagetoreligiousinstitutionsonallthreefrontsandtakingintoaccounttheserious-nessoftheharmcaused,theCommissionawardscompensationadditionaltowhatisawardedforjus in bello �iolationsforthisclaimofUS$2,500,000 .

4. Destruction in Zalambessa

387 . In Section IX .A of this Award, the Commission awardsUS$16,812,094incompensationforphysicaldestructioncausedinZalambessaonthebasisthatEritreaisliableunderthejus in bello forcausing75%ofsuchdestruction .TheCommissionfindsthatEthiopiaisliablefortheremaining25%ofsuchdestructionunderitsliabilityforthejus ad bellum.Assuch,theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$5,605,000injus ad bellum compensationforthese�ereandwell-documentedphysicaldamageinZalambessa .

f. deaths and injuries Caused by landmines (Category 5)388 . TheCommissionpre�iously rejectedasunpro�enbothParties’

claimsthattheotherusedlandminesindiscriminatelyorotherwisecontrarytointernationallaw .Ethiopiamaintained,howe�er,thatEritreawasrespon-

siblefordeathsandinjuriestoEthiopianscausedbylandmineslaidbybothPartiesbecauseofitsjus ad bellum �iolation .Itbasedthisclaimuponstatisticsde�elopedbytheTigrayRegionalOfficeoftheRehabilitationandDe�elop-mentOrganizationreportingdeathsandinjuriesfromlandminesandunex-plodedordnancestemmingfromtheconflict .Theserecorded124deaths(106inTigrayandeighteeninAfar),and340physicalinjuries(264inTigrayandse�enty-sixinAfar) .

389 . EthiopiaclaimedUS$1,635,622inrespectofthesedeathsandinju-ries,calculatedinthesamemannerasitsotherfixedamountclaimsfordeathsandinjuries .Thecalculationsbeganwithundiscountedestimatesof�ictims’projectedlifetimeearningsinTigrayorAfar .Ethiopiaclaimed100%oftheseprojectedearningsinthecaseofdeaths,and75%inthecaseofinjuries .Ethio-piaclaimedeitherUS$598,966orUS$559,594ascompensationforthedeaths,reflectingeitherUS$4,859orUS$4,495(bothfigureswerecited)foreachof104deathsinTigray,andUS$4,623fortheeighteendeathsinAfar .Forthe340injuriesfrommines,EthiopiaclaimedUS$1,094,028 .

390 . TheCommissionwillnotrepeatitsearlierreser�ationsregardingtheuseofundiscountedestimatedlifetimeearningsindeterminingcompen-sation,whichapplywithequalforcetotheirusehere .

391 . Ci�iliandeathsandinjuriesfromlandminesareadirectandread-ily foreseeableconsequenceof theuseof theseweapons .TheCommissionholdsthatdeathsandinjuriescausedbylandminesjustifycompensation,iftheyresultedfromminesthatwerelaidintheareasandduringtheperiodsforwhichEritreabearsjus ad bellum liability .Thisincludesdeathsandinjuriesresultingfromdetonationsoccurringaftertheliabilityperiods,andtocasual-tiesresultingfrommineslaidbyeitherParty .93Ci�ilianinjuriesfromtheseweaponsoftenoccurlongaftertheyaredeployed .Inthisregard,thee�idencesuggestedthatlandminecasualtiesweremuchmorefrequentinlaterperiodsofthewarandinitsimmediateaftermath,particularlyasdisplacedpersonssoughttoreturntotheirhomesafterEthiopianmilitarysuccessesinFebruary1999andMayandJune2000 .

392 . TheTigrayRegionalOfficeoftheRehabilitationandDe�elopmentOrganizationstatisticscitedbyEthiopiaindicatedle�elsofci�iliancasual-tiessomewhathigherthanthoseindicatedinEthiopia’searlierpleadingsande�idence .Forexample,anearlierdeclarationofaseniorofficialoftheReha-bilitationandDe�elopmentOrganizationresponsibleformineclearanceandeducationaccompanyingEthiopia’sCentralFrontMemorialindicatedatotalof365deathsandinjuriesthroughmid-2002 .Howe�er,thee�idenceintherecordwasbroadlyconsistentregardingtheaggregatele�elofsuchcasual-ties,andtheCommissionhasgi�ensignificantweighttothestatisticscitedbyEthiopiainassessingthefrequencyoflandminecasualties .

93 See EisenbachBrothers&Company,supra note75 .

393 . Basedonitsappraisalof thee�idence, theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$1,500,000fordeathsandinjuriescausedbylandmines .

G. business losses and other actual amount damages (Category 6)

394 . Ethiopiaclaimedsubstantialdamagesinrespectofinjuriessaidtoha�ebeensufferedbymanybusinesses,go�ernmentagenciesandorganiza-tions .Theseclaims,andtheirsupportingdocumentation,oftenappearedtoha�ebeenpreparedbytheaffectedentity,andthey�ariedinclarityanddetail .Theclaims’legalbasisoftenwasnotstated,butmostappearedtoin�ol�eanassertionofjus ad bellum liability .

395 . Someoftheseclaimsincludedelementsthatwerehighlyspeculati�eoroutsidetheCommission’stemporaljurisdiction;thesearedismissed .Ethio-piaalsoassertedsomeclaimsfordamagesin�ol�ingproductiondelays,inter-ruptionsofforeignconsultants’ser�ices,andothertypesofdamagesresultingfromthegeneraldisruptionoftheci�ilianeconomyinwartime .Ingeneral,theCommissionfindsthesenotcompensable .BothPartiesagreedthatclaimsforgeneralizedsocialoreconomicdislocationinwartimeshouldnotbecom-pensable,andcitedwithappro�aldecisionsoftheU .S .-GermanMixedClaimsCommissiontothiseffect .Nosystemoflegalliabilitycanaddressalloftheeconomicconsequencesofwar .Costsanddelayshappen;businessisinjured;plansandexpectationsaredisrupted .Internationallawdoesnotimposeliabil-ityforsuchgeneralizedeconomicandsocialconsequencesofwar .

396 . Adigrat Pharmaceutical Factory Claim . Ethiopia claimed32,104,655 .25birr(whichitcon�ertedtoUS$4,665,086)fordamageallegedlysufferedbyAddisPharmaceuticalsFactoryShareCompany,whichownedandoperatedapharmaceuticalplantinAdigrat,thirtykilometerssouthofZal-ambessa .Ethiopiaallegedthatonaccountof“repeatedartilleryattacksonAdigrat,”theplantsuspendedoperationsforsixmonths,incurring11,851,344birrinlostprofits,whilecontinuingtopayitsidleemployeesanadditional1 .5millionbirr .Ethiopiaclaimedanother5,355,000birrfor“�alueofprofitthatwouldha�ebeenacquiredwithintwoyears,”butthatallegedlywaslostduetothefailureofaplantorecruitforeignprofessionalstohelpstartanewproductline .Smalleramountswereclaimedfordamagetoawindowandawallalleg-edlycausedbyanEritreanairaid;fortheexpensesofsettingupaci�ildefensesystem;andforanemployeekilledinanartilleryattack,whoselifeinsurancewouldnotpayadeathbenefitbecausethedeathresultedfromwar .

397 . Theonlye�idencecitedinEthiopia’sDamagesGroupOneMemo-rialtosupportthisclaimwasthecompany’sFebruary2001claimsform .Thisformdescribedtheamountsclaimedinasummarymanner,andpro�idednosupportingdocumentation .Itpro�idednoe�idenceofthe“hea�yartil-leryfiredrepeatedlytowardthefactory”fromEritreanlinesmanykilometersaway,and thisallegationdidnotconform toothere�idence in the record

regardingthefrequencyandextentofartilleryimpactsinandaroundAdi-grat .BeginningwithitsJuly2003PartialAwardinEthiopia’sPrisonersofWarClaims,theCommissionhasmadeclearitsreser�ationsabouttheadequacyofunsubstantiatedclaimsformsastheprincipalsupportfordamagesclaims .94Thisclaimsformwasnotsufficiente�idencetosupportaclaimformorethanUS$4 .5million,andtheclaimisdismissedforfailureofproof .Accordingly,theCommissionneednotconsiderwhethertheseclaims,oranyofthem,fallwithinthescopeofEritrea’sjus ad bellum liability .

398 . AlmedaTextileFactory .EthiopiaclaimedUS$30,263,432forlossessustainedbytheAlmedaTextileFactoryinAdwaduetothewar .Thesup-portinge�idenceconsistedofthefactory’sFebruary2001claimsformandaNo�ember2006declarationofthefirm’sgeneralmanager .Theclaimsformlistedlossesof29,235,435 .19birr,ofwhichabout28 .6millionbirrwerecharac-terizedas“contractlosses .”Thesewereprimarilyforexportsalesallegedlylostonaccountofthewar;theclaimwasapparentlyforthe�alueoflostsales,notlostprofits .Otherlossesclaimedontheformincludedthecostsofpaintingthefactory“withmuddycoloredpaint,”apparentlytoreduceits�isibilitytoEri-treanaircraft;waterdamagetoT-shirtsstoredina“desertedarea”toprotectthem;andsalariesandtra�elexpensesoftextileexpertsfromthePhilippines,whodidnotremaininEthiopiaonaccountofthewar .

399 . The2006declarationofthefirm’sgeneralmanagersignificantlyexpandedtheclaim .Theoriginalclaimfor29,000,000birrinlostsaleswasincreasedto104,547,532birrfor“lostincomefromsales .”These�erylargelosseswerenotfurtherdocumentedorexplained .Thedeclarationalsoaddedo�ertenmillionbirrfordelaysintheconstructionofthefirm’stextilefactory,tenmillionbirrforpaymentsto“unusedlabor,”andfifteenmillionbirrinpropertyallegedlytakenattheportofMassawa(andthereforealsoco�eredbyEthiopia’sseparateclaimforpropertyallegedlylostinEritreanports) .

400 . Thee�idenceforthisclaimwasinconsistentandinsufficienttosustainaclaimformorethan145millionbirr .Theclaimisrejectedforfailureofproof .

