Quantum Recursion and Second Quantisation Basic Ideas …Quantum Recursion and Second Quantisation...

Quantum Recursion and SecondQuantisation

Basic Ideas and Examples

Mingsheng Ying

University of Technology, Sydney, Australiaand

Tsinghua University, China

Happy Birthday Prakash!

I’m very grateful to Prakash for teaching me secondquantisation method during his visit to UTS in 2013

Happy Birthday Prakash!

I’m very grateful to Prakash for teaching me secondquantisation method during his visit to UTS in 2013

Outline

1. Introduction

2. Quantum Case Statement and Quantum Choice

3. Motivating Example: Recursive Quantum Walks

4. Second Quantisation

5. Semantics of Quantum Recursion

7. Conclusion

Outline

1. Introduction

7. Conclusion

Classical Recursion of Quantum Programs

I Recursive procedure in quantum programming language QPL[Selinger, Mathematical Structures in Computer Science’2004].

I Termination of quantum while-loops in finite-dimensional statespaces [Ying, Feng, Acta Informatica’2010].

I Selinger’s slogan: Quantum data, classical control - control flowof the quantum recursions is classical because branchings aredetermined by the outcomes of certain quantum measurements.

Quantum Control FlowQuantum programming language QML [Altenkirch and Grattage,LICS’2005]:

Two case constructs in the quantum setting:I case, measure a qubit in the data it analyses - The control flow is

determined by the outcome of a measurement and thus isclassical.

I case◦, analyse quantum data without measuring -if◦ − then− else statement.

Quantum Control FlowQuantum programming language QML [Altenkirch and Grattage,LICS’2005]:

Two case constructs in the quantum setting:I case, measure a qubit in the data it analyses - The control flow is

determined by the outcome of a measurement and thus isclassical.

I case◦, analyse quantum data without measuring -if◦ − then− else statement.

Quantum Control Flow

Hadamard gate:

had x = if◦ x

then { 1√2(qfalse− qtrue)}

else { 1√2(qfalse+ qtrue)}

Quantum Control FlowNOT gate:

not x = if◦ xthen qfalse

else qtrue

CNOT gate:

cnot c x = if◦ cthen (qtrue, not x)else (qfalse, x)

Outline

1. Introduction

7. Conclusion

“Coined” Quantum Case StatementI Introduce an external “quantum coin” c:

The state Hilbert spaceHc = span{|0〉, |1〉}

I U0 and U1 two unitary transformations on a quantum system q -the state Hilbert spaceHq.

I A quantum case statement employing “quantum coin” c:

qif [c] |0〉 → U0[q]� |1〉 → U1[q]

The state Hilbert spaceHc = span{|0〉, |1〉}I U0 and U1 two unitary transformations on a quantum system q -

the state Hilbert spaceHq.

I A quantum case statement employing “quantum coin” c:

qif [c] |0〉 → U0[q]� |1〉 → U1[q]

The state Hilbert spaceHc = span{|0〉, |1〉}I U0 and U1 two unitary transformations on a quantum system q -

the state Hilbert spaceHq.I A quantum case statement employing “quantum coin” c:

qif [c] |0〉 → U0[q]� |1〉 → U1[q]

“coined” Quantum Case StatementI The semantics is an unitary operator U inHc ⊗Hq - the state

Hilbert space of the composed system of “coin” c and principalsystem q:

U|0, ψ〉 = |0〉U0|ψ〉, U|1, ψ〉 = |1〉U1|ψ〉

I Matrix representation:

U = |0〉〈0| ⊗U0 + |1〉〈1| ⊗U1 =

(U0 00 U1

“coined” Quantum Case StatementI The semantics is an unitary operator U inHc ⊗Hq - the state

Hilbert space of the composed system of “coin” c and principalsystem q:

U|0, ψ〉 = |0〉U0|ψ〉, U|1, ψ〉 = |1〉U1|ψ〉

I Matrix representation:

U = |0〉〈0| ⊗U0 + |1〉〈1| ⊗U1 =

(U0 00 U1

Quantum ChoiceI V a unitary operator in the state Hilbert spaceHc of the “coin”.

