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Radiographic Film & Radiographic Film & Intensifying ScreensIntensifying Screens
Bushong Ch 11 & 13Bushong Ch 11 & 13
ObjectivesObjectives
Review FilmReview Film
Review Intensifying ScreensReview Intensifying Screens
Technique Changes for Screen SpeedsTechnique Changes for Screen Speeds
What is the function of radiographic film?What is the function of radiographic film?
What is exit radiation? What is another What is exit radiation? What is another name for exit radiation? name for exit radiation?
What is an IR? Name some examplesWhat is an IR? Name some examples
X-Ray FilmX-Ray Film
Film is a media that makes a Film is a media that makes a permanent record of the permanent record of the image.image.
Image recorded on film is Image recorded on film is caused by exposure to caused by exposure to photonsphotons
X-ray Film cont’dX-ray Film cont’d
Radiographic film is/was most Radiographic film is/was most common common image receptorimage receptor
Two parts:Two parts:
1. Base1. Base
2. Emulsion2. Emulsion
• FIRST “FILM”• GLASS PLATES• WW 1 • CELLULOSE NITRATE• HIGHLY FLAMMABLE• EASILY TORN• RESPONSIBLE FOR
MANY FIRES IN HOSPITAL BASEMENTS
• CELLULOSE TRIACETATE
Early Film baseCellulose Triacetate
• Highly Flammable• Emulsion would crack
& peel away from base when chemicals were too hot
• RETICULATION
Film Construction - BASEFilm Construction - BASE
Made of a polyester plasticMade of a polyester plastic Must be clear, strong, consistent Must be clear, strong, consistent
thicknessthickness Tinted pale blue or blue-gray (reduces Tinted pale blue or blue-gray (reduces
eye strain)eye strain) COATED ON 1 OR 2 SIDES WITH COATED ON 1 OR 2 SIDES WITH
EMULSIONEMULSION
Film Construction - EMULSIONFilm Construction - EMULSION
Film emulsion can be on one side or Film emulsion can be on one side or both sides of base (single emulsion / both sides of base (single emulsion / double emulsion)double emulsion)
Protective overcoat layered on top of Protective overcoat layered on top of emulsionemulsion
Emulsion is a gelatin containing the film Emulsion is a gelatin containing the film crystalscrystals
Emulsion is the “active” layer of filmEmulsion is the “active” layer of film
FILM COMPOSTIONFILM COMPOSTION
SINGLE OR DOUBLE EMULSIONSINGLE OR DOUBLE EMULSIONCOATED ON A BASECOATED ON A BASE
EMULSION : GELATIN EMULSION : GELATIN WITH SILVER HALIDE CRYSTALSWITH SILVER HALIDE CRYSTALS
BASE: SUPPORT (POLYESTER)BASE: SUPPORT (POLYESTER)
Film EmulsionFilm Emulsion
Made of mixture of gelatin Made of mixture of gelatin & silver halide crystals & silver halide crystals (fluorine, chlorine, (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, & iodine)bromine, & iodine)
Most x-ray film emulsions Most x-ray film emulsions made of :made of :
silver bromide silver bromide (98%) (98%) silver iodide (2%)silver iodide (2%)
Photographically active Photographically active layer – activated by light layer – activated by light & radiation to create & radiation to create imageimage
Silver halide crystalsSilver halide crystals
Crystals are cubic Crystals are cubic
in structurein structure
Crystal lattice Crystal lattice
containing ionscontaining ions
Film constructionFilm construction
Film is manufactured to have specific Film is manufactured to have specific characteristics of speed, contrast & characteristics of speed, contrast & resolutionresolution
Film is also manufactured to be sensitive Film is also manufactured to be sensitive to specific colors of light = spectral to specific colors of light = spectral matchingmatching
