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Realism founders1
FOUNDERS OF TODAYS
REALIST THEORY
OF INTERNATIONAL RELATONS
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Realism founders1
Machiavellis , 1513 entrepreneur creates empire : strategy ofdomestic liberty and peace; entrepreneurial realism
- today: B Bueno de Mesquita. Principles of international politics
Hobbes, 1651 structural realism: structure what is that?
inter-state system is a social structure that pre-determines limits within state behavior can besuccessful and punishes failure
- today: K. Waltz. Theory of international politics.
Rousseaus, 1756 constitutional realism + isolation
today: A. Etzioni . The spirit of community 1993
Kant, 1795, League of republican states imposes peace; bridges
realism-liberalism
- today Robert Cooper. The breaking of nations. Order and chaos in the twentieth-first
century. Atlantic Books 2004
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Why di f ferent answ ers? Causes of fore ign pol ic ybehavior d i f fer :
hum an nat ure ,domest ic soc ie t y ,in t ernat iona l sys t em
ALL AGREE:s t a t e o f w ar is s t a t e o f nat ure : perm anent ,
un iversa l, c annot undone by s ta t e ac t ion
2
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1)Cr i t ic a l Quest ions about Anarc hy (i) does it cause foreign policy?;
(ii) Let it things happen, it does not make them happen?2) Fear , pr i de and int erest s : does threat perception
come from:
- growing capabilities?;- from incompatible domestic systems?
- From competing foreign policy objectives?
Implications for formation of alliances
Puzzleswhy do people kill themselves for benefit of a group??
4) A-symm et r ic w ar fare : major powers often lose warsagainst weaker opponents: willingness to suffer, Netherlands in
Aceh, 1870-1903; suicide terrorism
anarchy
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Summary Hobbes
Waltz, as Hobbes: the beast man may glory in carnage; the reason
in man rebels;
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1) Pessimist about the species: human nature; no progress
Will to power; struggle for power;
rea l i s ts : c ont inu i t y behav ior m an-an im al :c ogn it i ve equipm ent o f m an par t o f evo lut ion o fre jec t (i ) Desc art e s dua l i sm 1596-1650
same emotions caused by same physiological processes
Frans de Waal. Chimpanzee politics
power drive: implies cooperation in conflicts about top position;
re jec t (i i ) Loc k e s b lank sheet no t ion o f humannatu rere jec t (i i i ) Rousseau s nob le savage in sm al lc o m m u n i t y
pessimists1
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Claude Levi-Strauss:
the idea of progress is an ethnocentric
illusion, which French intellectuals tookfor granted only because they had boughtinto the myth of the French revolution asa boon for all humanity as quoted inAdamKuper, Mens work, LRB 24 June 2004, p. 37 [Christopher Johnson. Claude Levi Strauss. Theformative years. [LRB June 24, 2004
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[1]: Shak espeare i n t he Timon o f At hens:
If you wert the lion, the fox would beguile thee; If you wertthe lamb, the fox would eat thee; If you wert the fox, the lion
would suspect thee;If you wert the wolf, thy greediness would
afflict thee, and oft thou should hazard thy life for thydinner.Claude Lev i-St rauss:the idea of progress is an ethnocentric illusion, which French
intellectuals took for granted only because they had bought
into the myth of the French revolution as a boon for all
humanity as quoted in Adam Kuper, Mens work, LRB 24 June 2004, p. 37[Christopher Johnson. Claude Levi Strauss. The formative years. [LRB June 24,
2004
2 Shakespeare 1564-1616
R li I t ti l liti b h i f i l i th
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Realism: International politics as behavior of animals in the
jungle
Machiavelli
A prince being thus obliged to know well how to act as
a beast must imitate the fox and the lion, for the lion
cannot protect himself from traps, and the fox cannot
defend himself from wolves. One must therefore be a fox
to recognize traps, and a lion to frighten wolves.1]Interested?
Machiavellism in behavior is social expression of biological evolution: heritage of 5 million years of
primate past. Being a killer ape had survival value?
Controversy: behavior captured by evolutionary past which is discovered by rationally research, which
reflects freedom from biological determination: scientific materialism as example of self-stultifying
argument?
K. Malik. Man , beast and zombie.what science can and cannot tell about human nature.London 2000.
Frans De waal. Good natured. The origins of right and wron in humans and animals.. Harvard 1988R.
