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P. RAMLEE'S MUSIC: A REFLECTION OF CULTURE CONTACTIN AMULTI-ETHNIC SOCIETY
CLARE CHAN SUET CHINGFAKULTI SENI DAN MUZIK
KOD PENYELIDIKAN UPSI: 02-05-65-02
2003
Acknowlegdements
I would like to extend my warmest gratitude to Tan Sri Dato' Seri (Dr) Ahmad
Sarji who was kind enough to find time out of his busy schedule to share his knowledge
on P. Ramlee to me. I am also grateful to him for presenting me with three books which
consists ofP. Ramlee's songs notated into music scores. I would also like to thank Dato'
Johari Salleh for spending time talking to me about P.Ramlee's music and urban
entertainment during the early 50s until today. Special thanks are also extended to Tan
Sri Dato' Dr. Lin See-Yan, current president of Harvard Club, Malaysia, who presented
the Music Department and Library ofUniversiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris with three books
on the music scores ofP. Ramlee's song.
I am also indebted to my fellow colleagues, Encik Mohd Azam Sulong and Encik
Mahayuddin bin Abdul Rahim who spend much time advising and helping me with this
research in terms of using the music software and transcribing rhythmic patterns. Much
thanks is extended to my student, Choy Yen Yi for helping me with the notation of music
scores in the computer. Thank you also to Encik Ahmad Nizam bin Nasrifan and Haidir
bin Mohd Tahir for their music transcriptions of selected P. Ramlee's songs.
Through this research, I come to appreciate the support given by my mom and
dad and my colleagues; Maimun, Colleen, Christine and Faris. I also extend my grateful
to Professor Dr. Abdul Hamid Abdullah for his advice and encouragement on this
research. Last but not least, I wish to thank Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris for
sponsoring and encouraging new research and findings.
11
CONTENTS
Page
AcknowlegdementsContents
AppendicesList ofTablesList ofMusicalExamplesAbstract
11
111
V
V
V
Vll
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background ofResearch 2
1.2 Statement ofProblem 4
1.3 Research Focus/ Objectives 5
1.4 Method ofResearch 6
1.5 Literature Review 7
1.6 Theoretical Approach 9
2.0 Factors that influenced P. Ramlee's Musical Style 12
2.1 His Childhood and Teenage Environment 12
2.2 Urban Entertainment in the early 20th Century 15
2.3 Films and songs under Indian directors (1948-1955) 17
2.54 Films and songs with P. Ramlee as director (1955-1973) 19
3.0 The Variety ofRhythms in P. Ramlee's Music 24
3.1 Malay Traditional Rhythms 27
3.1.1 Asli 28
III
Page
3.1.2 Inang 29
3.1.3 Joget 30
3.1.4 Zapin 32
3.1.5 Keroncong 34
3.2 Western Rhythms 34
3.2.1 Beguine 35
3.2.2 Mambo 37
3.2.3 March 37
3.2.4 Rumba 38
3.2.5 Samba 41
3.2.6 Swing 42
3.2.7 Twist 43
3.2.8 Waltz 45
4.0 Local and foreign scales, modes and tunes 47
4.1 Chinese Pentatonic Scales 47
4.1.1 SamPekEngTai 49
4.1.2 Apek danMarjina 50
4.1.3 DoReMi 51
4.2 Arabian Modes 51
4.2.1 BungaMelur 51
4.2.2 Ya HabibiAli Baba 52
IV
Page
4.3 Western Popular Tunes 53
4.3.1 Swannee River in Do ReMi
4.3.2 Banana Boat Song inMencece BujangLapuk
53
54
4.4 Conclusion 55
Bibliography
Appendices-Musical Transcriptions
Appendices
Musical Transcriptions
3.1 .logetMalaysia3.2 Semerah Padi3.3 Getaran Jiwa3.4 DoReMi3.5 BUa LarutMalam3.6 PokPokBujang Lapuk3.7 Gelora3.8 TolongKami4.1 Apek danMarjina4.2 Sam PekEng Tai4.3 DoReMi4.4 BungaMelur4.5 YaHabibiAli4.6Mencece Bujang Lapuk
List of Tables
3.1 Types of rhythms in P. Ramlee's Music 25
v
List of Musical Examples
3.1 AsH 28
3.2 Inang 29
3.3 Joget 30
3.4 Joget Malaysia 31
3.5 Zapin 32
3.6 Semerah Padi 33
3.7 Beguine 35
3.8 Getaran Jiwa 36
3.9 March 37
3.10 DoReMi 38
3.11 Rumba 39
3.12 Bila Larut Malam 40
3.13 Samba 41
3.14 Swing 42
3.15 Pok Pok Bujang Lapuk 43
3.16 Twist 44
3.17 Gelora 44
3.18 Waltz 45
3.19 Tolong Kami 46
4.1 Chinese Pentatonic scale 48
4.2 Sam PekEng Tai 49
4.3 Apek dan Marj ina 50
VI
Page
4.4 Do ReMi I 51
4.5 The Mode ofHijaz 52
4.6 BungaMelur 52
4.7 Ya Habibi Ali Baba 53
4.8 Old Folks At Home/ Swannee River 54
4.9 Do ReMi II 54
4.10 Mencece Bujang Lapuk 55
Notation Key for Percussion
Ride Cymbal
Bass Drum
High Pitched Tom TomSnare Drum
Low Pitched Tom Tom
Hi Hat
Source: Feldstein, Sandy (1978). An Alfred HandyGuide: Drum Set Club Date Dictionary.Alfred Publishing Co, Inc.
