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OxfordModernEnglishGrammar

BasAartsisProfessorofEnglishLinguisticsandDirectoroftheSurveyofEnglishUsageatUniversityCollegeLondon.HispreviousbooksincludeSmallClausesinEnglish:TheNonverbalTypes(MoutondeGruyter,1992);TheVerbinContemporaryEnglish,co-editedwithCharlesF.Meyer(CambridgeUniversityPress,1995);EnglishSyntaxandArgumentation(Palgrave,1997,2001,2008);InvestigatingNaturalLanguage:WorkingwiththeBritishComponentoftheInternationalCorpusofEnglish,co-authoredwithGeraldNelsonandSeanWallis(JohnBenjamins,2002);FuzzyGrammar:AReader,co-editedwithDavidDenison,EvelienKeizer,andGerganaPopova(OxfordUniversityPress,2004);TheHandbookofEnglishLinguistics,co-editedwithAprilMcMahon(Blackwell,2006);andSyntacticGradience:TheNatureofGrammaticalIndeterminacy(OxfordUniversityPress,2007).HeisoneofthefoundingeditorsofthejournalEnglishLanguageandLinguistics.

OxfordModernEnglishGrammarBasAarts

DepartmentofEnglishLanguageandLiteratureUniversityCollegeLondon

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InmemoryofmymotherSjéAarts-Postmes(1934–2008)

ContentsListoffigures

Listoftables

Preface

Notationalconventionsandabbreviations

Abbreviations

PartI:Thebasics

Chapter1:AnoverviewofEnglishgrammar

PartII:Formandfunction

Chapter2:Wordstructureandword-formation

Chapter3:Wordclassesandsimplephrases

Chapter4:Grammaticalfunctions,semanticroles,andtreediagrams

PartIII:Phraseandclausepatterns

Chapter5:Complexphrasesandcoordination

Chapter6:Clausetypesandnegation

Chapter7:Finitesubordinateclauses

Chapter8:Non-finiteandverblesssubordinateclauses

PartIV:Grammarandmeaning

Chapter9:Tenseandaspect

Chapter10:Mood

Chapter11:Informationstructuring

Appendix1:Englishirregularverbs

Appendix2:ThestructureoftheICE-GBcorpus

Notesandfurtherreading

Listofsourcesofexamples

References

SubjectIndex

LexicalIndex

ListoffiguresFigure2.1:Thefieldofmorphology

Figure3.1:ThesubclassificationofEnglishverbs

Listoftables

Table2.1:

Thepersonsystem

Table2.2:

TheparadigmfortheregularverbINSULT

Table2.3:

TheparadigmfortheirregularverbBREAK

Table2.4:

Theprogressive,perfect,andpassiveconstructions

Table2.5:

ThepresenttenseformsoftheverbBE

Table2.6:

Non-finiteclauses

Table2.7:

Plural-formation

Table2.8:

Thecaseformsofpersonalpronouns

Table2.9:

Theinflectionalformsofadjectivesandadverbs

Table2.10:

Somecommonderivationalsuffixes

Table2.11:

Somecommonderivationalprefixes

Table2.12:

Compoundnouns

Table2.13:

Compoundverbs

Table2.14:

Compoundadjectives

Table2.15:

Compoundprepositions

Table2.16:

Compoundadverbs

Table2.17:

Combiningforms

Table3.1:

Wordclasses

Table3.2:

Somecommonnominalsuffixes

Table3.3:

Thedistributionalpropertiesoftypicalnouns

Table3.4:

Pronounsubclasses

Table3.5:

Reflexivepronouns

Table3.6:

Reciprocalpronouns

Table3.7:

Relativepronouns

Table3.8:

Interrogativepronouns

Table3.9:

Demonstrativepronouns

Table3.10:

Indefinitepronouns

Table3.11:

Determinatives

Table3.12:

Thedistributionalpropertiesoftypicaldeterminatives

Table3.13:

Thedistributionalpropertiesoftypicaladjectives

Table3.14:

Themodalauxiliaries

Table3.15:

Theperfectconstruction

Table3.16:

Theprogressiveconstruction

Table3.17:

Thepassiveconstruction

Table3.18:

UsesofdummyDO

Table3.19:

Prepositions

Table3.20:

Complexprepositions

Table3.21:

Postpositions

Table3.22:

Deverbalprepositions

Table3.23:

Subordinatingconjunctions

Table4.1:

Grammaticalfunctions

Table4.2:

ThepropertiesoftypicalSubjects

Table4.3:

ThepropertiesoftypicalDirectObjects

Table4.4:

Aselectionoftransitiveverbs

Table4.5:

ThepropertiesoftypicalIndirectObjects

Table4.6:

Aselectionofditransitiveverbs

Table4.7:

Aselectionoflinkingverbs

Table4.8:

Aselectionofcomplextransitiveverbs

Table4.9:

ThedistributionalpropertiesoftypicalPredicativeComplements

Table4.10:

ThedistributionalpropertiesofPPCs

Table4.11:

AselectionofverbslicensingPPCs

Table4.12:

ThedistributionalpropertiesoftypicalAdjuncts

Table4.13:

Semanticroles

Table5.1:

Grammaticalfunctionsatphraselevel

Table5.2:

Determinersinnounphrases

Table5.3:

Predeterminersinnounphrases

Table5.4:

Complementsinnounphrases

Table5.5:

Adjunctsinnounphrases

Table5.6:

Complementsinadjectivephrases

Table5.7:

Adjunctsinadjectivephrases

Table5.8:

Complementsinverbphrases

Table5.9:

Basiccomplementationpatterns

Table5.10:

Anoverviewofconstructionsinvolvingnon-locativePPsfunctioningasPPC

Table5.11:

AnoverviewofconstructionsinvolvinglocativePPsfunctioningasPPC

Table5.12:

Adjunctsinverbphrases

Table5.13:

Complementsinprepositionalphrases

Table5.14:

Conjunctiveprepositions

Table5.15:

Conjunctivecomplexprepositions

Table5.16:

Adjunctsinprepositionalphrases

Table5.17:

Complementsinadverbphrases

Table5.18:

Adjunctsinadverbphrases

Table6.1:

Thepropertiesofdeclarativeclauses

Table6.2:

Thepropertiesofopeninterrogativeclauses

Table6.3:

Thepropertiesofclosedinterrogativeclauses

Table6.4:

Thepropertiesofimperativeclauses

Table6.5:

Thepropertiesofexclamativeclauses

Table6.6:

Overviewoftheclausetypes:syntaxanduse

Table7.1:

Finitesubordinateclauses

Table7.2:

Contentclauses

Table7.3:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘DECIDE[clausethat…]’

Table7.4:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘WONDER[clauseif/whether/wh-phrase…]’

Table7.5:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘MENTION([PPtoNP])[clausethat…]’

Table7.6:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘TELLNP[clausethat…]’

Table7.7:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘ASKNP[clausewhether/if/wh-phrase…]’

Table7.8:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘PERSUADENP[clausethat…]’

Table7.9:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘REMINDNP[clausewhether/if/wh-phrase…]’

Table7.10:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘ItSEEM(PP)[clause(that/asif)…]’

Table7.11:

Thescalar/non-scalarandequality/inequalitycontrasts

Table8.1:

Non-finiteclauses

Table8.2:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘WANT[clause(for)NPto-infinitive…]’

Table8.3:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘HESITATE[clause,Øto-[clauseinfinitive…]’

Table8.4:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘WONDER[clausewhether/wh-phraseØto-infinitive…]’

Table8.5:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘TELLNPi[clauseØito-infinitive…]’

Table8.6:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘TELLNPi[clausewh-phraseØito-infinitive…]’

Table8.7:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘PERSUADENPi[clauseØito-infinitive…]’

Table8.8:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘ADVISENPi[clausewhether/wh-phraseØito-infinitive…]’

Table8.9:

Table8.10:

Table8.11:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘HAVE[clauseNPbareinfinitive…]’

Table8.12: Verbsoccurringinthepattern

bareinfinitive…]’

Table8.13:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘REMEMBER[clauseØ-ingparticiple…]’

Table8.14:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘RECOMMEND[clauseNP/NP’s-ingparticiple…]’

Table8.15: Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘PREVENT -ing

participle…]]’

Table8.16: Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘REGARD -ing

participle…]]’

Table8.17:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘FINDNPi[clauseØi-ingparticiple…]’

Table8.18:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘DESCRIBENPi[PPas[clauseØi-ingparticiple…]]’

Table8.19:

Table8.20:

Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘HAVE[clauseNPpastparticiple…]’

Table10.1:

FrequenciesoftheEnglishcoremodalauxiliariespermillionwordsintheICE-GBcorpus

Table10.2:

Themorphosyntacticpropertiesofthemodalverbs

Table10.3:

TheusesofWILL/would

Table10.4:

TheusesofSHALL

Table10.5:

Theusesofshould

Table10.6:

TheusesofCAN/could

Table10.7:

TheusesofMAY/might

Table10.8:

TheusesofMUST

PrefaceTheaimofthisgrammaristoofferamodern,concise,butneverthelesswide-rangingdescriptionofthestructureofcontemporarystandardBritishandAmericanEnglish.ThebookisintendedforanyonewhoisinterestedinEnglishgrammar,andhasbeenwrittenwithoutanassumptiononmypartthatthereaderhasanypreviousknowledgeofgrammaticalconcepts.

Theaccountofgrammarpresentedinthisbookisdescriptive,notprescriptive:itdescribesthelanguageasitisusedtoday.Readershopingtofindconfirmationthattheso-calledsplitinfinitiveisanodiousmanifestationofthedeclineoftheEnglishlanguage—togivebutoneexampleofacommonusageshibboleth—willbedisappointed.TheviewtakenhereisthattheEnglishlanguageisnotastaticentity,butiscontinuallysubjecttoinevitablechange,whichisreflectedinitslexisandgrammar.

ItisnotpossibletowriteabooklikethiswithoutacknowledgingpreviousworkonEnglishgrammar.Theframeworkadoptedherereliesheavilyonthetwomostcompleteandin-depthaccountsofEnglishgrammarcurrentlyavailable,namelyRandolphQuirk,SidneyGreenbaum,GeoffreyLeech,andJanSvartvik’sComprehensiveGrammaroftheEnglishLanguage(1985)andRodneyHuddlestonandGeoffreyPullumetal.’sCambridgeGrammaroftheEnglishLanguage(2002).ThesegrammarsoffersophisticatedanddetaileddescriptionsofEnglishthatgofarbeyondthescopeofthepresentbook.Itshouldbenoted,however,thatIhavenotinallcasesfollowedthegrammaticalanalysespresentedinthesebooks.ThemajorpointsofdivergencearediscussedintheNotesandfurtherreadingsection.

IoweanenormousdebtofgratitudetoFlorAarts,PeterCollins,RodneyHuddleston,andGeoffreyLeech(inalphabeticalorder)forreadingtheentiremanuscriptandcommentingonitingreatdetail.Iamveryfortunatetohavereceivedthistremendouslyvaluablefeedbackfromsucheminentgrammarians,andtheirinputhasmadethisamuchbetterbookthanitwouldotherwisehavebeen.I’malsogratefultomyeditorsatOxfordUniversityPress,BenHarris,VickyDonald,RebeccaLaneandClare

Jenkins.FortheirhelpduringtheeditingstageIwouldliketothankJillBowieforhersuperbcopy-editing,HelenLiebeckforproofreading,andPhilAslettforcompilingthesubjectindex.

BASAARTS

UniversityCollegeLondonApril2010

NotationalconventionsandabbreviationsNotationalconventions

* Anasteriskindicatesanimpossiblestructure,i.e.astructurethatdoesnotconformtothegrammaticalrulesofEnglish.Example:*Theylikestoread.InthisexamplethethirdpersonpluralSubjecttheyisfollowedbyaverbwithathirdpersonsingularinflectionalending.

Ø ThissymbolisusedtoindicateanimplicitSubject.Example:Iwant[Øtoreadit].

Ørel. Thisisusedtoindicateanimplicitrelativizedelement.Example:Thepower[thatØrelenablesthisunion]Coleridgecategorizedastheimagination.

Øsub Thisisusedtoindicateamissingsubordinatingconjunctionthat.Example:Theythink[Øsubtheyarefunny].

¤ Thissymbolisusedwheretheformlabelcanbeofdifferentkinds(thatis,wherethefunctioncanberealizedbydifferentkindsofforms).

arrows Theseindicatemovement,e.g.passivization,extraposition,orraising.Example: toenjoycricket.Theunderscoresymbolisexplainedbelow.

brackets Bracketsareused:

[…] (1)toindicatewordsthattogetherformaconstituentphrase,clause,etc.Alabelledbracketingincludesasubscriptindicatorofthesyntacticstatusoftheconstituent.Example:[NPCats][VPeat[NPfish]];(2)toindicatethatalexicalitem,usuallyaverb,isfollowedbyaComplementwhichcontainsaparticularword.Example:HAVE[to]indicatesthattheverbHAVEisfollowedbyaComplementthatcontainsthewordto,e.g.Ihavetoleave.

capitals Theseareused:(1)toindicatefunctionalgrammaticallabels,e.g.Subject,DirectObject;(2)semanticroles,e.g.Agent,Patient.

coindexing Itemsthatarecoreferentialcanbecoindexed,i.e.bearthesamesubscriptletter,usuallyan‘i’.Example:Heishaveshimselfitwiceeveryday.

italics Theseareused:(1)toindicatethefirsttimeaparticulartechnicaltermisused;(2)tocitewords,sentences,etc.aslinguisticforms;(3)toindicatewords,phrases,etc.thatrequirehighlighting.Forunderlineditalics,seebelow.

SMALLCAPS

Theseindicatelexemes(i.e.dictionarywords).Example:theformslaugh,laughs,laughed,andlaughingareinflectionalformsbelongingtothelexemeLAUGH.Thesmallcapsnotationwillbeusedforverbsthroughout,andforotherwordclasseswheneverrelevant.

underlineditalics

Withinitalicizedtechnicalterms,underliningisusedtodistinguishcitationsofparticularwords(orother

elements),e.g.existentialthere,–ingparticipleclauses.

underscore(‘_’)

Thissymbolindicatesa‘gap’intheclausewithwhichadisplacedelementisassociated.Examples:inWhatdidyousee_?thewh-word(seebelow)functionsastheDirectObjectoftheverbSEEandhasbeenfrontedtoformaninterrogativestructure;inthepassiveclauseTheflightwasbooked_bymethegapindicatesthepositionfromwhichtheDirectObjectoftheverbBOOKwasmoved.

wh-words Thistermisusedforasetofwordsmostofwhichbeginwiththeletterswh-,e.g.what,who,butwhichalsoincludeshow.

Abbreviations

A Adjunct

Adj/AdjP adjective/adjectivephrase

Adv/AdvP adverb/adverbphrase

CC ComplementClause

Comp Complement

D/DP determinative/determinativephrase

DET Determiner

DO DirectObject

EXT-A ExternalAdjunct

H Head

ICE-GB TheBritishcomponentoftheInternationalCorpusofEnglish

ind indicative

IO IndirectObject

MC matrixclause

N/NP noun/nounphrase

NICE AnacronymforNegation,Inversion,Code,Emphasisproperties

P/PP preposition/prepositionalphrase

PPi/PPt prepositionalphraseheadedbyanintransitive/transitivepreposition

PC PredicativeComplement

PCR Predicator

PPC PrepositionalPhraseasComplement

Pred Predicate

Predet Predeterminer

pres. present

ps. person

sing. singular

Subj Subject

subjve subjunctive

V-ing -ingparticipleformofaverb

V-ed/-en pastparticipleformofaverb

V/VP verb/verbphrase

PartI:Thebasics

Chapter1AnoverviewofEnglishgrammar

1.1Grammarandgrammarwriting

Grammarisconcernedwiththestructureofwords(morphology),andofphrasesandclauses(syntax).Thereisalongtraditionofgrammarwriting,startingwiththeancientGreeksandleadinguptothepresentday.Thistraditionhashadalastinginfluenceonhowlanguages—notjustEnglish—havebeendescribed.Thebookinfrontofyouisnoexception:itwilldescribethestructureofEnglishrelyingheavilyonthistraditioninmanydifferentways,notleastintermsoftheterminologyadopted.However,itisimportanttostressthatitdoesnotexclusivelybaseitselfontheclassicaltradition,becauseithaslongbeenacceptedthatweshouldnotassumethatthegrammaroftheclassicallanguages,especiallyLatin,shouldserveasamodelforthedescriptionofEnglish.ManygrammarsofEnglishwerewritteninLatinuptothemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury,thoughWilliamBullokar’sPamphletforGrammar(1586),thefirstgrammarofEnglishtobewritteninEnglish,isanexception.After1750grammariansincreasinglyrecognizedthatthedifferencesbetweenLatinandEnglisharetoogreattobeignored.AsanexampleofthemismatchbetweenEnglishandLatingrammar,considerthewordthe,themostfrequentwordintheEnglishlanguage.InEnglishthiswordbelongstotheclassofdeterminatives(seesection1.3),butinLatinthiswordclassdidnotexist,andsoithadtobeintroducedintogrammaticaldescriptionsofEnglish.ItisgenerallyacknowledgedthattheplaywrightBenJonsonwasthefirstpersontodoso(thoughheusedthemorefamiliarlabelarticle).

Inthehistoryofgrammarwritinganumberofdifferenttypesofgrammarcanbedistinguished.Schoolgrammarsaimtoteachbasicandoftensimplifiedgrammaticalpatterns.Veryoftentheyhaveaprescriptiveoutlook,ratherthanapurelydescriptiveone—thatis,theytelltheirreaderswhattodoandwhatnottodowhenspeakingorwritinginEnglish.Theywereusedverywidelyintheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies.OneofthebestknownexampleswasLindleyMurray’swonderfullyentitledEnglishGrammar,AdaptedtotheDifferentClassesofLearners.Withan

Appendix,ContainingRulesandObservationsforPromotingPerspicuityinSpeakingandWriting(1795).Stemmingfromthistradition,butmoreuptodateandmodern,arepedagogicalgrammars,usedinavarietyofeducationalsettings.Traditionalgrammarsaredetailedscholarlyworkswhichbelongtothenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies.Theyarecharacterizedbytheirlength,usuallyseveralweightyvolumes,andtheirextensiveuseofliteraryexamples.PrincipalamongthemisOttoJespersen’sAModernEnglishGrammaronHistoricalPrinciples(1909–1949).Theaimoftheoreticalgrammaristodiscoverthe(abstract)rulesandprinciplesunderlyingthestructure(andsometimesuse)oflanguage.Therearemanydifferenttypesoftheoreticalapproachestogrammar.ThebestknownisprobablythetheoryoftheAmericanlinguistNoamChomskywhichaimstoarriveatablueprintforamentallyencodedUniversalGrammarthatallhumanbeingsaregeneticallyendowedwith.