Wrangham. . Demonic males. Apes and the origins of human violence. Boston 1996.
machiavelli1
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Domestic leadership rivalry may be played out through
inter-state relations
Machiavelli;
2
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Current ex am ples of quas i -nat ura l ist language
Arafat outfoxes his political foes ---again [IHT 17-08-2004]
The United States has reached a dead end in Iraq, like a trapped
wolf Ayatollah Khamenei said at a gathering of Shiite clerics. It is
trying to frighten people by roaring and clawing. But the people of
Iraq will not allow the United States to swallow their country.
IHT 17-8-2004
3 Current examples
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2MACHIAVELLI IS AL IVE AND WELL
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Vietnam war example
Structural
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Structuralrealist
Strategic
interactionbetween states
Strategic interaction
The CIA 's In tervent ion in Afghanis tan
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I n te rview w i th Zb ign iew Brzezinsk i ,
Pres ident J imm y Carter 's Nat iona l Sec ur i ty Adviser
Le Nouvel Observateur , Par is , 15-21 J anuary 1998
Brzezinski:
Ac c ord ing to t he of f ic ia l vers ion of h is t ory , CIA a idt o t he Mu jahadeen began dur ing 1980, t hat i s to say,af t er t he Soviet arm y invaded Afghanis t an, 24 Dec1979. But t he rea li t y , sec ret ly guarded unt i l now , isc om plet e ly o t herw ise Indeed, i t w as J u ly 3 , 1979 t hatPres ident Car t er s igned t he f i rst d i rec t ive for sec reta id t o t he opponent s o f t he pro-Sov ie t reg im e inKabul . See Robert M. Gates. From the shadows. The ultimate insider story of five presidents and how they won the cold war 1996 ch. 9
Steve Coll. Ghost wars. The secret history of the CIA in Afghanistan and Bin Laden. From the Soviet invasion to September 10, 2001. NY;Penguin 2004
Brzezinski
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B. We didn ' t push t he Russians t o in t ervene, butw e k now ing ly inc reased the p robab i l i t y t hat t hey
would .
You don't regret anything today?
B: Regret w hat ? That secre t opera t ion w as an
ex c e l len t idea. I t had t he ef fec t o f draw ing t heRussians int o t he Afghan t rap and you w ant m e t o
regret i t?
The day that t he Sov ie t s o f f i c ia l l y c rossed the
border , I w rot e t o Pres ident Car t er . We now have
t he oppor t un i t y o f g iving t o t he USSR i t s V ie tnamwar .
2
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Q: And ne i t her do you regret hav ing suppor t ed t he
Is lamic fundament a l ism, hav ing g iven arm s and
advic e to fu t ure t e r ror is t s?
Q: But i t has been sa id and repeat ed Is lamic
fundament a l i sm represents a w orld m enac e
today.
B: Nonsense! Som e st i r red -up Musl im s
. There isn't a global Islam. Look at Islam in a rational manner
and without demagoguery or emotion.
.. what is there in common among Saudi Arabian fundamentalism,
moderate Morocco, Pakistan militarism, Egyptian pro-Western or
Central Asian secularism? Nothing more than what unites theChristian countries.