Direct-exposure film = thicker emulsion Direct-exposure film = thicker emulsion with more silver halide crystalswith more silver halide crystals
X-Ray Film Cross Section
FILM CONSTRUCTIONFILM CONSTRUCTION
BASE WITH EMULSIONBASE WITH EMULSION CAN BE ON 1 (SINGLE EMULSION)CAN BE ON 1 (SINGLE EMULSION) OR 2 SIDES (DOUBLE EMULSION)OR 2 SIDES (DOUBLE EMULSION)
MUST BE MATCHED WITH 1 OR 2 MUST BE MATCHED WITH 1 OR 2 SIDED INTENSIFYING SCREENSSIDED INTENSIFYING SCREENS
Image formationImage formation
X-ray photons converted to light X-ray photons converted to light photonsphotons
Image before processing = Image before processing = latent imagelatent image
Made visible by chemical processingMade visible by chemical processing
After proper chemical processing = After proper chemical processing = manifest manifest imageimage
IMAGE ON FILMIMAGE ON FILM
SINGLE EMULSION = BETTER DETAILSINGLE EMULSION = BETTER DETAIL
DOUBLE EMULISON = LESS DETAILDOUBLE EMULISON = LESS DETAIL
PARALLAX PARALLAX
With double emulsion – an image is With double emulsion – an image is created on both emulsions – then created on both emulsions – then superimposed – slight blurring of edgessuperimposed – slight blurring of edges
PARALLAX –PARALLAX –each emulsion has an imageeach emulsion has an image
single image overlaped – edges single image overlaped – edges less sharp less sharp
Radiation interacts releasing e-Radiation interacts releasing e-
Silver atoms buildup Silver atoms buildup at the sensitivity at the sensitivity center, building the center, building the latent image centerlatent image center
The group of silver The group of silver atoms is called the atoms is called the latent image centerlatent image center
LIGHT VS DARK AREAS ON FILMLIGHT VS DARK AREAS ON FILM
DARK SPOTS – SILVER HALIDE DARK SPOTS – SILVER HALIDE CRYSTALS THAT HAVE BEEN CRYSTALS THAT HAVE BEEN EXPOSED TO PHOTONS – TURN TO EXPOSED TO PHOTONS – TURN TO BLACK METALLIC SILVER AFTER BLACK METALLIC SILVER AFTER PROCESSINGPROCESSING
LIGHT AREAS – NO CRYSTALS LIGHT AREAS – NO CRYSTALS EXPOSED – SILVER HALIDE IS EXPOSED – SILVER HALIDE IS WASHED AWAY WITH PROCESSINGWASHED AWAY WITH PROCESSING
Processing Processing
The term applied to the chemical reactions The term applied to the chemical reactions that transform the latent image into a that transform the latent image into a manifest imagemanifest image
FILM FILM direct exposure & screen-film or film-screendirect exposure & screen-film or film-screen
SIZESSIZES
14 X 1714 X 17 14 X 1414 X 14 11 X 1411 X 14 10 X 1210 X 12 8 X 108 X 10
Film SizesFilm Sizes
Standard “inches”:Standard “inches”: 8” x 10”8” x 10” 10” x 12”10” x 12” 11” x 14”11” x 14” 14” x 17”14” x 17”
Metric:Metric: 18cm x 24cm18cm x 24cm 24cm x 30cm24cm x 30cm 30cm x 35cm30cm x 35cm 35cm x 43cm35cm x 43cm
Screen-FilmScreen-Film
Most widely used IR ?? Most widely used IR ??
Many Types of Film Used in Medical Many Types of Film Used in Medical Imaging Table 11-1Imaging Table 11-1
Screen-Film has several characteristics to Screen-Film has several characteristics to consider: contrast, speed, spectral consider: contrast, speed, spectral matching, anticrossover dyes, and safe matching, anticrossover dyes, and safe light requirementslight requirements
ContrastContrast
Manufactured in multiple levels Manufactured in multiple levels High-contrast (black-and-white image)High-contrast (black-and-white image) Low-contrast (more gray)Low-contrast (more gray)
Exposure LATITUDE = the range of Exposure LATITUDE = the range of exposure techniques that produce an exposure techniques that produce an acceptable image (medium, high or acceptable image (medium, high or higher)higher)
So what is the difference?So what is the difference?