401 . DedebitSa�ingandCreditInstitutionShareCompany . Ethiopiaclaimed36,634,212 .38birr (which it con�erted toequalUS$5,323,270) forlossesallegedlyincurredbytheDedebitSa�ingandCreditInstitutionShareCompany,whichpro�idedunsecuredshort-termloansat12 .5%interesttolow-incomefarmersandothersinTigray .Abouthalfoftheamountclaimedwasforloansandaccruedinterestallegedlyrendereduncollectiblewhenthedebtorsweredisplaced(aboutele�enmillionbirr)or joined theEthiopianArmy(abouteightmillionbirr) .Mostoftherestwasforallegedlylostinterestincomefromloansthatwerenotmadeonaccountofthewar .Ethiopiaalsoclaimed100,077birrforofficepropertyallegedlylootedfromfi�esub-officesinZalambessa,Badmeandotherlocations .Thee�idencefortheclaimconsist-

94 PartialAwardinEthiopia’sPOWClaims,paras .40&41 .

edoftheNo�ember2006declarationofthefirm’sgeneralmanageranda2001claimsform;thedescriptionsoftheclaiminbothwerelargelyconsistent .

402 . TheCommissionfindsthatthelostprofitsportionofthisclaim(whichassumedgrowthofpastloan�olumesandafa�orableinterestrate)wasspeculati�eandinsufficientlysupportedbye�idence .Thee�idenceregardingtheallegedlossesonloansclaimedtobeuncollectiblewasalsoquitelimited .Inanycase,thatportionin�ol�edbusinesslossesstemmingfromgeneralizedconditionsofeconomicdisruptioninwartime .TheCommissionregardssuchlossesastooremotefromEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolation,andasnotcompen-sable .TheportionoftheclaimalleginglootingofpropertyfromZalambessaandotherlocationsduplicatesEthiopia’sotherclaimsforlootingdamage,forwhichtheCommissionelsewhereawardscompensation .Theclaimaccord-inglyisdismissed .

403 . MesseboBuildingMaterialsProductionShareCompany .Thiswasaclaimforo�er116,635,279 .35birrandUS$2,405,832 .35(con�ertedbyEthio-piatoequalUS$18,033,631)attributabletose�eralmonthsofdelaysandaddi-tionalcostsintheconstructionofalargecementfactoryinMekele,allegedlyonaccountofthewar .Theclaimwasextensi�elydescribedinthedeclarationofaprojectengineerwhoworkedontheprojectandwhopreparedanearlierclaimsformin2001 .Ethiopiaalsosubmittedcontracts,in�oices,timesheetsandotherdetailedandextensi�esupportingdocumentation .

404 . The claim included multiple components . The largest—o�er80%oftheclaim—wasfor102,869,332 .66birrinadditionalloancostssaidto result from delays in the project, including 22,300,000 million birr forlost interestonthefundstheowners in�estedintheproject .EthiopiaalsosoughtUS$139,500 .45and523,973 .50birrforaboutfi�eweeks’interruptionof construction following the June 1998 air bombings in Mekele . Most ofthisamountwasfore�acuationandidlelaborcostsforTurkishworkers .ItclaimedUS$115,319and530,277 .90birrforsimilarcostsincurredwhenworkwasdelayedaroundthetimeofEthiopia’sOperationSunset inearly1999 .Thesedelaysgeneratedadditional insurance, site runningandother simi-larcostssaidtototalUS$416,824 .41and2,020,943 .47birr .EthiopiaclaimedUS$356,699and210,250birrforadditionalconsultants’feesandexpensesonaccountofbothdelays .Otherclaimsco�eredadditionaltransportationcostsstemmingfromuseoftheportofDjiboutiandpropertyallegedlylostatEri-treanports(apparentlyduplicatingEthiopia’sportsclaim) .

405 . Ethiopiapresentedanelaborateaccountof thecostsassociatedwiththedelayofthisproject,butdidnotdemonstratethatthosecostsshouldberegardedasproximatelycausedbyEritrea’s jus ad bellum �iolation .Theclaimfore�acuationexpensesandexpensesrelatingtodelaysappearedtoariseoutofsomeexpatriateemployers’concernforthesafetyoftheiremployeesandconsultantsatthesite .(FollowingtheattacksonMekelebythreeEritreanair-craftinJune1998,theDanish,TurkishandIndiancontractorsin�ol�edintheprojecte�acuatedtheirownnationalsfromthesite .)Theclaimedcostsofe�ac-

uation,idleworkers,expensesrelatingtoresumptionofwork,andexpensesassociatedwiththedelayofthecontractingperiodappearedtoha�estemmedfromgeneralizedwartimeeconomicconditions,includingthedesireoffor-eigncontractors toremo�e theiremployees fromanen�ironment thoughtpotentiallytoexposethemtorisk .Moreo�er,despitedelaysintheproject,thee�idenceindicatedthatitwascompletedinOctober2000 .Theclaimfordam-ageallegedlyincurredbyEthiopiainrespectofthesecostsisdismissed .

406 . EzanaMining . EthiopiaclaimedUS$803,742forlossesallegedlysustainedbyEzana,apri�atecompanybasedinMekelethatexploredforgoldandothermetals,apparentlyinareasclosetothewarfronts .Almost62%oftheclaim,US$495,806,wasforexpensesallegedlyincurredfollowingtheendofthewar,afteraforeignpartner(whichearlieragreedtopaytheseexpenses)withdrewinDecember2000,allegedlyduetodelaysresultingfromwartimeconditions .OtherclaimeditemsincludedUS$19,297forcostsoftheprematuredepartureofaforeignexpert;US$96,000inupgradestoananalysislaboratorythatcouldnotbeusedandwere“renderedobsoleteasaresultofdelayscausedbythewar;”191,500birrforincomelostduetonon-useofthelaboratory;US$105,857insalarypaymentstounproducti�eworkers;andUS$68,876inassistanceallegedlypro�idedtodisplacedpersons,apparentlythroughchari-tabledonations .(Theonlye�idenceforthislastitemwasa�ouchershowinga50,000birrcontributiontotheEthiopianChamberofCommerce“tosupport�ictimsofwaronTigray .”)

407 . TheCommissionconcludesthatthisclaimmustfail .MorethanhalfoftheclaimedinjuriesfollowedfromthedepartureofEzana’sforeignpartnerafterthewarended .Theseinjurieswerecausallyfarremo�edfromEritrea’sdelictandwereincurredaftertheCommission’sjurisdictionalperiod .Theotherelementsoftheclaimwereeitherspeculati�e(i .e .,theclaimforlostprofitsfromnon-useofthemineralslaboratory)orin�ol�eddecisionsorcon-sequencesthatagainwerecausallyfarremo�edfromEritrea’sdelict .Theclaimforpro�idingassistance(apparentlyonacharitablebasis)stemmedfromadecisionbythecompany,andisnotcompensable .

408 . RamaChildBirthandMaternalHealthClinic .Ethiopiaclaimed2,215,102birr(con�ertedtoUS$321,874)fordamageallegedlysustainedbyanew,pri�atelyownedclinicinRama .Mostoftheclaimwasfor600,000birrinallegedlylostcapitaland1,530,150birrforlostprofits .Anadditional33,000birrwasfordamagetothebuilding,39,000birr forbuildingmaterial thatwas“wasted,”and12,000birrforlostmedicine(includingmedicinewithanestimated�alueof10,000birr) .

409 . Theclinicwasstillunderconstructionandjustbeginningtooper-atewhenitsfoundersleftRamatoseeksafetyelsewhere,sotherewasnorecordofpastprofitability .Thehandwrittenstatementofprojectedmonthlyre�enuessubmittedtosupporttheclaimforlostfutureprofitsappearedsignificantlytounderstateexpenses(forexample,makingnoallowancesforthecostsofmedi-cine,paymentsofprincipalandinterestonloans,buildingmaintenance,taxes

andfees,etc .),andprojectedthatalmost75%ofestimatedfuturere�enueswouldgotoprofit .Gi�entheselimitations,Ethiopia’sclaimfor1 .5millionbirrforlostfutureprofitsisdismissedasspeculati�eandunpro�en .Theclaimfor600,000birrinallegedlylostcapitalisalsodismissed,astherecordshowedthatthedaughteroftheclinic’sfoundersisinpossessionoftheclinicbuildingandisseekingtobringtheclinicintooperation .Theremainingportionoftheclaim,formuchsmalleramountsforallegedshellingdamage,wasthinlydocumentedandappearedtoduplicateEthiopia’sseparatejus ad bellum claimfordamagetostructuresfromshelling .Theclaimisdismissed .

410 . OtherGo�ernmentLossesontheCentralFront . Ethiopiaclaimedanamountitcon�ertedtoUS$2,142,527forse�eralcategoriesofjus ad bellum go�ernmentlossesontheCentralFrontnototherwiseco�eredbyitsclaims .Almost75%oftheclaimedamount(anamountcon�ertedtoUS$1,542,013)wasforthreewarehouses,anoffice,45,000quintalsofgrainandotherfood-stuffs,ahea�ytruckandrelatedpropertyownedbytheTigrayRegionalDis-asterPre�entionandPreparednessBureau(“DPPB”)thatwasdestroyedbytheEritreanairraidonAdigratonJune11,1998 .TheCommissionreferredtothisattackinitsPartialAwardinEthiopia’sCentralFrontclaims;95itoccurredwhentherewasintensefightingnearbyintheareaofZalambessa .(AdigratisaboutthirtykilometersfromZalambessa,andliesontheprincipalroadlead-ingthere .)TheCommissionconcludesthatthedestructionofthewarehousesandrelatedpropertyintheJune1998aerialattackwassufficientlyconnectedintimeandcausalsequencewithEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolation,andthatdestructionofthisnaturewasaforeseeableresultofthat�iolation .

411 . Ethiopiapro�idedpersuasi�ee�idenceofthedestruction,includ-inga�ideooftheaftermathoftheJune11attackclearlyshowingalargeburn-ingwarehouse,burningsacksofgrain,andaburninghea�ytruckinsidethewarehouse .Howe�er,theamountclaimedisneitherclearlyexplainednorsup-ported .Ethiopia’sDamagesGroupOneMemorialclaimedatotalof10,611,979birr,whichwasalmosttwicethetotalamountofthelossesdescribedintheMemorial(5,711,114birr),andappearedtoreflecterroneousdouble-counting .TheCommissionalsonotesthatthe850,000birrclaimedforthelosthea�ytruckgreatlyexceedstheamountsEritreaclaimedforsimilartrucksseizedbyEthiopianauthorities .

412 . Basedonitsassessmentofthee�idence,theCommissionawardsEthiopiacompensationofUS$250,000forthedestructionoftheDPPBfacili-tiesinAdigrat .