Althoughthepresentbookhasbeeninfluencedbyideasintheoreticalwork,itsoutlookisthesameasthatfoundinmoderndescriptivereferencegrammars.Suchgrammarsdescribethelanguageasitisusedtodaybyitsspeakers,anddonotaimtolegislateinmattersof‘correctgrammar’.Thus,whileyoumayfindadescriptionoftheso-calledsplitinfinitive(tocheerfullysinginthebath)inareferencegrammar,youwillnotbetoldtoavoidthisconstructiononthegroundsthatitis‘badEnglish’.Naturally,thisdoesnotmeanthateverythingutteredbyaspeakerofEnglishwillberegardedasacceptable.Ifsomeonedescribesapaintingas‘executedbrilliantwithalsovividlycolours’,thentheyareviolatingthegrammaticalrulesystemofEnglish.Youmaybewonderingatthispointwhethertheuseofthesplitinfinitive—orindeedmyuseofthepronountheyintheprecedingsentence—doesnotalsoviolatetherulesofEnglish.Theansweris‘no’,andthereasonisthattheuseofthesplitinfinitiveandtheuseofthepluralpronountheywithanon-specificsingularantecedentaresanctionedbywidespreadcurrentusage,theformermoresothanthelatter.Thethinkingunderlyingtheseobservationsisthatthegrammarofalanguageisshapedovertimebythespeakersofthatlanguage,notbyself-appointedindividualsorlearnedbodies.Theeffortsofthosewhohavetriedinthepasttoinfluencehowthelanguageshouldbeusedhavegenerallyfailed.JonathanSwift,whoproposedsettingupanAcademyinhis1712pamphletentitled‘AProposalforCorrecting,ImprovingandAscertainingtheEnglishTongue’,wasunsuccessful,andeventhelexicographerSamuelJohnson,whothoughthecouldimprovetheEnglishlanguagewhenhebeganhis

magisterialDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage(publishedin1755),hadtogiveuponthatidea.JosephPriestleywasopposedtosettingupanAcademy,andhisattitudetousage,expressedinhisRudimentsofEnglishGrammar(1761),foreshadowedmodernthinkingwhenhewrotethattheonlystandardweneedtoadmitisthatofcustom.

Allowingthelanguagetorunitsowncoursemeansthatapreviouslyfrowned-uponusagecanbecomenormal.Fordifferentspeakersthiswillhappenatadifferentpace.Thus,whiletheinterrogativetaginnit,asinHeleftthecountry,innit?,usedinLondonandsoutheastBritain,isnotpartofstandardEnglishatpresent,overtimeitmaywellbecomeacceptableinthesamewaythatn’est-cepasinFrenchisacceptableasageneralizedtag.(Seesection4.1.1.8foranexplanationoftheterminterrogativetag.)AlesscontentiousexampleofusagethatisslowlymakingitswayintoEnglishisaparticularwaythattheso-calledprogressiveconstructionisused.ThisconstructioninvolvestheverbBEfollowedbyanotherverbthatendsin-ing,asinI’mwatchingtelevision.Inthepresenttenseitstypicaluseistoexpressthatasituationbeganinthepastandiscontinuingbeyondthepresentmoment.Recentlyithasbeenpossibletohearpeoplesay,forexample,I’mwantingtolearnaboutgrammar,wherethemoreestablishedpatternisIwanttolearnaboutgrammar.ThisnoveluseoftheprogressiveconstructionisalsofoundinthesloganI’mlovingit!,coinedbyapopularpurveyoroffastfood.Whileusagematterswillplayaroleinthisgrammar,theywillnotbethemainfocusofattention.

InsteadoffollowingtheclassicaltraditiontoocloselyIwillbedescribingthegrammarofstandardEnglishasasysteminitsownright,makinguseoftheinsightsofmodernlinguistics.AsnotedinthePreface,thedescriptiveframeworkadoptedhereisinfluencedbytwomajorgrammarsofEnglish,namelyQuirketal.’sComprehensiveGrammaroftheEnglishLanguage(1985)andHuddlestonandPullumetal.’sCambridgeGrammaroftheEnglishLanguage(2002).ThedescriptionwillfocusonthetwomainstandardvarietiesofEnglish:BritishEnglishandAmericanEnglish.Throughout,Iwilluseauthentic(occasionallyadapted)writtenandspokenlanguagedatatakenfromtwokindsofsourcestoillustrategrammaticalpoints.TheprimarysourceistheBritishcomponentoftheInternationalCorpusofEnglish(ICE-GB),basedattheSurveyofEnglishUsage,UniversityCollegeLondon.Thisisacollectionof500‘texts’(passagesof2,000words)ofgrammaticallyanalysedspokenandwrittenEnglish

selectedfromvarioustypesofcategoriesoflanguageuse.ThestructureoftheICE-GBcorpusisoutlinedinAppendix2.Thesecondkindofsourceofexamplesincludesonlinebroadsheetnewspapers,newschannelssuchasBBCNews,andthelike.Thesourcesoftheexamplesarelistedatthebackofthebook.Aswesawabove,traditionalgrammarsoftenusedliteraryexamples,whilemoremoderntextsongrammaroftenusemade-upexamples.Usingauthenticexamplesispreferablebecausetheyofferaninsightintohowlanguageisusednaturallyinrealsituations.

ThegrammarofEnglishisacomplexsysteminwhichallthecomponentsinteract.Inordertohelpreadersgetagriponthissystemtheremainderofthischapterwillconsistofanoverviewofthebasiccomponentsofgrammar.Thesectionnumberscorrespondtothechapternumbers.PartsII,III,andIVofthebookwillthenofferadetailedelaborationofthissystem.ItisimportanttomentionfromtheoutsetthatthegrammarofEnglishisbynomeansfixedandagreedupon,andnodescriptionofitcaninanywayberegardedasdefinitive.Toguidereadersinunderstandingthedifferencesinthetreatmentofparticulargrammaticalphenomenainotherframeworks,IwillincludebriefdiscussionsofothertreatmentsintheNotesandfurtherreadingsectionattheendofthebook.

1.2Wordstructureandword-formation

Westartwithadiscussionofwords.Consider(1)below:

1Theverynoisyvisitorcontinuallyinsultedthereceptionistandthecaretakerinthelibrary.

Trivially,thisstructurecontainsfourteenorthographicwords,thatis,wordsastheyappearinwritingseparatedbyblankspaces.Inspeechallthewordsarestrungtogetherwithoutpauses,andsomeonewhodoesnotknowEnglishwillnotknowwherethewordboundariesare.Asforthemeaningsofthewordsin(1),ifyoudidnotknowaparticularword,youwouldconsultadictionary.Inallcases,exceptforinsulted,youwouldlookforthewordinthedictionaryundertheforminwhichitappearsin(1).Thus,inthecaseofnoisyyouwouldlookunderNOISY;inthecaseofreceptionistyouwouldlookunderRECEPTIONIST;butinthecaseofinsultedyouwouldlookunderINSULT.Wordswhichcanactasdictionaryentriesarecalledlexemes(indicatedaboveinSMALLCAPS),whereaswordswhichperforma

particulargrammaticalrole(e.g.‘presenttenseform’)arecalledinflectionalforms(orgrammaticalwords).TheinflectionalformsassociatedwiththelexemeINSULTare:insult,insults,insulted,andinsulting.Noticethatinsultedin(1)isanorthographicwordaswellasaninflectionalform(namelythepasttenseformoftheverbINSULT),butnotalexeme.Manywords,butnotall,haveaninternalstructure.Forexample,thewordinsultedendsin-edwhichiscalledapasttenseinflection.Thiswordthuscommunicatesatleasttwothings:themeaning‘offendverbally’,and‘pastness’.TheinternalstructureofwordswillbediscussedinChapter2,aswellasword-formationprocessessuchasderivation,compounding,andconversion.

1.3Wordclassesandsimplephrases

Traditionallywordsarecategorizedintopartsofspeechwhicharealsocalledwordclasses.Englishhasthefollowingwordclasses:noun,determinative,adjective,verb,preposition,adverb,conjunction,andinterjection.Thewordclasslabelsarereferredtoasformlabels.

Youwillhavecomeacrossthenotionofanounasanamingword,thatis,awordthatnamesaperson,place,orthing.In(1)thewordsvisitor,receptionist,caretaker,andlibraryarenouns.Infrontofvisitorwehavethreeitems.Firstwehavethewordthewhichisanexampleofadeterminative,thoughyoumaybemorefamiliarwiththetermdefinitearticle(theindefinitearticleisa).Wealsohavenoisywhichisadescriptivewordthattellsyoumoreaboutthepersonthatthenounvisitorrefersto.Wecallsuchwordsadjectives.Theadjectivenoisyisitselfmodifiedbyverywhichbelongstothewordclassofadverbs.Next,wehavecontinually.Thisisalsoanadverb,butthistimeitmodifiestheinflectionalforminsulted,whichwecalledaverb.WewillseeinChapter3thatadverbscanmodifyitemsfrommorethanonetypeofwordclass.Linkingthephrasesthereceptionistandthecaretakerwehavethewordand,whichisaconjunction,morespecificallyacoordinatingconjunction.Wewillneedtodistinguishsuchconjunctionsfromsubordinatingconjunctions.Thelatterarewordslikethat,whether,andifwhichcanintroduceasubordinateclause,asin(2).

2Ithink[clausethathesingswithachoir].

AclauseisagrammaticalstructurethatexemplifiesaSubject–Predicaterelationship,thatis,astructurewhere‘somethingissaidabout’(‘predicatedof’)aSubject.Simplesentenceslike(1)containonlyoneclause,whereas(2)containstwoclauses,namelythestructureasawhole,andthestringthathesingswithachoir.Finally,wewillsaythatin(1)thewordin,whichherecarriesaspatialmeaning,isapreposition.Werefertothesequenceenclosedinsquarebracketsin(2)asalabelledbracketing.Thebracketsindicatethatthestringofwordsisaconstituent(section1.4)whosegrammaticalstatusisindicatedbythesubscriptlabel.

Wordsaregroupedtogetherintophrases.Examplesofnounphrases(NPs)in(1)aretheverynoisyvisitor,thereceptionist,thecaretaker,andthelibrary.Thestringverynoisyisanadjectivephrase(AdjP).Aswehaveseen,thewordsveryandcontinuallyareadverbs,buttheyarealsoadverbphrases(AdvPs).InChapter3wewillseethatawordonitsowncanalsobeaphrase.Thesequenceinthelibraryin(1)isaprepositionalphrase(PP).Afinaltypeofphraseistheverbphrase(VP).InChapter3wewillseethattheverbphrasein(1)doesnotconsistonlyoftheverbinsulted,butalsoincludesthephrasescontinually,thereceptionistandthecaretaker,andinthelibrary.EveryphrasehasanelementthatfunctionsasitsHead.Thisisthemostprominentelementwhichthephraseasawholeisa‘kindof’.ThusinthephrasethenoisyvisitortheelementvisitoristheHead,andthisisbecauseanoisyvisitorisakindofvisitor.Nounphrasesareheadedbynouns,adjectivephrasesareheadedbyadjectives,verbphrasesareheadedbyverbs,andsoon.

1.4Grammaticalfunctions,semanticroles,andtreediagrams

Consider(3)below.

3Thereceptionistandthecaretakercontinuallyinsultedtheverynoisyvisitorinthelibrary.

Herewehavethesamewordsasin(1),butinadifferentorder.Thisresultsinaradicallydifferentmeaning.Howcanweaccountforthis?Inordertoexplainwhywecanhavethesamewordsandyetadifferentmeaningin(1)and(3),weneedtoappealtoafewfurthergrammaticalconcepts,namelygrammaticalfunctions.In(1)wesaythattheSubjectisthestringofwordstheverynoisyvisitor,whilethereceptionistandthecaretakertakenasa

unitfunctionsastheDirectObject.(NoticethatI’veusedcapitallettersatthebeginningofwordsthatarefunctionterms.)WefurthermoresaythattheverbinsultedfunctionsasaPredicatorandthestringcontinuallyinsultedthereceptionistandthecaretakerinthelibraryfunctionsasPredicate.ThePredicatorfunctionisalwaysrealizedbyaverb,whilethePredicateiseasilyidentifiedaseverythingexcludingtheSubject.In(3)thereceptionistandthecaretakeristheSubject,whiletheverynoisyvisitoristheDirectObject.

WhatareSubjects,andwhatareDirectObjects?AsapreliminarydefinitionwewillsaythatinthesimplestclausesexpressingactionstheSubjectreferstothepersonwhocarriesouttheactionexpressedbytheverb(the‘Agent’),whilethereferentoftheDirectObjectundergoestheactionexpressedbytheverb(the‘Patient’).Thenotions‘Agent’and‘Patient’arecalledsemanticroles(alsoindicatedbycapitalletters).Wecannowsaythat(1)and(3)donotmeanthesamebecausetheactiondenotedbytheverbinsultediscarriedoutbydifferentindividualsinthetwoexamples,andfurthermoretheundergoeroftheassaultinthetwocasesisadifferentperson(orpersons).Whataboutcontinuallyandinthelibrary?Thesephrasessupplycircumstantialinformation,andwewillsaythattheyfunctionasAdjuncts.

Thestructureofphrasesandclausescanberepresentedinso-calledtreediagrams.Asimplenounphraselikethereceptionistcanberepresentedusingthetreediagramin(4).

In(4)thefunctionandformlabelsareindicatedjustabovethelexicalitems.TreediagramswillbediscussedinChapter4,aswillthenotionof

constituent,definedasastringofwordsthatcanbeshowntobehaveasaunitofsyntacticstructure.

1.5Complexphrasesandcoordination

Simplephraseswereintroducedinsection1.3above.InChapter5ofthisgrammarmorecomplexphrasalstructureswillbedealtwith,exemplifiedbythenounphrasesshownbelow.

5ourreviews

6ourfavourablereviews

7ourfavourablereviewsofthemarket

8ourfavourablereviewsofthemarketthatwerepublishedlastweek

9allourfavourablereviewsofthemarketthatwerepublishedlastweek

10perhapsallourfavourablereviewsofthemarketthatwerepublishedlastweek

Withinphraseswedistinguishthefollowingfunctions:Head(inbold),Complement(doublyunderlined),Adjunct(underlined),and,innounphrasesonly,Determiner(italics),Predeterminer(italics+underline),andExternalAdjunct(bold+underline).Themotivationforassigningdifferentfunctionlabelstothehighlightedstringswillbediscussedindetail.Inthischapterwewillalsolookatcoordinatedstructures,thatis,phrasesandclauseslinkedbyacoordinatingconjunction.

1.6Clausetypesandnegation

Languagecanbeusedtodoawiderangeofthings.Forexample,ifIsayPaullivesinLondon,thenI’musingadeclarativeclausetomakeastatement.Icanalsouseaninterrogativeclausetoaskaquestion(DoesPaulliveinLondon?Whatdidtheybuy?),animperativeclausetoissueanorder(Leavethehouseatonce),oranexclamativeclausetoutteranexclamation(Whatanicehouseyoulivein!).Theseparticularstructuresarecalledclausetypes.Whatisinterestingisthatthevariousclausetypes

donothaveaone-to-onerelationshipwiththeusesthatcanbemadeofthem.Forexample,ifsomeoneasksyou‘Areyousurethatyourchildrenaresafelyinbed?’theymaybeaskingasimplequestion,butinasituationinwhichapersonwishestointimidateanotherperson,itcouldbeconstruedasathreat.Theseexamplesshowthatlanguagemustbestudiedsituationallybecausethemeaningofexpressionsinparticularcontextsoftendependsoncircumstances.WewillseehowthisworksinChapter6,whichwillalsodiscussnegation.

1.7Finitesubordinateclauses

Insection1.3abovewedefinedsimpleclausesasgrammaticalstructuresthatinstantiateaSubject–Predicaterelationship.Aswehaveseen,theexamplein(2)containstwoclauses,eachofwhichexpressesitsownSubject–Predicaterelationship.Ontheonehandwehavethematrixclause,whichspanstheentirestructure.Withinthisclausethereisasubordinateclause,namelythestringofwordsintroducedbythat.Wewillsaythatthisclauseisfinitebyvirtueofitslexicalverbcarryingapresenttenseinflection.TheformsandfunctionsoffinitesubordinateclauseswillbediscussedinChapter7.

1.8Non-finiteandverblesssubordinateclauses

Herearesomefurtherexamplesofstructurescontainingsubordinateclauses.

11Ijustwant[youtoalterthescenarioveryslightly].

12Isupposeinawaythatgavethemsomethingincommon,andperhapsmadehim[feelprotectivetowardsher].

13Weare[trainingmoreofouryoungpeople].

14Ihave[benefittedfromthis].

Inthesecasesthebracketedconstituentsarenon-finiteclauses.Wedistinguishfourtypesofnon-finiteclause,namelyto-infinitiveclauses(exemplifiedin(11)),bareinfinitiveclauses((12)),-ingparticiple

clauses((13)),andpastparticipleclauses((14)).Suchclausesdonotcarrytense.Theformsandfunctionsofnon-finitesubordinateclauseswillbediscussedinChapter8,aswillclauseswithoutaverb.

IturnnowtothechaptersinPartIVofthebookwhichdealwiththeinteractionofgrammarandmeaning(semantics)inEnglish.

