Peoples and Cultures of Europe Europe as an ethnographic "culture area" units of analysis...

Peoples and Cultures of Europe

Europe as an ethnographic "culture area"

units of analysis / cultural metaphors

“Anthropological

Conceptions of

’Europe’”Parman pp. 9-11

http://www.d.umn.edu/cla/faculty/troufs/anth3635/cetexts.html#title

Parman, Susan.Europe in the Anthropological Imagination.Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998.(ISBN: 0133374602)

Parman, pp. 9-11

Europe

“Culture Area”

“units of analysis” may include:

– one person (e.g., Paul Buffalo)

– the family (e.g., Strodtbeck, see later)

– the community– a region – a culture

•“Irish”•“Chinese”•“Mexicans”•“Bedouins”

EuropeMesoamericaThe Northwest Coast (of North America)The Upper MidwestThe Mideast“Sub-Saharan Africa”Aran Islands

– the community– a region – a “culture area”

“Culture Area”

Unit of Analysis

some areas are “officially”

anthropological

“cultural areas” . . .

http://eclectic.ss.uci.edu/~drwhite/worldcul/atlas.htm

You will read more about this in Ch. 12 “The Place of Europe in George P.

Murdock's Anthropological Theory,”

Mark T. Shutes, pp. 157-168

Which is on the reading schedule for

Wednesday, 25 July 2007

• we sometimes include Europe in anthropology as a “Culture Area” specifically because we want to test the universality of anthropological models

• Hoffman

• Shutes

Susan Parman, Europe in the Anthropological Imagination, pp. 11 - 14

• we sometimes include Europe in anthropology specifically because we want to test the universality of anthropological models

• Hoffman

• Shutes

• the chapters in Parman suggest that there has been a

tendency in the history of the anthropology of Europe

to . . .

– exoticize the familiar

– create syndromes of difference

• such as “honor and shame”

– and to stress the study of the rural, the semiliterate folk, the

small scale, preferably on islands

http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/cgi-bin/uncgi/Ethnoatlas/atlas.vopts

http://www.yale.edu/hraf/collections.htm

http://www.perpetualvisions.com/nativeamericans/short-talk/overview-of-talk.html

http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/cgi-bin/uncgi/Ethnoatlas/atlas.vopts

Mesoamerica

some culture areas were very carefully and precisely

defined, such as “Mesoamerica” as defined in

1952 by Paul Kirchoff . . .

Kirchhoff, Paul. "Meso-America," in Heritage of Conquest, Sol Tax, ed., pp. 17-30. Glencoe, Illinois, 1952.

some culture areas were very carefully and precisely

defined, such as “Mesoamerica” as defined in

1952 by Paul Kirchoff . . .

Kirchhoff, Paul. "Meso-America," in Heritage of Conquest, Sol Tax, ed., pp. 17-30. Glencoe, Illinois, 1952.

http://www.d.umn.edu/cla/faculty/troufs/anth3618/maKirchhof_handout.html#title

“Mesoamerica”(cultural)

“Middle America”(geological)

some areas that have been defined (by others) around cultural things are not the

same as the anthropologists’

“cultural areas” . . .

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_area

http://www.tibetantrekking.com/tcamap.html

http://www.worldbook.com/features/explorers/assets/LR004185_subI.gif

http://www.roconsulboston.com/Pages/InfoPages/Pers/GhinCioban.html

http://www.rmib-geoscience.nl/links/Ethnographic.ecp

http://www.antiqueprints.com/images/af1/f1533.jpg

Units of Analysis

the individual

Unit of Analysis

– the community– a region (“culture area”)– a culture

Ch. 12 “The Place of Europe in George P. Murdock's Anthropological Theory,”

Mark T. Shutes:

“The new locus of study for Murdock was . . . the individual, rather than some

methodological notion of group. . . .” (p. 166)

Ch. 12 “The Place of Europe in George P. Murdock's Anthropological Theory,”

Mark T. Shutes:

“The new locus of study for Murdock was . . . the individual, rather than some

methodological notion of group. . . .” (p. 166)

This was also earlier advocated by:

Bronislow Malinowski

Edward Sapir(“Sapir-Whorf” hypothesis)

Margaret Mead

– the family (e.g., Strodtbeck, see later)– the community– a region (“culture area”)– a culture

–“life histories”

http://www.d.umn.edu/cla/faculty/troufs/Buffalo/Intro-Temp2.html

Paul BuffaloMeditatingMedicine

http://www.d.umn.edu/cla/faculty/troufs/anth3635/cetexts.html#Nan

Sharon GmelchNan: The Life of an Irish Traveling Woman, Revised Edition.