3
Todays realism: extension of thought of classical authors
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Today s realism: extension of thought of classical authors
(i)Structural realism: Kenneth Waltz. Theory of international politicsgeo-politics: realism + geography [location + resources]
(ii)Entrepreneurial realism: Bruce B. de Mesquita. Principles ofinternational politics
(iii)Mercantilism: merging international political economy/ structural
realism: control rules world economy-Robert Gilpin. The political
economy of international relations
(iv)Strategic realism: models ofstrategic interaction between unified
states: interest maximization: game theory; decision theory
Thomas Schelling. Arms and influence [ coercion short ofwar]
4
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Rousseau1
LEt at de Guer re, 1754: RousseauAs individuals we live in civil state = control of law
As nations, we live in state of nature= no law applicable
Under present circumstances, we have disadvantage of both without
having security in either of these realms
rejects Hobbes:social contract does not bring peace -prosperity
In society: : as long as Prince is uncontrolled, force speaks to citizens
in name of law; despotism of Leviathan solution
in Rousseau: sovereignty shifts from state to people
In International relations: force speaks to foreigner in name ofnational interests
Like Hobbes:
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e obbes:
State of war is a relation between states;
for both: war is force not controlled by law
However:
For Hobbes :
states have the rights of individuals in the state of
nature
law of nature is the law of nations
contract abolishes state of nature in society
in international relations, states are in state of
nature
and behave as individuals did in state of nature----g iven w hathum an nat ure is a l l about : honor, ambition; fear/powerdrive
2
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For Rousseau: state of war is international condition that does not derive from
human nature
Rousseau has 2 states of nature:
(i) men still part of animal kingdom: equal, cooperative instead of warlike; finds foodand shelter independent from each other; simple wants, few fears, few thoughts ; abundant
nature ;
Unlike Hobbes
man in state of nature is good-natured
(ii) when civilization develops, man extricates himself from nature: leaves animal
kingdom: rivalry, pride, hatred, possessiveness replaces natural happiness
rich form a contract, not the people: poor get tricked in formal equality
3
Unlike Hobbes:
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development of civilization makes international conflict worse:
bad behavior not due to evil nature: what man original was is good; what has
become of him in bad society is not due his nature
Rousseau create awareness of cost of modern civilization
We thus are back to image of man:
which part of behavior is independent from society
which part of behavior is nature
Rousseau: create a second contract at home: a just society
this is Rousseaus democratic revolution: volonte general is the national interest
majority gets voice at home and abroad
U-shaped curve of development
Idyllic state of nature:
Natural man
1rst contract
Corrupt state of Hobbes2ndcontrct
Democratic community:
cultural man
Stomach
increases with
wealth:
infinite needs
4
Noble savage ideas widespread
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Amerigo Vespucci, Mundus Novis, 1503
They have no cloth of wool, linen, or cotton, since they need none. Nor have they
private property, but own everything in common; they live together without a king andwithout authorities, each man his own master. They take as many wives as they which, and
son may couple with mother, brother with sister..Moreover, they have no temple and nor
religion.What more can I say. They live according to nature.
5
Realists see as the hard core of International Relations
t t f t
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structure of a system:
(i) Ordering principle: independence of units ; units are alike;no differentiation among them= no hierarchy = no submission to
authority as domestic politics competition; independent survival
units;
(ii) [changes in] distribution of power resources
(iii) within an unaltered anarchy
observed capability distributions1)Hegemony: US, 1950s mid 1970s
2)Bi-polar: military bi-polarity; beginning of economic tri-polarity
alliance polarization of multi-polar power system is not same as bi-polarity: 18941907
3)Tri-polar: late 1930s: US; SU; Germany
4)Multi-polar: 5-7 major powers
5) Dispersed power: as in feudal system : great many small units
Waltz
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structural realists [K. Waltz. Theory of international politics]
share:
1)international system = inter-state system;
typology of international systemslogic of inter-state competition overrules logic of market
integration
2) All inter-state systems are anarchic = state of nature= state
of war
3) Foreign policy is uniform across states: selection pressure
4) Outcome: long-term survival of inter-state system= system
of fragmented power
2
Structural realism:
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(i) international system is composed of interacting units
(ii) Structural characteristics of international system make itpossible to conceive these units as a system
structure determined by
Concentration- de-concentration of distribution of capabilities across
states
Implication
Foreign policy inter-state relations change as response toshifts in distribution of capabilities across autonomous units
3
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2) Focus on conflict and security/state survival; state as actor;
unity of will and purpose
3) Primacy of politics over economics
4) Practice makes theory: no ivory tower
4
realists say:
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- Scratch the back of altruist politicians and you find selfish interes
- Verbal virtue hides immoral desire:a rational separation between language and reality
. Power is an indispensable instrument of government
. International government is, in effect, government by state
which supplies the power necessary for the purpose of governing
. As long as power is organized nationally, real international
government is impossible
-realist disconnect history from teleology progress
Realists in IR are also scientific realists or positivists: apply social
science methodology to gain objective knowledge of society and history--
against constructivism-relativism; knowledge of history = generalizingsocial science
5
Critics of Waltz
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1) Core concept are not clearly defined: power; balance of power
2) Inadequate for explaining change: a- historical; W.: continuity dominates, despite change
Over the centuries, states have changed in many ways, but the quality of international life
has remained much the same.[ p. 111]
critics: feudal units, city-states, pre-industrial states, industrial, post industrial political units
cannot be compared; relations among modern states are qualitatively different; we now have
global economy
3) Anarchy is not part of reality; a man-made construct instead of determinant of foreign policy
[constructivism;
Ashley, the poverty of realism, in: Keohane.Neo-realism and is critics.