I The quantum choice of U0[q] and U1[q] with “coin-tossing” V[c]:

U0[q]⊕V[c] U1[q]def=

V[c]; qif [c] |0〉 → U0[q]� |1〉 → U1[q]

I Compare with probabilistic choice [McIver and Morgan,Abstraction, Refinement and Proof for Probabilistic Systems, 2005]

Quantum ChoiceI V a unitary operator in the state Hilbert spaceHc of the “coin”.I The quantum choice of U0[q] and U1[q] with “coin-tossing” V[c]:

V[c]; qif [c] |0〉 → U0[q]� |1〉 → U1[q]

Quantum ChoiceI V a unitary operator in the state Hilbert spaceHc of the “coin”.I The quantum choice of U0[q] and U1[q] with “coin-tossing” V[c]:

V[c]; qif [c] |0〉 → U0[q]� |1〉 → U1[q]

External “Quantum Coin”I Superpositions of time evolutions of a quantum system

[Aharonov, Anandan, Popescu, Vaidman, Plysical Review Letters1990].

I Quantum walks [Ambainis, Bach, Nayak, Vishwanath, Watrous,STOC’2001; Aharonov, Ambainis, Kempe, Vazirani, STOC’2001].

I Unitary transformations U0[q], U1[q] are replaced by generalquantum programs that may contain quantum measurements?[Ying, Yu, Feng, arXiv:1209.4379]

Outline

1. Introduction

7. Conclusion

A new notion of quantum recursion can be defined basedon quantum case statement and quantum choice

Example - One-dimensional quantum walk

I One-dimensional random walk - a particle moves on a linemarked by integers Z; at each step it moves one position left orright, depending on the flip of a fair coin.

I Hadamard walk - a quantum variant of one-dimensionalrandom walk.

I Its state Hilbert spaceHd ⊗Hp:

I Hd = span{|L〉, |R〉}, L, R indicate the direction Left and Right.I Hp = span{|n〉 : n ∈ Z}, n indicates the position marked by integer

I Its state Hilbert spaceHd ⊗Hp:I Hd = span{|L〉, |R〉}, L, R indicate the direction Left and Right.

I Hp = span{|n〉 : n ∈ Z}, n indicates the position marked by integern.

I Its state Hilbert spaceHd ⊗Hp:I Hd = span{|L〉, |R〉}, L, R indicate the direction Left and Right.I Hp = span{|n〉 : n ∈ Z}, n indicates the position marked by integer

Example - One-dimensional quantum walkI One step of Hadamard walk — W = T(H⊗ I):

I Translation T:

T|L, n〉 = |L, n− 1〉, T|R, n〉 = |R, n + 1〉

is unitary operator inHd ⊗Hp.I

H =1√

(1 11 −1

)is Hadamard transform in the direction spaceHd

I Translation T:

T|L, n〉 = |L, n− 1〉, T|R, n〉 = |R, n + 1〉

is unitary operator inHd ⊗Hp.

H =1√

(1 11 −1

I Translation T:

T|L, n〉 = |L, n− 1〉, T|R, n〉 = |R, n + 1〉

is unitary operator inHd ⊗Hp.I

H =1√

(1 11 −1

I Define the left and right translation operators TL and TR in theposition spaceHp :

TL|n〉 = |n− 1〉, TR|n〉 = |n + 1〉

I Then the translation operator T is a quantum case statement:

T = qif [d] |L〉 → TL[p]� |R〉 → TR[p]

I The single-step walk operator W is a quantum choice:

TL[p]⊕H[d] TR[p]

I Hadamard walk — repeated applications of operator W.