Long Grove: IL: Waveland Press, 1991.(ISBN: 0881336025)

the family

Unit of Analysis

“units of analysis” may include:– one person (e.g., Paul Buffalo)

– the family• e.g., Strodtbeck-Florence Kluckhohn, see later

– the community

– a region (“culture area”)

– a culture

• “Irish”

• “Chinese”

• “Mexicans”

• “Bedouins”

http://www.d.umn.edu/cla/faculty/troufs/anth1604/video/Life_Chances.html#title

we saw this video onThursday 05 July 2007

“Classics" in the Anthropology of Europe

Oscar Lewis

the community

Unit of Analysis

– the community

– a region (“culture area”)

– a culture

• “Irish”

• “Chinese”

• “Mexicans”

• “Bedouins”

• as we have seen, for many years the island model

of peasant / community studies dominated

Europeanist anthropology, and to some extent

continues to do so

– whether or not the peasant community was on an island, the community itself was treated as a

self-contained unit

– see Kertzer’s discussion of the anthropological yearning for “the simplicity of a manageable field

setting . . . Where . . . The scale is human, and the cow dung wafts through the air”

• as we have seen, for many years the island model

of peasant / community studies dominated

Europeanist anthropology, and to some extent

continues to do so

– whether or not the peasant community was on an island, the community itself was treated as a

self-contained unit

– see Kertzer’s discussion of the anthropological yearning for “the simplicity of a manageable field

setting . . . Where . . . The scale is human, and the cow dung wafts through the air”

• and as we have also seen, the

preference for peasant communities

is due in part to the influence of

Radcliffe-Brown and Robert Redfield

at the University of Chicago

1952 Structure and Function in Primitive SocietyGlencoe, IL.: The Free Press

1964 Andaman IslandersGlencoe, IL.: The Free Press

Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown

1930 Tepoztlan, a Mexican Village: A

Study of Folk LifeChicago: University of Chicago Press

1941 Folk Culture of YucatanChicago: University of Chicago Press

Robert Redfield

• the research that came out of this

school of thought emphasized

• self-sufficiency

• and isolation

• rather than • regional / national linkages

• migration

• tourism

• urbanization

• peasant studies and community

studies by and large perpetuated

the island model of anthropological

units of study with its concomitant

notions of . . .

• peasant studies and community

studies by and large perpetuated

the island model of anthropological

units of study with its concomitant

notions of . . .

– tradition

– conservatism

– homogeneity • in ideology if not in fact, as Brettell points out in Parman

– egalitarianism

– mechanical solidarity

– cultural essences

as opposed to . . . the notion of culture as . . .

as opposed to . . . the alternative notion of culture as

– contested

– negotiated

– invented

– and relational

in a society characterized by

– gesellschaft

– stratification

– class differences

– and organic solidarity

• Douglass argues that small communities are an

important part of the European experience and

should not be dismissed as an intellectual

interlude in theoretical trends within American

anthropology

• Others authors have justified the use of small

communities in a variety of ways:

– they are condensed, manageable samples of a larger whole (Hoffman)

– they are primordial (Dubisch referring to Campbell)

– they are dynamic arenas within which national self-images are formed

(Dubisch referring to Herzfeld)

– they provide the holistic and ethnographic vehicle for integrating micro

and macro levels of analysis (Bennett; Wilson)

• researchers began to look more closely at the

romantic myth of egalitarian communities, and

to describe stratification systems

• researchers began to look more closely at the

romantic myth of egalitarian communities, and

to describe stratification systems

• the island model of gemeinschaft /

peasant community

– allowed for some role differentiation• primarily based on gender and kinship

– but not the extreme differentiation that

comes under the heading of stratification

• stratification is a symptom of large

complex societies• not the gemeinschaft of small-scale

societies

back to

Ernestine Friedl

1962 Vasilika: A Village in Modern

Greece.

