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1. 12. 23. 34. 45. 5
Review for Midterm II
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The pre-birth phase of a star is
called …
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1. Baby star2. Pre-star3. Starillo4. Protostar5. supernova
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ProtostarsProtostars =
pre-birth state of stars:
Hydrogen to Helium fusion not yet ignited
Still enshrouded in opaque “cocoons” of dust => barely
visible in the optical, but bright
in the infrared.
Dense pockets gas in a giant molecular
cloud which ultimately form
stars, are called …
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1. Starlets2. Globules3. Open star clusters4. Star pockets5. protostars
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(Bok) Globules
~ 10 – 1000 solar masses;
Contracting to form protostars
Compact, dense pockets of gas
which may contract to form
stars.
From Mercury to Neptune, the
average density of the planets …
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1. Steadily decreases2. Steadily increases3. Remains almost constant.4. Increases throughout the terrestrial planets, then
decreases.5. Decreases throughout the terrestrial planets, then
increases.1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
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Condensation in the Early Solar SystemOnly condensed materials
could stick together to form planets
Temperature in the protostellar cloud
decreases outward.
Further out → Protostellar cloud is cooler → lighter metals
with lower melting point condensed → change of
chemical composition throughout solar system
Lighter substances condense at lower temperatures.
→ Average density of planets decreases outwards!
The Condensation Sequence
Temperature (K) Condensate Planet (Estimated Temperature of Formation; K)
1500 Metal Oxides Mercury (1400)
1300 Metallic iron and Nickel
1200 Silicates
1000 Feldspats Venus (900)
680 Troilite (FeS) Earth (600)Mars (450)
175 H2O ice Jovian pl. (175)
150 Ammonia - water ice
120 Methane – water ice
65 Argon – neon ice Pluto
Planets orbiting stars other than our sun
are scientifically called …
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1. Alien Worlds2. Extragalactic planets3. Extra-universal planets4. Extrasolar planets5. Jovian planets
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Extrasolar PlanetsAll stars have gone through basically the same
formation process as the sun.→ Many stars should have planets!
Extrasolar are very hard to image directly.
→ planets orbiting around other stars = “Extrasolar
planets”
Detection using the “wobbling” technique:
Look for “wobbling” motion of the star due to the gravitational pull of the planet on the star.
How did the Jovian planets grow?
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1. Only by random encounters with rocky clumps in the protoplanetary cloud.
2. First by random encounters with rocky clumps, then by gravitational attraction.
3. First by gravitational attraction of gas and dust, then by random encounters with rock and gas clumps.
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The Story of Planet BuildingPlanets formed from the same protostellar
material as the sun.
Rocky planet material formed from clumping together of dust grains in the protostellar cloud.
Mass of less than ~ 15 Earth masses:
Planets can not grow by gravitational collapse
Mass of more than ~ 15 Earth masses:
Planets can grow by gravitationally attracting material from the
protostellar cloud
Earthlike planetsJovian planets (gas giants)
What is differentiation?
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1. Centrifugal forces flinging heavy metals out to the outer layers of a planet, while lighter materials remain near the core.
2. The sun’s gravity pulling heavier metals towards it, while lighter ones remain at the opposite side.
3. Heavier metals sinking to the cores of planets, while the lighter ones remain in the crust.
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The Growth of Protoplanets
As rocks melted, heavier elements sink to the
center → differentiation
→ Terrestrial planets have heavy-metal (iron)
cores and mantles of lighter substances
Near the Earth’s center, we find …
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1. A core of solid iron.2. A core of liquid iron.3. A core of liquid silicon-based rocks.4. A core of solid silicon-based rocks.5. A core of pure gold.
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Earth’s Interior (II)
Earth’s interior gets hotter towards the center.
Earth’s core is as hot as the sun’s surface;
metals are liquid near the core.
Basic structure:
Solid crust (light [Si-based] materials)
Solid mantle (light elements, iron-poor)Liquid core (iron-rich)Solid inner core (iron-rich)
Seismic waves are bent or bounce off transitions
between different materials or different
densities or temperatures.
Earth’s InteriorDirect exploration of Earth’s interior (e.g.
drilling) is impossible.
Earth’s interior can be explored through
seismology:
Earth quakes produce
seismic waves.
Earth quakes, tsunamis, and volcanic activity on
Earth occur predominantly near …
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1. large oceans.2. the core of the Earth.3. the centers of large continents.4. the boundaries of tectonic plates.5. the top of the atmosphere.
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Geological activity around the Pacific
Volcanism: Mt. St. Helen
Earthquakes: Kobe (Japan)
Volcanism: Pinatubo (Philippines)
Earthquakes: San Francisco
Volcanoes related to subduction
zones are found …
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1. Only on Earth.2. Only on Mars.3. Only on Venus.4. Only on Mercury.5. On all terrestrial planets.
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Shield Volcanoes
Found above hot spots:
Fluid magma chamber, from
which lava erupts repeatedly through
surface layers above.
All volcanoes on Venus and Mars are shield volcanoes
Volcanism on Earth (II)
The Alps have been formed by the collision between …
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1. The North American and the South American Plate2. The Pacific Plate and the Eurasian Plate3. The Eurasian and the North American Plate4. The Afrian and the Eurasian Plate5. The Afrian and the Indian-Australian Plate.
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Earth’s Tectonic History
History of Geological Activity
Surface formations visible today have emerged only very recently compared to the age of Earth.
X-rays from space interact with the
atmosphere primerily through …
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1. The dissociation of ozone molecules.2. Inducing rotations of air molecules in the troposphere.3. Inducing vibrations of air molecules in the troposphere.4. Ionizing atoms and molecules in the Exosphere and
Thermosphere.5. Not at all: X-rays traverse the atmosphere nearly
unabsorbed.1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Need satellites to observe
Wavelength
Frequency
High flying air planes or satellites
The Temperature Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere
Exosphere: Heated by UV and X-rays from space
Thermosphere: Heated by X-rays from space
Stratosphere: Heated by UV radiation from space
Troposphere: Heated by greenhouse effect
Ozone Layer
Atmosphere gets colder at larger distance from heat sources.
Top of Ozone Layer
Temperature
Altit
ude
The most essential step in the greenhouse
effect is …
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1. The dissociation of ozone molecules by ultraviolet light.2. The ionization of air molecules by X-rays.3. The heating of air molecules by gamma-rays.4. The absorption of infrared light by complex molecules in
the stratosphere.5. The absorption of optical light by complex molecules in
the stratosphere.1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
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The Interactions between Light and Molecules
Carbon dioxide (CO2) /
Water vapor (H2O) /
any other asymmetric molecules (greenhouse gases)
Infrared
Causes asymmetric molecules to rotate
This is the essential step of the Greenhouse
Effect!
Which of the following is a
greenhouse gas?
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1. Hydrogen (H2)
2. Oxygen (O2)
3. Nitrogen (N2)
4. Ammonia (NH3)
5. All of the above.1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
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Gases consisting of compounds of two or more different types of atoms:
• CO2 (carbon dioxide)
• H2O (water vapor)
• CH4 (methane)
• NH3 (Ammonia)
Greenhouse Gases
Most common gases in Earth’s atmosphere (N2, O2) do not contribute to the greenhouse effect.
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