TL|n〉 = |n− 1〉, TR|n〉 = |n + 1〉

T = qif [d] |L〉 → TL[p]� |R〉 → TR[p]

TL[p]⊕H[d] TR[p]

TL|n〉 = |n− 1〉, TR|n〉 = |n + 1〉

T = qif [d] |L〉 → TL[p]� |R〉 → TR[p]

TL[p]⊕H[d] TR[p]

TL|n〉 = |n− 1〉, TR|n〉 = |n + 1〉

T = qif [d] |L〉 → TL[p]� |R〉 → TR[p]

TL[p]⊕H[d] TR[p]

(Unidirectional) Recursive Hadamard WalkI The walk first runs the “coin-tossing” Hadamard operator H[d],

and then a quantum case statement:

I if the “direction coin” d is in state |L〉 then the walker moves oneposition left;

I if d is in state |R〉 then it moves one position right, followed by aprocedure behaving as the recursive walk itself .

I Recursive Hadamard walk — program X declared by therecursive equation:

X⇐ TL[p]⊕H[d] (TR[p]; X)

and then a quantum case statement:I if the “direction coin” d is in state |L〉 then the walker moves one

position left;

I if d is in state |R〉 then it moves one position right, followed by aprocedure behaving as the recursive walk itself .

position left;I if d is in state |R〉 then it moves one position right, followed by a

procedure behaving as the recursive walk itself .

position left;I if d is in state |R〉 then it moves one position right, followed by a

procedure behaving as the recursive walk itself .I Recursive Hadamard walk — program X declared by the

recursive equation:

Bidirectional Recursive Hadamard WalkI The walk first runs the “coin-tossing” Hadamard operator H[d]

and then a quantum case statement:

I if the “direction coin” d is in state |L〉 then the walker moves oneposition left, followed by a procedure behaving as the recursivewalk itself;

I if d is in state |R〉 then it moves one position right, also followed bya procedure behaving as the recursive walk itself.

I The walk — Program X (or program Y) declared by the recursiveequation:

X⇐ (TL[p]; X)⊕H[d] (TR[p]; X)

I A variant of the bidirectional recursive Hadamard walk isdeclared by the following system of recursive equations:{

X⇐ TL[p]⊕H[d] (TR[p]; Y),Y⇐ (TL[p]; X)⊕H[d] TR[p]

position left, followed by a procedure behaving as the recursivewalk itself;

X⇐ (TL[p]; X)⊕H[d] (TR[p]; X)

A More Interesting Recursive Quantum Walk

I Let n ≥ 2. Another variant of unidirectional recursive quantumwalk is defined as the program declared by the followingrecursive equation:

X⇐ ((TL[p]; X)⊕H[d] (TR[p]; X)); (TL[p]⊕H[d] TR[p])n

How to solve these quantum recursive equations?

A More Interesting Recursive Quantum Walk

I Let n ≥ 2. Another variant of unidirectional recursive quantumwalk is defined as the program declared by the followingrecursive equation:

X⇐ ((TL[p]; X)⊕H[d] (TR[p]; X)); (TL[p]⊕H[d] TR[p])n

How to solve these quantum recursive equations?

Syntactic Approximation

I A recursive program X declared by equation

X⇐ F(X)

I Syntactic approximations:{X(0) = Abort,X(n+1) = F[X(n)/X] for n ≥ 0.

Program X(n) is the nth syntactic approximation of X.I Semantics ~X� of X is the limit

~X� = limn→∞~X(n)�

X⇐ F(X)

Program X(n) is the nth syntactic approximation of X.

I Semantics ~X� of X is the limit

~X� = limn→∞~X(n)�

X⇐ F(X)

Program X(n) is the nth syntactic approximation of X.I Semantics ~X� of X is the limit

~X� = limn→∞~X(n)�

Example - (Unidirectional) Recursive Hadamard Walk

X(0) = abort,

X(1) = TL[p]⊕H[d] (TR[p]; abort),

X(2) = TL[p]⊕H[d] (TR[p]; TL[p]⊕H[d1](TR[p]; abort)),

X(3) = TL[p]⊕H[d] (TR[p]; TL[p]⊕H[d1](TR[p]; TL[p]⊕H[d2]

(TR[p]; abort))),

............

