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Mental Images
• Def – a mental picture of a previously stored sensory experience
• Can be visual – not strictly though– Visual – what a rainbow looks like– Sound – roaring race car– Smell – barbequed chicken– Feel – warm breeze
Concepts• Def –group objects, events, or situations that
share similar features and characteristics
• Artificial (formal) concepts - Defined by a specific set of rules or features– Example - Geometric Shapes (triangles, squares,
rectangles)• Natural concepts – formed by everyday
experiences– Examples – vehicles, birds, fruit
Prototype
• Def – most typical instance of concept
• Examples (Concept (prototype))– Vehicle (car)– Bird (robin)– Fruit (apple)
Schema• Def – organized mental framework about a topic,
event, object, idea, setting or group of people– Built from experiences!
• Important role in how we learn to categorize different groups of people– Example – we learn different schemas for racial groups
(can include stereotypes and prejudices)
• Example – To a student – “high school”– Schema – classrooms, cafeterias, science labs, band rooms,
athletic fields
Script
• Def – type of schema that involves a typical sequence of behavior expected at an everyday event
• Examples– We have scripts for…• Riding a school bus, attending a class, going to a
Christmas party, taking a date to the movie
Problem-Solving Strategies• Algorithms• Def – a logical step-by-step procedure that, if
followed correctly, will eventually solve a specific problem
• Example – Mathematical Formulas– Area of triangle – (½ base x height)
Problem-Solving Strategies• Heuristics• Def – a general rule of thumb or shortcut that
is used to reduce the number of possible solutions
• Examples – College search– You could visit all possible choices (algorithm)– You could use a heuristic - search small liberal
arts colleges located within 300 miles
Obstacles to Solving Problems• Mental Sets
• Functional Fixedness
• Confirmation Bias
• The Availability Heuristic
• The Representative Heuristic
Mental Sets• Def – tendency to continue to use a belief
system and problem-solving strategies that worked in the past
• Example – President Hoover’s response to GD– Hoover’s beliefs (mental sets) emphasized
individualism, importance of private charities and laissez-faire attitude toward government
– Because of this mental set, he failed to adopt new economic models that stressed massive spending programs to revive the economy (like FDR)
Functional Fixedness
• Def – tendency to think of an object as functioning only in its usual or customary way– As a result, individuals often do not see unusual or
innovative uses for familiar objects• Example– A rainstorm approaches as you are on a hike.– You get soaked because you did not think of
cutting holes into trash bags to use as an improvised raincoat
Confirmation Bias• Def – preference for information that confirms
preexisting positions or beliefs, while ignoring or discounting contradictory evidence
• Example – Christopher Columbus• Searching for a new water route to the Indies,
Columbus bumped into the Caribbean• He was so certain that he had reached the
Indies that he called the native people Indians
The Availability Heuristic• Def – Judging the likelihood of an event based
on readily available personal experiences or news reports
• Example – Mega Millions• MM creates vivid memories by running TV
commercials of ecstatic winners. By ignoring the millions of losers, the advertisements help create an unrealistic availability heuristic
The Representative Heuristic• Def – Judging the likelihood of an even based on how
well it matches a typical example
• Example • Kara is attractive, fun-loving, enjoys tanning and
attending rock concerts• When people were asked whether she was a teacher
or a model – most say model• Even though there are far more females teachers than
models• People picked model, because she meets that
prototype
Divergent Thinking• Def – type of thinking in which problem
solvers devise a number of possible alternative approaches (a major element of creativity)
• Example – Great Depression• Hoover failed to improve because he was
locked into mental sets• FDR embraced divergent thinking when he
proposed a New Deal
Characteristics of Creative Thinking
• Creative people…– Are independent thinkers who resist social
pressures to conform– Display a willingness to grow, change and take
risks– Are internally motivated and display an ability to
focus their full attention on a problem– Are drawn to complex, challenging problems
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