Belmont, CA: Thompson Wadsworth, 2002.

(ISBN: 0030115450)

Parman's classic picks -- Tony Galt

http://www.d.umn.edu/cla/faculty/troufs/anth3635/cetexts.html#InisBeag

John C. MessengerInis Beag: Isle of Ireland.

Long Grove: IL: Waveland Press, 1983.(ISBN: 0881330515)

Inis Beag

Gaelic: "Little Island"

INIS Beag Revisited:The Anthropologist as Observant Participator

1983 Salem, WI: Sheffield. (Reprint edition August 1989).

The 1983 version was entitled An Anthropologist At Play:Ballald-mongering in Ireland and its Consequences for Research

. . . backed up in image by

the film

Man of Aran

(77 min, 1934, B&W)

– Robert J. Flaherty,– Colman “Tiger” King,– Maggie Dirrane, and – Michael Dirranewe will see this “classic” film on

Tuesday, 17 July 2007

John C. Messenger ? 1971 Sex and Repression in an Irish Folk Community. In Human Sexual Behavior: Variations in the Ethnographic Spectrum, by Donald S. Marshall and Robert C. Suggs. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- Hall.

1978 The Golden Chain: A Study of the Structure, Function, and Patterning of Comparatico in a South Italian

village. American Ethnologist 5:116-136.

http://www.soc.ucsb.edu/sexinfo/?article=activity&refid=025

Milocca: A

Sicilian Village

Charlotte Gower Chapman

John K. Campbell

Honour, Family, and Patronage: A Study of Institutions and Moral Values in a Greek Mountain Community

(1964)

Ronald Frankenberg

1957 Village on the Border: A

Social Study of

Religion, Politics, and Football

in a North Wales

Community

Cohen and West

Ronald Frankenberg

1957 Village on the Border: A

Social Study of

Religion, Politics, and Football

in a North Wales

Community

Cohen and West

Lewis - Refield debate

• Robert Redfield– Tepoztlan, a Mexican Village: A Study of Folk Life

• Oscar Lewis

– Life in a Mexican Village: Tepoztlan Restudied

the region

Unit of Analysis

– the community– a region (not as a “culture area”)– a culture

Conrad Arensberg1937 The Irish Countryman.

New York: Macmillan.

”the earliest example of anglophone Europeanist anthropology”

a culture

Unit of Analysis

• “Irish”• “Irish Travellers” (“Gypsies”)• “Rom” (“Gypsies”)• “Basques”• Catalans

Sharon B. Gmelch

1986 Groups that Don't Want in: Gypsies

and other Artisan, Trader, and

Entertainer Minorities. Annual Review of

Anthropology 15:307-330.

The Irish Tinkers: The Urbanization of an Itinerant People

by George Gmelch

– the community– a region– “culture area”– a culture

in summary(so far)

– the community– a region– “culture area”– a culture

“units of analysis” may also include:

– a nation (“national character studies”)

– the item or action itself (including “processes”)

– a “cultural metaphor”

a nation (Nation-State)

Unit of Analysis

Cultural Metaphors

• unit of analysis= the nation or national culture

– “national character studies”

» The Chrysanthemum and the Sword – Ruth Benedict

the item or action itself

Unit of Analysis

http://www.d.umn.edu/cla/faculty/troufs/anth3635/cetexts.html#CrisisofBirths

Elizabeth L. Krause

A Crisis of Births: Population Politics and Family-Making in Italy

Belmont, CA: Thompson Wadsworth, 2005.