ObservationI Continuously introduce new “coin” to avoid variable conflict.

I Variables d, d1, d2, ... denote identical particles.I The number of the “coin” particles that are needed in running

the recursive walk is unknown beforehand.I We need to deal with quantum systems where the number of

particles of the same type may vary.

X(0) = abort,

(TR[p]; abort))),

............

ObservationI Continuously introduce new “coin” to avoid variable conflict.I Variables d, d1, d2, ... denote identical particles.

I The number of the “coin” particles that are needed in runningthe recursive walk is unknown beforehand.

I We need to deal with quantum systems where the number ofparticles of the same type may vary.

X(0) = abort,

(TR[p]; abort))),

............

ObservationI Continuously introduce new “coin” to avoid variable conflict.I Variables d, d1, d2, ... denote identical particles.I The number of the “coin” particles that are needed in running

the recursive walk is unknown beforehand.

I We need to deal with quantum systems where the number ofparticles of the same type may vary.

X(0) = abort,

(TR[p]; abort))),

............

ObservationI Continuously introduce new “coin” to avoid variable conflict.I Variables d, d1, d2, ... denote identical particles.I The number of the “coin” particles that are needed in running

the recursive walk is unknown beforehand.I We need to deal with quantum systems where the number of

particles of the same type may vary.

Outline

1. Introduction

7. Conclusion

Fock Spaces

I The principle of symmetrisation: the states of n identicalparticles are either completely symmetric or completelyantisymmetric with respect to the permutations of the particles.[ bosons - symmetric; fermions - antisymmetric]

I LetH be the state Hilbert space of one particle.I For each permutation π of 1, ..., n, define the permutation

operator Pπ inH⊗n by

Pπ |ψ1 ⊗ ...⊗ ψn〉 = |ψπ(1) ⊗ ...⊗ ψπ(n)〉

I Define the symmetrisation and antisymmetrisation operators inH⊗n:

S+ =1n! ∑

Pπ , S− =1n! ∑

(−1)πPπ

Fock Spaces

I LetH be the state Hilbert space of one particle.

I For each permutation π of 1, ..., n, define the permutationoperator Pπ inH⊗n by

Pπ |ψ1 ⊗ ...⊗ ψn〉 = |ψπ(1) ⊗ ...⊗ ψπ(n)〉

S+ =1n! ∑

Pπ , S− =1n! ∑

(−1)πPπ

Fock Spaces

Pπ |ψ1 ⊗ ...⊗ ψn〉 = |ψπ(1) ⊗ ...⊗ ψπ(n)〉

S+ =1n! ∑

Pπ , S− =1n! ∑

(−1)πPπ

Fock Spaces

Pπ |ψ1 ⊗ ...⊗ ψn〉 = |ψπ(1) ⊗ ...⊗ ψπ(n)〉

S+ =1n! ∑

Pπ , S− =1n! ∑

(−1)πPπ

Fock Spacesv = + for bosons, v = − for fermions.I Write

|ψ1, ..., ψn〉v = Sv|ψ1 ⊗ ...⊗ ψn〉.

I The state space of n bosons and that of fermions are

H⊗nv = SvH⊗n = span{|ψ1, ..., ψn〉v : |ψ1〉, ..., |ψn〉 are inH}

I Introduce the vacuum state |0〉 and the one-dimensional spaceH⊗0

v = H⊗0 = span{|0〉}.I The space of the states of variable particle number is the Fock

space:

Fv(H) =∞

∑n=0H⊗n

I The free Fock space:

F (H) =∞

∑n=0H⊗n

|ψ1, ..., ψn〉v = Sv|ψ1 ⊗ ...⊗ ψn〉.I The state space of n bosons and that of fermions are

space:

Fv(H) =∞

∑n=0H⊗n

F (H) =∞

∑n=0H⊗n

v = H⊗0 = span{|0〉}.