vii
ABSTRACT
P .Ramlee is a legend in the history of the film and music industry in Malaysia. He
was an influential figure who rose to success through his brilliant acting skills and
beautiful velvety soothing voice. His music captured the hearts of the multi ethnic
communities in Malaya during the 50s and 60s. The height of P. Ramlee's career
coincided with the rise to nationalism and independence from the colonial rule in Malaya.
P. Ramlee's music was influenced by the life style developed by the British, in terms of
urban entertainment consisting ofbig bands, dance and night clubs. The colonial rule also
brought in the Chinese, Indians and other ethnic minorities. The variety of cultures that
developed and came in contact with each other after the influx of workers from China
and India indirectly influenced P. Ramlee's musical style in some way or other.
This research aims to prove that culture contact is reflected in the music of a multi
ethnic society through the transfer of discrete musical traits from other cultures into
another and pluralistic coexistence, that is the creation of a new synthesis through a
combination of two or more cultures. In P. Ramlee's music, these two phenomenons are
evident in the rhythm, melodies and musical style. This research will prove the existence
of various influences of local, foreign and western cultures in the P. Ramlee's music
through the comparison of rhythm, scales and modes in his songs to its roots and origins.
Vlll
Before examining these influences, a brief discussion will be made on factors that
influenced P. Ramlee's musical style with reference to his childhood and teenage years,
urban entertainment in the early 20th century, his film and music under Indian directors
culminating with P. Ramlee as director himself, and the public's changing taste. This
knowlegde is crucial to understanding the musical style he created.
IX
CHAPTERl
INTRODUCTION
Music in Malaysia is generally divided into five main categories; Classic Music,
Folk Music, Syncretic Music, Popular Music and Contemporary Music (Tan Sooi Beng
& Patricia Matusky, 1997: 2-3). Classic Music refers to music performed in the royal
courts of the Malay Sultanate namely Joget Gamelan, Nobat and Asyik Dance. Folk
Music includes music performed in the villages or rural society, such as Wayang Kulit,
Makyong, Main Puteri, Mekmulung and Randai. Syncretic music comprises ofmusic that
exhibits cross cultural influences, for example Dondang Sayang, Bangsawan, Kuda
Kepang, Ghazal and Zapin.
Contemporary music in Malaysia refers to music composed by new Malaysian
composers who have been trained in the knowledge ofWestern music theory. They fuse
their artistic knowledge and skills to create new forms of composition in the Malaysian
context. According to Lockard (1991), popular music is distinguished by two essential
factors: it is disseminated by the mass media and it is the by-product of the mass basis for
marketing commodities. Not surprisingly, popular music receives the widest audiences
and is the most lucrative music industry in Malaysia. There are other categories of music
in Malaysia which includes Chinese, Indian and Western Classical Music; music of the
indigenous people (Orang Asli); and music of Sabah and Sarawak.
1
Popular mUSIC In Malaysia saw its very beginnings in Bangsawan, the first
popular urban commercial theatre which began in the late nineteenth century into the
early twentieth century. According to Tan Sooi Beng (1997), Bangsawan was the first
indigenous theatre to be modelled along the Western lines, it engendered the
development of the first Malay orchestra and the first popular music in the country.
