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Prof. Paolo Colantonioa.a. 2011‐12
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 2 | 29
Conductors• e.g. copper or aluminum• have a cloud of free electrons (at all temperatures above absolute zero). If an
electric field is applied electrons will flow causing an electric current
Insulators• e.g. polythene• electrons are tightly bound to atoms, so, only a few can break free to conduct
electricity
Semiconductors• e.g. silicon or germanium• at very low temperatures these have the properties of insulators• as the material warms up some electrons break free and can move about, and it
takes on the properties of a conductor – albeit a poor one• however, semiconductors have several properties that make them distinct from
conductors and insulators
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 3 | 29
• The Silicon is one of the most adopted semiconductor to realize electronic devices, both discrete or integrated
• It is constituted by a tetrahedral cell, with an atom in each vertexes, linked to the other by covalent bounds between the 4 electrons of each atom
• At 0 Kelvin, each electron is linked to its atom and the conductivity is null
• Increasing material temperature, thermal vibration results in some bonds being broken, generating free electrons which move about
• These leave behind holes (positive charge carries) which accept electrons (negative charge carriers) from adjacent atoms and therefore, also move about
• At room temperatures there are few charge carriers, thus pure semiconductors are poor conductors (this is intrinsic conduction)
The atomic structure of
silicon
Temperature
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 4 | 29
• The addition of small amounts of impurities drastically affects the properties of a semiconductor.
• This process is known as doping.
• Adding Phosphorus P (e.g. pentavalent material) into the crystal lattice of Silicon Si (e.g. tetravalent material), four of P’s valence electrons are tightly bound by the covalent bonding.
• The fifth electron is only weakly bound and is therefore almost free to move within the lattice and contribute to an electric current.
SiSi Si
SiSi Si
SiSi Si
freeelectron
SiSi Si
PSi Si
SiSi Si
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 5 | 29
• When the added materials form an excess of electrons, they are called donor impurities and produce a n‐type semiconductor
• When the added materials form an excess of holes, they are called acceptor impurities and produce a p‐type semiconductor
• Both n‐type and p‐type materials have much greater conductivity than pure semiconductors: extrinsic conduction
• The dominant charge carriers in a doped semiconductor (e.g. electrons in n‐type material) are called majority charge carriers. The other type are minority charge carriers
• The overall doped material is electrically neutral
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 6 | 29
• Excepting bulk devices, which exploit basic properties of semiconductors, the large amount of electronic devices are based on the junction of different semiconductor materials with different doping profile, i.e. with different concentration of impurity (e.g., p‐n junction), or by metal and semiconductors (e.g. Schottky junction).
• The modern electronic technology employ a variety of semiconductor• Pure
• e.g. constituted by a single atomic specie, • Composed
• e.g. constituted by different atomic elements like Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Indium Phosphorus (InP), Gallium Nitride (GaN), Silicon Carbide (SiC), Silicon‐Germanium (SiGe).
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 7 | 29
• When p‐type and n‐type materials are joined, this forms a pn junction
• The majority charge carriers on each side diffuse across the junction where they combine with (and remove) the charge carriers of the opposite polarity
• Hence, around the junction there are few free charge carriers and we have a depletion layer (also called a space‐charge layer)
• The diffusion of positive charge in one direction and negative charge in the other produces a charge imbalance, resulting in a potential barrier across the junction
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 8 | 29
• The barrier opposes the flow of majority charge carriers and only a small number have enough energy to surmount it
• This generates a small diffusion current• The barrier encourages the flow of minority carriers and any that come close to it
will be swept over• This generates a small drift current
• For an isolated junction these two currents must balance each other and the net current is zero
Vh
Potential
DistanceIsolated junction
p-type n-type
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 9 | 29
Forward bias• If the p‐type side is made positive with respect to the n‐type
side the height of the barrier is reduced, thus more majoritycharge carriers have sufficient energy to surmount it
• the diffusion current therefore increases while the driftcurrent remains the same
• there is thus a net current flow across the junction whichincreases with the applied voltage
Reverse bias• if the p‐type side is made negative with respect to the n‐type
side the height of the barrier is increased, thus the number ofmajority charge carriers that have sufficient energy tosurmount it rapidly decreases
• the diffusion current therefore vanishes while the driftcurrent remains the same
• thus the only current is a small leakage current caused by the(approximately constant) drift current
• the leakage current is usually negligible (a few nA)
Vh
Potential
DistanceForward bias
V
p-type n-type
+ -V
Vh
Potential
DistanceReverse bias
V
p-type n-type
- +V
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 10 | 29
• The current flowing through a pn junction can be approximately related to theapplied voltage by the expression
• I is the current through the junction• IS is a constant called the reverse saturation current• q is the electronic charge• V is the applied voltage• k is Boltzmann’s constant,• T is the absolute temperature• is a constant in the range 1 to 2 determined by the junction material (e.g.