413 . InitsotherCentralFrontgo�ernmentclaims,Ethiopiaclaimed:(a)2,392,586birrforpropertylootedfromfacilitiesbelongingtotheTigrayRegionalAgricultureBureauinBadmeandZalambessa;(b)57,830birrfortransportation,storageandofficecostsincurredbytheEthiopianCustomsAuthoritytoe�acuatefromZalambessa,SheraroandBuretosaferlocations;

95 PartialAwardinEthiopia’sCentralFrontClaims,para .32 .

(c)120,162birrforthedestructionofaDPPBwarehouseunderconstructioninDewhaninIrobWereda;(e)362,100birrforgrainandemptygrainbagslootedfromtheDPPBwarehouseinBadme;(f)1 .2millionbirrforDPPBloanstofarmersinGulomakhedaWereda,whichbecameuncollectablewhenthefarmersweredisplacedafterEritrea’sin�asioninJune1998;(g)61,900birrfordamagestotheIrobWeredaPoliceStationanditscontents;and(h)389,616birrfordestructionoftheMarebLekheWeredaPoliceStationinRama .

414 . Thelargestclaim,namelythatrelatedtothelootingofpropertyfrom the Tigray Regional Agriculture Bureau facilities, was supported bydetailedin�entoriesofitemslootedfromtheBadmeandZalambessafacilities(fromwhichEthiopiasegregatedjus in bello claimamounts)�aluedatthetimeofthewar .Similarly,theclaimsrelatedtothedestructionoftheDPPBDewhanwarehouseanddamagestothePoliceStationinIrobWeredawerereasonablysupportedbyin�entoriesandcontractdocuments .

415 . Incomparison,theCommissionfindslittleornoe�identiarysup-portforthe�alidityoforquantumforEthiopia’sclaimsforgrainandgrainbagslootedfromtheDPPBwarehouseinBadme,fortheDPPBfarmers’loans,orfordamagetotheMarebLekheWeredaPoliceStation .TheCommissionalsohasconcernsaboutthecausati�elinkastocertainclaims,forexample,theexpensesofloading,mo�ingandunloading928barrelsofasphaltand�ariouscontrabandgoodsbetweencustomsoffices .

416 . Basedonitsassessmentofthee�idence,theCommissionawardsEthiopia compensation of US$162,500 for the Central Front go�ernmentclaimsotherthantheDPPBwarehousesandpropertyinAdigrat .

417 . OtherGo�ernmentLossesontheWesternFront . EthiopiasoughtanamountsaidtoequalUS$388,212forthreecategoriesofgo�ernmentlossontheWesternFrontnotco�eredbyitsotherclaims .Thefirstclaimwasfor200,000birrincashallegedlylootedfromtheBadmeKebeleAdministrationOfficefollowingin�asionofthetown .Insupportofthisclaim,Ethiopiapre-sentedthedeclarationofthethenheadoftheEconomicDe�elopmentSec-tionoftheTahtayAdiaboWeredaAdministration .Histestimonywasthatthelootedcashhadbeencollectedastaxre�enueo�erthetwomonthsbeforethein�asion,andthattypicalmonthlytaxre�enuewasbetween100,000and200,000birr .Thesecondclaimwasfor1,481,631birrforthelootingoffourpolice�ehicles(1,400,000birr)andotherproperty(51,631birr)fromtheTig-rayRegionalPoliceCommissioninBadme,aswellasdamagetothepolicestationitself(30,000birr) .Astopolice�ehicles,thecumulati�ee�idencesup-portedthelootingofatmostthree�ehiclesandtheamountsclaimed(a�erag-ing350,000birrforeachoffour�ehicles)appearedexcessi�e .Thethirdandfinalgo�ernmentclaimwasfor990,000birrindamagesallegedlysufferedbytheTigrayRegionalJusticeBureau:240,000birrtorebuildtheMarebLekheWeredaJusticeOfficeinRama,whichwasdestroyedbyanartilleryattackonFebruary1,1999;and750,000birrforthe�alueofalootedNissanpatrolcarandaFiattruck .Thethreedocumentaryattachmentsweremissingfromthe

soledeclarationsupportingtheJusticeBureauclaim,whichleftthenumbersunsupported .Onbalance,theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$75,000foritsWesternFrontjus ad bellum go�ernmentclaims .

418 . OtherCi�icandNon-Go�ernmentalLosses .Ethiopiaalsosoughtcompensationunderthejus ad bellum fortwocategoriesoflossessustainedbynon-go�ernmentalandci�icorganizations,specificallytheReliefSocietyofTigrayandtheTigrayYouthAssociation,ontheCentralFront .First,EthiopiaallegedthatEritreanforceslootedabulldozer,amotorcycleandotherequip-ment,�aluedatatotalof2,345,459birr,fromReliefSocietyofTigrayprojectsitesnearGerhusernayinAfheromWeredaandAlitenainIrobWereda .Sec-ond,Ethiopiasought748,327birrforloansmadebytheTigrayYouthAsso-ciationtotraineeswhocouldnotrepaybecausetheywenttothewarfrontorotherwise,forthecostsoftrainingnewleadership,andforlostcontribu-tions .TheCommissionconsidersthesecondclaim,relatedtotheTigrayYouthAssociation,tooattenuatedtoallowforcompensation .Howe�er,basedonthedocumentarye�idencesubmitted,theCommissionawardsEthiopiacompen-sationofUS$125,000fortheclaimrelatedtotheReliefSocietyofTigray .

419 . Damage to Other Towns on the Western Front . Ethiopia alsosoughtcompensationforjus ad bellum damagestothetownsofAdiGoshuinKaftaHumeraWeredaandSheraroinTahtayAdiaboWereda,nototherwiseco�eredinitsclaims .AstoAdiGoshu,EthiopiaclaimedanamountsaidtoequalUS$336,953forlossesallegedlyincurredduringaneight-hourraidonDecember20,1998 .Thee�idencereflectedthatEritreanforcesdestroyedandlootedthese�en-roomkebeleadministrationbuilding, tookcashfromtheadministratorandsometwentyothers,andlootedordestroyedlargequanti-tiesofgrainandli�estock .Basedonthedeclarationoftherepresentati�eoftheheadoftheKaftaHumeraWeredaandothersupportingdocumentationintheliabilityanddamagesphases,theCommissionawardsEthiopiacompensationofUS$150,000fordamagetoAdiGoshu .

420 . AstoSheraro,whichwasthetargetofEritreanartilleryattacksinOctober1998,EthiopiaclaimedanamountsaidtoequalUS$1,451,880forshellingdamage .Theclaimencompassedthedestructionofse�eralgo�ern-mentbuildings,includingtheMunicipalityBuildinganditstwogenerators,threeschools,alow-costhousingproject,themunicipalmarket,thekebeleadministrationoffice,andthepublicrecreationcenter;destructionofninety-fourresidencesandfi�ebusinesses;anddamagetothepolicestation .Tosup-portitscompensationclaim,EthiopiasubmittedthedeclarationoftheheadoftheSheraroMunicipalityAdministration,whoattachedtheconstructioncontractfortherebuildingoftheMunicipalityBuilding,showingtotalcostsof444,240birr;specifications(otherthanprice)forthetwogenerators;andalistofthemunicipalityengineer’sestimated�aluesfortheotherpublicbuild-ingsdestroyed(totalof7,039,710birr)andthehomesandbusinessesdestroyed(totalof2,493,941birr,indi�iduallybetween4,927and104,025birr) .Re�iew-ingthise�idenceinthecontextofestimated�aluatione�idenceforsimilar

structures,theCommissionawardsEthiopiacompensationofUS$625,000forshellingdamagetoSheraro .

H. Harm to natural resources and the environment (Category 7)

421 . EthiopiaclaimedanamountsaidtoequalmorethanonebillionU .S .dollars(US$1,028,862,444)foren�ironmentaldamageinTigray .Attheliabilityphase,theCommissionfoundthatthee�idencedidnotsustainEthio-pia’sclaimthatEritreacaused thisdamage in�iolationof the jus in bello.Howe�er,EthiopiaclaimedEritreaisresponsiblefortheselossesunderthejus ad bellum.

422 . Approximately90%oftheclaim,about6 .4billionbirr,wasforallegedlossofgumArabicandresinplants .Othersmallerclaimswereforlossoftreesandseedlings,anddamagetoterraces .Ethiopiaalsoinitiallyclaimedabout300millionbirrforlossofwildanimals,butthatclaimwaswithdrawnpriortotheMay2008hearingonEthiopia’sGroupNumberTwoclaims .

423 . ThishugeclaimwassummarilypresentedinlessthantwopagesofEthiopia’sDamagesGroupOneMemorial .Thesupportinge�idenceconsistedofaclaimsformpreparedbytheTigrayRegionalAgriculturalandNaturalResourcesDe�elopmentBureau .Thisformdidnotidentifythelocationofthelostplants,orthecircumstancesoftheirdestruction .TheDamagesMemo-rialdidnotaddressthepossibilitythatEthiopianforcesorci�iliansmayha�eplayedsomeroleinen�ironmentaldegradationduringthewar .

424 . EritreamaintainedthatthegumArabictreesatissuewerelocat-edwestofBadme,andsowereinEritreaandnotEthiopia;Ethiopiadidnotrespondtothiscontention,andtheissuewasnotresol�ed .Eritreastressedthe�erylimitedandconclusorye�idenceofferedtosupportaclaimformorethanabillionU .S .dollars .Italsopointedout,inconsiderabledetail,thatthecalculationoftheamountsclaimedforlossofgumArabicandresinplantsin�ol�edrecurrentdouble-countingandothersubstantialerrors,includingthatthesumsclaimedbyEthiopiaforlostprofitsfromfutureproductiontooknoaccountofproductioncosts,pro�idednoe�idenceorassessmentoffuturemarketsandprices,assumedunjustifiablylongproducti�eli�es,anddidnotdiscountclaimedfutureincometopresent�alue .

425 . TheCommissionnotedabo�eits�iewsregardingtheinsufficiencyofclaimsformsas theprincipalsupport forclaims .Takingaccountof thehugeamountclaimed,thelackofsupportinge�idence,theunansweredques-tionsregardingthetrees’location,andthemanifolderrorsincalculatingtheclaimeddamages,Eritrea’sjus ad bellum claimforen�ironmentaldamageisdismissed .

i. The mekele bombings (Category 8)426 . OnJune5,1998,thedaythatEritreanmilitaryaircraftdropped

cluster bombs near the Ayder School in Mekele, another Eritrean aircraftattackedtheMekeleairport .Thisattackcausedci�ilianandmilitarycasual-tiesandsomedamagetoaci�ilianairlinerbelongingtoEthiopianAirlines .TheCommissionpre�iouslyconcludedthattheairportwasalawfultarget,andthattheinjuryanddamagetheredidnot�iolatethejus in bello.EthiopiaclaimedanamountsaidtoequalUS$102,467,contendingthatthecasualtiesanddamagetotheaircraftwereproximateresultsofEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolation .

427 . EthiopiaclaimedUS$19,998foreighteenci�iliansinjuredintheattack,basedon50%oftheprojectedlifetimeearningsofpersonsoftheageofthewounded .ItalsoclaimedUS$2,555forthecostofmedicaltreatmentfortheeighteenwoundedpersons,andUS$79,914forthecostofrepairingpunctures, cracks and other damage to a Fokker-50 ci�ilian aircraft . TheCommissionagreesthatthisattackwassufficientlylinkedtoEritrea’sinitialjus ad bellum �iolationtowarrantcompensation .Anattacksuchasthisisaforeseeableconsequenceofthat�iolation .Howe�er,theCommissiondoesnotacceptEthiopia’scalculationoftheclaim .Aspre�iouslyexplained,itdoesnotaccepttheuseofundiscountedprojectedfutureearningsasablanketmethodforcalculatingcompensationforinjuries .Basedonitsownre�iewofthee�i-dence,theCommissionawardsUS$65,000forEritrea’sattackontheMekeleairport .

J. Prisoners of War (Categories 9 & 10)428 . Ethiopiafiledacomplexsetofclaimsforinjuriesin�ol�ingprison-

ersofwar,combiningclaimsforfixedamountsandforactualamountdam-agesfor�iolationsofthejus in bello andthejus ad bellum,aswellassubstan-tialclaimsformoraldamages .Thejus in bello andmoraldamageselementsoftheseclaimsha�ebeenaddressedabo�e .

429 . Inthejus ad bellum componentoftheseclaims,Ethiopiasoughtfixed-sumdamagesbasedonprojectionsoflostlifetimeearningsforfifty-oneprisonersofwarsaidtoha�ediedwhileinEritreanPOWcamps .96EthiopiamaintainedthatthecaptureofPOWs,theirdetentionunderharshconditions,andtheensuingdeathsofsomeprisonerswerethenaturalandforeseeableresultofEritrea’sactionsinitiatingtheconflict .Ethiopiadidnotcitee�idenceshowingthatthedeathsofanyofthesefifty-oneprisonersresultedfromspe-cificactsofnegligenceormisconductbyEritreanpersonnel .Instead,itpoint-

96 Ethiopiaalsoclaimeddamagesunderthejus in bello foranother712Ethiopiasoldiersitestimatedwerekilledatcapture,basedonitsundocumentedhypothesisthattwo-thirdsasmanysurrenderingsoldierswerekilledasweretakenprisoner .Ethiopia’sjus in bello claimsin�ol�ingPOWswereconsideredinSectionX .Aabo�e .

edingeneraltermstotheCommission’searlierliabilityfindingsonEthiopia’sPOWClaims,whichidentifiedharshandabusi�econditionsinEritrea’sPOWcamps .(EthiopiaalsoinitiallyclaimedforexpensesincurredinoperatingitsPOWcamps,butthisclaimwaswithdrawnpriortotheMay2008hearingandwillnotbeconsideredfurther .)

430 . Eritreacontendedthattheconnectionbetweenthesedeathsandthejus ad bellum �iolationforwhichitwasfoundliablewastooattenuatedandindirecttoleadto compensation .EritreaalsodisputedthenumberofPOWdeathsalleged,maintainingthatthirty-eightprisonersdiedwhiledetained .InEritrea’sopinion,someofthesedeathsresultedfromwoundssufferedbeforecapture,so that theCommission lacked jurisdictiono�erclaims in�ol�ingthem .

431 . TheCommissionneednotresol�ethedisputedquestionsofhowmanyPOWsdiedwhileinEritreancampsandtheextenttowhichthesedeathsmayha�eresultedfromwoundspriortocapture .ItconcludesthatthereisnotasufficientlyclearanddirectcausalconnectionbetweenthedeathsofsomePOWswhileinEritreancustodyandthee�entsofMay1998forwhichEritreahasbeenfoundliableunderthejus ad bellum.Itistruethat“butfor”thewarthatbeganatBadme,Eritreawouldnotha�etakenPOWs,butaclearerandmoresubstantialdegreeofcausalconnectionisrequiredtoestablishliabilityforthedeathsofadisputednumberofdisparateindi�idualsbasedonEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolation .TheCommissionrecalls,howe�er,thattotheextenttheEthiopianPOWssufferedtheformsofabuseormistreatmentidentifiedintheCommission’searlierPartialAwardattheliabilityphase,Ethiopiaisawardedcompensationforjus in bello �iolationsinSectionX .AofthisAward .

K. departures from eritrea (Category 11)432 . Ethiopiaclaimedo�erUS$799millioninrespectofthousandsof

EthiopianswhoitsaidleftEritreabetweenMay1998andDecember2000onaccountofEritrea’sbreachofthejus ad bellum.(Asdiscussedabo�e,EthiopiaalsoclaimedsubstantialamountsforinjuriestoEthiopiansinEritreain�ol�-ingEritrea’sjus in bello �iolations .)Ethiopiacontendedthat80,000EthiopiansdepartedEritreabetweenMay1998andDecember2000“becauseoftheharshconditionscausedbythewar .”Ethiopiaclaimedcompensationwithrespecttoeachofthese80,000persons,contendingthat(a)eachonelostallincomeforfouryearsfollowingdeparturefromEritrea,and(b)theirsubsequentlife-timeearningsweremuchlowerbecausetheyearnedthelowpercapitaratepre�ailinginEthiopia(US$167),notthemuchhighera�erageratesallegedlyearnedbyEthiopiansinEritrea(US$1,684) .Theseprojectedlossesoflifetimeearningswerenotdiscountedtopresent�alueorotherwiseadjusted .Howe�er,theamountcalculatedinthismanner(aboutUS$2billion)wasreducedbyamountsEthiopiaclaimedforlostincomeonaccountofEritrea’sjus in bello �iolations,lea�ingabalanceofUS$499,870,390 .Ethiopiathenaddedanaddi-

tionalUS$3,740foreachofthe80,000personsformoralinjuryonaccountof“brutality,se�erehardship,painandemotionalshock,”gi�ingamoraldam-agesclaimofUS$299,200,000 .

433 . Eritreaobjected to thisclaimonmultiplegrounds,contendingthatthe1998jus ad bellum �iolationwasnottheproximatecauseofEthio-pians’subsequentdeparturesfromEritrea .Italsoarguedthattheamountsclaimedwereexcessi�eandbaseduponconjectureandin�alidpremises .Inthisregard,EritreapresentedEritreango�ernmentrecords indicating thattheactual incomesofmanypersons in thesampleEthiopiausedtodeter-minea�erageearningsinEritreawerefarlowerthanthesesamepersonslaterclaimed . Ethiopia responded with twenty-two rebuttal declarations, mostaimedatexplainingtheapparentdiscrepancies .Se�eraloftheseexplainedwhythedeclarantshadpre�iously liedtoEritreanofficialsregardingtheirincomes;forthisandforotherreasons,theCommissionfoundthesedeclara-tionslargelyunpersuasi�e .

434 . TheCommissiondoubtstheassumptionsunderlyingEthiopia’scomputationofdamages .Noe�idencewasofferedtosupportthecontentionthatpersonswhoreturnedtoEthiopiaremainedtotallyunemployedforfouryears;hadsuche�idenceexisted, it shouldha�ebeena�ailable toEthiopiaandinturntotheCommission .TheCommissionalsodoubtsthecontentionthatEthiopiansinEritreahadearningstentimesthosepre�ailinginEthiopia .Thisisnotconsistentwithothere�idenceindicatingthatmanyEthiopiansinEritreaheldlow-payingjobsorworkedintermittentlyasdaylaborers .

435 . Inanycase,EthiopiadidnotestablishthattheinjuriesclaimedwereproximatelycausedbyEritrea’sMay1998breachofthejus ad bellum.WhilethecircumstancesofEthiopiansinEritreaduringthewar�ariedbylocationandtime,thegreatmajorityofthosewholeftEritreadidsointheunsettledanddifficultperiodfollowingEthiopia’ssuccessfulMay2000in�a-sionofEritreaandtheendofhostilities,twoyearsaftertheattackonBadme .97TheprincipalfactorinshapingthissituationwasthedefeatofEritreanforcesbyEthiopia’sarmy .ItstrainsthechainofcausalitytoomuchtocontendthatEritreashouldha�eforeseeninMay1998thatitwouldsufferthisse�eremili-tarydefeat,theoccupationoflargeportionsofitsterritory,andtheensuingsocialandeconomicturmoil .Further,theseclaimsfellwelloutsideoftheareasforwhichtheCommissionhasdeterminedEritreatobeliableonaccountofthejus ad bellum �iolation .Theclaimisdismissed .

l. Ports Claim (Category 12)436 . Ethiopia next claimed an amount said to equal approximately

US$117millionforpropertylostatEritreanports(principallyAssab)byEthio-piango�ernmentagencies,businesses,non-go�ernmentalorganizationsand

97 PartialAwardinEthiopia’sCi�iliansClaims,paras .6&7 .

indi�idualsfollowingtheoutbreakofthewar .Theprimarye�idencefortheamountclaimedwasalistpreparedbytheMaritimeTransitSer�icesEnter-prise(“MTSE”),theEthiopianentityresponsibleforclearingandforwardingcargoandothercargoser�ices .

437 . TheCommissiondismissedEthiopia’sjus in bello claimforprop-ertylostinEritrea’sports,findingthatEthiopiafailedtopro�eacompensabletakingofpropertyduringtherele�antperiod .98TheCommissionnotedtheParties’conflictingdescriptionsofthecircumstancesunderwhichEthiopiancargostoppedmo�ingthroughAssabafterfightingbeganatBadme,butcon-cludedthattheportofAssabremainedopenandcontinuedtohandlebothEthiopianexportandimportcargoforatleasttwoweeksthereafter .TheCom-missionalsonotedEritrea’sexpressionsofwillingnesstoenterintoaprocesstotransfertoEthiopiapropertystill instorageinEritreaandtheproceedsderi�edfrompropertysoldorcon�ertedtoEritreango�ernmentuse,subjecttoadjustmentsregardingcostsincurredbyEritrea .