•demography / population

•gender

•ethnicity

•nationalism

•globalization

•“development”

•social / cultural change

•decision-making

•peasants

•urbanism / urbanization

•stratification

•internal and transnational

migration

•“transnationalism”

•networks

•honor / shame values

•patron-client relationships

•literacy

•“we” vs. “other”

•rural / urban continuum

•demography / population

•gender

•ethnicity

•nationalism

•globalization

•“development”

•social / cultural change

•decision-making

•peasants

•urbanism / urbanization

•stratification

•internal and transnational

migration

•“transnationalism”

•networks

•honor / shame values

•patron-client relationships

•literacy

•“we” vs. “other”

•rural / urban continuum

• in the 1970s anthropologists became

caught up in a surge of interest in world

systems, processes that could be

described independent of particular

“culture areas”

• these were universal processes, and anthropology was conceived of as a universal science of humankind– not just of the exotic, non-Western,

savage Other

• these were universal processes, and anthropology was conceived of as a universal science of humankind– not just of the exotic, non-Western,

savage Other

• thus from one point of view, one could

argue that during the 1970s the

anthropological study of Europe (or any

culture area, for that matter) was

irrelevant in the anthropological

imagination

• thus from one point of view, one could

argue that during the 1970s the

anthropological study of Europe (or any

culture area, for that matter) was

irrelevant in the anthropological

imagination

. . . but not in recent times

• processes were universal

• where they took place was of interest only in providing additional evidence about the nature of the processes themselves

• processes were universal

• where they took place was of interest only in providing additional evidence about the nature of the processes themselves

• on the other hand, going to Europe was essential in the anthropological imagination because it validated the universality of anthropological models– thus separating it from its image as a discipline

relevant only to the study of the exotic, the “primitive,” and the non-West

• on the other hand, going to Europe was essential in the anthropological imagination because it validated the universality of anthropological models– thus separating it from its image as a discipline

relevant only to the study of the exotic, the “primitive,” and the non-West

• according to Mark T. Shutes, this same

motivation lay behind George Peter

Murdock attempting to add more

European material to the Human

Relations Area Files, so as to expand the

scope of ethnographic examples

• according to Mark T. Shutes, this same

motivation lay behind George Peter

Murdock attempting to add more

European material to the Human

Relations Area Files, so as to expand the

scope of ethnographic examples

a cultural metaphor(analogy, by means of cultural metaphors)

Unit of Analysis

(analogy, by means of cultural metaphors)

• an important influence on American

interest in European Spanish

studies was an attempt to trace

Latin American influences back to

• an important influence on American

interest in European Spanish

studies was an attempt to trace

Latin American influences back to

we saw this video on Tuesday, 10 July 2007

(analogy, by means of cultural metaphors)

Gannon’sEuropean Cultural Metaphors

include

Ch. 17. The Traditional British

Ch. 21. The Italian Opera

Ch. 22. Belgian Lace

Ch. 24. The Russian Ballet

Ch. 25. The Spanish Bullfight

Ch. 26. The Portuguese Bullfight

http://www.d.umn.edu/cla/faculty/troufs/anth1095/index.html#text

Gannon’s

European Cultural Metaphorsinclude

Ch. 6. The Turkish Coffehouse

Ch. 8. The Polish Village Church

Ch. 10. The German Symphony

Ch. 11. The Swedish Stuga

Ch. 12. Irish Conversations

Ch. 14. The Danish Christmas Luncheon

Ch. 15. French Wine . . .

www.d.umn.edu/cla/faculty/troufs/anth1095/Ireland.html#title

http://www.carn.com/IrishTales.htm

Gannon’s

Ch. 17. The Traditional British House

Cultural Metaphors

• cultural metaphors can be derived for ethnic groups within and across nations

– e.g., Anishinabe (Chippewa; Ojibwa)– e.g., Rom (Gypsies)– e.g., Irish “Travellers”

• sometimes incorrectly called “Gypsies”

– e.g., Kurds (in Turkey)– e.g., Basques

Cultural Metaphors

• cultural metaphors can be derived for ethnic groups within and across nations

– e.g., Anishinabe (Chippewa; Ojibwa)– e.g., Rom (Gypsies)– e.g., Irish “Travellers”

• sometimes incorrectly called “Gypsies”

– e.g., Kurds (in Turkey)– e.g., Basques

http://www.d.umn.edu/cla/faculty/troufs/anth3635/cetexts.html#BasqueHistory

Mark KurlanskyThe Basque History of the World.