approximately 1 for Ge and 1.3 for Si). For most purposes we can assume =1
1kTη
qV
s eIIp-type n-type
+ -V
I
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 11 | 29
• Thus
1TV
V
s eII
• If V > + 0.1 V, Vs eII 40
• If V < + 0.1 V, sII
• At room temperature (T=300K)• VT26mV 1/VT 40 V−1
11600TVT
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 12 | 29
• A pn junction is not an ideal diode, but itdoes have a characteristic thatapproximates to such a device(semiconductor diode)
• An ideal diode passes electricity in one direction but not in the other
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 13 | 29
• Generally have a turn‐on voltage of about 0.5 V• Generally have a conduction voltage of about 0.7 V• Have a breakdown voltage that depends on their construction
• perhaps 75 V for a small‐signal diode• perhaps 400 V for a power device
• have amaximum current that depends on their construction• perhaps 100 mA for a small‐signal diode• perhaps many amps for a power device
AK
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 14 | 29
• One application of diodes is in rectification
Example: half‐wave rectifier
• In practice, no real diode has ideal characteristics but semiconductor pn junctionsmake good diodes
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 15 | 29
• Sometimes we represent a diode by an equivalent circuit.• Models have different levels of sophistication
Idealdiode
Idealdiode
VONIdealdiode
VON rON
Idealdiode
VON rON
rOFF
I
V
I
V
I
V
I
VVON
VON VON
Slope=1/rON
Slope=1/rOFF
Slope=1/rON
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 16 | 29
Conduction Voltage• In a real diode I‐V characteristic it can be noted the
existence of a voltage VON, below of which the currentis negligible (less 1% of diode maximum current).
V
I[mA]
0 0.2 0.6 1.0
500
10
idealcharacteristic
150 °
C
25°C
-55°
C
Logarithmic scale behavior• Increasing the forward voltage V, the voltage drop
across the semiconductor becomes significant andthe device behaves like a resistor
Saturation current• For negative voltage (reverse bias) the current is IS
(generally negligible)
• VON 0.2V for Ge• VON 0.7V for Si
• mA for Si• nA for Ge
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 17 | 29
Effects of temperature• There is an intrinsic relationship with the operating
temperature T 1qVk
sI I e
T
• For a given current I, the voltage V is inversely proportional to T
• For a silicon diode (similar for germanium), V decreases by about 2 mV per °C
• The diode current is also affected by the reverse saturation current, which
increases with temperature
• IS increases by about 7% per °C
2V mVT C
IS twined for T=10°C
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 18 | 29
• A reversed‐biased diode has two conducting regions separated by an insulatingdepletion region
• This structure resembles a capacitor• Variations in the reverse‐bias voltage change the width of the depletion layer and
hence the capacitance, namely Transient Capacitance CT
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
++++
++++
++++
++++
++++
++++
++++
++++
p-type n-type
depletion layer
W
A TACW
• A forward‐biased diode shows a capacitive behavior due to the injection of minoritycharges across the junction
• The resulting Diffusion Capacitance CD is greater than CT
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 19 | 29
• When a varying signal is applied to a diode,the electrical response od diode shows atransient behavior.