I The space of the states of variable particle number is the Fockspace:

Fv(H) =∞

∑n=0H⊗n

F (H) =∞

∑n=0H⊗n

space:

Fv(H) =∞

∑n=0H⊗n

F (H) =∞

∑n=0H⊗n

space:

Fv(H) =∞

∑n=0H⊗n

F (H) =∞

∑n=0H⊗n

Evolution in the Fock Spaces

I Let the (discrete-time) evolution of one particle be unitaryoperator U.

I The evolution of n particles without mutual interactions isoperator U inH⊗n:

U|ψ1 ⊗ ...⊗ ψn〉 = |Uψ1 ⊗ ...⊗Uψn〉

U|ψ1, ..., ψn〉v = |Uψ1, ...Uψn〉v.

I Extend to the Fock spaces Fv(H) and F (H):

∑n=0|Ψ(n)〉

∑n=0

U|Ψ(n)〉

U|ψ1 ⊗ ...⊗ ψn〉 = |Uψ1 ⊗ ...⊗Uψn〉

U|ψ1, ..., ψn〉v = |Uψ1, ...Uψn〉v.

∑n=0|Ψ(n)〉

∑n=0

U|Ψ(n)〉

U|ψ1 ⊗ ...⊗ ψn〉 = |Uψ1 ⊗ ...⊗Uψn〉

U|ψ1, ..., ψn〉v = |Uψ1, ...Uψn〉v.

∑n=0|Ψ(n)〉

∑n=0

U|Ψ(n)〉

U|ψ1 ⊗ ...⊗ ψn〉 = |Uψ1 ⊗ ...⊗Uψn〉

U|ψ1, ..., ψn〉v = |Uψ1, ...Uψn〉v.

∑n=0|Ψ(n)〉

∑n=0

U|Ψ(n)〉

Creation and Annihilation of ParticlesI The transitions between states of different particle numbers.

I Creation operator a∗(ψ) in Fv(H):

a∗(ψ)|ψ1, ..., ψn〉v =√

n + 1|ψ, ψ1, ..., ψn〉v

Add a particle in the individual state |ψ〉 to the system of nparticles without modifying their respective states.

I Annihilation operator a(ψ) — the Hermitian conjugate of a∗(ψ):

a(ψ)|0〉 = 0,

a(ψ)|ψ1, ..., ψn〉v =1√

∑i=1

(v)i−1〈ψ|ψi〉|ψ1, ..., ψi−1, ψi+1, ..., ψn〉v

Decrease the number of particles by one unit, while preservingthe symmetry of the state.

Creation and Annihilation of ParticlesI The transitions between states of different particle numbers.I Creation operator a∗(ψ) in Fv(H):

a∗(ψ)|ψ1, ..., ψn〉v =√

n + 1|ψ, ψ1, ..., ψn〉v

a(ψ)|0〉 = 0,

a(ψ)|ψ1, ..., ψn〉v =1√

∑i=1

(v)i−1〈ψ|ψi〉|ψ1, ..., ψi−1, ψi+1, ..., ψn〉v

Creation and Annihilation of ParticlesI The transitions between states of different particle numbers.I Creation operator a∗(ψ) in Fv(H):

a∗(ψ)|ψ1, ..., ψn〉v =√

n + 1|ψ, ψ1, ..., ψn〉v

a(ψ)|0〉 = 0,

a(ψ)|ψ1, ..., ψn〉v =1√

∑i=1

(v)i−1〈ψ|ψi〉|ψ1, ..., ψi−1, ψi+1, ..., ψn〉v

Outline

1. Introduction

7. Conclusion

Second quantisation provides us with the necessary toolfor defining the semantics of quantum recursion!