NY: Penguin Books, 1999.(ISBN: 0140298517)

Cultural Metaphors

• unit of analysis is usually the nation

or national culture

• applies to a group, but not to every

individual within it

Cultural Metaphors

or national culture

– because a good amount of evidence

suggests that there are commonalities

across regional, racial, and ethnic groups

within each of them that can be captured

effectively by cultural metaphors

Cultural Metaphors

or national culture

– Understanding Global Cultures contains

28 metaphors

(13 of the 28 are from Europe)

– there are approximately 200 nations in the world • 193 according to The Times World Atlas

(2004)

Cultural Metaphors

or national culture

– Understanding Global Cultures contains

28 metaphors

(13 of the 28 are from Europe)

– REM: there are approximately 200 nations in the world • 193 according to The Times World Atlas

(2004)

Ken Livingston, mayor of London England,

indicated that there were over 300languages spoken in London.

(Following the terrorist attack of July 2005)

Communication

How many languages

are spoken in

St. Paul Minnesota ?

Communication

Culture Counts

and it counts quit a bit

Constructing Cultural Metaphors

• Florence Kluckholn and Fred Strodtbeck

• Edward T. Hall

• Geert Hofstede

• Cultural Metaphors include, in addition, the items on p. 11 of Gannon’s book . . .

• Edward T. Hall

• Geert Hofstede

Cultural Metaphors include . . .

• religion

• early socialization and family structure

• small group behavior

• public behavior

• leisure pursuits and interests

• total Lifestyle

– work / leisure / home and time allocations to each of them

• aural space

– the degree to which members of a society react negatively to high noise levels

• roles and status of different members of a society

• holidays and ceremonies

• greeting behavior

• humor

• language

– oral and written communication

• non-oral communication

– body language

• kinesics (motion)

• proxemics (space)

• sports

– as a reflection of cultural values

• political structure of a society

• the educational system of a society

• traditions and the degree to which the established order is emphasized

• history of a society

– but only as it reflects cultural mind-sets, or the

manner in which its members think, feel, and act

– not a detailed history

• food and eating behavior

• social class structure

• rate of technological and cultural change

• organization of and perspective on work

– such as a society’s commitment to the work ethic, superior-subordinate relationships, and so on

• any other categories that are appropriate

A Four-Stage Model of Cross-Cultural Understanding

I. four-cell typology of process / goal orientation

II. more specificity

III. inclusion of other “etic” of culture-general dimensions along which specific cultures have been shown to vary

IV. cultural metaphors are employed for understanding a culture

they build on the “etic” understanding provided by the approaches used in the first three stages

Fig. 1.1. Process, Goals, and Expression of Emotions (p. 12)

Open Expression of Emotions and Feelings

Degree to which process must be emphasized before goals can be discussed

Lower Higher

Higher

A Four-Stage Model of Cross-Cultural Understanding

I. four-cell typology of process / goal orientation

II. more specificity

III. inclusion of other “etic” of culture-general dimensions along which specific cultures have been shown to vary

IV. cultural metaphors are employed for understanding a culture

they build on the “etic” understanding provided by the approaches used in the first three stages

Emics / Etics

emics– from “phonemics”– viewing a culture from the inside

etics– from “phonetics”– viewing a culture from the outside

more on the “emics” and “etics” later

“Four-Stage Model”

One variable of Gannon’s

is the degree to which process such as

effective communication and getting to

know one another in depth should

precede discussion of specific goals

One variable of Gannon’s

is the degree to which process such as

effective communication and getting to

know one another in depth should

precede discussion of specific goals

Another variable of Gannon’s

“Four-Stage Model” is the degree to which a

culture fosters and encourages open

emotional expression

Another variable of Gannon’s

“Four-Stage Model” is the degree to

which a culture fosters and encourages

open emotional expression

Fig. 1.1. Process, Goals, and Expression of Emotions (p. 12)

Open Expression of Emotions and Feelings

Degree to which process must be emphasized before goals can be discussed

Lower Higher

Lower England, Ireland, and Scotland

United States and Germany

Higher China, Japan, and India

Mexico, Spain, and Italy

More on the “Four-Stage Model” later, time permitting

Cultural Metaphors

“Metaphors

are not stereotypes” – Martin J. Gannon

Geert Hofstede(1991)

• IBM study demonstrated that

national culture explained 50% of

the differences in attitudes in IBM’s

53 countries

“Given such studies, it seems that

culture influences between 25%

and 50% of our attitudes, whereas

other aspects of workforce

diversity, such as social class,

ethnicity, race, sex, and age,

account for the remainder of these

attitudinal differences.”