1.9Tenseandaspect

Timeisareal-worldsemanticconceptthatstructuresourexistence.Languagescharacteristicallyusethegrammaticalsystemoftensetoexpresstime.Thus,aswesawabove,theverbforminsultedin(1)grammaticallyencodesthattheeventreportedoccurredatsomepointinthepast.Thereisnofurtherspecificationofwhentheverbalabusetookplace,thoughitcouldeasilybesupplied,forexamplebyaddingthephraselastweekoryesterday.Englishhasonlytwogrammaticallyencodedtenses,thepresenttenseandthepasttense.

AsusersofEnglishweoftenneedagrammaticaldevicetomakereferencetothewayaparticulareventunfoldsintime.Thisiscalledaspect.Forexample,ifwewishtoexpressthataneventtookplaceinthepast,buthasrelevanceatthepresenttime,wecanusetheEnglishpresentperfectconstructionexemplifiedin(15):

15Wehavepursuedalimitedwarforlimitedobjectives.

Compare(15)to(16):

16Wepursuedalimitedwarforlimitedobjectives.

Thedifferencebetween(15)and(16)isthatweviewtheeventin(15)asbeinginsomewaystillrelevantatthemomentofspeaking(forexampleasanexplanationofthereasonwhythetroopscanreturnhometomorrow).Thisiscalledperfectaspect.Anexamplelike(16)islikelytobeusedwhenpursuanceofthewarisviewedasbeingwhollyinthepast,thatis,overanddonewith.Noticethatwecanaddaphraselikesincelastweekto(15),butnotto(16).Conversely,wecanaddyearsagoto(16),butnotto(15).

Englishalsohasprogressiveaspect,whichisusedtopresentaneventasbeinginprogressoveracertaintimespan,asin(17).

17Shewassquinting.

Whatthismeansisthatatsomepointinthepastthepersonreferredtoasshestartedsquintingandthiscontinuedforawhile.Thebeginningandendpointsarenotspecified,thoughtheycouldbe,forexamplebyadding‘whilewewereinthemeetingbetween8and9a.m.yesterday’.Aspectisagrammaticalnotion,whichreferstothewaytheassociatedsemanticnotionofaspectualityisimplementedlinguistically.

1.10Mood

Muchofthetime,languageisusedtocommunicatestraightforwardstatementsoffact.However,weoftenneedtotalkaboutsituationswhichhavenothappenedyet,orarehypothetical,uncertain,desirable,ornecessary,asinthefollowingexamples.

18Youmaybeleftoutofitbecauseyouareafreelancer.

19Youmustkeepthemmoist.

20Iwillleavethedecisionuptoyou.

In(18)thespeakerisexpressinga‘possibility’;in(19)an‘obligation’isimposed;whilein(20)a‘resolve’isexpressed.Thesearethreeofanumberofconceptsthatbelongtotherealmofmodality.Thisisasemanticnotion(justlike‘time’and‘aspectuality’),whichisimplementedinlanguagebymeansofmood.Inmanylanguagesmoodisindicatedbyverbendings,butinEnglishmodalityisprincipallyexpressedbyagroupofverbscalledmodalauxiliaries,namelyCAN/could,MAY/might,SHALL/should,WILL/would,andMUST.ThesewillbediscussedinChapter10,alongwithotherwaysofexpressingmodality.

1.11Informationstructuring

Thewordsin(1)alladduptoexpressameaning,namelytheproposition

thattherewassomeindividual,namelyavisitortoalibrary,whoonsomeoccasioninthepastverballyoffendedareceptionistandacaretaker.Asfarastheirmeaningisconcerned,thewordsin(1)eachhaveacontributiontomake,buttheyarenotequalinthisregard.Thus,whileitiseasytosaywhatthemeaningofawordlikevisitoris,youwouldbehardputtosaywhatthemeans.Whataboutthemeaningofthestructureasawhole?Althoughthewordsindividuallycontributemeanings,itshouldbeobviousthatthewordsbythemselvesarenotenough.Inotherwords,itisnotenoughtosaythatthemeaningof(1)issimplythesumtotalofthemeaningsofitsparts.Thereasonisthatifweuseexactlythesamewords,butinadifferentorder,asin(3),repeatedhereas(21),themeaningchanges.

21Thereceptionistandthecaretakercontinuallyinsultedtheverynoisyvisitorinthelibrary.

However,itisimportanttoseethatachangeinorderdoesnotalwaysresultinachangeofmeaning,as(22),avariantof(1),shows.

22Thereceptionistandthecaretakerwerecontinuallyinsultedbytheverynoisyvisitorinthelibrary.

Thisisthepassiveversionof(1).Noticethat(1)and(22)meanexactlythesameintermsofwhathappenstowhom.Wewillsaythattheyhavethesamepropositionalmeaning.ThisraisesthequestionofwhyusersofEnglishhaveachoicebetweenthesetwostructures.Theansweristhat(1)and(22)presenttheinformationcontainedintheminslightlydifferentways.Thus,(1)canbesaidtohavethenoisyvisitorasitstopicofinterest,while(22)hasthereceptionistandthecaretakerasitstopic.Speakersveryfrequentlyvarythestructureoftheirutterances,whichgivestheiraddresseesimportant(subconscious)cluesastowhatrequirestheirattention.Inthecaseofthepassive,changingtheorderofthevariousconstituentsdoesnotresultinachangeofpropositionalmeaning,merelyinachangeofhighlighting.FurtherexamplesofvariationsinconstituentorderwhichaffectthewayinformationispresentedwillbeexploredinChapter11.

PartII:Formandfunction

Chapter2Wordstructureandword-formationInthischapterwewilltakealookinsidewordstoseehowtheyarestructured.Wordstructureisstudiedundertheheadingofmorphologyinlinguistics.ThistermisgenerallythoughttohavebeenintroducedinthenineteenthcenturybytheGermanauthorGoethe.Itisusednotonlyinlinguistics,butalsointhegeologicalandbiologicalsciences,andmeans‘thestudyofform’;comparebiology,psychology,criminology,andsoon.Diagrammatically,wecanrepresentthefieldofmorphologyasinFigure2.1:

Figure2.1Thefieldofmorphology

2.1Morphology

Recallfromthepreviouschapterthatwecandistinguishbetweenthefollowingtypesofwords:

•Orthographicwordsarewordsthatappearonapageorscreen,separatedbyblankspaces.

•Inadictionarywelookupthemeaningofaword(orofwordsgrammaticallyrelatedtoit)underanentrycalledalexemeordictionaryword(writteninSMALLCAPITALSinthisbook).Thus,welookupthewordthere(whichhasnovariants)underTHERE,catsunderCAT,andtheverbformswork,works,worked,andworkingunderWORK.

•Inflectionalforms(alsocalledgrammaticalwords)arewordsthatplayaparticulargrammaticalrole:forexample,catsisthepluralofthenounCAT;

workedisthepasttenseformoftheverbWORK.

Inflectionisconcernedwiththeformslexemescantake.Forexample,theformsofthenounlexemeCATarecatandcats,andtheformsoftheverblexemeWORKarework,works,worked,andworking.Theendingsonthesewords(-s,-ed,-ing)arecalledaffixes.Morespecifically,theyareinflectionalsuffixes.Theywillbediscussedinsection2.2.

Considernextpre-inPREHEATandun-inUNHAPPY.Thesearederivationalaffixes.Byaddingthesetoalexicalbase(anelementtowhichaffixescanbeappended)wederiveanewlexeme.Derivationalaffixescanbeprefixesorsuffixes.Asthediagramaboveshows,derivationisonetypeofword-formation,abranchofmorphologythatdealswiththecreationofnewlexemes,alongwithcompounding,conversion,andafewminortypes.Word-formationprocesseswillbediscussedinsection2.3.

2.2Inflection

Inflectionisanotionwhichisconcernedwiththealternativeforms,calledinflectionalforms,thatlexemescantake,asdeterminedbythesyntacticenvironmenttheyoccurin.Inflectionisamorphosyntacticnotion,whichmeansthatitisaphenomenonthatisrelevantbothtosyntaxandmorphology.Inflectionsaretypicallyrealizedbydifferentsuffixes.Aswehaveseen,wecanaddapluralsuffixtocatresultingincats.IntheclauseCatsareindependentanimalsthepluralformofthenouncatrequirestheverbBEalsotobeinthepluralform.Thisisamatterofsyntax.Theshapeofparticularinflectionalforms(spellingandpronunciation)isamatterofmorphology.

2.2.1Verbinflections

2.2.1.1ThepersonsysteminEnglish

ThepersonsystemofgrammarcanbeshownasinTable2.1.

Table2.1:Thepersonsystem

Thefirstpersonsingularreferstothespeaker.Inthepluralwereferstoagroupofpeoplewhichincludesthespeaker.Thesecondpersonreferstothepersonaddressed,eitheroneperson(singular)oragroup(plural).Thethirdpersonsingulartypicallyreferstoapersonotherthanthespeakerorthepersonbeingaddressed.Apartfromhe,she,andit,referentialexpressionslikethecat,thechurch,andPaularealsothirdpersonsingular.Inthepluraltheytypicallyreferstoagroupofpeopleotherthanthespeakerandaddressee.Nounphrasesheadedbypluralnouns(e.g.thecats)arealsothirdpersonplural.

2.2.1.2Tensedandnon-tensedverbforms

Considerthefollowingexample.

1Hisrefusaltoresign,compoundedbyhisre-election,insultseveryonewhotrulyholdsEnglishcricketdear.

The-sendingontheverbisaverbalinflectionalaffix,andinsultsisaninflectionalformofthelexicalverbINSULT.Itisamatterofsyntaxin(1)thattheverbendsin-sbecausealllexicalverbswiththirdpersonsingularSubjects(seesection1.4)takethisendinginthepresenttense.However,itisamatterofmorphologythatwecanspeakofanendingontheverb(anaffix)withtheshape-s.

WecandisplayalltheformsforEnglishverbsinagridliketheoneshowninTable2.2fortheverbINSULT.

Table2.2:TheparadigmfortheregularverbINSULT

Suchgridsarecalledparadigms,whichsomereadersmaybefamiliarwithfromlearningforeignlanguages.Inmanylanguagestheverbalparadigmsdisplaydifferentformsforeachpersoninthesingularandplural,butEnglishdoesnothavearichverbalinflectionalsystem,asTable2.2illustrates.

Verbalinflectionalformscanbetensedornon-tensed.Astheirnamessuggest,presenttenseformsandpasttenseformsaretensed.Thepresenttenseformsofregularlexicalverbsoccurintwoshapes:withtheending-sforthirdpersonsingularSubjects(-esforsomeverbs,e.g.Do/does,Go/goes,SNATCH/snatches,HURRY/hurries),andintheplainpresentformforotherpersons.Regularverbshavepasttenseformsendingin-ed,whereasirregularverbstypicallyformtheirpasttenses(andpastparticiples,seebelow)bymeansofavowelmodification(calledablaut),astheparadigmforBREAKinTable2.3shows.

Table2.3:TheparadigmfortheirregularverbBREAK

SeeAppendix1forafulllistofirregularverbs.

WewillsaythatlexicalverbsagreewiththeirSubjectsinthepresenttenseforpersonandnumber,althoughtheagreementisonlyvisibleonthethirdpersonsingularformoftheverb.ThereisnoagreementbetweenSubjectsandverbsinthepasttense,becausetheinflectionalformsareidenticalforallSubjects.However,theverbBEisanexception:itspasttenseformsdoagreewiththeirSubject.Wehavewasforthefirstandthirdpersonsingular,wereelsewhere.

Thenon-tensedformsaretheparticipleandtheplainformoftheverb.Wedistinguish-ingparticiplesfrompastparticiples.Theformerendin-ing,astheirnamesuggests,whereasthelatterendin-edinthecaseofregularverbs,andin-en(andanumberofothershapes)inthecaseofirregular

verbs.ParticiplesoccurastheitalicizeditemsintheconstructionsexemplifiedinTable2.4.

Theprogressiveconstruction:BE+-ingparticipleformofaverb(V-ing)Example(a):Britishsupermarketsaresellingsushi,butnotastheJapaneseknowit.

Theperfectconstruction:perfectHAVE+pastparticipleformofaverb(V-ed/-en)Example(b):Therhetorichaschanged.

Thepassiveconstruction:passiveBE+pastparticipleformofaverb(V-ed/-en)(byNP)Example(c):MrFortywasreportedforcarelessdriving.

Table2.4:Theprogressive,perfect,andpassiveconstructions

Theprogressiveconstructionexpressesanongoingsituation,whilethepresentperfectconstructionintheexampleaboveisusedtosignalthattheeventinquestiontookplaceinthepastandhaspresentresults.(Otherperfectconstructionswillbediscussedinsections3.6.3.3and9.3.1.)Thepassiveconstructionisusedasameansofhighlightingaparticularunitinaclause.TheconstructionsinTable2.4andtheirmeaningswillbediscussedandexemplifiedfurtherinchapters4,8,9,and11.

Thenon-tensedplainformoftheverbisusedininfinitive,subjunctive,andimperativeclauses.Theinfinitiveexemplifiedin(2)isprecededbythewordto.Wecallthistheto-infinitive.

2Iwouldn’twanthimtoleaveherforme,butwhenImethimshe’dalreadylefthim.

Whentheinfinitiveoccursaftermodalverbs(seesection1.10),asin(3),andafterafewotherverbs,itiscalledthebareinfinitive.

3Thesemethodsmaymeanverylittletoyou.

Infinitivescanoccurinawiderrangeofstructures.ThesewillbediscussedinChapter8.

Noticethattheshapeoftheinflectionalformsforthepasttenseandpastparticiplesisthesameforregularverbs(e.g.insulted/insulted).WeneverthelessdistinguishtwoinflectionalformsherebecauseirregularverbsinEnglishoftenhavetwodifferentshapesfortheseinflectionalforms(e.g.broke/broken).

Theplainpresentandtheplainformoflexicalverbsalsohavethesameshape,as(4)and(5)show.

4Theyinsultuswhenevertheycan.

5Theywillinsultus,I’msureofit.

IntheformerwehaveaplainpresentformoftheverbINSULT,whilethelatterhasaplainform.Again,weregardtheseasbeingtwodifferentinflectionalforms.ThereasonforthisisthatthereisatleastoneverbinEnglish,namelyBE,whichhasawiderrangeofshapesforitspresenttenseforms.Ithasthreeformsinthepresenttensesingular,andoneform,namelyare,fortheplural(seeTable2.5).Theplainformisbe.ItisbecausetheverbBEhasaplainformwhichdoesnotshareitsshapewithanyofthepresenttenseformsthatweneedtodistinguishtheplainformasadistinctinflectionalform.AndifwedosoforBEweshoulddosoforallverbs.

Table2.5:ThepresenttenseformsoftheverbBE

Noticethattheplainpresentformisalwaystensed,whereastheplainformisalwaysnon-tensed.

2.2.1.3Onso-called‘subjunctiveverbforms’

ReadersmayhavenoticedthatIhavemadenomentionofthe‘subjunctiveverb’,atermtraditionallyusedfortheunderlinedverbinthebracketedportionin(6).

6Hisfriendsshoulddemand[thathegetjustice].

Abracketedclauseliketheonein(6)isusedinasituationinwhichaspeakeristalkingaboutastateofaffairsthathewantstoobtain,butwhichdoesnotobtainatthemomentofspeaking.Inasituationinwhichsomeoneutters(6),thepersonreferredtoashehasnotreceivedjustice.Itisimportanttostressthatmanyspeakerswouldopttousethethirdpersonsingularformgetsinstead,asin(7),especiallyinBritishEnglish.

7Hisfriendsshoulddemandthathegetsjustice.

Thisisperfectlyacceptable,andthereisnodifferenceinmeaning.

Theverbinthehighlightedclausein(6)istraditionallycalledapresentsubjunctiveverb,alabelwhichwewillnotbeusing.Thereasonisthattheinflectionalformsoftheso-called‘presentsubjunctive’arethesameforeachperson.Thereisnodistinctinflectionalformforit.Whenthishappenswespeakofsyncretism.Theinflectionalformin(6)istheplainform,andwecallthebracketedclausein(6)asubjunctiveclause.Thenotionofsubjunctiveclauseisuseful,becauseforthethirdpersonsingulartheformthatoccursinasubjunctiveclausediffersfromtheformthatappearsinanon-subjunctiveclausewithwhichitcanbecontrasted,suchasthethat-clausein(7),wheretheverbendsin-s.Inaddition,compare(8)and(9).

8Hisfriendsshoulddemand[thathenotbearrested].

9Hisfriendsshoulddemand[thatheisnotarrested].

Inthenegatedsubjunctivethat-clausein(8)thenegativewordnotprecedesaformofBE,whereasitfollowsonein(9),whichdoesnotinvolveasubjunctivesubordinateclause,butanordinarydeclarativeclause(sections1.6and6.1).

Contrast(6)with(10).

10Iwishwehadmoreofthatsortofcompetitioninthefamilyofnations.

IntraditionalgrammartheverbhadiscalledapastsubjunctiveverbwhoseappearanceistriggeredbytheverbWISH.However,inEnglish,‘pastsubjunctive’formsareindistinguishablefrompasttenseforms.WewillthereforesaythatEnglishdoesnothaveapastsubjunctiveverbinflection.Unlikewiththe‘presentsubjunctive’,inthiscasewewillnotrecognizepastsubjunctiveclausesinEnglish.Thereasonisthatwecannotcontrastaclausecontaininga‘pastsubjunctiveverb’withaclausecontainingapasttenseformoftheverb,inthewaythatwecontrasted(6)and(7),becausetheinflectionalformsareidentical.

Whatabouttheverbformwerein(11)?

11Iratherthinkyouwish[itweretrue].

ThisformoftheverbBE,inthefirstorthirdpersonsingular,canbeseenasarelicofthepastsubjunctive.Noticethatsubjunctiveclausescanbemainclauses(Heavenforbid,GodsavetheQueen),butagainonlyasfossilizedconstructions.