438 . Eritrea contended that the Commission’s liability Award effec-ti�elydismissedEthiopia’sportclaimsintheirentirety,includinganyclaimofjus ad bellum liability .TheCommissiondoesnotsharethisinterpretation .Itsordersanddirecti�estothePartiesthroughouttheseproceedingsmadeclearthatEthiopia’sjus ad bellum claimswereallreser�edtothefinalpor-tionofthedamagesphase .AsstatedinitsDecisionNumber7,theCommis-sion’searlierPartialandFinalAwards“resol�edthemeritsofalloftheParties’claims,except for Ethiopia’s claims relating to Eritrea’s violation of the jusadbellum .”99

439 . In the damages phase, both Parties renewed many argumentsfromtheliabilityphase .Eritreaintroducedcopiesofnumerouswaybillssaidtoshowthatcargocontinuedtobe loadedontotrucksboundforEthiopiafromAssabwellintoMay1998,until,asEritreacontended,Ethiopiaclosedtheborder .EthiopiarespondedwiththewitnessdeclarationofanEthiopiancustomsofficialcontendingthatthesedocumentsatmostpro�edEthiopiangoodswereloadedontotrucksattheEritreanport;proofofdeli�eryrequiredadditionaldocumentationfromEthiopianCustomsorconsigneesinEthio-pia .(TheCommissionnotesthattheseformsofe�idencewouldbelocatedinEthiopiaandwouldnotlikelybea�ailabletoEritrea .)

440 . Ethiopiaalsomaintainedthatthewaybillsdidnotpro�edeli�eryofallofthepropertyatissue .Itcitedasanillustrationashipmentofse�enty-sixcoilsofrolledsteel;Eritrea’sdocumentsshowedthatonlyafewofthesecoilswereloadedontotrucksattheport .Eritrearesponded,inter alia,thatitswaybille�idencewasnotintendedtobecomplete,butthatitdidpro�ethat

98 FinalAward,Ports,Ethiopia’sClaim6BetweentheFederalDemocraticRepub-licofEthiopiaandtheStateofEritrea(December19,2005)[hereinafterFinalAwardinEthiopia’sPortsClaim],para .19 .

99 DecisionNo .7,supra note10,para .2(emphasisadded) .

Ethiopiancargo,includingsomenowclaimedaslost,continuedtomo�etoEthiopiauntillateMay1998,whenEthiopiaclosedtheborder .

441 . ThePartiesalsore�isitedthenationalityoftheownersofsomecargo .Attheliabilityphase,theCommissionnotedthatsomeclaimedcargobelongedtoforeigndonors,nottoEthiopiaortoEthiopiannationals,sotheCommissionlackedjurisdiction .100Ethiopiareturnedtothisissueatthedam-agesphase,citingarticlesofitsCi�ilandMaritimeCodeitinterpretedtoshowthattitletoalloceancargopassedtoEthiopianpartiespriortoarri�alattheport .AttheMay2008hearing,howe�er,itwasdeterminedthattheseestab-lishedadefaultposition,fromwhichpartiescould,andoftendid,de�iatebycontract .TheMTSElistofstrandedpropertydidnotindicatethenationalityofownersorconsignees,but,atthehearing,Ethiopiaemphasizedsubstantialclaimstopropertyownedbyse�eralEthiopiango�ernmentagencies .

442 . Ethiopiaalsoin�itedtheCommissiontodecidequestionsitsawasnotsettledattheliabilityphase,notablyitsclaimfor46,000tonsoffuelallegedlydueundercontracttotheEthiopianPetroleumEnterprise,andotherfuelsaidtobelongtoEthiopiansubsidiariesofinternationaloilcompanies .Eritreapre�iouslyarguedthattheEthiopianPetroleumEnterprise�iolateditscontractualobligationsbydi�ertingfuelshipmentsfromEritrea,andthattherewasnorealeconomiclossoftheinternationaloilcompanies’fuel,sinceitremainedwithintherele�antcorporatefamily .Thee�idenceinsupportofthislargeclaimwaslimited,but,forthereasonsindicatedbelow,theCommissionneednotre�isitit .

443 . EthiopiacontendedthatEritreawasliableforpropertylostatErit-rea’sportsbecauseitunlawfullyinitiatedaconflict“thatpro�edimpossibletokeepfromspreadingalongtheborder .”Inits�iew,Eritreashouldha�efore-seenthatitsactionsatBadmewouldendtradethroughtheports,andcompelEthiopiatocurbcommercethroughthemtoprotectitsowninterests .Thus,in Ethiopia’s �iew, property loss—including property loss stemming fromactionsanddecisionsbyEthiopia—in�ol�edforeseeableinjuryforwhichEri-treashouldbearfullresponsibility .

444 . TheCommissionconcludesthatEthiopia’sportsclaimforjus ad bellum damagesfails,onse�eralgrounds .Tobegin,theCommissionpre�i-ouslyfoundthatEthiopiafailedtopro�eatakingofpropertyin�iolationofcustomaryinternationallawduringtherele�antperiod .Ethiopiaalsofailedatthedamagesphasetopro�esuchataking .Eritreamadenoclaimtoownmuchofthepropertyatissue,andindicatedwillingnesstotransfertoEthiopiapropertyitstillholdsandtheproceedsofperishablecommoditiesorotherpropertysoldorput toEritreango�ernmentuse,subject tocertainclaimsforstorageanden�ironmentalcosts .TheCommissionrecei�ednoindicationthatEthiopiae�errespondedtothisoffer .Ethiopia’spleadingssuggestedthat

100 FinalAwardinEthiopia’sPortsClaim,paras .5&6 .

itrejectedit .Inthesecircumstances,theCommissionagainconcludesthatEthiopiahasnotpro�edacompensablelossofproperty .

445 . Further,asnoted,someundeterminedamountofdisputedproper-tydidnotbelongtoEthiopiaoritsnationals,andliesoutsidetheCommission’sjurisdiction .Otherclaimsad�ancedweredecidedpre�iouslyandarebarredbyres judicata.Finally,therecorddidnotestablishthatEritrea’sactionsatBadmeweretheproximatecauseofanyinjuryin�ol�ingstrandedproperty .TheCom-missionfoundthatmuchEthiopiancargocontinuedtomo�ethroughAssabtoandfromEthiopiaafterhostilitiesbegan .101WhiletheCommissiondidnotexpresslyfindthatEthiopia’sactions,includingtherequisitioningofEritrean-ownedhea�ytrucksandthedi�ersionoftruckstocarrycargotoandfromDjibouti,wereasignificantcauseofpropertybecomingstranded,therecordwouldha�esupportedsuchafinding .

m. ethiopian airlines (Category 14)446 . Ethiopia initially claimed an amount it con�erted to equal

US$45,700,000forlossesallegedlyincurredbyEthiopianAirlines(“EAL”)onaccountofEritrea’s�iolationofthejusad bellum.Thisclaimwassignificantlyreduced,toanamountcon�ertedtoequalUS$14,464,729,priortotheMay2008hearing .There�isedclaimwithdrewasduplicati�eapproximatelyUS$23millionfor“flightdetouringandfuelpurchase,”andtookaccountofreducedoperatingcostsandothersa�ingsassociatedwithwartimemodificationsintheairline’soperations .

447 . Most of the claim—con�erted to equal US$10,951,465, almost76%—wasforlostprofits(describedas“estimatednetlosses”)for“oneyearfollowingtheconclusionofser�icetoandfromAsmara .”Thisamountwascalculatedbasedonoperatingre�enueandexpensesontheAsmaraser�iceduringJuly1997toMarch1998 .EthiopiaalsoclaimedUS$1,311,421foraddi-tional“estimatednetlosses,”apparentlycalculatedinthesameway,reflectingtemporarysuspensionsofflightstodestinationsinnorthandnorthwesternEthiopiaduring thewar .Ethiopiaalsoclaimed: (a)US$1,703,020 forbankaccountsattheBankofEritrea;(b)US$315,914forcostsassociatedwiththeairline’sdecisiontorelocatetheoperationalbaseforitsinternationalfleettoNairobi,KenyafromFebruary6to28,1999,atthetimeofEthiopia’sOpera-tionSunset;and(c)US$182,909forunpaidairticketspro�idedtosixEritreango�ernmentagenciesforofficialtra�elandfortransportingtheEritreanFor-eignMinistry’sdiplomaticpouchespriortothewar .

448 . Eritrea’sCounter-Memorialcontended,inter alia,thatmanyofthelossesinitiallyclaimedresultedfromoperationaldecisionstakenbyEALitself,andthatEritreacouldnotberesponsiblefortheconsequences .Eritreaalsoobjectedtotheamountsclaimed,notingthatclaimsforlostflightre�enues

101 Id.,paras .19–20 .

tooknoaccountoftheairline’sreducedoperatingcostsduetothesuspensionofflights,nordidtheclaimforrelocationtoNairobitakeaccountofsa�ingsassociatedwiththemo�e .ManyofEritrea’sobjectionsappearedtoha�ebeentakenintoaccountintheclaimasreformulatedandsignificantlyreducedpriortothehearing .

449 . LostProfits .TheCommissiongenerallyhasnotlookedwithfa�oronclaimsforbusinesses’lostprofitssaidtobeattributabletoEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolation .Howe�er,theclaimforEAL’slostprofitsonaccountoftheterminationofitsAddisAbaba–Asmarainternationalser�icein�ol�edunusualconsiderations .Airlineser�icebetweenthetwocapitalswasnotatypicalcom-mercialendea�or,butwascloselylinkedtotheParties’o�erallpoliticalandeconomicrelationship .EthiopianAirlinesisEthiopia’sState-ownednationalcarrier,andisformanyasymboloftheStateofEthiopia .Itsaircraftwere�alu-ableproperty,�ulnerablebothtotherisksofseizurebyEritreaandtodamageinthecourseofhostilities .Itsinsurerswouldbesensiti�etotheserisks,andmightsuspendco�erageorraisepremiumstounsustainablele�els .Moreo�er,EAL’soperationsdependeduponasteadyflowofpassengersandcargo,both�ulnerabletointerruptionduringhostilitiesonaccountofgo�ernmentactionsorindi�idualdecisionsbypassengersorshippersconcernedaboutsafety .