Depends on the size and distribution of the Depends on the size and distribution of the silver halide crystalssilver halide crystals
High-contrast = smaller crystals, uniform High-contrast = smaller crystals, uniform grain sizegrain size
Low-contrast = larger crystals, wider range Low-contrast = larger crystals, wider range of sizes of sizes
Film SpeedFilm Speed
Single vs Double emulsionSingle vs Double emulsion
Size of CrystalsSize of Crystals
Thickness of emulsionThickness of emulsion
Intensifying screen usedIntensifying screen used
Screen Speed
• Efficiency of a screen in converting x-rays to light is Screen Speed.
Film SpeedFilm Speed
Greater efficiency = less exposure = fasterGreater efficiency = less exposure = faster
-Standard screen speed class of 100-Standard screen speed class of 100
-200 screen speed is twice as fast-200 screen speed is twice as fast Speeds for routine work: 200 – 800Speeds for routine work: 200 – 800 Speeds for high detail: 50 - 100Speeds for high detail: 50 - 100
Film CharacteristicsFilm Characteristics Size of silver halide crystals & Size of silver halide crystals &
emulsion thickness determine speed emulsion thickness determine speed of film and degree of resolutionof film and degree of resolution
Speed – the response to photonsSpeed – the response to photons Resolution – the detail seenResolution – the detail seen
Screen speed vs Spatial resolutionScreen speed vs Spatial resolution
Film Speed / Crystal sizeFilm Speed / Crystal size
Larger crystals or Thicker crystal Larger crystals or Thicker crystal layerlayer
Faster response= less detail, andFaster response= less detail, and
less exposure (chest x-ray)less exposure (chest x-ray) Finer crystals / thinner crystal layerFiner crystals / thinner crystal layer
=Slower response, greater detail, =Slower response, greater detail, more exposure (extremity)more exposure (extremity)
FILM SPEEDSFILM SPEEDS
FASTER SPEED – REDUCES PATIENT FASTER SPEED – REDUCES PATIENT EXPOSUREEXPOSURE
FASTER SPEED - REDUCES IMAGE FASTER SPEED - REDUCES IMAGE DETAIL DETAIL
IMAGE ON FILMIMAGE ON FILM
Crossover is when the exposure of the Crossover is when the exposure of the emulsion by light is from the opposite side emulsion by light is from the opposite side of the intensifying screen of the intensifying screen
Causes increased blur on the imageCauses increased blur on the image
CROSSOVERCROSSOVER
Reducing crossover Reducing crossover by adding a dye to the by adding a dye to the basebase
Reducing CrossoverReducing Crossover
Changing the shape of the crystal Changing the shape of the crystal improved light absorption and reduced improved light absorption and reduced crossovercrossover
Loss of DetailLoss of Detail
Spectral Sensitivity ORSPECTRAL MATCHING
Film is designed to be sensitive to the color of light emitted by the intensifying screens
• Blue – UV light sensitive film – CALCIUM TUNGSTATE screens
• Green, Yellow-Green light sensitive film -
RARE EARTH screens
Film is either blue-sensitive or Film is either blue-sensitive or green-sensitive green-sensitive
Rare earth-Rare earth-
green emittinggreen emitting
screens must screens must
use a red filteruse a red filter
Direct-Exposure FilmDirect-Exposure Film
Thicker emulsion and more crystalsThicker emulsion and more crystals Not sensitive to lightNot sensitive to light Not commonly used because of increased Not commonly used because of increased
patient dosepatient dose
Very detailed imagesVery detailed images
Laser FilmLaser Film
Uses the digital electronic signal Uses the digital electronic signal The intensity of the laser beam is varied in The intensity of the laser beam is varied in
direct proportion to the strength of the direct proportion to the strength of the image signal = image signal = LASER BEAM LASER BEAM MODULATIONMODULATION
The more intense the signal the darker the The more intense the signal the darker the imageimage
Laser printersLaser printers
Provide consistent image quality for Provide consistent image quality for multiple film sizes. Most lasers only print multiple film sizes. Most lasers only print on 14 X 17 regardless of initial IRon 14 X 17 regardless of initial IR
Printers can be linked to multiple users Printers can be linked to multiple users (CT, MRI, US & Computed Radiology)(CT, MRI, US & Computed Radiology)
Laser FilmLaser Film
Is silver halide film sensitive to the red light Is silver halide film sensitive to the red light emitted by the laseremitted by the laser
Laser film is light sensitiveLaser film is light sensitive
Laser film must be handled in the Laser film must be handled in the darkroom in total darkness… Why? darkroom in total darkness… Why?