“Given such studies, it seems that

culture influences between 25%

and 50% of our attitudes, whereas

other aspects of workforce

diversity, such as social class,

ethnicity, race, sex, and age,

account for the remainder of these

attitudinal differences.”

“Frequently, when a foreigner

violates a key cultural value, he or

she is not even aware of the

violation, and no one brings the

matter to his or her attention.”

– once a visitor makes a major mistake it is frequently impossible to rectify it

– and it may well take several months to realize that polite rejections really signify isolation and banishment

includingproxemicskenisics

“Even genuinely

small cultural mistakes can have

enormous consequences.”

“. . . knowing a country’s language,

although clearly helpful, is no

guarantee of understanding its

cultural mindset, and some of the

most difficult problems have been

created by individuals who have a

high level of fluency but a low level of

cultural understanding.”

“. . . knowing a country’s language,

although clearly helpful, is no

guarantee of understanding its

cultural mindset, and some of the

most difficult problems have been

created by individuals who have a

high level of fluency but a low level of

cultural understanding.”

“Moreover,

members of a culture tend to assume

that highly fluent visitors know the

customs and rules of behavior, and

these visitors are judged severely

when violations occur.”

Cultural Metaphors

• Understanding Global Cultures

describes a method for understanding

easily and quickly the cultural mind-

set of a nation and comparing it to

other nations . . .

Cultural Metaphors

• Understanding Global Cultures

describes a method for understanding

easily and quickly the cultural mind-

set of a nation and comparing it to

other nations . . .

metaphorical analysis

Cultural Metaphors

wherein

the unit of analysis isthe metaphor

Cultural Metaphors

• In essence the cultural metaphor involves identifying some phenomenon, activity, or institution of a nation’s culture that all or most of its members consider to be very important and with which they identify closely– the characteristics of the metaphor then

become the basis for describing and understanding the essential features of the society

Cultural Metaphors

• each metaphor is a guide or map that helps the foreigner understand quickly what members of a society consider very important

– but it is only a starting point against which we can compare our own experiences and through which we can start to understand the seeming contradictions pervasive in most, if not all, societies

Cultural Metaphors

• each metaphor is a guide or map that helps the foreigner understand quickly what members of a society consider very important

– but it is only a starting point against which we can compare our own experiences and through which we can start to understand the seeming contradictions pervasive in most, if not all, societies

Cultural Metaphors

• Gannon’s book describes

a dominant,

and perhaps the dominant,

metaphor for each society

– but other metaphors may also be

suitable

Gannon’s

Ch. 6. The Turkish Coffehouse

Ch. 8. The Polish Village Church

Ch. 10. The German Symphony

Ch. 11. The Swedish Stuga

Ch. 12. Irish Conversations

Ch. 14. The Danish Christmas Luncheon

Ch. 15. French Wine . . .

Gannon’s

Ch. 17. The Traditional British House

• Edward T. Hall

• Geert Hofstede

• Edward T. Hall

• Geert Hofstede

– note that each society has a dominant

cultural orientation that can be

described in terms of six dimensions

Florence Kluckholn and Fred Strodtbeck

1. “What do members of a society assume about the nature of people, that is, are people good, bad, or a mixture?”

• These kinds of beliefs are sometimes called

“existential postulates”

1. “What do members of a society assume about the nature of people, that is, are people good, bad, or a mixture?”

“existential postulates”

2. “What do members of a society assume

about the relationship between a person

and nature, that is, should we live in

harmony with it or subjugate it?”

“normative postulates”

about the relationship between a person

and nature, that is, should we live in

harmony with it or subjugate it?”

“normative postulates”

about the relationship between people,

that is, should a person act in an

individual manner or consider the group

before taking action?”