450 . Gi�enthesespecialcircumstances,theCommissionconcludesthatdocumentedlostprofitsfromterminationoftheAddisAbaba–Asmaraser�iceweretheproximateresultofEritrea’sjus ad bellum breach .Clearlyitwas,orshouldha�ebeen,foreseeabletoEritrea’sleadersthatalikelyresultofEritrea’sactionatBadmewouldbetheinterruptionofcommercialairser�icebetweenthetwocapitals,withattendanteconomicinjurytoEAL .

451 . Initsre�isedclaim,Ethiopiasought75,366,844birraslostprofitsforoneyearontheAddisAbaba–Asmaraser�ice .(Ethiopia’sliabilityphasee�idencesuggestedahigherfigure,buttheunderlyingcalculationsdidnotappeartoreflectsignificantreductionsincostsassociatedwithsuspensionoftheser�ice .)Ethiopia’schoiceofoneyearasthemeasuringperiodwasnotexplained,butappearsreasonableinthecircumstances .(Thechoiceofoneyearmayha�ereflectedthefactthattheParties’airser�icesagreement,whichauthorizedbilateralairser�ice,wasterminableonayear’snotice .)Theprinci-palsupportinge�idencefortheamountcurrentlyclaimedwasthedeclarationofEAL’sActingGeneralCounsel,whodescribedhowtheamountoftheclaimwascomputedbyEAL’sfinancedepartment .TheActingGeneralCounsel’sdeclarationwasaccompaniedbyashortdocumentpreparedbyEAL’sfinancedepartmentrecitingsomeoftheclaimedlosses,buttherewasnoothere�i-denceexplainingorsubstantiatingthespecificamountsclaimed .Basedonitsre�iewoftherecord,andtakingaccountofthelimitede�idenceadduced,theCommissionawardsUS$4,000,000withrespecttothisclaim .

452 . TherewaslittlesupportintherecordforEthiopia’ssmallerclaimforEAL’slostprofitsfromtemporarysuspensionsofsomeofitsdomesticser�-icesduringthewar .EAL’sActingGeneralCounseldidnotexplainthispor-

tionofEthiopia’sclaimortheser�icesin�ol�ed .Theliabilityphasee�idencecontainedadocumentsuggestingtheclaimedlosses,buttheamountswerenotexplainedordocumented .Thise�idencealsosuggestedthattheseinter-ruptionsmayha�ein�ol�edser�icestoregionalairportsatAxum,Mekeleandafewotherlocations,primarilyatthetimeofEthiopia’ssuccessfulattacksagainstEritreanforcesinOperationSunsetin1999 .

453 . Ethiopia’sclaimforlostprofitsoninterruptionsofEAL’sinternalser�icesisrejectedforfailureofproof .Inaddition,whileitmayha�ebeenreasonableforEthiopia’sstateairlinetodecidenottooperatetotheselocationsduringtheperiodofEthiopia’sattacks,withensuingre�enuelosses,EAL’sdecisiontotakethatactionistoocausallyremotefromEritrea’sactionsatBadmetobecompensable .

454 . Bank Accounts .EthiopianextclaimedUS$1,703,020forEthiopianAirlines’bankaccountsattheBankofEritrea .Theprincipalsupportinge�i-dencewasbankstatementsshowingamountsondepositbeforethewar .ThedeclarationofEAL’sActingGeneralCounselstatedthatEALhasbeenunabletoclosetheseaccountsandrepatriatethefundstoaccountsabroad,imply-ing(althoughnotexplicitlystating)thatEALmadepost-warattemptstogainaccesstothefunds .Duringthehostilities,itwaslawfulunderthejus in bello forEritreatoholdorblockthosefundstopre�enttheirtransfertotheotherbelligerent .

455 . EritreadidnotrebutEthiopia’se�idenceindicatingthatEALwasunabletosecuretherepatriationofitsfundsduringorafterthewar .AstotheEALbankaccounts,Eritreahadadutyunderthejus in bello toreturntheseaccountsafterthewar .While,asindicatedintheCommission’sPartialAwardinEritrea’sCi�iliansClaims,102Statesin�ol�edinarmedconflictha�etherighttofreezeenemyassetswithintheirjurisdictionandpre�enttheirtransfertoanenemy,itremainstheirobligation,asindicatedinthatPartialAward,103topro-tectsuchassetsfortheirreturntotheirownersorotheragreeddisposition .104Theappropriateremedyforthelossofthoseassetsunderthesecircumstancesiscompensationintheamountoffundslostinthoseaccounts .TheCommis-sionthereforeawardsEthiopiaUS$1,703,020forEAL’sbankaccountsattheBankofEritrea .

456 . ExpensesofTransfer .TheCommissionconcludesthatEritreaisnotresponsibleforEthiopianAirlines’expensesofUS$315,914relatedtothetemporarytransferofitsinternationaloperationstoNairobiforthreeweeksatthetimeofEthiopia’sOperationSunsetin1999 .Theairlinereportedlymade

102 PartialAwardinEritrea’sCi�iliansClaims,para .146 .103 Id.,paras .151&152 .104 See also Article46ofGene�aCon�entionRelati�etotheProtectionofCi�ilian

PersonsinTimeofWar,Aug .12,1949,6U .S .T .p .3516,75U .N .T .S .p .287,requiringthatrestricti�emeasuresaffectingprotectedpersons’property“shallbecancelled,inaccordancewiththelawoftheDetainingPower,assoonaspossibleafterthecloseofhostilities .”

thismo�eonoraboutFebruary6,1999 .ThiswasthedaythatEthiopiainiti-atedOperationSunsetandresumeditsoffensi�eairoperations,endingtheairmoratoriumestablishedinJune1998 .ThetemporaryrelocationtoNairobiwasapparentlyaprecautionarymeasuretoa�oidpossibleEritreanairattacksontheAddisAbabaairportfollowingtheresumptionofwide-scalefighting,includingairattacksbyEthiopia .Thisactionreflectedtoomanyinter�eningstepsanddecisionstoberegardedastheproximateconsequenceofEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolation .

457 . UnpaidPassengerTicketsandFreightCharges .Finally,EthiopiaclaimedUS$182,909forunpaidEthiopianAirlines’passengerticketsandforfreightchargesfortransportingdiplomaticpouchesonbehalfofEritrea’sMin-istryofForeignAffairsandothergo�ernmentagencies .Thisportionoftheclaimin�ol�edacommercialdisputein�ol�ingprewarrelationships,andisoutsidetheCommission’sjurisdiction .

n. loss of Tourism, international development assistance, and foreign and domestic investment (Categories 15, 16 & 17)

1. Loss of Tourism

458 . Ethiopia claimed slightly o�er US$104 million for lost re�enuefromtourism,whichitallegedwasthedirectandforeseeableconsequenceofEritrea’sactionininitiatingthewar .Ethiopia’sDamagesGroupTwoMemo-rialcalculatedtheamountofthisclaimbasedonestimatesthat:(a)butforthewar,125,941additionaltouristswouldha�e�isitedduringthewaryears;105(b)anadditional82,167wouldha�e�isitedduringtheyears2001–2004;and(c)touristsspentana�erageofUS$500percapita .Theseestimatesofthenumbersoftouristsappearedtoha�ebeencalculatedontheassumptionthatthepre-warannualgrowthrateinthenumberoftourists(6 .7%perannumduringtheyears1992–1997)wouldha�econtinueduninterrupted .

459 . Theprincipale�idencesubmittedinsupportoftheclaimwasareportpreparedforpurposesoftheCommission’sproceedingsbytheEthiopi-anTourismCouncil .Thisreportobser�edthatitwas“�erydifficulttoquantifythe�ariousinjuriesandtoestablishtheiraccuracywithconcretee�idence,”andthat“e�identiarysubstantiationofthewar’sad�ersefutureeffectsontour-ismhasbeenproblematic .”Whilethereportspeculatedthatthewarresultedinfewerpost-wartourists,itacknowledgedthat“concretee�idenceishardtocomeby .”TheTourismCouncil’scautiousassessmentsappearcorrecttotheCommission .Ethiopia’se�idencedidnotpro�ideanybasisforconcludingthatitwasreasonabletoexpectacontinueda�erageincreaseintouristarri�alsof6 .7% .Indeed,theCommissionnotesthatEthiopiacomputedthisa�erage

105 Ethiopia’sliabilityphasee�idenceestimatedthewartimelossesoftouriststobe�ariously100,753and125,941 .ThedifferencebetweenthetwoestimateswasnotexplainednorwasitapparenttotheCommission .

basedonafi�e-yearperiodthatincludedoneyearof�erystronggrowthintourismsoonafterthedefeatoftheDergue,followedbyse�eralyearsoflessthan6 .7%growth .

460 . Moreo�er,theCouncil’sestimatesoftourismlossesduringthewarandafterwerebeliedbyothere�idencesubmittedbyEthiopiaattheliabil-ityphase .ThisincludedstatisticscollectedbytheWorldTra�elandTourismCouncil,aninternationalorganizationoftra�el industryexecuti�es .Theseshowedcontinuousincreasesinthe�alueofEthiopia’stourismfromthe1997le�el(asmeasuredinbothU .S .dollarsandbirr)duringthewaryearsof1998and1999,withfurthersignificantincreasesestimatedfor2000andsubsequentyears .TherecordincludedafaxfromtheCounciltoEthiopia’soutsidecounselregardingthisdiscrepancy .Thefaxnotedsomepossiblereasonsforthedis-crepancy,butdidnotcon�incinglyrehabilitatetheCouncil’sestimates .

461 . Thee�idencesupportingtheclaimedamountessentiallyrestedonassumptionsandhypothesesthatwereuncorroboratedand,indeed,werecon-tradictedbyEthiopia’sothere�idence .TherecordwasnotsufficienttosustainaclaimforUS$104million .Theclaimisdismissedforinsufficiente�idence .TheCommission,accordingly,doesnotaddresswhether,orunderwhatcon-ditions,abreachofthejus ad bellum mightbetheproximatecauseofalossoftourism .

2. Declines in International Development Assistance

462 . EthiopiaclaimedUS$1 .694billionforforeignassistanceallegedlyfrozen,suspendedorterminatedbymultilateralandbilateralaiddonorsonaccountofEritrea’sattackonBadmeandthesubsequentwar .ThisincludedUS$1,165,450,000ingrantsandloanstoEthiopiaallegedlydeniedbymulti-lateralandbilateraldonors;anamountidentifiedaseitherUS$208,560,000orUS$108,560,000 inde�elopmentassistance frombilateraldonors;andareductioninUS$320,000,000inforeignassistancewithheldbytheEuropeanUnion .