2.2.1.4Thetraditionalmoodsindicative,subjunctive,andimperative

Somereadersmaybefamiliarwiththenotionsindicative,subjunctive,andimperative,andthinkofthemasthemoodsofEnglish,asintraditionalgrammar.RecallfromChapter1thatmoodisthegrammaticalimplementationofthesemanticnotionofmodalitywhichisconcernedwitharangeofmeaningsinEnglishsuchas‘possibility’,‘obligation’,‘intention’,‘necessity’,andthelike.Thelabelsindicative,subjunctive,andimperativewereappliedtoverbformsintraditionalgrammars,suchthattheyrecognized‘indicativeverbforms’,‘subjunctiveverbforms’,and‘imperativeverbforms’.Indicativeverbformsweresaidtobetypicallyusedinclausesthatmakestatementsbelievedtobetruebythespeaker(‘unmodalized’statements);subjunctiveverbforms,asin(6)and(10),weresaidtobeusedinclausesthatexpressthespeaker’sattitudeoropiniontowardswhatwasbeingsaid;andimperativeverbformsweresaidtobeusedinclausesexpressingcommands.Fromwhathasbeensaidaboveitwillbeclearthatitisbettertoregardmoodasanon-inflectionalnotion.(Theoneexceptiontothisistheverbwere,usedinexampleslike(11).)Englishprincipallygrammaticallyimplementsmoodthroughtheuseofclausetypesormodalauxiliaryverbs.Forexample,ratherthansaythat

speakersuseindicativeverbformstomakeassertions,wewillsaythattheytypicallyusedeclarativeclausestodoso.Thus,ifIutter(12)I’msayingsomethingaboutastateofaffairsintheworldwhichIbelievetobetrue.

12Everyonelikesflattery.

Thelabels‘subjunctive’and‘imperative’likewisedonotapplytoinflections,aswehavealreadyseen,buttoclausalconstructions.Althoughthereisno‘subjunctiveclausetype’,wedorecognizean‘imperativeclausetype’.(Notethatby‘clausalconstruction’Imeanastringofwordsthatformaclause,whereas‘clausetype’isagrammaticaltermwhichwillbediscussedinChapter6.)TheconceptsofmoodandmodalitywillbediscussedfurtherinChapter10.

2.2.1.5Theconceptsfiniteandnon-finite

Wenowturntotheconceptsfiniteandnon-finite,Thetermfinitemeans‘finished’(fromtheLatinfinitus)or‘limited’.Traditionally,‘finiteness’isconcernedwithvariationforpersonandnumber,andisappliedtoverbs,inthattheytakeondifferentinflectionalformsdependingonthepersonandnumberoftheirSubjects.However,inpresent-dayEnglishitmakesmuchmoresensetospeakoffiniteandnon-finiteclauses(orconstructions),sincetheverbalparadigmscontainalmostnoformswithdistinctendings.Asageneralizationwecansaythatanyclausethatistensedisalsofinite.However,notallfiniteclausesaretensed.Specifically,subjunctiveclauses(cf.thebracketedportionin(6))andimperativeclauses(e.g.Openthedoor;seesection6.3)arefinite,butnottensed.Despitenotcontainingatensedverb,subjunctiveclausescanbeconsideredtobefinitebecausetheyalternatewithtensedclauses(cf.(7)),andbecausetheyresemblethestructureoftypicaltensedclausesintworespects:theymusthaveaSubject,andtheytakethesamesubordinatorassometensedclausesdo,namelythat.Imperativeclausesarelessclearlyfinite,butwecanconsiderthemassuchbecausetheyalwaysoccurasmainclauses,thoughnotethatthefactthattheytypicallylackaSubjectdetractsfromthisobservation.

Non-finiteclausesareclausesthatdonotcontainatensedverb,andarealwayssubordinate(section1.3).Aswesawinsection1.8,werecognizefourtypes,showninTable2.6withexamples.

Typeofnon-finiteclause

Example

to-infinitiveclause (a)Wouldanybodyliketoeat?

bareinfinitiveclause

(b)Theycanstopatanypoint.

-ingparticipleclause

(c)Wearesellingthem.

pastparticipleclause

Perfect:

(d)Sowehaveplayedourpartinthehistoryofcricket.

Passive:

(e)Shewasdelayedbytraindifficulties.

Table2.6:Non-finiteclauses

Structurescontainingnon-finiteclauseswillbediscussedindetailinChapter8.

2.2.2Nouninflections

Englishnounsdisplaytwokindsofinflections,namelythosefornumber(singular/plural)andforcase(nominative/accusative/genitive).

2.2.2.1Number:plurals

Table2.7showswaysofformingthepluralinEnglish.Thelistsarenotexhaustive.

Regularpluralin-sor-esgroup–groups;idea–ideas;theme–themes;bus–buses;class–classes;potato–potatoes

Withachangeofvowelfoot–feet;man–men;tooth–teeth

Withamodificationofthebase-finalvowel(-y>-ies)activity–activities;body–bodies(butnotif-yisprecededbyavowel:boy>boys)

Withachangeordoublingofthebase-finalconsonantknife–knives;life–lives;wife–wives;quiz–quizzes

Singularisthesameasthepluralaircraft,bison,deer,series,sheep,trout

Pluralswithoutformalmarkingcattle,people,police

Pluralswithirregularsuffixesbrother–brethren;child–children;ox–oxen

Foreignpluralsalumnus–alumni;antenna–antennae(alsoantennas);criterion–criteria;datum–data(pluralalsousedasasingular);index–indices;kibbutz–kibbutzim;mafioso–mafiosi;tableau–tableaux;thesis–theses

Table2.7:Plural-formation

SomeEnglishnounsoccuronlyintheplural.Thesearetheso-calledpluraliatantum.Amongthemare:auspices,binoculars,jeans,scissors,trousers,valuables.

2.2.2.2Case:nominative,accusative,andgenitive

OldEnglishhadanextensivecasesystem,butinModernEnglishthesystemismuchlessrich.Nominativecaseandaccusativecaseshowuponlyonpronouns,whichalsohavespecialgenitiveforms,asTable2.8showsforpersonalpronouns.

Table2.8:Thecaseformsofpersonalpronouns

NominativecaseistypicallyusedforpronounsinSubjectposition,whileaccusativecaseistypicallyusedforIndirectObjects,DirectObjects,andComplementsofprepositions(seesection1.4andchapters4and5),asthefollowingexamplesmakeclear.

13I(Subject)likeher(DirectObject).

14They(Subject)likeus(DirectObject).

15She(Subject)gavehim(IndirectObject)alift(DirectObject).

16I(Subject)gavethefolder(DirectObject)tohim(Complementofapreposition).

Noticethatyouanditdonotdistinguishnominativeandaccusativecase.

Thegenitiveofnounsisformedbyaddingthesuffix-’stoaregularnoun,orsimplyaninaudibleapostrophe(-’)ifthenounalreadyendsinan-s,cf.(17)–(20).

17thebook’scover

18thosebooks’covers

19Peter’shouse

20Jesus’(orJesus’s)mother

WewillseeinChapter3thatitismoreaccuratetosaythatthegenitiveendingisattachedtonounphrases.Thegenitiveformsaredependentwhentheyoccurinnon-finalpositioninsidenounphrases,asinmyhouse,orindependent,asinThehouseismine,Mineisamodernhouse,orthishouseofmine(seesections3.2.2.1.1and5.2.1.2).Thebasicmeaningexpressedbythegenitiveis‘possession’.ThecaseformsofothertypesofpronounswillbediscussedinChapter3.

2.2.3Adjectiveandadverbinflections

Adjectivesandadverbscaninflectforcomparison.Theplainformofadjectivesisusedtodescribethereferentsofnouns(forexample,thecleanhouse/thehouseisclean).Constructionscontainingthecomparativeformorsuperlativeformindicatethatthepropertydenotedbytheadjectiveappliestodifferentdegrees(forexampleMyhouseiscleanerthanyours/Myhouseisthecleanesthouseinthestreet).Thecomparativeformsareformedbyadding-ertoabase.Thesuperlativeformsareformedbyadding-est.Similarconsiderationsapplytoadverbs,exceptthattheydonotgenerallymodifynouns,aswehaveseen.Table2.9showsthatthereareanumberofirregularitemswhosecomparativeandsuperlativeformsaremorphologicallyunrelated,aphenomenonthatiscalledsuppletion.

Table2.9:Theinflectionalformsofadjectivesandadverbs

Adjectivesandadverbsthathavetwoormoresyllablesusuallydonotformtheircomparativeandsuperlativeformsinflectionally,butanalytically,thatisbyusingmoreandmost,aswithincongruous–moreincongruous–mostincongruous.Adverbsthatendin-lynevertakeinflections.

2.3Word-formation

Underthisheadingwewilldiscussderivation,compounding,conversion,andanumberofminorword-formationtypes.

2.3.1Derivation

Inthisgrammarwewillregardderivationasaword-formationprocessinvolvingsuffixationorprefixation.

2.3.1.1Suffixation

Consideragain(21),takenfromChapter1:

21Theverynoisyvisitorcontinuallyinsultedthereceptionistandthecaretakerinthelibrary.

Herethewordreceptionistisanounwhichisformedfromthenounreceptionbyadding-ist.Noticethatwehaveformedonelexemefromanotherthroughaprocessofsuffixation,andthatthesuffix-istisaclass-maintainingsuffix,becauseboththeinputandoutputformsarenouns.Considernexttheadverbcontinually.Thislexemeisformedfromthewordcontinualbyadding-ly,Heretoowehavesuffixation,butthistimeitisaclass-changingprocess(adjective>adverb).Herearesomefurtherexamplesofsuffixation:

22address>addressee(class-maintaining:noun)

23furious>furiously(class-changing:adjectivetoadverb)

24happy>happiness(class-changing:adjectivetonoun)

25regular>regularize/-ise(class-changing:adjectivetoverb)

26relate>relation(class-changing:verbtonoun)

27spite>spiteful(class-changing:nountoadjective)

28work>workable(class-changing:verbtoadjective)

29yellow>yellowish(class-maintaining:adjective)

InTable2.10anumberofcommonderivationalsuffixesareshown.

Table2.10:Somecommonderivationalsuffixes

BritishEnglishspellingpreferssuffixesin-ise/-isation,whileinAmericanEnglishthepreferenceisfor-ize/-ization,thoughthisdistinctionbetweenthetwovarietiesofEnglishisfading,themorecommonspellingbeing-ize/-ization.

2.3.1.2Prefixation

Wecanalsocreatelexemesthroughprefixation.Thisprocessismostlyclass-maintaining.Herearesomeexamplesofprefixation:

30historical>ahistorical(class-maintaining:adjective)

31edit>co-edit(class-maintaining:verb)

32watt>kilowatt(class-maintaining:noun)

33list>enlist(class-changing:nountoverb)

34bus>minibus(class-maintaining:noun)

35earth>unearth(class-changing:nountoverb)

36wit>outwit(class-changing:nountoverb)

37offend>reoffend(class-maintaining:verb)

Table2.11showssomecommonprefixes.

Table2.11:Somecommonderivationalprefixes

2.3.2Compounding

Compoundscanbedefinedasformationsthatinvolve,inthemajorityofcases,combinationsoftwobases,whichcanmanifestthemselvesinvariousshapes.Examplesarecaretaker,boyfriend,andoperationschief.Compoundscanalsoinvolvephrases,asinoff-roadroute.Englishallowsagreatvarietyofcompounds,asshownbyTables2.12–16.Readersshouldbeawarethatnoteveryoneagreesexactlyonhowtodelimittheclassofcompounds.

Itshouldbeborneinmindthatsomeoftheitemsinthetablescanhavedualclassifications.Thus,DOWN-AND-OUTintheNPdown-and-outtrampisaphrasaladjectivalcompound,butinThesedown-and-outsareheremostofthedayitisanoun(witnessthe-spluralinflection).Similarly,MAKE-BELIEVEisacompoundnouninthestrategyofmake-believe,butanadjectivalcompoundinmake-believeallegations.

Thereareanumberofissuesinthestudyofcompoundswhichwedonothavethespacetodiscusshere.Amongthemisthequestionofhowtodistinguishacompoundfromaphrase.Asageneralrulethestressincompoundsisonthefirstcomponent,whileinphrasesthesecond

componenttendstobestressed.Compareblackboard(‘aboardfixedtothewall,usedinschoolsforteaching’)withblackboard(‘aboardwhichisblack’),whereinbothcasesthestressisindicatedbytheboldfacetype.Individualcasescanremaintricky.Forexample,inTable2.14above,Ihavelistedwhite-collarinwhite-collarstaffasanAdj–Ncompound,butwemightequallysaythatinthisparticularcasetheHeadnounstaffismodifiedbytheNPwhitecollar.

Table2.12:Compoundnouns

Compound Examples

verbtypes

verb+verb blow-dry,daresay,drink-drive,freeze-dry,makedo,stir-fry

noun+noun handcuff,stonewall

noun+verb babysit,brainwash,carbondate,colourcode,hand-wash,proofread

adjective+noun

bad-mouth,blindfold,deep-fry,fast-track,short-change

adjective+verb cold-call,dry-clean,whitewash

preposition+noun/verb

upstage,background,overbook,overrun,underestimate

Table2.13:Compoundverbs

Compoundadjectivetypes

Examples

adjective+adjective

bitter-sweet,blue-black,dark-red,icy-cold,deaf-mute,squeaky-clean

adjective+noun

broad-brush(assessment),white-collar(staff)

adjective/adverb+verb

clean-shaven,easy-going,hard-working,high-rise,long-suffering,plain-spoken,quick-change,well-behaved,well-travelled

noun+verb awe-inspiring,drug-related,hair-raising,home-made,newborn,thought-provoking

noun+adjective

accident-prone,ankle-deep,bone-dry,camera-shy,capital-intensive,dirt-cheap,germ-resistant,head-strong,oil-rich,razor-sharp,self-conscious,sky-high,sugar-free

verb+noun roll-neck(sweater)

verb+verb go-go(dancer)

verb+adjective fail-safe

verb+preposition

see-through(shirt)

preposition+adjective

over-qualified,overactive,uptight

phrasal down-and-out(tramp),top-of-the-range,under-the-weather,up-to-the-minute

Table2.14:Compoundadjectives

Compound Examples

prepositiontypes

preposition+preposition

hereat,hereby,herefrom,herein,hereof,hereon,hereto,herewith,into,onto,thereat,thereby,therefrom,therein,thereof,thereon,thereto,therewith,throughout,upon,within,whereat,whereby,wherefrom,wherein,whereof,whereon,whereto,wherewith,without

preposition+noun

downhill,downstairs,indoors,inside,overland,upstream

Table2.15:Compoundprepositions

Compoundadverbtypes

Examples

determinative+adverb/adjective/noun

al(l)-series almost,already,also,altogether,always

any-series anyhow,anyway

some-series somehow,sometimes,somewhat

miscellaneous forthwith,furthermore,indeed,maybe,meantime,meanwhile,moreover,nevertheless,nonetheless,nowadays,oftentimes

Table2.16:Compoundadverbs

InadditiontothecompoundsinthetablesaboveEnglishhasanumberofneoclassicalcompounds.Thesetypicallyconsistoftwocombiningformsofclassicalorigin:aninitialcombiningformandafinalcombiningform.AlistofbothkindsisgiveninTable2.17.

Initialcombiningform Finalcombiningform

aer(o)- -(a)emia

andr(o)- -cephaly

anthrop(o) -cide

astr(o)- -crat

audio- -ectomy

aut(o)- -gamy

bibli(o)- -geny

bio- -gerous

cardi(a/o)- -grade

electr(o)- -gram

giga- -graph(y)

heter(o)- -lithic

hom(o)- -logy

hydr(o)- -meric

hyper- -merous

idio- -morph

macro- -morphous

mega- -nomy

morph(o)- -onym

neur(o)- -opia

omn(i)- -opsy

phil(o)- -pathy

phot(o)- -phil(e)

pseud(o)- -phobe

psych(o)- -phone

socio- -saurus

tele(o)- -stasia

the(o)- -stat

Theelement‘(o)’isinsertedtolinkcombiningforms.

Table2.17:Combiningforms

Herearesomeexamplesofpossiblecombinationsofitemsfromthetwocolumns:anthropology,autocrat,bibliophile,morphology.Someofthecombiningformsthatareincommonusecanoccurontheirown,forexampleaudio,homo.Incertaincasestheinitialorfinalcombiningformscombinewithexistinglexemes,asinaeroplane,astrophysics,biodiversity,heterosexual,insecticide.

2.3.3Conversion

ItispossibleinEnglishtocreatenewlexemesfromothersthroughaprocesscalledconversion.Inthesecasesthewordclassoftheelementinquestionchanges.Theresultinglexemecandisplaytheinflectionalformsthatareappropriateforthewordclassitnewlybelongsto.Thefollowingconversionsarepossible.

Example: Hebaggedthegoods.(BAGN>BAGV)

Otherpossibilities:

badger,bottle,bridge,butcher,can,eye,eyeball,finger,gesture,holiday,knife,mail,vacation,water

Example: Theassaultwasrecordedontape.(ASSAULTV>ASSAULTN)

Otherpossibilities:

abstract,attempt,cheat,coach,control,discount,guess,import,laugh,read,transfer,whisper

Example: TheseOlympichopefulsarenotreadyforaction.(HOPEFULADJ>HOPEFULN)

Otherpossibilities:

daily,intellectual,natural,original,regular,roast

Example: Theyemptiedthebath.(EMPTYADJ>EMPTYV)

Otherpossibilities:

bare,better,blind,calm,dirty,faint,right,smooth,weary,wrong

Inthecaseofverb>adjectiveconversionsitisthe-ingparticipleorpast

participleformoftheverbthatisconverted.

Example: Thesesillystoriesarenotveryamusingatall.(AMUSEV

>AMUSINGADJ)

Otherpossibilities:

bored,boring,entertaining,missing,spoilt,stunning

Example: Hedownedhisdrink.(DOWNP>DOWNV)

Otherpossibilities:

out,up

2.3.4Minortypesofword-formation

InthissectionIexemplifyanumberofminorword-formationprocesses.

2.3.4.1Abbreviationsandacronyms

Onetypeofabbreviationismadeupofthefirstlettersofaseriesofwords,which,whenspoken,arepronouncedindividually:AMS(AmericanMeteorologicalSociety),BBC(BritishBroadcastingCorporation),BC(BeforeChrist),ETS(EmissionsTradingScheme),EU(EuropeanUnion),NYPD(NewYorkPoliceDepartment),WWW(WorldWideWeb).Thesearecalledinitialisms.Otherabbreviationsarelesspredictableintheircomposition:etc.,Ltd,viz.