• individualism vs. collectivism (groupism) in

terms of such issues as making decisions,

conformity, and so forth

about the relationship between people,

that is, should a person act in an

individual manner or consider the group

before taking action?”

• individualism vs. collectivism (groupism) in

terms of such issues as making decisions,

conformity, and so forth

4. “What is the primary mode of activity in

a given society, that is, being, or

accepting the status quo, enjoying the

current situation, and going with the

flow of things;

or doing, that is, changing things to

make them better, setting specific

goals and accomplishing them within

specific schedules, and so forth?”

4. “What is the primary mode of activity in

a given society, that is, being, or

accepting the status quo, enjoying the

current situation, and going with the

flow of things;

or doing, that is, changing things to

make them better, setting specific

goals and accomplishing them within

specific schedules, and so forth?”

5. “What is the conception of space in a given society,

that is, is it considered private, in that meetings

are held in private, people do not get too close to

one another physically, and so on;

or public, that is, having everyone participate in

meetings and decision making, allowing

emotions to be expressed publicly, and having

people stand in close proximity to one another?”

5. “What is the conception of space in a given society,

that is, is it considered private, in that meetings

are held in private, people do not get too close to

one another physically, and so on;

or public, that is, having everyone participate in

meetings and decision making, allowing

emotions to be expressed publicly, and having

people stand in close proximity to one another?”

6. “What is the society’s dominant

temporal orientation”

present

and / or future?

6. “What is the society’s dominant

temporal orientation”

present

and / or future?

• Kluckholn and Strodtbeck note that each society has a dominant cultural orientation that can be described in terms of these six dimensions

• but that other, weaker orientations may also exist simultaneously in its different geographical regions and racial and ethnic groups

• Edward T. Hall

• Geert Hofstede

• Edward T. Hall

• Geert Hofstede• made many discoveries in how

people learn language

• analyzed the levels of learning

Edward T. Hall

1. “Context,

or the amount of information that must

be explicitly stated if a message or

communication is to be successful”

Edward T. Hall

2. “Space,

or the ways of communicating through

specific handling of personal space”

e.g., North Americans tend to keep more

space between them while communicating

than do South Americans

Edward T. Hall

3. Time, which is either

monochronic

(scheduling and completing one activity at a time)

or polychronic(not distinguishing between activities and completing them simultaneously – “multitasking”)

Edward T. Hall

3. Time, which is either

monochronic

(scheduling and completing one activity at a time)

or polychronic(not distinguishing between activities and completing them simultaneously – “multitasking”)

Edward T. Hall

4. “Information flow,

which is the structure and speed of

messages between individuals and / or

organizations”

• Edward T. Hall

• Geert Hofstede

Geert Hofstede

– prominent organizational psychologist

– research is based on a large questionnaire survey of IBM employees and managers working in 53 different countries

– especially significant because the type of organization is held constant

Geert Hofstede

1. Power distance

or the degree to which members of a

society automatically accept a

hierarchical or unequal distribution of

power in organizations and the society

Geert Hofstede

2. Uncertainty avoidance

given society deal with the uncertainty

and risk of everyday life and prefer to

work with long-term acquaintances and

friends rather than with strangers

Geert Hofstede

3. Individualism

or the degree to which an individual perceives him- or her-self to be separate from a group and free from group pressure to conform

Geert Hofstede

4. Masculinity

or the degree to which a society looks

favorably on aggressive and materialistic

behavior

Geert Hofstede

5. Time horizon(short term to long term)

culture are willing to defer present

gratification in order to achieve long-

term goals

Geert Hofstede

5. Time horizon(short term to long term)

culture are willing to defer present

gratification in order to achieve long-

term goals

criticisms of the “three-dimensional approaches” developed by

Kluckholn and Strodtbeck, Hall, and Hofstende include

– leave out many features of the cultural mind-sets that are activated in daily cultural activities

– neglect the institutions molding these mind-sets

– are instructive, but are “somewhat lifeless and narrow”

– leave out many facets of behavior

• Edward T. Hall

• Geert Hofstede

http://www.d.umn.edu/cla/faculty/troufs/anth1095/index.html#text

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