Blue or Green filter would workBlue or Green filter would work
Duplicating filmDuplicating film
Single-emulsion film (active layer toward Single-emulsion film (active layer toward the initial radiograph)the initial radiograph)
Exposure to light reduces OD on Exposure to light reduces OD on duplicating film (short time = dark film)duplicating film (short time = dark film)
Light is exposed through the initial Light is exposed through the initial radiographradiograph
FILM BIN - STORAGEFILM BIN - STORAGE
Film StorageFilm Storage
Clean, dry location, light tight locationClean, dry location, light tight location 40 – 60 % Humidity 70 40 – 60 % Humidity 70 º º FahrenheitFahrenheit Away from chemical fumesAway from chemical fumes Safe from radiation exposureSafe from radiation exposure Standing on edgeStanding on edge Expiration date clearly visible. Film can be Expiration date clearly visible. Film can be
stored for about 45 days, use the first-in stored for about 45 days, use the first-in first-out rulefirst-out rule
Film Handling Film Handling
Do not bend or crease Do not bend or crease Hands must be cleanHands must be clean Film is sensitive to pressure and scratchesFilm is sensitive to pressure and scratches
What happens if any of these happen?What happens if any of these happen?
X-ray Film SensitivityX-ray Film Sensitivity
LightLightX-raysX-raysGamma RaysGamma RaysGasesGasesFumesFumes
HeatHeatMoistureMoisturePressurePressureStatic Static
ElectricityElectricityAgeAge
So what happens??
FILM FOG!!!!FILM FOG!!!!
Unintended Unintended uniform optical uniform optical density on a density on a radiograph radiograph because of x-rays, because of x-rays, light, or chemical light, or chemical contamination that contamination that reduces contrast & reduces contrast & affects densityaffects density
QUESTIONS ?
Intensifying ScreensIntensifying Screens
Bushong Ch 13Bushong Ch 13
CassettesCassettes
Cassettes serve 3 important functions:Cassettes serve 3 important functions:
1.1. Protect film from exposure to lightProtect film from exposure to light
2.2. Protect film from bending and scratching Protect film from bending and scratching during use.during use.
3.3. Contain intensifying screens, keeps film Contain intensifying screens, keeps film in close contact to screen during in close contact to screen during exposure.exposure.
CASSETTE or FILM HOLDERCASSETTE or FILM HOLDER
The CASSETTE is The CASSETTE is used to hold the film used to hold the film during examinations. during examinations. It consist of front and It consist of front and back intensifying back intensifying screens, and has a screens, and has a lead (Pb) backing. lead (Pb) backing. The cassette is light The cassette is light tighttight
Cassette Features - FrontCassette Features - Front
Exposure side of Exposure side of cassette is the “front”.cassette is the “front”.
Made of radiolucent Made of radiolucent material – easily material – easily penetrated by x-rays, penetrated by x-rays, lightweight metal alloy lightweight metal alloy or plastic material or plastic material made of resin.made of resin.