Acronyms,bycontrast,arepronounceableabbreviations.Examplesinclude

CAD(computeraideddesign),FAQ(frequentlyaskedquestion),JPEG(jointphotographicexpertsgroup;pronounced‘jaypeg’),LAN(localareanetwork),NATO(NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization),UNESCO(UnitedNationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganization),andWYSIWYG(whatyouseeiswhatyouget).Insomecasestheacronymshavedevelopedintowordsintheirownright,asisthecaseforlaser(lightamplificationbystimulatedemissionofradiation)andradar(radiodetectionandranging).

2.3.4.2Back-formation

Somewordsareformedbyremovingsuffixes.Astockexampleofaback-formationisthecreationoftheverbeditfromthenouneditor.Thisprocessoftentakesplacebyanalogywithotherexistingformations.Furtherexamplesofback-formationsare:headhunter>headhunt;television>televise;recycling>recycle;sculptor>sculpt.

2.3.4.3Blending

Blendingoccurswhentwobasesarecombinedintoanewlexeme.Reductionofoneorbothofthebasesmayoccur.Herearesomeexamples.

channel+tunnel>chunnel

smoke+fog>smog

breakfast+lunch>brunch

breath+analyser>breathalyser

guess+estimate>guesstimate

gigantic+enormous>ginormous

motor+hotel>motel

stagnation+inflation>stagflation

2.3.4.4Clippings

Clippingsinvolveanumberofwaysinwhichwordscanbeshortenedby

removingsyllables.Personalnamesareoftenshortenedaswell.Someexamplesareshownbelow.

advertisement>ad

doctor>doc

influenza>flu

laboratory>lab

MetropolitanPolice>Met

Michael>Mike

omnibus>bus

Peter>Pete

radiator>rad

Sebastian>Seb

Chapter3WordclassesandsimplephrasesInthepreviouschapterwelookedattheinternalstructureofwords.Inthischapterwelookatwordsaswholes,andhowtheyformphrases.

3.1Wordclasses:distributionaldefinitions

InEnglishwecandistinguishthewordclasses,alsocalledpartsofspeech,showninTable3.1.

Wordclasses

determinative

adjective

preposition

adverb

conjunction

interjection

Table3.1:Wordclasses

InmypreliminaryoverviewofthewordclassesinChapter1Idefinedthemmainlynotionally,thatis,intermsoftheirmeaning.Forexample,Iwrotethatnounsarewordsthatnameaperson,place,orthing.Inmanycasesthisdefinitionwillidentifythenounsinaclause.However,itisnotsatisfactoryifwewishtobemorepreciseaboutnouns.Forexample,withregardto‘things’,howdoweestablishwhattheyare?Atableisathing,butwhat

aboutfriendship,happiness,idea,intention,love,thought,andyesterday?Thesewordsdenoteconcepts,mentalconstructs,timespans,andthelike.Theproblemisthatwecanonlylabelsomethingasanounifwealreadyknowthatitisathing.Asimilarproblemrearsitsheadwhenwesaythatverbsareaction-words.Notallthewordsthatwewouldliketoclassasverbsdenoteactions.Itiseasytothinkofverbsthatdonot,suchasKNOW,POSSESS,RESEMBLE,andWANT.What’smore,therearenounsthatdenoteactions(e.g.announcement,departure).Whatweneedisadefinitionofeachofthevariouswordclassesthatencompassesallmembers,oratleastthetypicalmembers.

Ifwecannot(exclusively)appealtomeaning,howdowedefinethewordclasses?Theansweristhatwecandosoonthebasisoftheirbehaviourinclauses.Thatis,weneedtodefinethewordclassesbylookingatthecompanywordskeep.Thisiscalleddistributionalanalysis.Ineachofthesectionsbelowthewordclasseswillbedefinedintermsofthewaytheybehavesyntacticallyinclauses.Whereappropriate,meaningconsiderationswillalsobeincluded.InadditiontothewordclassesIwillalsodiscusssimplephrases,suchasnounphraseandadjectivephrase.ComplexphraseswillbediscussedinChapter5.

3.2Nounsandnounphrases

Thewordclassofnounsincludeswordsthatdenoteconcreteobjectsintheworldaroundus,forexamplebicycle,cat,house,door,planet,vase,pencil,screen.Thenounslistedherearecommonnouns.Wealsodistinguishwordslikehe,she,his,her,who,what,whicharecalledpronouns(section3.2.2),andpropernouns(section3.2.3)suchasPeter,Leonard,Tim.

3.2.1Distributionalpropertiesofnouns

WhatarethedistributionalpropertiesofnounsinEnglish?ThefirstthingtonoteisthatanouncanfunctionastheHeadofanounphrase(NP).AHeadisthemostprominentelementofastringofwords,andanounphraseisastringofwordswhoseHeadisanoun.Herearesomeexamples.

1[NPthehouse]

2[NPthebighouse]

3[NPthebighousewiththeredroof]

IneachofthesestringsthewordhouseistheHead,becauseitdetermineswhatthestringasawholeisakindof.Thusthebighouseisakindofhouse,asisthebighousewiththeredroof.Ineachcasethenounhouseisobligatory.NotethattheHeadcanalsooccuronitsown,asinthefollowingexample.

4Hebuys[NPhouses]foraliving.

Theunityofthewordsinthephrasehasbeenindicatedbythesquarebrackets,withtheopeningbracketcarryingthelabelNP.NPscanperformavarietyoffunctions,suchasSubject,DirectObject,andIndirectObject(seesection1.4andChapter4).Forexample,in(4)theNPisaDirectObject.

Asecondpropertyofmanynounsisthattheycantakeapluralinflection,asin(4)(seesection2.2.2.1).

Thirdly,nounsarewordsthatcanbeprecededbythewordthe,asinthecat.Thatis,theycanoccurinthefollowingframe:

the—

Thedashindicatesthepositionofthenoun.Mostnounscanalsobeprecededbya,butnotallofthem.Exceptionsareso-calleduncountablenounslikesaltandflourwhichrefertoamassofsomesort,andpluraliatantum(Latinfor‘pluralonly’),suchastrousers,scissors.Uncountablenounscannotbepluralizedbyaddingtheinflectionalsuffix-s:*twosalts,*threeflours(theasteriskindicatesthatastructureisimpossibleinEnglish).Wewillseeinsection3.3thatwordsliketheandabelongtotheclassofdeterminatives.

Anothercharacteristicofnounsisthattheycanbeprecededbydescriptivewords,whichwecalledadjectivesinsection1.3:thebighouse,thehungrycat,thefinaldraft,andsoon(seealsosection3.4).Afewnounscanbefollowedbyadjectives,asinsetexpressionslikegovernorgeneral,presidentelect.

Morphologically,agreatmanynounsendinsuffixesthataretypicalofnouns.InTable3.2somecommonnominalsuffixesareshown.

Finally,itissometimessaidthatnounsarewordsthatcantakegenitivecaseendings(seesection2.2.2.2),asintheseexamples:thecat’spaws,theteachers’reports.However,thegenitiveendingisbestanalysedasattachingtoaphrase,ratherthantoanoun,asbecomesclearwhenweconsidernounphraseslikethefollowing:[thePresidentofFrance]’sstatement,[thewomaninthelibrary]’sbriefcase.Seealsosection5.2.1.2.

Table3.2:Somecommonnominalsuffixes

ThedistributionalcharacteristicsoftypicalnounsarelistedinTable3.3.

Typicalnouns…

•functionastheHeadofanounphrasewhichcanperformavarietyoffunctions,suchasSubject,DirectObject,IndirectObject;

•takepluralforms;

•canoccurintheframethe—;

•canbeprecededbyadjectives.

Table3.3:Thedistributionalpropertiesoftypicalnouns

Typicalnounsconformtoallormostofthesecriteria.However,notallnounsdoso.Pronouns,whichweregardasformingasubsetoftheclassofnouns,areacaseinpoint.Weturntothemnext.

3.2.2Pronouns

PronounsbelongtotheclassofnounsbecausetheycanheadnounphrasesthatcanfunctionasSubject,DirectObject,IndirectObject,Complementofapreposition(seesection3.7),andPredicativeComplement(seesection4.1.3.3).Compare(5)and(6):thefullNPsin(5)arereplacedbypronounsheadingNPsin(6).

5[NPFrankRigby’swife]endures[NPworking-classpoverty]dutifully.

6[NPShe]endures[NPit]dutifully.

Example(6)showsthatpronouns(headingNPs)canoccurintypicalnounphrasepositions.Forthisreasonwetreatthemasasubclassofnounsinthisgrammar.

Insomegrammarspronounsareregardedasaseparatewordclass.Thereareanumberofreasonsforthis.Amongthemarethefollowing.

•Pronounsshowadistinctionbetweennominative,accusative,andgenitivecase,whilecommonnounsdonot.Seesection3.2.2.1.1below.

•Pronounsshowadistinctionforperson(1stperson,2ndperson,etc.;seesection2.2.1.1)andgender(he/she,him/her,etc.),butcommonnounsdonot.

•Pronounsdonothaveinflectionalplurals(seesection2.2.2.1)inStandardEnglish(cf.*yous,*hes,etc.),thoughtheydohavesingularvspluralpersondistinctions(e.g.Ivswe).Thepronounoneisanexception,cf.Ilikethoseones(seesection3.2.2.1.4).

•Pronounsaremuchmorelimitedthancommonnounsintheirpotentialfortakingdependents.Forexample,whilewecanhavedeterminativesandadjectivesinfrontofcommonnouns(aswesawintheprecedingsection),theycannotgenerallydetermineandmodifypronouns.Thuswecannotsay*Theheleftthemeetingor*Intelligentyoudidwellintheexams.Therearesomeexceptions,ofcourse,aswhenwesayI’mnotthemeIusedtobeorSillyoldmeleftthegason.Nounscanbefollowedbyprepositionalphrases(seesections1.3and3.7),asinmycancellationofthereservation;

pronounsgenerallycannot.

•NounphraseswithcommonnounsasHeadcanhaveindependentreference,whilepronounsrelyonthelinguisticorextra-linguisticcontextfortheirreference.Thus,ifIsayImetthebossthismorningtheNPthebossreferstoamutuallyidentifiableindividual.IfIsayKatiemarriedHarrybecausesheloveshimthenthemostlikelyreadingofthisutteranceisforshetorefertoKatieandforhimtorefertoHarry.

DespitetheseobservationswetakethefactthatpronounscanactastheHeadsofphrasesthatcanfunctionasSubject,DirectObject,PredicativeComplement,andsoon,asasufficientlyweightyreasonforregardingthemasnouns.

InEnglishwerecognizethetypesofpronounslistedinTable3.4.

Pronounsubclasses

personalpronouns

reflexivepronouns

reciprocalpronouns

relativepronouns

freerelativepronouns

interrogativepronouns

demonstrativepronouns

indefinitepronouns

Table3.4:Pronounsubclasses

3.2.2.1Personalpronouns

Personalpronounsdependfortheirreferenceonaprecedingnounphrase(theantecedent),ortheirreferencecanbeestablishedfromthecontext.

3.2.2.1.1Caseforms

Personalpronounscancarrynominative,accusative,andgenitivecase,aswesawinsection2.2.2.2,dependingontheirfunctioninaclause.ThuswesayIloveher,not*Melovesshe,andwesayIsentthelettertothem,not*Mesentthelettertothey.Thegenitivepronounstypicallyindicatepossession,asinherglasses.InthisexamplethepronounisplacedbeforetheHeadnoun.Wecallthisthedependentuseofthepronoun.Theindependentformisusedinexampleslikethefollowing:theglassesarehersandtheseglassesofhers.

Thedependentgenitiveformsareoftenclassedasdeterminativesbyvirtueofbeingpositionedinfrontofnouns,butinthisgrammarweregardthemaspronounsfortworeasons.Oneisthatdeterminativesdonottakegenitiveinflections;anotheristhatthedependentformscanoccurinSubjectposition,asin(7),wheredeterminativescannotoccur.

7Iactuallyfinditquitedifficulttorememberverymuchabout[clausemybeingveryyoung].

Notethatdespitebeingadependentform,thepronounisnotfollowedbyanouninthisexample.Wewillseeinsections3.2.2.3and3.2.2.5thatgenitivewhoseindependentpre-nominalposition(e.g.whosehouse)isalsoapronoun.Seealsosections5.2.1.2and8.1.2.1.

3.2.2.1.2It

Thepronounitoccursinvariousguises.Wedistinguishreferentialit,dummyit,anticipatoryit,andcleftit.Thefirstoftheseisusedtorefertoanentitythathasalreadybeenintroducedintoaparticulardiscourse,asin(8).

8Yougaveittoher.

Dummyitismeaningless,andisusedinSubjectpositionwhenwetalkabouttheweatherortheenvironmentingeneral.

9Itwasraining.

10It’sreallyhotinhere.

ItcanalsobeusedinDirectObjectorprepositionalComplementpositioninidiomaticexpressions.

11Iinterviewpeoplethathavemadeitinsomeway.

12Letthemgetonwithit.

AnticipatoryitisusedtostandinforaclausalSubjectorObjectwhichhasbeenextraposed(displaced)duetoits‘heaviness’,asin(13)and(14).

Theseexampleswillbediscussedfurtherinsection11.3.2.2.Inasenseanticipatoryitrefersforwardtothedisplacedclause,andcouldforthatreasonberegardedasbeingreferential.However,unlikeitinexampleslike(8),anticipatoryitdoesnotrefertoanentityinthediscourse,andcanneveroccuronitsowninaclause.

Finally,cleftitisusedinso-calledcleftconstructions,exemplifiedin(15)and(16),tobediscussedindetailinsection11.8.1.

15ItisSimioniwho’sgonedown.

16Itwasancienthistorythatattractedme.

3.2.2.1.3There

Thepronountherein(17)iscalledexistentialtherebecauseitoccursin

clauseswhichareconcernedwiththeexistenceofaperson,entity,orsituation.ItisregardedasameaninglesswordthatfillstheobligatorySubjectslot.

17Therearelotsofwindows.

In(18)belowthere1isanexampleofexistentialthere,butthere2isnot.Itiscalledlocativetheresinceitpointsoutalocation.Ofthethreeinstancesofitinthispassageit1andit3arereferential,takingtheoccasionalshardoffruitandthechickenasantecedents.It2isanexampleofanticipatoryit,whichsubstitutesfortheextraposedSubjectclausetofindthechicken.

18There1ismorejuliennedcarrotontheplatethananythingelse;whenyoudocomeacrosstheoccasionalshardoffruit,it1isoverripeandwoolly;andit2takesajointactionfrombothsidesofthetabletofindthechicken.There2it3is.

Seesection11.6forfurtherdiscussionofexistentialconstructions.

3.2.2.1.4One

Likeitandtherethewordonealsooccursinseveralguises.In(19)itisacommonnoun,witnessthefactthatitisprecededbyadeterminativeandanadjective,andhasapluralinflection(section2.2.2.1).

19Ilikethesweetones.

In(20)oneisusedasapersonalpronouninaformalmannertorefertothespeaker,ortopeopleingeneral.

20Onecan’tsaythattheygetagoodpress.

Whenonesubstitutesforafullnounphrase,asin(21),whereitstandsinforaphotograph,wealsoregarditasapronoun.(22)isaspecialcase:hereonerefersbacktopartofanounphrase,namelytheHeadnouncancellation.

21HaveIshownyouaphotograph?I’vegotonesomewhere.

22Thisishersecondcancellation.It’snotjustthefirstone.

Onecanalsobeusedasanumeral;seesection3.2.4below.

3.2.2.2Reflexiveandreciprocalpronouns

Reflexivepronounsaretypicallylinkedtoaprecedingantecedentintheshapeofanounphrase(underlinedintheexamplesbelow),whichreferstothesameindividual(s)orentity.

23Thegoalkeepercommittedhimself.

24ThesubjectsofByzantiumweretocallthemselvesRhomaioi.

InthesecaseshimselfreferstothegoalkeeperandthemselvesreferstothesubjectsofByzantium.InbothcasesthereflexivepronounsfunctionastheHeadsofNPswhichinturnfunctionasDirectObjects.

Areflexivepronouncanoccurwithoutanovertantecedent,asin(25),thoughnotinSubjectposition(cf.(26)).

25Enjoyyourselflots.

26*Myselforderedasteakfordinner.

In(27)and(28)thereflexivepronounsareusedemphatically.

27Sheherselfacquiredasummerdispositionafterthetraumaofherrecentmanneroflife.

28I’mnotdoingitmyself.

Oneself,exemplifiedin(29),isratherformal.

29Itmustbepeculiarlydisconcerting,don’tyouthink,tobeleftforsomeoneentirelydifferentfromoneself?

Increasingly,thepronounthemselfisusedasthereflexiveformofthepersonalpronounTHEYwithasingularantecedent.Toillustrate,compare(30),inwhichtheyrefersbacktosomeone,with(31).

30Ifsomeonedoesn’twearappropriatefootwearordevelopsmusclestrengthimbalances,theycangethurt.

31Noteveryonewhoishandedascalpelconsidersthemselfasurgeon,andnoteveryonegivenaSteinwayconsidersthemselfaconcertpianist.

TheprincipalreflexivepronounsoccurintheformsshowninTable3.5.

Table3.5:Reflexivepronouns

Thereciprocalpronounseachotherandoneanother(Table3.6)areusedwhentheverb’smeaningappliesmutuallybetweentwoormorepeopleorgroupsofpeople,asin(32)and(33).

32Anyhow,youandHarrietknowoneanother.

33That’sagoodwayoftryingtogettoknoweachother.

In(32)thereisanexplicitmentionoftheantecedentthatoneanotherrefersto.As(33)shows,anantecedentneednotbepresent.Reciprocalpronounsarenotonlyusedforpeople,as(34)demonstrates.

34TheenergythatmakesthecomponentsofamusclefibreslidealongeachotherwhenthemuscleexertsapullisultimatelyderivedfromthebreakdownofATP.

Likereflexivepronouns,reciprocalpronounscannotoccurasSubject:

35*Eachotherwatchedthemovie.