463 . Theclaimwaspresented inbroad-brushterms .Ethiopia’s2004Claim 7 Memorial and its Damages Group Two Memorial pro�ided littleinformationregardingspecificloans,grantsorprogramsallegedlyaffected,orregardingpost-warde�elopments .Ethiopiareferredtosomeaidtransac-tionsasha�ingbeen“delayed”or“suspended,”andtherewase�idenceintherecordindicatingthatmanytransactionswereresumedorrestoredafterthewar .Howe�er,itwasnotclearhoworwhethertheseresumedrelationshipsweretakenintoaccountinthelargeamountclaimed .

464 . EritreaobjectedthattheclaimedreductioninforeignassistancelackedsufficientcausalconnectionwiththeCommission’sliabilityfinding .Itstressedthatanyreductionresultedfromdecisionsbythirdpartydonors,andthatitcouldnotbeheldresponsiblefordecisionsmadebyoutsidepartiesfortheirownreasons .Eritreaalsocontendedthatthereweremajorshortcomings

inthee�idence,andthatEthiopiaactuallyfailedtopro�eanylosses .Eritreacontendedinthisregardthatsomefigurescitedtosupporttheclaimeitherdidnotshowpre-war le�elsofassistanceor le�elsduringthewar,makingcomparisonsimpossible .Indeed,EritreaurgedthatEthiopia’se�idenceactu-allyshowednoreductioninassistanceduringthewar,butratheranincreaseingrantaid .

465 . Gi�entheenormoussizeofthisclaim—almostUS$1 .7billion—thesupportinge�idencewasextremelymodest .Therecordwasnotsufficienttoestablisheithertheamountoftheallegedloss,orasufficientcausalconnectionbetweenthatlossandEritrea’s�iolationofthejus ad bellum.Inthisconnec-tion,anyreductionofde�elopmentassistancetoEthiopiaresultedfromdeci-sionstakenbyinternationalfinancialinstitutionsandforeigngo�ernmentsfortheirownreasons .Particularlywheretheimmediatecauseoftheallegedinjurywasdecisionsmadebythirdparties,muchmorecompellinge�idencewouldberequiredtoshowthatthelosswasattributabletoEritrea’sjus ad bel-lum �iolation .Theclaimisdismissed .

3. Lost Foreign and Domestic Investment

466 . EthiopiaclaimedmorethanUS$2billionforforeignanddomesticin�estmentintheEthiopianeconomythatallegedlywasnotmadeduringthewaryearsbecauseofEritrea’sjusad bellum �iolation .Thishugeclaimwaspre-sentedinlessthanonepageofEthiopia’sDamagesGroupTwoMemorial,andtwopagesofitsearlierClaim7Memorial .Ethiopiaappearedtoha�eestimat-edthisamountbycomparingthele�elsofforeignanddomesticin�estmentprojectsappro�edbytheEthiopianIn�estmentAuthorityin1997–1998,withthelowerle�elsappro�edduringthewaryears .(Therecorddidnotindicatepatternsofin�estmentinEthiopiaafterthewarended .)

467 . Eritrea�igorouslydisputedthisclaim,contendingthatEthiopiafailedtoshowasufficientcausalconnectionbetweentheclaimedlossesandtheattackonBadme . It alsodenied thatEthiopiahadpro�edany loss . InEritrea’s�iew,Ethiopia’se�idencedidnotpro�easteadytrendofincreasingin�estmentthatwouldha�econtinuedin1998–2000 .Therewasabriefpre-warincreaseinforeignin�estmentresultingfromtheEthiopiango�ernment’s1995–1996pri�atizationprogram,butEritreabelie�edthistrendwouldnotha�econtinued .Italsocontendedthatanyfluctuationsinin�estmentle�elsbydomesticandforeignin�estorsin�ol�eddecisionsbythirdpartiesshapedby�ariouspolitical,economicandsocialfactors,manyunrelatedtothewar .

468 . Atthe2008damageshearing,theCommissionsoughttoclarifythetheoryunderlyingthisclaim .Itaskedhowtheclaimedreductioninin�est-ment,whichwouldnotha�egonedirectlytotheGo�ernmentofEthiopia,andwhichmightormightnotha�eproducedbenefitsforEthiopia’sdomesticeconomy,translatedintoanequi�alentamountofdamagetotheState .Coun-selconfirmedthattheclaimwasnotforanydirectlossofpropertyorfunds

bytheState .Instead,Ethiopiain�itedtheCommissiontoconductitsowneco-nomicanalysis,toidentifytheextentofinjurytothetotalEthiopianeconomyresultingfromtheclaimedreductioninin�estment .

469 . Particularlygi�enthehugeamountclaimed—o�erUS$2billion—therewasinsufficiente�idencetoshowtheamountofanycompensableinjurytotheStateofEthiopia .Ofgreaterimport,thee�idencedidnotestablishasufficientcausalconnectionbetweenEritrea’s jus ad bellum delictandanyinjurytoEthiopiastemmingfromreductionsinforeignanddomesticin�est-mentduringthewaryears .Aswiththedecisionsbyforeignassistanceagenciesaddressedabo�e,decisionswhetherornottoin�estweremadebyamyriadofpri�atein�estorsinsideandoutsideofEthiopia .Eachdecisionreflectedpar-ticularfactsandconsiderationsuniquetothein�estor .Thee�idencesimplydidnotshowthattheirbeha�ior,indi�iduallyorintheaggregate,primarilyresultedfromEritrea’sactionsinMay1998 .Theclaimisdismissed .

o. reconstruction and assistance (Categories 18, 19 & 20)470 . Ethiopiaclaimedatotalamountitcon�ertedtoequalUS$99,957,819

forexpensesrelatedtotheDisasterPre�entionandPreparednessCommission(“DPPC”)(totalingUS$32,563,967)andtheReliefSocietyofTigray(“REST”)(totalingUS$67,393,852)forassistingpersonsdisplacedonaccountofthewarandreturneesfromEthiopia .Thepresentationoftheseclaimswasextremelybrief,bothinEthiopia’sClaim7Memorial(justo�ertwopages)andinitsDamagesGroupTwoMemorial (halfapage) .Thesupportinge�idence fortheseclaimswasalsoquitelimited,andthemanneroftheircalculationandothersignificantdetailswasoftenunclear .

471 . TheCommissionholdsabo�ethatEritreabearsjus ad bellum lia-bilityfordamagesonaccountoftheinternaldisplacementofmanythousandsofEthiopiansduringthewar .CaringforinternallydisplacedpersonsisanimportantresponsibilityofaState .Displacedpeoplemustha�esustenanceandsupport .Itisreadilyforeseeablethatincircumstancescausinglarge-scaleinternal displacement, relief agencies will incur expenses to pro�ide suchhelp .TheCommissionconcludesthatEthiopiaisentitledtodamagesreflect-ingdemonstratedexpensesreasonablyincurredbyEthiopia,orbyEthiopianpublicorpri�ateentities,toassistandsupportIDPsdisplacedonaccountofEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolation .

472 . TheCommissionholdsabo�ethatEritreaisnotsimilarlyliablefordamagesonaccountofthemanyEthiopianswhodepartedfromEritrea,eitherduringthewarorinthefollowingmonths .AsEritreaisnotlegallyresponsibleforthereturnoftheseEthiopianstoEthiopiaonaccountofitsjus ad bellum �iolation,itlikewiseisnotresponsibleforamountsexpendedbyEthiopiafortheirsupportandresettlement .

473 . The DPPC Claim. Thee�idencefortheDPPCportionoftheclaimwasanOctober2001reportpreparedbytheDPPC,whichlistedanamountof

404,033,230birras“costsincurredtoundertakereliefandrehabilitationacti�-itiesforwaraffectedpeople .”Fromthis,Ethiopiasubtractedapproximately92,000,000birrexpendedtosupportEthiopianmilitaryforcesandrehabilitatedemobilized�eterans,becauseclaimsforsupporttoEthiopianmilitaryforcesareoutsidetheCommission’sjurisdiction .Italsosubtractedapproximately67,000,000birr,thecostofa“HouseholdRehabilitationProgramme,”asEthi-opiamadeseparatejus ad bellum claimsfordamagetohousesandhouseholds .Ethiopiaclaimedfor224,101,964birr,con�ertingthistoUS$32,563,967 .

474 . Thetwenty-eightpageOctober2001DPPCreportwasnotswornorcorroborated .Norwasitdetailed,withalmosthalfitspageslistingemployeesin�ariousregions“engagedinthereliefoperationforIDPs”andtheirsalaries .Howe�er,theCommissionispreparedtogi�eweighttothereportbecauseitwasnotpreparedforlitigationand,takeninthecontextofthecircumstancesandtheentirerecord,theamountsdonotappearunreasonable .Certainreduc-tionsarenecessary,becausethereportdidnotdistinguishbetweenassistancetoIDPs,whichiscompensable,andassistancetoreturneesfromEritrea,whichisnot .Moreo�er,someitemscitedfelloutsidethescopeofEritrea’sliabilityordidnotin�ol�ecompensabledamagetoEthiopia,includingatleastthe�alueofsheltermaterialspro�idedbyforeignNGOs(about21 .3millionbirr),andtransportationof“expelled�ictims”fromEritrea(aboutonemillionbirr) .

475 . Aftermakingthenecessaryreductions,theCommissionawardsUS$6,000,000fortheDPPCclaim .

476 . TheRESTClaim .Ethiopia’sClaim7,whichinitiallypresentedEthi-opia’sclaimsforassistancetoIDPs,didnotrefertoanyoutlaysin�ol�ingREST .Theprincipale�idenceinsupportofthecurrentclaimforUS$67,393,852wasaone-pagedeclarationbytheSociety’sheadandanaccompanyingone-pagetable,whichshowedtheamountsof�ariousfoodstuffs,beddingandshelteritems,householditems,andothersuppliesdistributed,andtheirbottom-line�alues . .AswiththeDPPCportionoftheclaim,theamountsappeartoberea-sonableinthecontextofthecircumstancesandentirerecord,butreductionsarenecessary .First,therewasnodistinctionbetweentheamountsattributabletoassistanceforIDPsandreturnees .Second,alargepercentageofthereliefappearedtoha�ebeendonated .Thedeclarationdoesnotassertthatthefoodcommoditiesdistributed(�aluedat407,106,000birr,almost90%ofthetotalclaim)werepurchasedbyEthiopia .Instead,thedeclarationstatedthatthe�alueattributedtothesecommoditieswasthatindicatedinagreementsamongREST,donors andtransporters,creatingtheclearimplicationthatthesegoodsweredonated .Thiswasreinforcedbythe“perunit�alues”allocatedtobulkfoodstuffs(cereals,pulses,�egetableoil,etc),whichdidnotappeartobemar-ketprices,butratherroundnumbersusedforestimation(i .e .,asfour,sixoreightthousandbirrpermetricton) .Inaddition,theDPPCreportdescribedabo�eclearlystatedthatfoodcommoditiesforassistanceweredonatedratherthanpurchased .Othergoods,suchasplasticsheetswortho�ertwentymillionbirr,werealsolikelydonated .