Wendt, Anarchy is what states make of it,International Organization 46 [1992], 391-425]
Other realists respond
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pIncorporate industrial development into national power
1) Why global market?: from competitive conquest by European powers + trade
expansion/competition
both : serve national power
2) Loss of control by governments over outcomes: international markets transfer power
between political units
A third objective of states, and in the modern world an increasingly important objective, is to
control or at least exercise influence over the world economy, or what may be more
properly called the international division of labor. . In the modern world, the
international division of labor has become a significant determinant of relative wealth,
security and prestige of states
R. Gilpin. War and change in world politics , p. 24G Kindlberger. World in depression [ leadership- hegemony]
G. Modelski.Long cycles in world politics [succession of naval powers determine world
order]
M. Midlarski. The onset of world war [ hierarchical equilibrium as a form of structure;
when systemic war breaks out in multi-polar system]
Position in System
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Position in SystemExplain behaviour by preferences coming from domestic
institutions
Alternative:
how actors are positioned: dominates actor definition of interests
realists: relate behaviour major powers to
- International power structure of top ranks- More generally : to position in hierarchy of resources and
authority
Internal characteristics matter less than its position in the system.
Dissimilar countries in the same position behave in rather similarways
US
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R i
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Russia
PRC
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PRC
EU
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EU
India
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India
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World is a round place
EU: want to lift China arms embargo
Japan is neighbor China: opposes lifting
US is global military power and wants to keep itthat way + allied to Japan
Japan and China oppose lifting arms embargoIht front page news March 28,2005
-Structural Realists
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-neglect any state motive other than power, interests, honor
- focus on incentives and constraints coming out of international system:the power configuration among states
-Assume rationality: rationality of means to ends
no place for what Weber calls: emotional action and value-
rational action: hubris, arrogance ,rage, envy, contempt
value rational action actions of persons who, regardless of
possible cost to themselves, act to put into practice their convictions of
which seems to them to be required by duty, honoura religious call,.or importance of some cause
Contemporary realists pretend to transcend political culture
structural2
Example: Multipolar uncertainty
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Example: Multipolar uncertaintyPaul Kennedy, The logic of appeasement TLS May 28, 1982
Relevant Dyads:UK-US; UK-SU; UK-JAPAN; UK-ITALY; UK-FR; UK-GER
US-UK; US-JAPAN ;US-GER
FR-GERM; FR-UK;FR-SU;
GER-US;GER-UK;GER-SU;
Kennedy, The logic of appeasement TLS May 28, 1982
It was not simply that [ for Great Britain] dealing with the German problem
involved a constant reference to France and that dealing with the Japan probleminvolved equally close consultation with the United States. British attempts to
improve relations with Tokyo would, it was argued, enable a stiffer line to be taken
towards Berlin which would gratify the French; but this appeasement of the
Japanese would enrage the Americans, possibly with grave consequences, and thatwould alarm the Dominions. The stiffer tone in Europe might also lead the Germans
to settle their difference with the Soviet Union. The whole thing worked in reverse
too: if Japan threatened aggression in the Far East, the British would need to move
closer to the United States; but they would probably also have to buy off Hitler inEurope, which would alarm France and its smaller allies.