Reciprocalpronouns

eachother

oneanother

Table3.6:Reciprocalpronouns

3.2.2.3Relativepronouns

TherelativepronounsinEnglisharewho,whom,whose,andwhich(Table3.7).

Relativepronouns

who/whom/whose

Table3.7:Relativepronouns

Thesepronounsbelongtoalargersetofwh-words(thatis,wordsthatbeginwiththeletterswh-),whichadditionallyincludeswhat,where,when,why,andhow.(Althoughthelatterdoesnotbeginwithwh-,itbehaveslikethewordsthatdo,andisgroupedwiththemforthatreason.)Notallwh-wordsarepronouns,aswewillsee.

Relativepronounsoccurinsideawh-phrasepositionedatthebeginningofarelativeclause.Suchclausesprovidemoreinformationaboutapersonorentitydenotedbyaprecedingnoun,calledtheantecedent.Thepronounswhoandwhomcarrynominativeandaccusativecase,respectively,andtypicallyhavehumanantecedents.Whosecarriesgenitivecase,andcanhavehumanandnon-humanantecedents.Whichiscase-neutral,andusuallyhasnon-humanantecedents.Herearesomeexamples.Therelativepronounsinsidethebracketedrelativeclausesareunderlinedineachcase;theantecedentsareinboldfacetype.

36Anotherstudent[[NPwho]wrotethesameessay]madethesamemistake.

37Lunchwasservedintherestaurantdownstairsbytheproprietorhimself–aMonsieurSavlon[[NPwhom]we’dmet_briefly].

38IshallrereadThomasMann’sBuddenbrooks(Minerva),[[NPwhich]Iread_solongagoI’veforgottenalotofit].

39TheFamilyPractitionerCommittee(FPC)[[PPtowhom]yourformwillbesent_]mayhowevercheckyourclaimatalaterdate.

40InareportfromGreenpeacelastyear,andstillavailableonline,retailersandcanningcompanieswererankedinorderoftheirtuna-fishingpolicies.Sainsbury,Co-opandMarks&Spencercametop;PrincesandJohnWest–[[NPmostofwhose]wasfrompurseseiners]–camebottom.

In(36)–(38)thewh-phrasesaresimplewh-NPs,headedbyarelativepronoun,whereasin(39)and(40)thewh-phrasesarecomplex.In(39)itisaprepositionalphrasewhoseHeadtotakesanNPheadedbytherelativepronounwhomasitsComplement.In(40)therelativepronounoccursinsideaPPwhichcomplementstheHeadofanNP(most).Complexwh-phraseswillbediscussedinsection7.3.3.1.

Thesymbol‘_’intheexamplesaboveindicatesa‘gap’intheclausewithwhichtheinitialwh-phraseisassociated.Onewayofviewingtheassociationbetweenthewh-phraseandthegapistoregardtheformerashavingbeenmovedfromthegappositiontoaclause-initialposition.Thereisnosuggestionthatthismovementactuallytakesplaceinourminds;theterm‘movement’isusedmerelyasaconvenientwaytoconceptualizetherelationbetweenthewh-phraseandthegap.

InformalwritingwhomisusedwhentherelativepronounfunctionsasDirectObjectorastheComplementofapreposition.Thusin(37)whomistheDirectObjectofMEET,andin(39)itistheComplementofto.Thisruleisoftenrelaxed,thoughlesssoafterapreposition;whoisthenusedinstead.

Inalltheexamplesabovetherelativepronounsareusedindependently.Relativewhosecanonlybeusedindependentlyafterapreposition,asin(40).Itisuseddependentlybeforeanounin(41).

41Apparently,Johnsonstillgetstheodd“Morning,Boris”fromsellersofTheBigIssuemagazine,[[NPwhosecover]hecurrentlyadorns_].

In(41)weusewhosecoverratherthanthemorecomplexthecoverofwhich.Weregardwhoseasapronounhere,ratherthanasadeterminative,becauseitcarriesgenitivecase.ItfunctionsasaDeterminerinsidethegenitiveNPheadedbycover.(Seealsosection3.2.2.5fortheindependentuseofwhoseasaninterrogativepronoun.)

In(42)whichisarelativedeterminative.

42Buttheresultswereinconclusive,[[PPatwhichpoint]itssharesweresuspended].

Itisnotapronounherebecausewhichbeforeanouncannevertakegenitivecase(cf.*Thesociety,which’sregulationswereamended,waswithoutachair).SeeSection3.3.5.

Thewordthatinthebracketedrelativeclausein(43)isanalysedinthisgrammarasasubordinatingconjunction,notasarelativepronoun(seesection3.9).

43Itsoundslikesomekindoftherapy[thatyou’redoing].

IwillreturntorelativeclausesinSection7.3.3.

3.2.2.4Freerelativepronouns

Thebracketedstringsintheexamplesbelowarecalledfreerelativeclauses,whichtypicallyoccurinnounphrasepositions.

44[[NPWhat]youdo_]isjusttoswitchitoff.

45Youhavegottherighttodo[[NPwhatever]youwant_],think[NP[whatever]youwant_]andsay[NP[whatever]youwant_].Thoserightswerewonbypeoplewhofoughtforusanddiedforus.

46Isitworthcomplainingto[[NPwhoever]wasincharge]?

Inthesecasesthefreerelativeclausesareintroducedbytheitalicizedfreerelativepronouns,whichfunctionasthenominalHeadofawh-phrase.Themosttypicalmemberofthisclassiswhat.Lesstypicalarewho(m),which,who(m)ever,andwhatever.Theyaresaidtobe‘free’becausethey

lackanantecedent.Withintheclausesin(44)and(45)theitalicizedwordsareassociatedwiththegapsindicatedby‘_’,asbefore.

Itisimportanttobeawareofthefactthatthewordswehaveanalysedasfreerelativepronounsabovecanalsobeassignedtootherwordclasses,dependingonthesyntacticenvironmentinwhichtheyoccur.Forexample,whatisaninterrogativepronouninWhatdidyoueat?(section3.2.2.5),andaninterrogativedeterminativeinWhatfilmsdidyouwatch?(Section3.3.4).Finally,in(47)whatisafreerelativedeterminative,tobediscussedinSection3.3.5.

47Shehadsenther[[NPwhatmoney]shecould].

Iwilldiscussfreerelativeclausesindetailinsection7.3.3.5.

3.2.2.5Interrogativepronouns

Interrogativepronouns(listedinTable3.8)arewh-wordsthatoccurinsidewh-phrasespositionedatthebeginningofinterrogativeclauses.Thesearecharacteristicallyusedtoaskquestions(section6.2).Theformswho,whom,andwhoserefertohumans.

Interrogativepronouns

who/whom (occuronlyindependently)

whose (occursindependentlyanddependently)

which/what (occurindependentlyaspronouns,dependentlyasdeterminatives)

Table3.8:Interrogativepronouns

48[NPWho]needsmoreofthese?

49[NPWhom]didyoubeat_inthefinal?

50[PPTowhom]areyouaccountable_?

51[NPWhom]didyouenjoyworkingwith_themost?

52Whentherearecompetingrituals–stockingsorpillowcases–[NPwhose]doyoujettison_?

WhoisthenominativeformusedinSubjectposition,whilewhomistheaccusativeformassociatedwithaDirectObjectpositionorwithaprepositionalComplementposition(indicatedby‘_’).Whomisformal,andmorelikelytooccurinwrittenlanguage.Prepositionalphrasescontaininginterrogativepronounscaneitherbedisplacedasawhole,asin(50),orhaveonlytheComplementmoved,asin(51).Thewordwhosein(52)isanindependentgenitiveformfunctioningastheDirectObjectoftheverbJETTISON.ItcanbecontrastedwiththedependentgenitiveinterrogativepronouninsideanNP,exemplifiedin(53).

53[NPWhosehome]didyoutakeherto_?

Seealsosections3.2.2.3,5.2.1.2,and6.2.1.

Theinterrogativepronounwhichcanbeusedtoaskquestionsabouthumansornon-humans.

54[NPWhichofthesemen]wouldyouchoose_tobabysitforyou?

55[NPWhich]camefirst,thegoldengooseorthegoldenegg?

Bycontrast,thepronounwhatcanonlybeusedtoaskquestionsaboutnon-humans.

56Whatdidyousay_?

57Whatisthetime?

Noticethatin(52)and(55),butnotin(56),wehaveasensethatanounismissing.

Wewilltreatdependentwhichandwhatin(58)and(59)asinterrogativedeterminatives.

58[NPWhichlane]wasthedebrisfoundin_?

59[NPWhatnationality]ishe?

Seesection5.2.1.2forfurtherdiscussion.

3.2.2.6Demonstrativepronouns

Englishhasfourdemonstrativepronouns,asshowninTable3.9:thisandthat,andtheirpluralformstheseandthose.Thisandtheseareusedtorefertoentitiesthatareproximal(i.e.closeby),whereasthatandthoserefertoentitiesthataredistal(i.e.furtheraway).

Table3.9:Demonstrativepronouns

Herearesomeexamples.

60ThisisaperfectlygoodconversationasfarasI’mconcerned.

61Thesearepeanutty.

62That’sthechallenge.

63ThosearedefinedinverybroadtermstoincludetheentireJewishpeople.

Itisimportanttobeawareofthefactthatwhentheyoccurbeforenouns,this/these(asinthisstory/thesestories)andthat/those(asinthatallegation/thoseallegations)aredeterminatives(seesection3.3).

3.2.2.7Indefinitepronouns

Thiscategorycomprisespronounswhichare‘indefinite’inthesensethattheydonotrefertoindividualsorentitiesthatareidentifiabletotheaddressee.Forexample,ifsomeonesaysI’veeatensixcakesandIwantanotherthewordanotherreferstoanycakethatcanbechosenfromasetofcakes.Table3.10liststheindefinitepronounsinEnglishwithexamples.Someofthesepronounsaresimpleinform(all,many,some),whileothersarecompounds(anyone,somebody).

Indefinitepronouns

additive another

(a)Oneexampleisthevertebrateimmunesystem.Anotheristhelearningsystem.

degree few,fewer,less,little,many,more,most,much

(b)Fewhavesucceeded.

disjunctive either,neither

(c)Neitherwillbestandingatthenextgeneralelection.

distributive each,every,everybody,everyone,everything,everywhere

(d)Everybodyquestionsthe

significanceoftheresults.

existential any,some,somebody,someone,something

(e)SomebodyhadbeenintotalktoPaulinenextdoortoborrowallhervases.

negative nobody,noone,none,nothing

(f)Nothingisputawayandnothingreallyhasafixedplacewhereitiskept.

positivepaucal

afew,alittle,several

(g)Bycombiningseverallikethisyoucanmakeadistributionlist.

sufficiency enough

(h)Enoughwasenough.

universal all,anybody,anyone,anything,both

(i)Obviouslyanyoneisentitledtocomeforward.

Table3.10:Indefinitepronouns

Manyoftheitemslistedinthetablecanalsobelongtothewordclassofdeterminatives,tobediscussedinsection3.3.

3.2.3Propernouns

Propernounsareusedforthenamesofpeople,places,animals,andsoon,forexampleHarry,Pete,James,Kelvin,Amsterdam,Japan,France,May,September.SuchnounsfunctionastheHeadofpropernames.Forexample,inthesimpleclauseHarrylikesSallybothHarryandSallyarepropernounswhichfunctionastheHeadofnounphraseswhicharepropernames.Wecanrepresentthelatterasfollowsusingalabelledbracketing(section1.3):[NP[NHarry]]and[NP[NSally]].Wealsoregardaspropernamesmulti-wordexpressionssuchasTheHague,UniversityCollegeLondon,andtheUnitedKingdom.ThesemayhaveapropernounasHead(e.g.NewYork),butaresometimesheadedbyacommonnoun(theIslesofScilly).

Inaparticularcontextofusepropernounshaveauniquereference.Theirmodificationalpropertiesarelimited,aswiththepronouns.Thus,theycannotnormallybepluralized(*Harries,*Toms,*Petes),orprecededbydeterminatives(*theMary,*aJeremy),thoughthereareexceptions.Forexample,inasituationwhereseveralgroupsofpeoplewiththesamenamehavegatheredonemightaskWouldallthePaulsgotoroomA,andallthePetestoroomB?Inthiscasewehavebothadeterminativeinfrontofthenoun,andpluralization.Modificationbyadjectivesseemstobemorefreelyallowed,asinThelovelyRoxannekissedyoungFrank.

3.2.4Numerals

Wedistinguishbetweencardinalnumeralsandordinalnumerals.Theformerarenounswhentheyoccurontheirown,asin(64)and(65)—noticethepluralendingsin(65)—butdeterminatives(section3.3)whentheyoccurbeforenouns,asin(66).

64He’sseventy-one.

65Hetookmetowhathecalledaplaceroundthecorner,akindofclubwhereyoungishmen,allcivilians,satintwosandthreesatlittletableswithdrinksinfrontofthem,talkinginlowvoices.

66Ifellasleepfortwohours.

Ordinalnumerals(first,second,third,etc.)areadjectives,exemplifiedin(67).

67Couldwehaveasecondquestionplease?

3.3Determinatives

WordsbelongingtotheclassofdeterminativesfunctionastheHeadsofdeterminativephrases(DPs)whichinturnprincipallyfunctionasDeterminersinsidenounphrases(seeChapter5forexamplesofDPsperformingotherfunctions).Themeaningsexpressedbydeterminativesinclude‘definiteness’,‘proximity/remoteness’,‘number’,‘gender’,and‘quantification’.Table3.11liststhemostcommondeterminatives,withexamples.

Distributionally,determinatives,asHeadsofDPs,almostalwaysprecedenouns,eitherimmediately(e.g.thestory)orbeforeotherphrasessuchasadjectivephrases(e.g.theunlikelystory).Somedeterminativescanbemodified,andcantakeinflections(e.g.[verymany]results;[almostevery]comment;[these]results),buttheycannottakecase,withtheexceptionofthepersonaldeterminatives(cf.uslawyers).Table3.12summarizesthepropertiesofdeterminatives.

Table3.11:Determinatives

Typicaldeterminatives…

•functionastheHeadsofdeterminativephraseswhichinturnfunctionasDeterminers,principallyintheleftmostpositioninsidenounphrases;

•canbemodifiedorinflectedtoaverylimitedextent(somecannotbemodifiedatall);

•donottakecase(withtheexceptionofthepersonaldeterminatives).

Table3.12:Thedistributionalpropertiesoftypicaldeterminatives

InwhatfollowsIwilldiscussthemostimportantdeterminativetypeslistedinTable3.11.Asnoted,determinativesalwaysfunctionastheHeadsofdeterminativephrases,thoughforclarityofexpositiontheDPlevelisnotalwaysmentionedorrepresented.

3.3.1Articles

Thewordaistraditionallycalledanindefinitearticle,andcanonlybeusedinfrontofsingularnouns,whiletheisreferredtoasadefinitearticle,andcanbeusedbeforesingularandpluralnouns.Weuseainsituationswhereweintroduceanentity(orconcept)thatisnotuniquelyidentifiabletotheaddressee(hence‘indefinite’)intoadiscourseortext,asinthefragmentin(68).

68Anewwordiscreepingintotheworldofbanking:netting.Itcouldmakebankingcheaperandsafer.

Theindefinitearticleaisusedherebecausethenewwordinquestionhasnotbeenmentionedbeforeinthecontext.Onsubsequentmentionitisreferredtobythepronounit.

Thedeterminativetheisusedwhenthenouninfrontofwhichitoccurshasbeenusedbefore,orisidentifiable,asin(69)whichisfromastoryinwhichflyinghaspreviouslybeenmentioned.

69Theplanecamedownatnighttimeonthenarrowstripthatjutsacrossthebay.

Insomecasesthecanbeusedinfrontofanounthathasnotbeenmentionedpreviously.Thishappensincaseswherethereferentofthenounisknowntotheaddressee.Forexample,in(70)theaddresseewillassumethatthespeakeristalkingaboutthecatshekeepsinherhouse.

70It’sniceandquiet.I’vegotitalltothecatandmyself.

Similarly,consider(71).

71Imetagirlonthetraintoday.

Evenif(71)isutteredinasituationinwhichspeakerandaddresseedonotknoweachotherandhavenevermetbefore,theaddresseewillconstrueameaningforthephrasethetrain,suchas‘thetrainonwhichthespeakertravelstowork’.Noticethatif(71)hadreadImetthegirlonthetraintoday,thiswouldhavebeenoddwithoutagirlhavingbeenmentionedpreviously.

3.3.2Degreedeterminatives

Weregardtheitemsfew,little,many,andmuchasdegreedeterminatives,thoughitisworthpointingoutthattheyshareanumberofpropertieswithadjectives.Ifwetakemanyasanexample,considerfirst(72)and(73)below,wherewehavemoreandmost,whicharethecomparativeandsuperlativeformsofMANY.Takingcomparativeandsuperlativeformsisapropertyofadjectives(andadverbs,Section2.2.3),butnotofdeterminatives.

72[NPMorepeople]werebeginningtositonchairsintheOttomanworld.

73Womenread[NPthemostbooks]!

Next,manycanbemodifiedbytheadverbvery,whichistypicalofadjectives.

74Thereare[NPverymanybasilicachurches]builtalloverByzantiuminthefirstthreecenturiesofChristianity.

Wethusseethatdegreedeterminativesresembleadjectivesintheirdistributionalbehaviour.

3.3.3Demonstrativedeterminatives

Thedemonstrativedeterminativesthis/thatandthese/thosehavea‘pointing’function:theyservetoidentifypeopleorobjectsthatarenearby(proximaldeterminatives)orfurtheraway(distaldeterminatives),eitherinthesingularorintheplural.Seealsosection3.2.2.6.

3.3.4Interrogativedeterminatives

Theinterrogativedeterminativesoccurininterrogativeclauses(seesection6.2),asinthefollowingexamples.

75[NPWhichpainters]areyoutalkingabout_?

76[NPWhatpainters]areyoutalkingabout_?

Thedifferencebetweentheseexamplesisthattheformercanbeusedwhenthespeakerhasadefinitesetofpaintersinmind,suchastheImpressionistpainters,whereasthechoicecanbefromanon-specificsetwhenwhatisused.