Bangsawan's popularity faded after World War II (1939 to1945) with the introduction of
the film making and entertainment industry in Malaya. The rising star responsible for
conquering this industry in the early 1950s was none other than Teuku Zakaria bin Teuku
Nyak Puteh, better known as P. Ramlee.
1.1 Background of research
P. Ramlee marked the early success and popularity of the film and music industry
in Malaysia. He elevated the entertainment in Malaysia to the heights of success during
the fifties and sixties. P. Ramlee infused the Malay music and film industry with an
identity that has never been duplicated (Lockard, 1991: 21). He was a genius of versatile
character; an actor, singer, director, songwriter, scriptwriter, film producer composer and
arranger simultaneously. P. Ramlee is looked upon as the father ofMalay films and also
the man who gave new life to Malay music (Chopyak, 1985: 70).
P. Ramlee wrote and sung over 250 songs in his lifetime. He wrote many varieties
of songs; from love songs to songs of humour, criticism, satyre, patriotism and culture.
These songs explored the usage of rhythm and melodies ranging from local to foreign and
2
western cultures. However, one major factor which united his songs together was the
dominant Malay feel in the style of his songs. This factor could be due to the constant
usage of minorish scales, flattening and sharpening of certain notes which are
characteristics ofMalay melodic patterns.
P. Ramlee wanted to create mUSIC that was new, umque and different. The
influence of syncretic music forms such as Joget, Inang, Asli, Zapin, Keroncong is
portrayed in his music. P. Ramlee also incorporated Western and Latin American dance
rhythms like samba, rumba, cha cha cha, beguine, mambo, twist, waltz, bolero, quickstep,
conga, paso doble and slow fox into his music (Ahmad Sarji, 2002a: 6). Besides the
infusion of foreign and local rhythms, P. Ramlee also wrote melodic lines that made use
of Middle East (Arabic) and Hindustani modes. He incorporated Chinese pentatonic
scales and fragments of familiar western tunes in a few of his compositions. However the
bulk of his songs are based upon Malay melodic patterns, feel and style.
Much ofP. Ramlee's songs were composed to accompany scenes in the films he
acted in and many became popular hits of its time. Unconsciously, he would have
become the pioneer toward the development of popular music in Malaysia as his music
began to appeal to the public largely due to the promotion of the mass media. P.Ramlee is
instrumental in the development of popular music in Malaysia. He set a musical style that
would be explored and innovated in different ways to come in the future.
3
1.2 Statement of Problem
In a plural society like Malaysia, many diverse cultures are in constant contact
with each other. The history of Malaysia under the colonial rule also brought in new
changes in life style, ideas and innovations. Malaysia, after independence in 1957, was a
nation free to create its own ideologies to develop its nation. The multi cultural contact
and political rule unconsciously influenced its people in many ways. One of the
influences portrayed is the development of popular music in Malaysia which reflects a
fusion of ideas generated through social contact and political changes.
Popular Music began with Bangsawan in the late 19th and early zo" century
which portrayed influences from Indian, Middle East, Chinese, Indonesian and Western
cultures. This style of music was adapted and innovated in the 40s and 50s by popular
singers, namely, P. Ramlee, Nona Asiah, Normadiah, Saloma, Aziz Jaafar and Kassim
Masdor. Their music utilized Latin American flavoured dance music, Hawaiian music,
Indian film music and Western popular music (Lockard, 1991: 19). A new trend of music
appeared in the sixties with the adaptation of the rock and roll music of the Beatles,
which caused a stir in the Western world, to what is known as the "Pop Yeh Yeh" style in
Malaysia.
4
Popular Music in Malaysia reflects all sorts of fusion and mixture of styles today
(2003). This research goes back to the roots of the development of popular music in
Malaysia through the music of P. Ramlee. It goes to explore the very beginnings of
foreign and local influences in the popular music ofMalaysia.
1.3 Research Focus/ Objectives
P. Ramlee took the Western popular music idiom, gave it Malay lyrics and a
Malay feel (Chopyak: 1985: 80). He absorbed elements of music from the various
cultures existent in Malaya during the fifties and incorporated it into his own music. The
aim of this research is to identify the various local and foreign influences inherent in his
songs, thus revealing the cultural interactions inherent in his music.
This research starts by exammmg the factors that may have influenced P.