• Considering the following situation
RL
iDv(t)i
vD
VF
-VR
0t
t
t
t
IS
p -pn n0
v(t)i
iD
vD
VF/RL
-VR/RL
Forwardbias
Storage ofminority charges
Transitiontime
0VON
-VR
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 20 | 29
• If a large reverse voltage is applied across a pn junction, a breakdown phenomenoncan be observed, that can be caused by two mechanisms
Zener breakdown• In devices with heavily doped p‐ and n‐type regions the transition from one to the
other is very abrupt and the depletion region is few nanometers thick• This produces a very high field strength across the junction that can pull electrons
from their covalent bonds, resulting in a large reverse current• The current produced by Zener breakdown must be limited by external circuitry to
prevent damage to the diode• The breakdown voltage is largely constant and the Zener breakdown normally occurs
below 5V• The breakdown voltage decreases very slightly with increasing temperature (the
energy required to break the covalent bonds is reduced being increased the energyacquired by each electrons)
0dtdVZ
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 21 | 29
Avalanche breakdown• Occurs in diodes with more lightly doped materials, where the field strength across
junction is insufficient to pull electrons from their atoms, but is sufficient toaccelerate the electrons within the depletion layer
• The electrons loose energy by colliding with atoms• If they have sufficient energy they can liberate other electrons, leading to an
avalanche effect• Usually occurs at voltages above 5V• The voltage at which avalanche breakdown occurs increase with junction
temperature (the increased temperature increase the thermal vibration, thusincreasing the collision before the electrons reach the sufficient velocity to break thecovalent bonds)
0ZdVdt
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 22 | 29
Varactor• A reversed‐biased diode has two conducting regions separated by an insulating
depletion region• This structure resembles a capacitor• Variations in the reverse‐bias voltage change the width of the depletion layer and
hence the capacitance• This produces a voltage‐dependent capacitor• The Varactor are diodes constructed to emphasize such capacitive behaviour• They are used in applications such as automatic tuning circuits
Rr
Rs
CT
Rr= reverse bias resistanceRs= semiconductor bulk resistanceCT= reverse bias capacitance
0 5 10 15 20 25Reverse bias [V]
1N916
1N914
25°C
Cap
acita
nce
C [p
F]T
4.0
3.2
2.4
1.6
0.8
0
Symbol
Equivalent circuit
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 23 | 29
Zener• Uses the relatively constant reverse breakdown voltage to produce a voltage
reference• Breakdown voltage is called the Zener voltage, VZ
iD
vD
VZ
L
L
RVR R
VR
RLV+
R
vDiD
Symbol
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 24 | 29
Zener• It is used as a voltage stabilizer, since the voltage across the Zener is practically fixed
to VZ value
RLV+
R
vDiD RLV+
R
vDiD
iD
vD
VZ
L
L
RVR R
VR
IncreasingRL
iD
vD
VZ
L
L
RVR R
VR
IncreasingV
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 25 | 29
Schottky• It is formed by the junction between a layer of metal (e.g. aluminum) and a
semiconductor• Action relies only on majority charge carriers• Much faster in operation than a pn junction diode• Has a low forward voltage drop of about 0.25 V• Used in the design of high‐speed logic gates
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 26 | 29
Tunnel• High doping levels produce a very thin depletion layer which permits ‘tunnelling’ of
charge carriers• results in a characteristic with a negative resistance region• used in high‐frequency oscillators, where they can be used to ‘cancel out’ resistance
in passive components
Symbol
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 27 | 29
LED• The Light‐Emitting‐Diode (LED) is a semiconductor diode constructed
in such a way that in the pn junction, when it is forward biased, thecharges injected in the region where they are minoritary (holes inregion n‐type and electrons in region p‐type) will recombine emittinglight.
• Such phenomenon happens in the depletion layer region• A range of semiconductor material can be used to produce infrared
or visible light of various colors• Typical devices use materials such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium
phosphide (GaP) or gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
SymbolMaterial
Light length(nm)
Color
GaAs 910 Infrared
GaP 560 Green
GaAsP 650 Red
----
----
----
----
----
----
++++
++++
++++
++++
++++
++++
p-type n-type
depletionlayer
Forward biad
Light
Cathode
Anode
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 28 | 29
Photodiode• They are devices able to transform light in electrical current• Without light the photodiode behaves like a normal diode,
with an I‐V chatacteristic crossing the origin axes• By lighting the pn junction reverse biased, with a proper
incident radiating length (i.e. the energy of the incidentphoton shall be larger than the energy gap), there is anincrease of reverse current due to the increase of freecharges
• The efficiency of the illumination is a function of the lightspot distance from the pn junction
Symbol
I
VIS
IphVph
VB
ndI GdV
Symbol
Analogue ElectronicsProf. Paolo Colantonio 29 | 29
• If the pn junction of a photodiode is used in the fourth quadrant, being IV negativethen electrical energy is produced
RL
Light I
V
Vph
Iph
RL
Pmax
0.5 0.6phV V With Siliconsilicon
1T
VV
ph SI I I e
Iph short circuit current proportional to the illumination intensity
Vph photovoltaic potential
, ln 1 phph Max T
S
IV V
I
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