Intensifying screen Intensifying screen mounted to inside of mounted to inside of front.front.
Cassette FeaturesCassette Features Back Back
Back made of metal or plasticBack made of metal or plastic Inside back is a layer of lead foil – Inside back is a layer of lead foil –
prevents backscatter that could fog the prevents backscatter that could fog the filmfilm
Inside foil layer is a layer of padding – Inside foil layer is a layer of padding – maintains good film/screen contactmaintains good film/screen contact
Back intensifying screen mounted on Back intensifying screen mounted on paddingpadding
Has the ID blocker (patient identification)Has the ID blocker (patient identification)
Image creationImage creation
1% of xray photons that leave patient 1% of xray photons that leave patient Interact with phosphors of intensifying Interact with phosphors of intensifying
screens screens 100’s of light photons created to make 100’s of light photons created to make
image on filmimage on film Light photons expose silver halide crystals Light photons expose silver halide crystals
in the film emulsion in the film emulsion Turn black metallic silver after processionTurn black metallic silver after procession
Intensifying ScreensIntensifying Screens
Flat surface coated with Flat surface coated with fluorescent crystals fluorescent crystals called phosphorscalled phosphors
that glow, giving off that glow, giving off light when exposed to light when exposed to x-rays.x-rays.
Intensifying Screens PhosphorsIntensifying Screens Phosphors
RARE EARTH – (emits green light)RARE EARTH – (emits green light) Developed in 1980’sDeveloped in 1980’s Most efficient – most common in use todayMost efficient – most common in use today
CALCIUM TUNGSTATE (blue light)CALCIUM TUNGSTATE (blue light) Not as efficient Not as efficient
Rare Earth ScreensRare Earth Screens
GadoliniumGadoliniumLanthanumLanthanumYttriumYttriumFound in low Found in low
abundance in natureabundance in nature
Cardboard Cassettes Cardboard Cassettes
Direct x-ray exposure to film requiredDirect x-ray exposure to film required 25 to 400 times more radiation to create an 25 to 400 times more radiation to create an
image on the filmimage on the film
BETTER DETAIL THAN FILM SCREEN (NO BETTER DETAIL THAN FILM SCREEN (NO BLURRING OF IMAGE FROM LIGHT)BLURRING OF IMAGE FROM LIGHT)
ALL EXPOSURE MADE FROM X-RAY ALL EXPOSURE MADE FROM X-RAY PHOTONSPHOTONS
BIG DOSE TO THE PATEINTBIG DOSE TO THE PATEINT
INTENSIFYING SCREENSINTENSIFYING SCREENS
DISADVANTAGES:DISADVANTAGES: less detail than direct exposure less detail than direct exposure (detail better with rare earth than (detail better with rare earth than calcuim tungstate screens)calcuim tungstate screens)
ADVANTAGES:ADVANTAGES:
1.1. Reduce patient exposureReduce patient exposure
2.2. Increase x-ray tube lifeIncrease x-ray tube life
Screen ConstructionScreen Construction
Polyester plastic base – support layerPolyester plastic base – support layer Phosphor layer – active layerPhosphor layer – active layer Reflective layer – increases screen Reflective layer – increases screen
efficiency by redirecting light headed in efficiency by redirecting light headed in other directionsother directions
Protective coatingProtective coating
Intensifying screensIntensifying screens
Phosphor LayerPhosphor Layer
Active layer – x-ray photons Active layer – x-ray photons converted to light photonsconverted to light photons
*Photoelectric Effect*Photoelectric Effect
Screen SpeedScreen Speed
A relative number that describes how A relative number that describes how efficiently x-rays are converted into usable efficiently x-rays are converted into usable lightlight
Ranges from 100 (slow) to 1200 (fast)Ranges from 100 (slow) to 1200 (fast)
Screen SpeedScreen Speed
Greater efficiency = less exposure = fasterGreater efficiency = less exposure = faster