Ramlee's musical style; namely his hometown of diversified cultures, urban
entertainment in the early twentieth century, race and religion, the socio-political
situation in Malaya, his early films under Indian directors, and culminates with P .Ramlee
as director himself. These explanations will shed light to the origins of influence in the
musical style P. Ramlee created and is crucial to the understanding of the style he
created.
Many of P. Ramlee's songs were composed to suit the themes of his films. The
themes in his films ranged from stories about village (kampong) to urban life, Arabian or
5
Malay legends, comedies, family feuds to scenes in nightclub entertainments. The origins
of the composed music largely depended on the film itself for example Arabian legendary
stories like Ali Baba Bujang Lapok (1961) consists of the song Ya Habibi Ali Baba
which made used of Arabian modes to form its melodic line. Films, such as Hujan Panas
(1953), Labu-Labi (1962), Masam Masam Manis (1965) featured nightclub
entertainments and infused western popular dance rhythms like cha-cha-cha, rumba,
samba, beguine into the songs in its film.
This research will then proceed to the main aim of this research that is to analyze
the rhythms, scales, modes and familiar tunes used in P. Ramlee's songs. Music
transcriptions will be made on chosen songs to enable a comparison of specific rhythms,
scales or modes used in P .Ramlee' s music to the root and origin of that rhythm, scale or
mode.
1.4 Method of Research
This research is conducted using the qualitative method. Much information is
acquired through literature, journal and book reviews, internet search and interviews.
Literature review provided knowledge of P. Ramlee's life story and achievements; the
socio-political situation during P. Ramlee's time which influenced his films and
consequently the music he wrote for the films. Book reviews, references to articles and
journals provided knowledge of the types of urban entertainment inherent in Malaya
6
during the ending ofBritish rule in Malaya, the era ofP. Ramlee's childhood and teenage
years and popular music in Malaya during the early zo" Century.
Interviews were conducted with Tan Sri Dato' Seri (Dr) Ahmad Sarji and Dato'
Johari Salleh, two prominent figures in Malaysia. Tan Sri Dato' Seri (Dr) Ahmad Sarji is
the author of the P. Ramlee dictionary titled "Erti Yang Sakti" and the book titled
"P.Ramlee: The Bright Star". Dato' Johari Salleh is a famous composer and arranger in
Malaysia.
I have also spent much time watching P. Ramlee's films and listening to his songs
III order to understand the relationship between songs and film themes. Music
transcriptions were made on selected songs to examine the rhythms and melodies that
exemplified foreign and local influences in his music. These transcriptions enabled the
comparison of elements of music in terms of rhythm, scales and modes existent in P.
Ramlee's song to the roots of its origin.
1.5 Literature Review
P. Ramlee's biography is found in the book titled, "P. Ramlee: The Bright Star".
It provides a scenario of his hometown, his music experiences as a young boy, his
acting career in Singapore and Malaysia till his death in 1973. In this book, there are
short synopsis of his films, comments and feedbacks from the public compiled through
7
examination of newspapers. This book was written by Tan Sri Dato' Seri (Dr) Ahmad
Sarji and James Harding. "Erti Yang Sakti" is another important book written by Tan Sri
Dato' Seri ·Ahmad Sarji on P.Ramlee. It is a dictionary that consists of the storylines of
his films and songs; and short biographies of famous film stars during his times.
Tan Sri Dato' Seri Ahmad Sarji and Dato' Johari Salleh have notated and
compiled P. Ramlee's music into three books; "Irama Lagu P. Ramlee: Lagu-lagu filem
1948 -1960"; "Gelora: Lagu-lagu filem 1961-1972" and "Air Mata di Kuala Lumpur".
They are published by Harvard Club ofMalaysia. These books contain the melody line
and chords of songs in his films.
Two important researches have been conducted on Malaysian popular music. The
first research was done in 1985 by Chopyak, James Decker who examines the
development ofMalaysian popular musician in relation to cultural, social and economic
events of its time, focusing on the careers ofP. Ramlee and Johari Salleh. His research is
found in his thesis titled "The development ofMalaysian Popular Music: The Influential
Roles ofP. Ramlee and Johari Salleh". Craig A. Lockard, in his journal "Reflections of
Change: Sociopolitical Commentary and Criticism in Malaysian Popular Music Since
1950" published in 1991, explores the relationship between popular music and
sociopolitical change in Malaysia over the past four decades. In his journal, Lockard
examines the historical background and roots of Malaysian popular music. He draws
attention to P. Ramlee as the pop icon who played the pivotal role in the development of
Malaysian popular music culture.