Notethatinterrogativewhoseoccurringbeforeanoun,asin(77),isaninterrogativepronoun,notadeterminative,aswesawinsection3.2.2.5.Thisisbecauseitcarriesgenitivecase,whichdeterminativescannotdo.

77Whoseideawasthat?

3.3.5Relativeandfreerelativedeterminatives

Therelativedeterminativewhichoccursbeforenounsinrelativeclauses(sections3.2.2.3and7.3.3).Itcannotoccurasanindependentelement.

78Youwon’tgetthislettertillMonday[clause[PPbywhichtime]I’llnodoubthavespokentoyou_].

Aswesawinsection3.2.2.3,whosein(79)isarelativepronounfunctioningasDeterminer.Itisnotadeterminative,byvirtueofcarryinggenitivecase.

79Iwasencouragedtoplaytheclarinetandwastaughtbyateacher[clause[NPwhoseclaimtofame]wasthathehadtaughtReginaldKell].

Freerelativedeterminativesoccurinsidenounphrasesthatintroducefreerelativeclauses,whichwerebrieflydiscussedinsection3.2.2.4.Whatdistinguishesthemfromrelativedeterminativesisthattheylackanantecedentnoun.Intheexamplesbelow,repeatedfromTable3.11,thefreerelativeclausesfunctionastheDirectObjectoftheverbsCHOOSE,EAT,andSUPPORT.WithinthefreerelativeclausesthemselvestheNPsareassociatedwiththepositionsindicatedby‘_’.

80Youthenchoose[clause[NPwhichcheese]youprefer_]andwhetheryouwantonions,peppersorothertoppings.

81Weate[clause[NPwhatfood]wehad_onthetrees].

82TheLiberalDemocratswouldsupport[clause[NPwhicheverparty]hadthemostseats]iftherewasahungparliament.

IwillreturntorelativeclausesinSection7.3.3andtofreerelativeclausesinsection7.3.3.5.

3.4Adjectivesandadjectivephrases

AnadjectiveisawordthatfunctionsastheHeadofanadjectivephrase(AdjP)andcandescribethereferentofanounphraseinattributiveposition(i.e.infrontofanoun).

83Hesaid[AdjPbright]pupilswouldbepreventedfromfulfillingtheirpotential.

84We’vehada[AdjPveryinteresting]year.

Attributiveadjectivescanbestacked,thatis,occurinsequence,withoutlimitation(e.g.thebiggreenbox),thoughaddingtoomanyadjectivestoanNPwillobviouslyleadtoproblemsofcomprehensionduetolimitationsonhumanmemory.Anumberofadjectivesoccurexclusivelyinattributiveposition.Amongthemareformer,future,main,andutter.

AdjectivesfunctioningasHeadsofadjectivephrasescanalsooccurinpredicativepositionafterso-calledlinkingverbslikeAPPEAR,BE,BECOME,andSEEM(seeSection3.6.1below).

85Iwas[AdjPlucky].

86Ifanything,itseems[AdjPlighter].

Someadjectivescanonlyoccurinpredicativeposition,forexampleafraid,alive,alone,awake,aware.

Thirdly,adjectivescanbemodifiedbysuchwordsascompletely,quite,really,so,too,very.

87Thebuildingwillbe[AdjPcompletelyclosed]forapproximatelyoneweekduringthereligiousholidayperiods.

88Therearesome[AdjPreallynice]peoplethere.

89Therearetwotypesofgorilla,[AdjPsosimilar]thatittakesaspecialisttotellthemapart.

90Itseems[AdjPveryexpensive].

Relatedtothisisthepropertyofgradability.Thisconcernstheplain,comparative,andsuperlativeformsofadjectivesandtheiranalyticformswithmore/most,whichwerediscussedinSection2.2.3.

Finally,anumberofadjectives,butbynomeansall,cantaketheprefixun-:(un)friendly,(un)helpful,(un)decided,(un)married,andsoon.Table3.13summarizesthepropertiesoftypicaladjectives.

Typicaladjectivescan…

•actastheHeadofanadjectivephrase;

•modifytheHeadofanounphrase(attributiveposition);

•occurafterlinkingverbs(predicativeposition);

•beintensified;

•begraded;

•taketheprefixun-.

Table3.13:Thedistributionalpropertiesoftypicaladjectives

Itisimportanttostressthatadjectivesthatoccurontheirownarealsoadjectivephrases.Thisisbecausetheycanusuallybeexpandedtoaphrasewithmorethanoneword.Compare(83)and(84)above.

3.5Thedifferencesbetweendeterminativesandadjectives

Insomegrammarsdeterminativesareanalysedasadjectives,sincebothoccurbeforenouns,asintheexamplethebrilliantexplanation.Thiscannotbecorrectforseveralreasons.Thefirstpointtonoteisthat

determinativesaddaverydifferenttypeofmeaningtothephrasesinwhichtheyoccur.IntheNPabovethewordtheaddsdefiniteness,whichmeansthattheexplanationthatisbeingreferredtocanbeidentifieduniquelybytheaddressee.Bycontrast,thewordbrilliantaddsdescriptivemeaningtotheHeadnoun.

AsecondpointtoobserveisthattherearelimitsonthenumberofdeterminativesthatcanbeaddedtoNPs,andtherearesyntacticrestrictionsontheirorder.Adjectivescanbestackedwithoutlimitinprinciple,andtheorderingrestrictionsaresemanticinnature.Iwillreturntothispointinsection5.2.4.1.

Finally,adjectivescantakeinflectionsandarangeofmodifiers,suchasadverbs,whereasdeterminativesaremuchmorerestrictedinthisrespect.

3.6Verbsandverbphrases

Verbsarethemostcentralelementsofclauses.Theycanexpressactions,events,statesofaffairs,andthelike.Inthissectionwewillexpandontheinitialnotionalcharacterizationofverbsas‘actionwords’bydescribingtheirgrammaticalproperties.

3.6.1Intransitive,transitive,andlinkingverbs

Verbscanbeinflectedfortense,oroccurinnon-tensedforms(seesection2.2.1.2),withtheexceptionofthemodalverbs(section3.6.3.2)whichalwayscarrytense.Verbsaretypicallypositionedafteraclause-initialnounphrasewhichfunctionsasSubject.In(91)belowtheitalicizedverbstandsonitsown,andissaidtobeanintransitiveverb.

91Henceifyousmile,youwillfeelhappy.

OtherintransitiveverbsincludeARRIVE,BLUSH,COLLAPSE,COME,DANCE,DIE,FAINT,FALL,JOKE,RELAX,andWALK.

Contrast(91)with(92)wheretheverbWANTrequiresaDirectObjecttocompleteitsmeaning.

92Shejustwantsachange.

Wecannotsay*Forlunchhewantswithoutspecifyingwhatitishewants.VerbsthattakeaDirectObjectarecalledtransitiveverbs.

In(93)theitalicizedverbisalinkingverbwhichisfollowedbyaPredicativeComplement(underlined).

93Thisisaperfectlygoodconversation.

PredicativeComplementstypicallyindicateapropertythatisascribedtoaSubjectorDirectObject.In(93)theNPaperfectlygoodconversationisaSubject-relatedPredicativeComplement.Thisgrammaticalfunctionwillbediscussedinsection4.1.3.3,alongwiththefunctionObject-relatedPredicativeComplement.OthercommonlinkingverbsincludeBECOME,SEEM,andAPPEAR.

3.6.2Verbphrases

VerbsfunctionastheHeadsofverbphrases(VPs).Wewillsaythattheverbphrasein(91)comprisesonlytheintransitiveverbSMILE,asshownin(94).

94Henceifyou[VP[Vsmile]],youwillfeelhappy.

IntransitiveVPscancontainoptionalAdjuncts(section1.4),asin(95),wherethephraseinJunesuppliesatimereference.

95I’m[VP[Vgraduating][PPinJune]].

In(92)and(93)theVPconsistsofaverbandafollowingnounphrasetakentogether,asindicatedin(96)and(97).

96Shejust[VP[Vwants][NPachange]].

97This[VP[Vis][NPaperfectlygoodconversation]].

Aswehaveseen,in(96)theNPfunctionsasDirectObject,whereasin(97)itfunctionsasSubject-relatedPredicativeComplement(tobediscussedinsection4.1.3.3.1).In(98)theVPcontainsaverb,anounphrasefunctioningasDirectObject,andaprepositionalphrasefunctioningas

Adjunct(seesection4.1.3.6).ThelatterislesscloselyrelatedtotheverbthantheDirectObject.

98She[VP[Vhad][NPadog][PPatherfeet]].

OtherComplementsthatcanappearinsideverbphraseswillbediscussedinSection5.4.1.

3.6.3Lexicalverbsandauxiliaryverbs

Considerthesetofexamplesbelow.

99Theagentswillbookthetickets.

100Athickfoghasdescendedonthecity.

101Theteacherispreparinganoutdoorlesson.

102Thecrookwasapprehended.

103Hedidagree!

Ineachoftheseexamplesthereismorethanoneverb.Wewillmakeadistinctionbetweenlexicalverbsandauxiliaryverbs:lexicalverbs(doublyunderlined)expresstheprincipalactionoreventinaclause,whereasauxiliaryverbs(singlyunderlined)aretraditionallysaidto‘help’lexicalverbsinspecifyingadditionalmeanings.Forexample,in(99)theauxiliaryverbWILLexpresses‘intention’.Theclassofauxiliaryverbscanbedividedintofourcategories:modalauxiliaries,aspectualauxiliaries(comprisingperfectHAVEandprogressiveBE),thepassiveauxiliaryBE,anddummyDO.Here’sanoverviewofhowEnglishverbscanbesubclassified.

Figure3.1ThesubclassificationofEnglishverbs

Thesyntacticpropertiesofauxiliaryverbswillbediscussedinthenextsection.

3.6.3.1TheNICEproperties

Auxiliaryverbsshareanumberofdistributionalcharacteristics,collectivelyreferredtoastheNICEproperties.NICEisanacronymthatstandsforNegation,Inversion,Code,andEmphasis.Letuslookateachoftheseinturn.

Asregardsnegation,auxiliaryverbscanbefollowedbynotortakeanendingin-n’tasthefollowingexamplesshow.(ThisisrarefortheverbMAY.)

104Theagentswillnot/won’tbookthetickets.

105Athickfoghasnot/hasn’tdescendedonthecity.

106Theteacherisnot/isn’tpreparinganoutdoorlesson.

107Thecrookwasnot/wasn’tapprehended.

Lexicalverbscannotbenegatedbyusingnot,anddonottaketheending-n’t,cf.*Heagreednot/agreedn’t.Instead,as(108)shows,dummyDO(section3.6.3.5)isused.

108Hedidn’tagree!

AuxiliaryverbscaninvertwiththeirSubjects.

109Willtheagentsbookthetickets?

110Hasathickfogdescendedonthecity?

111Istheteacherpreparinganoutdoorlesson?

112Wasthecrookapprehended?

In(113)dummyDOisusedtoinvertwiththeSubject.

113Didheagree?

Theterm‘code’intheacronymNICEreferstothepropertyofauxiliariesthatallowsthemtobe‘stranded’,asintheexamplesbelow.

114Theagentswillbookthetickets,andsowilltherepresentatives.

115Athickfoghasdescendedonthecity,andagloomyatmospherehastoo.

116Theteacherispreparinganoutdoorlesson,butthelecturerisn’t.

117Thecrookwasapprehended,andsowasthesolicitor.

118Hedidagree,andsodidshe.

Theitalicizedauxiliariesareashorthand‘code’forthelargerverbalconstructions.Thus(116)isanellipticalversionofTheteacherispreparinganoutdoorlesson,butthelecturerisn’t[preparinganoutdoorlesson].Ineachofthesecasesanitalicizedauxiliaryverbappearswithoutalexicalverbaccompanyingit.Thistypeofstructureisnotpossibleforlexicalverbs:

119*Heagreed,andsoagreedshe.

The‘E’inNICEreferstoprosodicemphasis(i.e.theforcewithwhichsomethingisuttered),indicatedbyunderlininginthefollowingexamples:

120Theagentswillbookthetickets.

122Theteacherispreparinganoutdoorlesson.

123Thecrookwasapprehended.

124Hedidagree!

Lexicalverbsdonotallowsuchemphasis.Forexample,ifIsayJimdidn’twatchtelevisionlastnight,itwouldnotbepossibleforsomeoneelsetosayJimwatchedtelevisionlastnightwithheavystressontheverbwatched.Instead,theywouldsayJimdidwatchtelevisionlastnight.

ThelexicalverbsBEandHAVE,exemplifiedin(125)and(126),alsoconformtotheNICEproperties,butwewillnotregardthemasauxiliaryverbs.Thereasonisthattheycanoccurontheirowninclauses,whereasauxiliariescan’t.

125Iwaslucky.

126Shehasahugerangeinherkitchen.

3.6.3.2Modalauxiliaries

Modalauxiliaries(or‘modals’forshort)areinvolvedinexpressingthefollowingmeanings,amongstothers:‘ability’,‘probability’,‘possibility’,‘prediction’,‘obligation’,‘necessity’,‘intention’,‘permission’,‘logicalconclusion’.Asanexample,considertheclausein(127),whichinvolvesapredictionaboutafuturesituation.

127Iwillbereallybusythatnight.

TheEnglishmodalauxiliariesareshowninTable3.14.

Themodalauxiliaries

presenttenseform pasttenseform

will would

can could

may might

shall should

must n/a

Table3.14:Themodalauxiliaries

Thereareafewmorphosyntacticpointstonoteaboutthemodals.Firstly,theydonothavethirdpersonsingularpresenttenseendings.Thus,whilewehaveheworks,shepaints,andsoon,wedonotget*hemays,*shecans,andsoon.

Secondly,theyoccuronlyintensedforms(presentorpast),thoughnoticethatMUSTdoesnothaveapasttenseform.

Thirdly,exceptin‘code’structures(section3.6.3.1),themodalsarefollowedbyabareinfinitiveformoftheverb(BEin(127)).

Amoredetaileddescriptionofthesyntaxandsemanticsofthemodalauxiliariesfollowsinsection10.3.3.Chapter10willalsodiscussanumberofmarginalmodalsandmodalidioms.

3.6.3.3Aspectualauxiliaries

Aspectualauxiliariesandthelexicalverbsthatfollowthemareinstrumentalinexpressinghowaneventisviewedintime.TherearetwoaspectualconstructionsinEnglish:theperfectandtheprogressive,whichwealreadybrieflydiscussedinSection2.2.1.

TheperfectconstructionisrealizedbyperfectHAVE+apastparticipleformofaverb(section2.2.1.2),asshowninTable3.15.

Theperfectconstruction:perfectHAVE+pastparticipleformofaverb(V-ed/-en)

presentperfect have/has+V-ed/-en

pastperfect had+V-ed/-en

non-finiteperfect have/having+V-ed/-en

Table3.15:Theperfectconstruction

Thepresentperfectconstructionconcernseventsthattookplaceinthepast,buthave‘currentrelevance’.Thus,in(121),repeatedhereas(128),theeventisviewedashavingcommencedinthepast,andasbeingstillrelevantatthemomentofspeaking,forexamplebecausethefogishamperingtheflowoftraffic.

BecausetheverbHAVEoccursinitsthirdpersonsingularpresenttenseform,thestructureaboveinvolvesapresentperfectconstruction.In(129)theverbHAVEoccursinthepasttense.Inthiscasetheconstructioniscalledapastperfect.

129Bythetimewearrivedhere,wehadhadenoughoftravelling.

Thepastperfecttypicallyinvolvesareferencepointinthepast,inrelation

towhichasituationislocatedintime.Forexample,in(129)thereferencepointisthepointintimewhen‘we’arrived,andthesituationof‘our’havingenoughoftravellingistemporallylocatedinrelationtothatpoint.Theperfectcanalsooccurinnon-finiteclauses(section2.2.1.5),as(130)and(131)show.Intheseexamplestheperfectconstructionexpressesthatthesituationsinthebracketedclausestookplaceinthepastfromthepointofviewofthemomentofutterance.

130Anywayit’snice[tohavemether].

131[Havingsaidthat],IcanreallyonlysayhowitwasformewhenIcametowork.

InaprogressiveconstructiontheprogressiveauxiliaryBEisalwaysfollowedbyan-ingparticipleformofaverb,asshowninTable3.16.Thiscombinationexpressesthataneventisongoingorwasongoing.ThusTheteacherispreparinganoutdoorlesson(a‘presentprogressive’construction)communicatesthefactthatthepreparationisinprogress.InWewerewatchingafilmlastnight(a‘pastprogressive’construction)theeventofwatchingthefilmwasinprogressinthepast.Theprogressivefocusesontheunfoldingofevents,ratherthanonaneventviewedasawholewithabeginningpointandanendpoint.

Theprogressiveconstruction:progressiveBE+-ingparticipleformofaverb(V-ing)

presentprogressive am/are/is+V-ing

pastprogressive was/were+V-ing

non-finiteprogressive be/been+V-ing

Table3.16:Theprogressiveconstruction

Aswiththeperfect,theprogressivecanalsooccurinnon-finitestructures,

asin(132).

132Theclassseems[tobevotingwithitsfeet].

Theperfectandprogressiveconstructionswillbedealtwithingreaterdetailinsection9.3.

3.6.3.4PassiveBE

ThepassiveconstructioninEnglishisformedbycombiningthepassiveauxiliaryBEwiththepastparticipleformofalexicalverb,followedbyanoptionalby-phrase,asshowninTable3.17.

Thepassiveconstruction:passiveBE+pastparticipleformofalexicalverb(V-ed/-

en)(byNP)

presentpassive am/is/are+V-ed/-en(byNP)

pastpassive was/were+V-ed/-en(byNP)

Table3.17:Thepassiveconstruction

Passiveconstructionscontainingaby-phrasecanberelatedtoactivecounterparts,suchthataDirectObject,IndirectObject,orObjectofaprepositionofanactiveclausebecomestheSubjectofapassiveclause.Herearesomeexamples.