For Realists:
i i l i h i d b h
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international system=interstate system, characterized by anarchy
Unit action and unit of selection is the state : Statesurvival
Critique(i) realists do not ask what societies are involved in the inter-state
system
inter-state system is characterised by institutions and practicesof domestic society of its most powerful members
Examples: protestant revolution----counter-reformationFrench Revolution ------RestorationBolshevik/Mao Revolution---US anti-communist crusade
Unit of action is state leader ; unit of selection is domesticpolitical regime: Brezhnev doctrine; US regime change;
Critique1 type of society
Realists miss internationalization of domestic conflict: inter-
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Critique2 social change 2
Realists miss internationalization of domestic conflict: inter state system is domain where domestic political orders are
managed
(ii) Societies change in the course of development
economic institutions [enterprise; market],political institutions [form of state]military institutions
3) Unit of action: state leadership
What is selected for survival and spread are domesticsocio-economic and political institutions that create mostwealth, power and find attraction
Regime survival:? Brezhnev doctrine;; US regime change
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Critique3 Units of survivalRegime survival:? Brezhnev doctrine;; US regime change
Survival of politicians in domestic power struggles
What survives selection in IR: unit of replication
institutionalized state-economy- military institutions andelite in commanding positions in these institutions
What is the vehicle of that unit? the statecitizens get slaughtered to let state survive
state survives as political regime changes
political regime changes as domestic order changes
successful domestic arrangements multiply, become more
numerous
Mercantilist : state-society nexus determined by anarchy
Logic of international anarchy [inter state competition] compels
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Logic of international anarchy [inter-state competition] compelssocieties to economic growth and thus change domestic society
Getting control over trade investment rules in world economy isobjective of international commercial policy
1) states impose market reforms on domestic society to survive
international competition: capitalist industrialization - wealthtaxation-relative state power
2)states use protection to build industries required for wealthto gain power, in particular industries for defense
3) Powerful states using force to get access to other, nonmarket societies; Colonialism; regime change
4) Powerful state use control over cross border trade and cross
border investment as tools to gain relative power/securityfor domestic society
mercantilists1
Political realism in IR developed in a time period in2
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Political realism in IR developed in a time period inwhich international politics, defined as rulingterritorially defined groups that interact with eachother, developed but cross border market integrationamong them was still rather limited. Greek city states
are a good example.
Today we live in state-market condominium ; each ofthese has become part of global hierarchy:
Atlantic economies are still at the top of that hierarchy:
in current prices and exchange rate: about 15% ofworld population, controls about 76% of world GDP ;in ppp terms it is less, but still extraordinary: 15%controls about 40%.
2
Today , we have two great power
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y g pstructures that bind the social world
together: enterprises and markets onthe one hand hand and the state / globalinter-state system on the other
hand. Decisions made by actors in thesestructures control a large part of humanbehavior and shape-reshape societies .
These structures interact as well: no goodeconomy without being integrated intoworld economy and without a state
organization. No organizationally strongstate without enterprises and cross bordermarkets.
Reality is very different from neo-classical economics:1) Mercantile trade capitalism : used force for conquest of land
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and trade routes : till today: trade expansion by warfare
In Americas, Australia: extermination instead of tradeintegration: Americas
1) 19th Industrial capitalism coincided with colonization/ colonialtrade;
2) World market integration is not smooth: great reversals ofdisintegration
3) No convergence in living standards: polarization
4) No example of catching-up by market forces alone: state
action; mercantilism; developmental state5) Great Free trader nations starter career as protectionist: UK;
Mercantilism3
Power transition hypothesis: Thucydides
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What made war inevitable was the growth of Athenian power and thefear which this caused in Sparta. Thucydides. The Peloponnesian
war. Bk 1 Par. 23
- Power transition between major powers impairs capacity for collective
conflict management
- Rise of China in relation to US, Japan, Russia, Indonesia, Taiwan and
EU; rise EU [?]
- Military power vacuum in EU: larges trade block in world has [not
yet ?] political institutions to set political objectives for military force
- Military power vacuum in Caspian/ Central Asia; US steps into
West Asia and Central Eurasia
Realist see instability
K lWe have about 50% of the worlds wealth but only 6 3 % of
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Kennan exampleWe have about 50% of the world s wealth, but only 6.3 % ofits population. In this situation, our real job in the comingPeriod is to devise a pattern of relationships which permits usto maintain this position of disparityTo do so, we have todispense with all sentimentality and day-dreaming; and our
attention will have to concentrated everywhere on ourimmediate national objectives We should cease thinkingabout vague and unreal objectives such as human rights, the
raising of living standards, arid democratization. The day isnot far off when we are going to have to deal in straight powerconcepts. The less we are hampered by idealist slogans, the
betterAs quoted in John Pilger. The new rulers of the world. . London: Verso 2002, p. 98.Originally in : US State Department Policy Planning Number 23, January 1948.