-Standard screen speed class of 100-Standard screen speed class of 100
-200 screen speed is twice as fast-200 screen speed is twice as fast Speeds for routine work: 200 – 800Speeds for routine work: 200 – 800 Speeds for high detail: 50 – 100Speeds for high detail: 50 – 100 Increasing speed also increases image Increasing speed also increases image
noisenoise
SCREEN SPEEDSSCREEN SPEEDS
FASTER SPEED – REDUCES PATIENT FASTER SPEED – REDUCES PATIENT EXPOSUREEXPOSURE
FASTER SPEED - REDUCES IMAGE FASTER SPEED - REDUCES IMAGE DETAIL INCREASES NOISE (LIGHT DETAIL INCREASES NOISE (LIGHT BLURING AROUND IMAGE) BLURING AROUND IMAGE)
Technique Changes Technique Changes
Relative Speed = Film speed & Screen Relative Speed = Film speed & Screen speedspeed
mAs 1 mAs 1 = = RS 2 RS 2 mAs 2 RS 1mAs 2 RS 1
They are inversely relatedThey are inversely related
Image NoiseImage Noise
Speckled background on the imageSpeckled background on the image Caused when fast screens and high kVp Caused when fast screens and high kVp
techniques are used. Noise reduces image techniques are used. Noise reduces image contrastcontrast
The percentage of x-rays absorbed by the The percentage of x-rays absorbed by the screen is the screen is the detective quantum efficiency detective quantum efficiency (DQE) (DQE)
The amount of light emitted for each x-ray The amount of light emitted for each x-ray absorbed is the absorbed is the conversion efficiency (CE)conversion efficiency (CE)
SCREEN SPEEDSSCREEN SPEEDS
Quantum Mottle causing a grainy, mottled Quantum Mottle causing a grainy, mottled or splotch imageor splotch image
Often results of using very fast-speed Often results of using very fast-speed screen-film systemsscreen-film systems
The light photons generated in the The light photons generated in the intensifying screen are emitted by intensifying screen are emitted by phosphor crystals. phosphor crystals.
These crystals are significantly larger These crystals are significantly larger than the silver halide crystals in the filmthan the silver halide crystals in the film
use of a screen reduces image use of a screen reduces image sharpness somewhatsharpness somewhat
Some examinations requiring Some examinations requiring extremely fine detail use screens with extremely fine detail use screens with small crystals. small crystals.
Image Quality
Rare Earth ScreensRare Earth Screens
Have higher DQE (detective quantum Have higher DQE (detective quantum efficiency). Higher x-ray absorption efficiency). Higher x-ray absorption abilities.abilities.
Have higher CE (conversion efficiency). Have higher CE (conversion efficiency). More light emitted per x-ray absorbed by More light emitted per x-ray absorbed by the screen. the screen.
Spatial resolution
• The use of intensifying screens lowers spatial resolution compared with direct-exposure radiographs.
• Spatial resolution
expressed by the
number of line pairs
per millimeter
(lp/mm)
The higher the lp/mm the smaller the object that can be imaged Very fast screens = 7 lp/mm
Fine-detail screens= 15 lp/mm
Direct-exposure screens = 50 lp/mm
Screen speed vs Spatial resolutionScreen speed vs Spatial resolution
Wire mesh test – check for screen-film contact. Good contact
Wire mesh test – check for screen-film contact.
• Warped cassette –poor contact
Care of ScreensCare of Screens
Image artifacts can appear if screens are Image artifacts can appear if screens are modifiedmodified
Small scratches can leave artifactsSmall scratches can leave artifacts Dirty screens can leave artifactsDirty screens can leave artifacts Screens should be cleaned once each Screens should be cleaned once each
month with manufacturer’s cleaner with month with manufacturer’s cleaner with antistatic compoundsantistatic compounds
Questions?
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