Example - (Unidirectional) Recursive Hadamard WalkSemantics of the recursive Hadamard walk:

~X� =

∑i=0

i−1⊗j=0

|R〉dj〈R| ⊗ |L〉di

⊗ TLTiR

(H⊗ I)

I An operator in

Fv(Hd)⊗Hp → F (Hd)⊗Hp.

I The sign v is + or −, depending on using bosons or fermions toimplement the “direction coins” d, d1, d2, ....

Second quantisation provides us with the necessary toolfor defining the semantics of quantum recursion!

Example - (Unidirectional) Recursive Hadamard WalkSemantics of the recursive Hadamard walk:

~X� =

∑i=0

i−1⊗j=0

|R〉dj〈R| ⊗ |L〉di

⊗ TLTiR

(H⊗ I)

I An operator in

Fv(Hd)⊗Hp → F (Hd)⊗Hp.

I The sign v is + or −, depending on using bosons or fermions toimplement the “direction coins” d, d1, d2, ....

Principal System Semantics

I Each state |Ψ〉 in Fock space Fv(Hd) induces mapping:

~X, Ψ�p : pure states→ partial density operators inHp

~X, Ψ�p(|ψ〉) = trF (Hd)(|Φ〉〈Φ|)

where |Φ〉 = ~X�(|Ψ〉 ⊗ |ψ〉)

I Mapping ~X, Ψ�p is called the principal system semantics of Xwith “coin” initialisation |Ψ〉.

Principal System Semantics

I Each state |Ψ〉 in Fock space Fv(Hd) induces mapping:

~X, Ψ�p : pure states→ partial density operators inHp

~X, Ψ�p(|ψ〉) = trF (Hd)(|Φ〉〈Φ|)

where |Φ〉 = ~X�(|Ψ〉 ⊗ |ψ〉)

I Mapping ~X, Ψ�p is called the principal system semantics of Xwith “coin” initialisation |Ψ〉.

Bidirectional Recursive Quantum Walk{X⇐ TL[p]⊕H[d] (TR[p]; Y),Y⇐ (TL[p]; X)⊕H[d] TR[p]

I Coherent state of bosons in the symmetric Fock space F+(H)overH:

|ψ〉coh = exp(−1

2〈ψ|ψ〉

∑n=0

[a∗(ψ)]n

n!|0〉

I The walk starts from position 0 and the coins are initialised inthe coherent states of bosons corresponding to |L〉:

~X, Lcoh�p(|0〉) =1√

∑k=0

122k+1 | − 1〉〈−1|+

∑k=0

122k+2 |2〉〈2|

(23| − 1〉〈−1|+ 1

3|2〉〈2|

Bidirectional Recursive Quantum Walk{X⇐ TL[p]⊕H[d] (TR[p]; Y),Y⇐ (TL[p]; X)⊕H[d] TR[p]

I Coherent state of bosons in the symmetric Fock space F+(H)overH:

|ψ〉coh = exp(−1

2〈ψ|ψ〉

∑n=0

[a∗(ψ)]n

n!|0〉

I The walk starts from position 0 and the coins are initialised inthe coherent states of bosons corresponding to |L〉:

~X, Lcoh�p(|0〉) =1√

∑k=0

122k+1 | − 1〉〈−1|+

∑k=0

122k+2 |2〉〈2|

(23| − 1〉〈−1|+ 1

3|2〉〈2|

Quantum while-loop

I Program X declared by the recursive equation

X⇐ W[c, q]; qif[c] |0〉 → skip� |1〉 → U[q]; X

where W a unitary operator inHc ⊗Hq — the interactionbetween the “coin” c and the principal system q.

I Semantics of X:

~X� =∞

∑k=1

∏j=0

W[cj, q]

k−2⊗j=0

|1〉cj〈1| ⊗ |0〉ck−1〈0| ⊗Uk−1[q]

from the space Fv(H2)⊗Hq into F (H2)⊗Hq.

Quantum while-loop

I Program X declared by the recursive equation

X⇐ W[c, q]; qif[c] |0〉 → skip� |1〉 → U[q]; X

where W a unitary operator inHc ⊗Hq — the interactionbetween the “coin” c and the principal system q.