Multi-polar UncertaintyP l K d Th l i f t TLS M 28 1982
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Paul Kennedy, The logic of appeasement TLS May 28, 1982
Relevant Dyads:
UK-US; UK-SU; UK-JAPAN; UK-ITALY; UK-FR; UK-GER
US-UK; US-JAPAN ;US-GER
FR-GERM; FR-UK;FR-SU;
GER-US;GER-UK;GER-SU;
Kennedy, The logic of appeasement TLS May 28, 1982
It was not simply that [ for Great Britain] dealing with the German probleminvolved a constant reference to France and that dealing with the Japan problem
involved equally close consultation with the United States. British attempts to
improve relations with Tokyo would, it was argued, enable a stiffer line to be taken
towards Berlin which would gratify the French; but this appeasement of the Japanesewould enrage the Americans, possibly with grave consequences, and that would alarm
the Dominions. The stiffer tone in Europe might also lead the Germans to settle their
difference with the Soviet Union. The whole thing worked in reverse too: if Japan
threatened aggression in the Far East, the British would need to move closer to the
United States; but they would probably also have to buy off Hitler in Europe, which
would alarm France and its smaller allies.
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NixonOnBP1970,QuoteKiss705
We must remember the only time in the history of the
world that we have had any extended period of peace is
when there has been balance of power. It is when one
nation becomes infinitely more powerful in relation to
its potential competitor that the danger of war arises. So
I believe in a world in which the United States is
powerful. I think it will be a safer world and a betterworld if we have a strong, healthy United States,
Europe, Soviet Union, China, Japan, each balancing
together the other, not playing one against the other, aneven balance.
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NixonOnBP1970,QuoteKiss705
We must remember the only time in the history of the
world that we have had any extended period of peace iswhen there has been balance of power. It is when one
nation becomes infinitely more powerful in relation to
its potential competitor that the danger of war arises. So
I believe in a world in which the United States is
powerful. I think it will be a safer world and a betterworld if we have a strong, healthy United States,
Europe, Soviet Union, China, Japan, each balancing
together the other, not playing one against the other, aneven balance.
Time has come
to break the destructive pattern of great power rivalry that hasNo to multi-polar
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v p f g p w v y
bedeviled the world since the rise of the nation state in the 17the
century.
"Multi-polarity was never a unifying idea or vision... it was a
necessary evil that sustained the essence [absence] of war butdid not promote peace," she said in an address to the London-based International Institute of Strategic Studies
Multipolarity is a theory of rivalry, of competing powers [interests] and it its worse, competing values. We have tried this before. It led to the
Great War and to the cold war.....why should we seek to divide our
capacities for good when they can be much more effective united. Onlythe enemies of freedom would cheer this division.
She questioned the motives of those who "nostalgically" sought to
defend this concept of international relations. Condoleezza Rice,Speech IISS, June 26, 2003
p
Wolfowitz Quote
a dominant consideration [in US defense strategy should be] to
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a dominant consideration [in US defense strategy should be] to
prevent any hostile power from dominating a region whoseresources would, under consolidated control, be sufficient to
generate global power. Those regionsare Western Europe, East
Asia, the territory of the former Soviet Union and Southwest Asia
(Wolfowitz).
Stability of unipolar order dependsStability uni polar
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y p p
Ability of the United States to meet three challenges
1) Prevent rise of challenger states that combineeconomic and military capability.
2) Alliance building around shared interests (resisttemptation to pursue purely national interests
3) To maintain domestic support for policiesmaintaining preponderance. [1]
[1] Mastanduno, M. A Realist View: Three Images of the Coming International Order, in Paul, T. V. and Hall, J. A. (eds): International Orderand the Future of World Politics, Cambridge University Press, 1999.
Time has come
to break the destructive pattern of great power rivalry that hasNo to multi-polar
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p f g p y
bedeviled the world since the rise of the nation state in the 17the
century.
"Multi-polarity was never a unifying idea or vision... it was a
necessary evil that sustained the essence [absence] of war butdid not promote peace," she said in an address to the London-based International Institute of Strategic Studies
Multipolarity is a theory of rivalry, of competing powers [interests] and it its worse, competing values. We have tried this before. It led to the
Great War and to the cold war.....why should we seek to divide our
capacities for good when they can be much more effective united. Only
the enemies of freedom would cheer this division.
She questioned the motives of those who "nostalgically" sought to
defend this concept of international relations. Condoleezza Rice,Speech IISS, June 26, 2003
Wolfowitz Quote
a dominant consideration [in US defense strategy should be] to
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a dominant consideration [in US defense strategy should be] to
prevent any hostile power from dominating a region whoseresources would, under consolidated control, be sufficient to
generate global power. Those regionsare Western Europe, East
Asia, the territory of the former Soviet Union and Southwest Asia
(Wolfowitz).
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