8
Besides, literature and book reviews, I also went through newspaper articles and
information on the internet. Newspapers cuttings from Mingguan Malaysia, Utusan
Malaysia, Berita Minggu, Harian Nasional and Mingguan Perdana ranging from the 70's
and 80' s, compiled by Perpustakaan Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka were browsed through.
1.6 Thereotical Approach
P. Ramlee's music reflects the cultural interactions occurring in a multi ethnic
society in transition. In her journal "The processes and results of music culture contact:
A discussion of terminology and concepts", Margaret Kartomi (1981) discusses the
process and results occurring in musical cultures in contact. Kartomi states six possible
results due to this contact: virtual rejection of an impinging music, transfer of discrete
musical traits, pluralistic coexistence, nativistic revival, music abandonment and music
impoverishment.
In this research, I focus on two of the six results that transpires due to the
convergences of cultures; that is, the transfer of discrete musical traits and pluralistic
coexistence. Kartomi (1981) states that single or more discrete musical traits have been
adopted by cultures from foreign sources throughout history. Some examples of the
transfer of discrete musical traits are the diffusion of instruments and the adoption of
melodic idioms or rhythmic motives. This transfer does not create evolutionary or
revolutionary change and can be regarded as a preliminary prerequisite for eventual
musical transculturation.
9
Pluralistic coexistence can also be applied in this research. Kartomi (1981) states
that musical pluralism usually occurs in a bi- or multi-ethnic urban situation, but
normally lasts as long as the interplay between the adherents of each musical culture is
strictly limited. Sometimes itcan last for very long too. Kartomi goes on to explain that a
new synthesis can be created when some musicians combine and transform the elements
of two or more musical sources.
The transfer of discrete musical traits can be implied to P. Ramlee's mUSIC
whereby the diffusion ofmusic instruments is reflected in the combination of instruments
used in his music. The use of western, eastern and local instruments such as violin,
saxophone, trumpet, double bass, conga, bongo, rebana, kompang, accordion, tabla
reflects an interplay ofmulti cultural diversification in P. Ramlee's music. However, this
interplay has not resulted in a major change in his music as the instruments are used in
the context ofP. Ramlee's style ofmusic, where the Malay feel is still very dominant. It
is not used by nature of its own inherited musical concepts.
The transfer of discrete musical traits also refers to the adoption of melodic
idioms and rhythmic which is clearly obvious in P.Ramlees's music, thus clearly relevant
to this research. His use of Arabian modes and Chinese pentatonic scales, the
incorporation of rhythmic motives from foreign and local sources such as rumba, samba,
cha cha cha, zapin, inang and asli is proof of this occurrence.
10
Musical pluralism, likely to occur in a multi ethnic country like Malaysia, is
reflected in style ofmusic produced by P. Ramlee. His music combined western popular
music idiom with typical Malay melodic patterns and rhythmic idioms creating a new
synthesis in Malaysian music.
The transfer of discrete musical traits and musical pluralism identified in P.
Ramlee's music reflects that the convergence of cultures which has created a musical
change in the popular music culture in Malaysia.
11
CHAPTER 2
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCED P.RAMLEE'S MUSICAL STYLE
Nature and nurture played an important role in shaping P. Ramlee musical style.
P. Ramlee was musically gifted, possessed a beautiful baritone and velvety voice and had
an inborn flair for music. He was also a natural performer and actor on screen (Ahmad
Sarj i, 2002a: 21). However nature, if not nurtured would not have gone far. Many factors
in P. Ramlee's life played important roles in nurturing his talents till it achieved great
heights of success. Some of these factors included his childhood and teenage
environment, the influence of urban entertainment during his time, films under Indian
directors in Singapore and lastly films under his own directions in Singapore and
Malaysia. This chapter will focus on factors which may have shaped and influenced P.
Ramlee's style of singing, composing and arranging.
2.1 His Childhood and Teenage Environment
P. Ramlee was born on the 22 Mac 1929 in Penang, a cultural potpourri with its
multi ethnic community. This environment gave him experiences that played an
important role in the development of ideas and creativity that would soon be reflected in
his songs. During his childhood and teenage years, P. Ramlee was exposed to many
different types of music and entertainment from his growing up environment. These
exposures navigated and shaped his style of composing and arranging music.