I Semantics of X:

~X� =∞

∑k=1

∏j=0

W[cj, q]

k−2⊗j=0

|1〉cj〈1| ⊗ |0〉ck−1〈0| ⊗Uk−1[q]

from the space Fv(H2)⊗Hq into F (H2)⊗Hq.

Outline

1. Introduction

7. Conclusion

Problems:I What kind of problems can be solved more conveniently by

using quantum recursion? Sorting? [Høyer, Neerbek, Shi,ICALP’2001]

I Hoare logic for quantum while-loops defined using quantum“coins”?

I Fock space can serve as a model of linear logic with exponentialtypes [Blute, Panangaden, Seely, MFPS’1994].

I Combine linear logic with Hoare logic for quantum programs[Ying, TOPLAS’2011]?

I What kind of physical systems can be used to implementquantum recursion where new “coins” must be continuouslycreated?

Thank You!

Quantum Recursion and Second Quantisation Basic Ideas …Quantum Recursion and Second Quantisation...

Documents

2 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics [8 lectures]psi.phys.wits.ac.za/teaching/Connell/phys284/2005/lecture-02/... · 2 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics ... An example of the quantisation

Glen Martin - School for the Talented and Gifted - DISD Recursion Recursion Recursion Recursion Recursion Recursion

Recursion Topics: Definition of Recursion Numeric Recursion Non-Numeric Recursion Inefficiency of Recursion

Recursion Chapter 11. The Basics of Recursion: Outline Introduction to Recursion How Recursion Works Recursion versus Iteration Recursive Methods That

Theoretical Aspects of Stochastic Quantisation and Suprathreshold Stochastic Resonance · 2014. 11. 14. · Theoretical Aspects of Stochastic Signal Quantisation and Suprathreshold

Limitless and recursion-free recursion limits!

COSC 1P03 Data Structures and Abstraction 8.1 Recursion Recursion Recursion Recursion Recursion Recursion Recursion Recursion Recursion Just be thankful

To Understand Recursion… Recursion – Real Life Examples

Quantum Physics Lecture 3 - Trinity College, Dublin · Quantum Physics Lecture 3 Particles as waves and waves as particles Particle in a box-Quantisation of energy Wave – Particle??

Recursion Recursion Chapter 12. Outline n What is recursion n Recursive algorithms with simple variables n Recursion and the run-time stack n Recursion

TELE4652 Mobile and Satellite Communications · •Basic PCM system •Quantisation is the loss of information –signal distortion TELE4652 Quantisation of Speech Samples •Perceptual

Gravitational Quantisation and Dark Mattercdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/28324/intech-gravitational...9 Gravitational Quantisation and Dark Matter Allan Ernest Charles Sturt University Australia

Evidence for Quantisation in Planetary Ring Systems-V2a

On geometric quantisation of integrable systems with

Advanced Quantum Mechanics 2 lecture 2 Schemes of …Quantisation schemes of quantum mechanics Quantum operators Suppose that a state / wavefunction j iof the system is decomposed

7 8 - Recursion · 2008-10-15 · recursion) to end recursion; otherwise infinite recursion Lecture 7 Object-Oriented Programming 6 Recursion • Recursion solves a problem by solving

Chapter 13 Recursion. Topics Simple Recursion Recursion with a Return Value Recursion with Two Base Cases Binary Search Revisited Animation Using Recursion

Custom Design of JPEG Quantisation Tables for Compressing ...uhl/icb09_proof.pdf · Custom Design of JPEG Quantisation Tables for Compressing Iris Polar Images to Improve Recognition

Unit 181 Recursion Definition Recursive Methods Example 1 How does Recursion work? Example 2 Problems with Recursion Infinite Recursion Exercises

Chapter 17 Recursion. Chapter Scope The concept of recursion Recursive methods Infinite recursion When to use (and not use) recursion Using recursion