477 . TheCommissiondoesnotregardthe�alueofcommoditiesdonat-edbyforeignaiddonors,withoutanyindicationthatrepaymentwasrequiredorexpected,asconstitutinganelementofdamagetoEthiopia .Absentanye�idenceindicatingthatanyofthefoodcommoditiesin�ol�edintheRESTclaimin�ol�edsomecosttoEthiopia(andwithcon�incinge�idenceintheDPPCreportthattheydidnot),theapproximatelyfourhundredmillionbirrportionoftheRESTclaimrelatingtofoodcommoditiesandthe�alueofotherdonatedgoodsisdisallowed .

478 . Aftermakingtheseandothernecessaryreductions,theCommis-sionawardsUS$1,500,000fortheRESTclaim .

479 . Accordingly,theCommissionawardsatotalofUS$7,500,000forEthiopia’sjus ad bellum claimforreconstructionandassistance .

Xii. awardA . TheCommissionawardsEthiopiathefollowingcompensationfor

Eritrea’s�iolationsofthejus in bello: 1 . US$11,000,000fordeath,physicalinjury,disappearance,forced

laborandconscriptionofEthiopianci�ilians; 2 . US$2,000,000forfailingtopre�entrapeofknownandun-

known�ictimsinIrob,DalulandElidarWeredas; 3 . US$13,900,000forlooting,anddestructionofanddamageto

houses; 4 . US$20,195,000fordamage,destructionandlootingin

Zalambessa; 5 . US$2,500,000fordeath,injuryandpropertydamageinMe-

kele; 6 . US$315,000forlootingofanddamagetogo�ernmentbuild-

ingsandinfrastructure; 7 . US$4,500,000forlooting,destructionanddamagetoreligious

institutions; 8 . US$3,216,000forseizureandlootingoftheSabaDimensional

StonesShareCompany; 9 . US$7,500,000formistreatmentofEthiopianprisonersofwar; 10 . US$2,000,000forfailuretoprotectEthiopianci�iliansinEr-

itreafromthreatsand�iolence; 11 . US$1,500,000forfailuretoensureEthiopianci�iliansinEr-

itreaaccesstoemployment; 12 . US$50,000forfailuretoensurethatEthiopianci�iliansin

Eritreawereabletorecei�emedicalcaretothesameextentasEritreannationals;

13 . US$2,000,000forwrongfuldetentionandabusi�etreatmentof

Ethiopianci�iliansinEritreancustody; 14 . US$1,500,000forharshtreatmentofEthiopianci�iliansatthe

Hawshaitedetentioncamp; 15 . US$10,000,000fordetainingsignificantnumbersofEthiopian

ci�iliansunderharshconditionsduringandafterMay2000; 16 . US$500,000fordeathsandinjuriessufferedbydetaineesat

Wi’aCamp; 17 . US$2,000,000forfailuretoprotectthepropertyofEthiopian

detaineesexpelledfromEritrea; 18 . US$1,000,000forfailuretoprotectthepropertyofotherde-

partingEthiopians;and 19 . US$1,100,000forfailingtoensurethesafeandhumanerepa-

triationofdepartingEthiopiansintransportsthatwerenotconductedorsuper�isedbytheICRC .

B . TheCommissionawardsEthiopiathefollowingcompensationforEritrea’s�iolationsofthejus ad bellum: 1 . US$45,000,000forhumansufferingandlostincomeassociated

withinternaldisplacementofpersons; 2 . US$8,500,000forEthiopianci�iliandeathsandinjuries; 3 . US$6,000,000fordamagetoci�ilianproperty,primarilyfrom

shelling; 4 . US$3,500,000fordamagetopublicbuildingsandinfrastruc-

ture; 5 . US$2,500,000forlooting,destructionanddamagetoreligious

institutions; 6 . US$5,605,000fordestructioninZalambessa; 7 . US$1,500,000fordeathsandinjuriescausedbylandmines; 8 . US$250,000fordestructionofDisasterPre�entionandPre-

parednessBureaufacilitiesinAdigrat; 9 . US$162,500fordamagetoothergo�ernmentfacilitiesonthe

CentralFront; 10 . US$75,000forothergo�ernmentlossesontheCentralFront; 11 . US$125,000forlootingofpropertyfromtheReliefSocietyof

Tigray; 12 . US$150,000fordamageinAdiGoshu; 13 . US$625,000forshellingdamageinSheraro; 14 . US$65,000fordamagecausedbytheattackontheMekele

airport; 15 . US$4,000,000forprofitslostbyEthiopianAirlines; 16 . US$1,703,020forfailingtopro�ideEthiopianAirlinesaccessto

itsbankaccountsattheBankofEritrea;and

17 . US$7,500,000forreconstructionandassistancetointernallydisplacedpersons .

C . Asdeterminedattheliabilityphase,theCommissionconsidersitsfindingthatEritrea�iolatedtheViennaCon�entiononDiplomaticRelationsbyarrestinganddetainingtheEthiopianChargéd’Affairesandby�iolatingofficialEthiopiandiplomaticcorrespondenceandinterferingwiththefunc-tioningoftheEthiopiandiplomaticmissiontobeappropriatereparation .

D . AllofEthiopia’sotherclaimsaredismissed .E . Inaddition to theawardof satisfaction toEthiopia forallof the

Commission’sliabilityfindings,thetotalmonetarycompensationawardedtoEthiopiainrespectofitsclaimsisUS$174,036,520 .AttheconclusionoftheselengthyproceedingsandtheissuanceofthisFinalAward,andtheparallelFinalAwardinEritrea’sclaimsagainstEthiopia,theCommissionreiteratesitsconfidencethatthePartieswillensurethatthecompensationawardedwillbepaidpromptly,andthatfundsrecei�edinrespectoftheirclaimswillbeusedtopro�iderelieftotheirci�ilianpopulationsinjuredinthewar .

DoneatTheHague,this17thdayofAugust2009,

[Signed]PresidentHansvanHoutte

[Signed]GeorgeH .Aldrich

[Signed]JohnR .Crook

[Signed]JamesC .N .Paul

[Signed]LucyReed

REPORTS OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRAL AWARDS RECUEIL DES...

Documents

REPORTS OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRAL AWARDS RECUEIL DES …legal.un.org/riaa/cases/vol_XXVI/407-428.pdf · 2016. 2. 4. · Green, The Contemporary Law of Armed Conflictp 81 (Manchester

PÉRIODES 2020 Place Moselle La Coulée HORAIRES · 2020. 8. 18. · B SERVICE CLIENT/RÉCLAMATIONS SIGNALER UNE INCIVILITÉ OBJETS TROUVÉS Tél : 26.00.26 MOSELLE Lundi au jeudi

REPORTS OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRAL AWARDS RECUEIL … › riaa › cases › vol_XXVI › 115-153.pdfPrincipes du droit international humanitaire coutumier—responsabilité non engagée

REPORTS OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRAL AWARDS RECUEIL DES …legal.un.org/riaa/cases/vol_XXVI/73-114.pdf · 2016. 2. 4. · Partial Award, Prisoners of war—Ethiopia’s Claim 4, Decision

Www.bcn.cat IRIS: Plaintes & Réclamations à Barcelone Emilio Rubió Director of Attention to the Citizen Barcelona City Council Honourable Mention

Maps & f MAPS & FACTS March 2016acts WEST AFRICA Club ...de ceux accordés à l’Éthiopie ou au Kenya. Le Burkina Faso, la Gambie et la Guinée-Bissau n’ont encore reçu aucun

REPORTS OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRAL AWARDS …legal.un.org/riaa/cases/vol_XXVI/115-153.pdf · Con entions—treaties on the use of anti-personnel landmines and booby traps not con-

REPORTS OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRAL AWARDS RECUEIL DES ...legal.un.org/riaa/cases/vol_XXVI/291-349.pdf · The State of Eritrea, represented by: Government of Eritrea His Excellency,

REPORTS OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRAL AWARDS RECUEIL DES ...legal.un.org/riaa/cases/vol_XXVI/505-630.pdf · 508 ERITREA/ETHIOPIA but the extent of injury to affectedindi iduals can play

GENERAUX.docx · Web viewPour être valables, les réclamations portant sur les questions techniques doivent être précédées de réserves écrites formulées par l’équipe requérante

Corrigé Corrected...2020/09/16 · M. Seyed Mohammad Asbaghi Namini, directeur par intérim, département des réclamations internationales, centre des affaires juridiques internationales

Iridium i3 LED Installation Guide - Cooper Industries...de transporteur public (chargement partiel) directement auprès du transporteur. Les réclamations pour avaries occultes doivent

GUIDE version word 02 06 14 · 2014-06-27 · Pour ce faire vous pouvez poster vos remarques ou vos réclamations dans la rubrique contact de notre site Internet ou contacter

L’assurance maladie communautaire comme voie vers la couverture maladie universelle: les leçons de l’Éthiopie

Contribution des éléments de gestion des réclamations à la

Quelles dimensions de la théorie de la justice privilégier ... · La gestion des réclamations s'inscrit parfaitement dans le cadre de la gestion de la relation client et de la

Coût des réclamations par grandeur de la perte (2001 to 2011)

Lawyers In London, Toronto & Québec City - ACTION ......du Québec, district de Québec (dossier de la cour No. 200-06-000130-115). (4) Administrateur des réclamations (Claims Administrator)

REPORTS OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRAL AWARDS RECUEIL DES ...legal.un.org/riaa/cases/vol_XXVI/23-72.pdf · Partial Award, Prisoners of war—Eritrea’s claim 17, Decision of 1 july 2003

Réclamations `` déviantes '' des clients: quelles réponses