12
P. Ramlee was given the name Teuku Zakaria by his parents, Teuku Nyak Puteh
and Che Mah Hussin (Ahmad Sarji, 2002a: 3). His father was a descendent of the
aristocratic family of Oleebang in East Acheh and his mother, Che Mah binte Hussein
came from Kubang Buaya, Butterworth (Ahmad Sarji, 2002a: 1). P. Ramlee went to
school at Sekolah Melayu Kampung Jawa, St Francis Light School, Penang and Penang
Free School, Penang until Standard Seven (Ahmad Sarji, 2002a: 5).
P.Ramlee's love for music and actirig was overwhelming even at early age. At the
age of thirteen, he was strumming the base-line of his ukulele and singing to songs like
"Donkey Serenade", "It's in the Air" and "Nona-Nona Zaman Sekarang" (Ahmad Sarji,
1999: 263). P. Ramlee learnt to play the violin and guitar under the tutelage of
Kamaruddin bin Idris, a famous music teacher in Penang. Not long after that, he picked
up the piano, saxophone, trumpet, accordion and xylophone (Ahmad Sarji, 2002a: 12). It
is interesting to note that these are the instruments that will be used frequently in his
compositions to come.
P. Ramlee spent most of his school days travelling with the school band. He was
also busy following various bands of musicians, listening and learning their styles
(Ahmad Sarji, 2002a: 6). P. Ramlee joined a big band that played in a joget (dancing)
club and took the opportunity to polish his musical skills as a musician, His early songs
were laced with popular dance beats of the time such as joget, beguine, samba, rumba,
bolero and swing (Lockard, 1991: 21). He was a master at utilizing diverse musical
13
cultures in his music, including asli, zapin, inang, cha-cha-cha, and waltz to rock and roll,
twist and so on.
In Penang, P Ramlee was seldom exposed to newly composed Malay songs.
Living in the northern region made him more prone to listening to songs from the
Makyong theatre or lagu-lagu cembong (Ahmad Sarji dan Johari Salleh, 1993: 9). P.
Ramlee was drawn to composing Malay songs. He wrote a song titled "Azizah" which
was followed by a string of other Malay compositions including "Baidah", "Abang
Dollah", " Mee Jawa", "Joget Malay", "Malam Thaipusam" and "Padang Kota" (ibid.:
9). These songs were sung and performed by a band group called Teruna Sekampung
which he joined. Besides this, he also conducted a band named Mastika in Butterworth.
P. Ramlee's interest and enthusiasm for Malay tunes and folk songs would soon be
exemplified when he became the director ofhis own films.
In 1945, at the age of 16, P.Ramlee was placed third at a singing contest
organized by Radio Pulau Pinang. He made it to second place the following year and
finally was crowned champion in 1947 (http//: www.farahaqil.com). In early June 1948,
an event that would change P Ramlee's life took place while he was singing and playing
the violin to his original composition, "Azizah", at the "Pesta Pertanian Ria" festival.
B.S. Rajhan, one of the Shaw Brothers directors was captured by P. Ramlee's skill at the
violin and offered him a job as a playback singer in his films (http//:
www.farahaqil.com). On the 8th August, P. Ramlee left for Singapore to work for the
14
Malay Films Productions (Ahmad Sarji, 1999: 263) where his potentials would be
nurtured and polished till he became a legend in Malaysian history.
P. Ramlee's exposure and experience in music during his childhood and teenage
years built the foundation he needed towards the development of his own musical career
to come.
2.2 Urban Entertainment in the early twentieth Century
The late nineteenth and twentieth century was a period of economic, social and
political expansion in the Malay Peninsula. This rapid expansion resulted in an increased
in population due to the influx of foreign labour from the Chinese and Indians. The
strategic geographical position of the Straits Settlement, Penang and Melaka also
attracted people from all comers of the world to trade and seek their fortune in the Malay
Peninsula The Europeans, Arabs, Armenians, Jews, Burmese, Thais, Bugis, Arnbonese,
Javanese, Rawanese, Minangkabaus, Tamils, Malbaris, Gujeratis, Bengalis, Parsis,
Cantonese, Hokkien, Teo Chews. Hainanese, Ceylonese, Sikhs, Japanese and Filipinos
were among the ethnic minorities (Shukor Rahman, 1999: 17) adding to the richness of
Malaysia's mainstream Malay, Chinese and Indians cultures. The convergence of these
communities resulted in the creation of a plural society with diversified forms of culture,
art, religion and language.
15
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