InactiveconstructionsthereischaracteristicallyanagentiveSubject,thatis,theSubjectreferstoananimateinstigatorofanactiondenotedbytheverb,whereasinpassiveclausestheSubjectistypicallyaPatient(‘Undergoer’)ofanactiondenotedbyaverb.Iwillreturntosuchnotionsas‘Agent’and‘Patient’insection4.2.

AspecialtypeofpassiveconstructioninvolvestheverbGET.Someexamplesareshownbelow.

137Igotsenthome.

138Thesetemplesgotabandonedaftermedievaltimes,thoughthesitewasstillusedandinhabitedbymedievalpeopleuptoabouttheeighthcenturyBC.

TheGET-passiveconstructionislessformalthantheconstructionwithBE,andisoftenusedwhenthespeakerwishestoimputesomeresponsibilityforthesituationbeingexpressedtotheSubjectoftheclause.Thusinthecaseof(137)itislikelythatthespeakerinsomewaybroughtabouthisbeingsenthome.ThepassiveversionwithBEcarriesnosuchimplication.

Passivizationwillbediscussedfurtherinsections4.1and11.4.

3.6.3.5DummyDO

WealreadyhadcausetorefertodummyDOanumberoftimesintheprecedingsections.Thisverbhasthisnamebecauseitismeaningless.Itisinsertedtoallowlexicalverbstoformnegative,interrogative,‘code’,andemphaticstructures.ThiskindofinsertioniscalledDO-support.Toillustrate,considerthe‘basic’clauseHereadsalot,togetherwithitsnegative,interrogative,‘code’,andemphaticcounterparts,inTable3.18.

UsesofdummyDO

‘Basic’version:

Hereadsalot.

Negatedversion:

Hedoesn’treadalot.

*Hereadsn’t

Invertedversion:

Doeshereadalot?

*Readshealot?

‘Code’version:

Hereadsalot,andsodoesshe.

*Hereadsalot,andsoreadsshe.

Emphaticversion:

Hedoesreadalot.

*Hereadsalot.(The*pertainstothestress,notthestructureperse.)

Table3.18:UsesofdummyDO

ItwillbeclearfromtheseexamplesthatdummyDOisrequiredeachtimethereisneedforanegated,interrogative,‘code’,oremphaticversionofaclausewhichdoesnotalreadycontainanauxiliaryverb.

Insection8.6Iwilldiscusscombinationsoftwo,three,orfourauxiliaryverbs.

3.7Prepositionsandprepositionalphrases

PrepositionsfunctionastheHeadsofprepositionalphrases(PPs).Theyareuninflected,usuallyshortwordswhichoftenexpressspatialmeaningswhichcanbeliteral(inthebox,neartheschool,onthedesk)orfigurative(inlove,beyondbelief,beneathcontempt).Othermeaningsarenon-spatialandabstract,asinthephrasesforyourbenefit,thefirstofJuly.WedistinguishtransitiveprepositionswhichtakeNPsorclausesasComplements,intransitiveprepositionswhichdonottakeaComplement,complexprepositionswhichconsistofmorethanoneword,postpositionswhoseComplementprecedesthem,anddeverbalprepositionswhicharederivedfromverbs.

3.7.1Transitiveprepositions

PrepositionscanbetransitiveinwhichcasetheytakeaComplement.Wedistinguishtwotypesoftransitivepreposition:regularprepositionswhichtakeanNP,AdjP,AdvP,orPPasComplement,andconjunctiveprepositionswhichtakeaclauseasComplement.Someprepositionsbelongtobothclasses.Conjunctiveprepositionswillbediscussedinsection5.5.1.5.

RegularprepositionstypicallytakeanNPasaComplement,asin(139)–(143).

139Anextrafacility[PPin[NPthearea]]isthereforeunnecessary.

140Catscangoout[PPthrough[NPthecatflap]].

141Iwillbeawayfromthe17thAugusttothe9thofSeptembersosomehowifyouwanttobewithme[PPduring[NPthattime]]Ihavetosharethismagicwithyou.

142ThedanceworldortheworldthatIwasworkinginandstudyinginwas[PPin[NPmanyways]]veryremovedfromtherestoflife.

143TonightEmilyhasgoneoff[PPwith[NPherDad]].

WhenanounphrasefunctioningasComplementofaprepositionisheadedbyapronounthatcanhaveacasecontrast(e.g.firstandthirdpersonpersonalpronouns),thepronouncarriesaccusativecase(section3.2.2.1.1):

144Whyareyoulooking[PPat[NPme]]?

LesscommonlyprepositionstakeAdjPs,AdvPs,andPPsasComplements.Thesewillbediscussedinsections5.5.12–5.5.1.4.

3.7.2Intransitiveprepositions

IntransitiveprepositionscanstandontheirownasHeadsofprepositionalphraseswhichtypicallyfunctionasverbalComplements.Examplesareshownbelow.

145Ishallprobablylook[PP[Pin]]attheCollege.

146Wemightgo[PP[Pout]forameal.

147Presumablyyou’vebeen[PP[Pinside]]?

Structureslikethesewillbediscussedfurtherinsection4.1.3.4.

Table3.19listscommonEnglishprepositions.

Table3.19:Prepositions

3.7.3Complexprepositions

TheprepositionslistedinTable3.19consistofonewordwithoneormoresyllables.Englishalsopossessesanumberofcomplexprepositions.Theseareprepositionsthatconsistoftwoormorewords.Examplesareshownbelow,andTable3.20providesalist.

148Likemostofus,Ihadassumedthismeantasiteinthemiddleofthevillage[PPnextto[NPthechurch]]wherethereisaflatareabigenoughandidealforthepurpose.

149Iknewwe’dbe[PPoutof[NPpocket]]overit,butIwasblowedifweweregoingtohavejustthat.

150Thispressureismaintained[PPbymeansof[NPwatertowersandgravity]].

Complexprepositionsaretransitive:theycanlicenseNPsorclausesasComplements.Thosewhichlicenseclausesarecalledconjunctivecomplexprepositions,andwillbediscussedinsection5.5.1.5.

Table3.20:Complexprepositions

3.7.4Postpositions

SometransitiveprepositionsfollowtheirComplements,andforthatreasonarebestcalledpostpositions.Examplesareshownbelow,andTable3.21providesalist.

151[PP[NPCollegework]aside],IhavejustendedthisstrangerelationshipwiththegirlwespokeaboutinParis.

152[PP[NPSeventeenyears]ago]ImetayoungmancalledNatDavidSchwartz.

153TobefairtoourPrimeMinister,whileseldomconductingcharmoffensivesinBrussels,hehassedulouslyworkedonhisrelationshipsasidefromfor/fromwantofinrelationtoontopofasperinaccordancewithin/withrespecttooutofwithotherEuropeanleaders,andthisstrategy,[PP[

NPouraloofnessfromtheeurozone]notwithstanding],hasservedhimwellatthistimeofcrisis.

154“Ihavebeenrealluckyandeverythingwentperfect[PP[NPallyear]through],”hesaid.

NoticethattheseprepositionscannotprecedetheirComplements,thoughnotwithstandingisanexception.Thusin(153)notwithstandingouraloofnessfromtheeurozonewouldalsohavebeenpossible.ThroughcantakeanNPasComplement(e.g.throughthedoor),butcannotprecedeallyearin(154).

Postpositions

notwithstanding

through

Table3.21:Postpositions

3.7.5Deverbalprepositions

Transitiveprepositionsthattakethesameformas-ingparticiplesor-edparticiplesarecalleddeverbalprepositions.SeetheexamplesbelowandthelistinTable3.22.

155ButtomanyLondoners,[PPincluding[NPsomeofthestarsgatheredheretonight]],thesearedangeroustimes.

156[PPRegarding[NPtheissueofdiagnosis],Szaszraisestwomajorcriticismsconcerningtheanalogybetweenphysicalandmentaldisease,implicitinthemedicalmodel.

157Youmayevenbethinkingthat[PPgiven[NPyourstudiedignoranceonthematter],thedemocraticprocesswillbefarbetteroffwithoutyourparticipation,nomatterhowcloseallourparliamentaryinstitutionsaretomeltdown.

Table3.22:Deverbalprepositions

3.8Adverbsandadverbphrases

AdverbsfunctionastheHeadofAdverbPhrases(AdvP)whichmodifyverbs,adjectives,orotheradverbs,asinthefollowingexamples.

158Lansbury[VP[AdvPcheerfully]acceptedhissecondimprisonment].

159Wehada[AdjP[AdvPvery]good]turnout.

160You’renodoubtworking[AdvP[AdvPextremely]hard].

Theadverbin(161)belowisaclauseadverbbecauseitsmeaningappliestoanentireclause,asbecomesclearwhenweparaphrase(161)asfollows:‘Itisprobablethatthistissuedoesnothaveanyimportantfunctioninadulthumansubjects.’Itcarriesmodalmeaning(section10.3.11.4).

161Thistissue[AdvPprobably]doesnothaveanyimportantfunctioninadulthumansubjects.

In(162),theadverbisorthographicallyplacedwithinthesecondofthetwoclauses,thoughinactualfactitissyntacticallyquitedetachedfromboth,andmerelyhasalinkingfunction.Noticethatwhen(162)isreadaloud,

thereisapauseafterhowever.Wewillcallsuchadverbslinkingadverbs.Othersincludebesides,finally,furthermore,andmoreover.

162Idon’tquiteknowhowtoanswerthatone.[AdvPHowever],Iwillspeaktoyoushortly.

Seealsosection4.1.3.6.3.

Alargenumberofadverbsarehomonymouswith(i.e.havethesameformsas)adjectives.Compare(163),wherehardisanadjective,with(164),whereitisanadverb.

163Theyrequirealotofhardwork.

164They’llhavetoworkhardinthemonthsahead.

Otheradverbsthatarehomonymouswithadjectivesincludeclear,daily,deadly,free,likely,part-time,pretty,still,well,wrong.Theadjectivesandadverbsdonotnecessarilyhavethesamemeaning.ThuswellinIamwelldoesnotmeanthesameaswellinHediditwell.

3.8.1Meaningsexpressedbyadverbs

Adverbscanexpressahugerangeofdifferenttypesofmeanings.Forexample,insidetheVPin(158)theadverbexpresses‘manner’.Suchadverbstypicallyendin-ly.Otheradverbscanexpress‘intensity’or‘degree’insideAdjPsandAdvPs,asin(159)and(160).Furthermeaningsinclude‘direction’(edgeways,sideways),‘extent’(completely,wholly),‘frequency’(always,often,seldom,weekly),‘instrument’(microscopically),‘location’(worldwide),‘time’(early,sometimes),and‘modality’(maybe,necessarily,perhaps,possibly,probably,surely;seesection10.3.11.4).

3.9Conjunctions

Conjunctionsarelinkingwordsofwhichtherearetwotypes:coordinatingconjunctionsandsubordinatingconjunctions.

Coordinatingconjunctionsarewordslikeand,or,andbut,andahandful

ofotheritems,whichareusedtolinkphrasesandclauses.Thefollowingexamplesshowcoordinatednounphrases,adjectivephrases,andprepositionalphrases.

165I’mtrainedas[NPadancer]and[NPacreativeartist].

166Wellbasicallyyou’rebornwithgeneswhichsayyou’regoingtobe[AdjPsmall]or[AdjPbig].

167Wenolongertalk[PPofvirtues]but[PPofvalues].

Furtherexampleswillbediscussedinsection5.7.

Subordinatingconjunctions(alsocalledsubordinators)arelinkingwordswhichservetosubordinateoneclausetoanother(sections1.3,1.7,and7.1).InthefollowingexampletheverbTHINKtakesaclausalDirectObjectwhichisintroducedbythesubordinatingconjunctionthat.

168Ithink[thatthispoemjustifieshispoint].

Wecanrepresentthestructureof(168)asfollows.

Werefertoaclauseinwhichasubordinateclauseisembeddedasamatrixclause.Amatrixclausewhichisitselfnotembeddedwithinanyotherclauseiscalledamainclause.Thusin(168)thestringIthinkthatthispoemjustifieshispointisamainclauseandamatrixclause,whereasthestringthatthispoemjustifieshispointisasubordinateclause.

ThewordswhetherandinterrogativeifarealsosubordinatingconjunctionsinEnglish.Theyareillustratedintheexamplesbelow.

169Idon’tknow[clausewhetherIgotyourletter].

170Andsheranguptheotherdaytoask[clauseifIneededtoseesomebody].

Finally,werecognizeforasasubordinatingconjunctioninclausesthatdonotcarrytense,asin(171).ThisconstructionismorefrequentinAmericanEnglish.

171ThereisnothingIwant[clauseforyoutosayanyway].

Table3.23providesalistofsubordinatingconjunctions.

Notethatthestructureasawholein(168)isalsoasentence.AswebrieflysawinChapter1,sentencesarecomposedofclauses.Minimallyasentencecontainsoneclause.However,wecannotequatethenotionof‘sentence’with‘mainclause’,becauseasentencecanbecomposedoftwomainclauses,forexampleinacoordinatedstructurelike(172).

Subordinatingconjunctions

whether

if(interrogative)

Table3.23:Subordinatingconjunctions

172[sentence[mainclauseItwasafourteenthorthirteenthcenturychâteau]and[mainclausewejustsortofwanderedin]].

Inthisgrammarwewillnothavemuchuseforthelabel‘sentence’.Insteadwefocusonthestructureofphrasesandclauses,aswellasclauserelationships.ThesetopicswillbediscussedextensivelyinChapters5,6,7,and8.

3.10Interjections

Theclassofinterjectionsincludeswordslikeah,aha,cool,damn,oh,mmm,ooh,ouch,uh,uhm,wow,yippee,yuck.Theyareusedtoexpressreactions,emotions,approval,disapproval,andsoon,butareverymarginal

tothegrammarofEnglish.Herearesomeexamples.

173Ahthat’sniceofyou.

174Oh,IthoughtyougotitfromBow.

175UhmbesidesthatI’vebeenphoningroundthepress.

176Mmmohyoumeanthepopgroupdidn’tlikeit?

Chapter4Grammaticalfunctions,semanticroles,andtreediagramsInthepreviouschapterwelookedatthewordclassesinEnglish,togetherwiththeirassociatedphrases,attheformlevelofanalysis.Inthischapterwewillturntogrammaticalfunctions.AnalysingEnglishatthislevelentailsconsideringthegrammaticalroles(Subject,DirectObject,etc.)thatparticularconstituents(stringsofwordsthatbehaveasunits)canplayinaclause.Atypicalclauseisdefinedasagrammaticalstructureinwhich‘somethingissaidabout’(‘predicatedof’)aSubject.Withinclauseswewillrecognizeseveralsemanticroles(Agent,Patient,etc.)thatconstituentscanplayfromthepointofviewofmeaning.Thesewillbediscussedinsection4.2.InthefinalsectionIwilldiscussawayinwhichwecanuseso-calledtreediagramstorepresentthestructureofclausesgraphically.

4.1Grammaticalfunctions

InEnglishwedistinguishthegrammaticalfunctionslistedinTable4.1.

Grammaticalfunctions

•Subject(Subj)

•Predicate(Pred)

•Predicator(PCR)

•Complements:

Object

DirectObject(DO)

IndirectObject(IO)

PredicativeComplement(PC)

Subject-related

Object-related

PPasComplement(PPC)

ComplementClause(CC)

•Adjunct(A)

Table4.1:Grammaticalfunctions

InwhatfollowsIwillfocusonthemaingrammaticalcharacteristicsofthevariousfunctions.

4.1.1Subject(Subj)

InChapter1weprovisionallydefinedtheSubjectofaclausenotion-allyasreferringtotheentitythatcarriesouttheactiondenotedbytheverb.Inalargenumberofcasesthisdefinitionworksverywell.InthefollowingexamplestheSubjectsareitalicized.

1Prosecutorsstoppedthevideo.

2Ideleteditmanually.

3AcourtinIndiapostponedthereleaseofafilmentitledHariPuttar.

ThereferentsoftheseSubjectscanindeedbesaidtobecarryingoutanaction:physicalactionsinthefirsttwoexamples,andanactofamoreabstractkindinthecaseof(3).However,inalargenumberofcasesthereferentsoftheSubjectsdonotengageinanykindofactionatall,cf.(4)and(5).

4Tonylikesfilmswithlotsofgratuitousviolence.

5IassumedthatImust’vecomethroughthequestioningsatisfactorily.

Inaddition,sometimestheSubjectofaclauseisitselfaclausewhichcannotbesaidtocarryoutanaction,asin(6).

6[ThatMorofeltcertainhewasbeingsacrificed]isevidentfromhislastletters.

ClausesfunctioningasSubjectswillbediscussedinChapters7and8.

Finally,thenotionaldefinitionisproblematicforpassiveclauses(sections1.11and3.6.3.4)inwhichtheSubjectcarriesaPatientrole(seesection4.2below).Thisismadeclearbyexample(7)inwhichDannyMaddoxistheperpetratorofafoulundergonebythepersonthattheSubjectrefersto.

7HewasfouledfrombehindbyDannyMaddox.

Inviewoftheabove,weconcludethatSubjectsarebestdefinedusinggrammaticalcriteria,towhichwenowturn.

4.1.1.1Subjectsareobligatory

ThefirstthingtonoticeaboutSubjectsisthattheyareobligatoryinmainclauses.Exceptionsareimperativeclauses(sections1.6and6.3),shortmessageslikethosesentbymobilephone(e.g.Willbelate),anddiaryentries(e.g.Wenttoseeafilmlastnight).NoneoftheexamplesbelowisgrammaticalwithoutaSubject.

8*stoppedthevideo.

9*deleteditmanually.

10*postponedthereleaseofafilmentitledHariPuttar.

11*likesfilmswithlotsofgratuitousviolence.

12*assumedthatImust’vecomethroughthequestioningsatisfactorily.

13*isevidentfromhislastletters.

4.1.1.2Subjectsaremostlyrealizedasnounphrases

Subjectsareoverwhelminglyrealizedasnounphrases.Whenwespeakoftherealizationofaparticularfunctionwearereferringtotheform(NP,AdjP,PP,clause,etc.)thatthefunctioninquestioncanassumeinEnglish.IntheICE-GBcorpus,whichcontainsonemillionwords,thereare107,531Subjects,99percentofwhichareNPs.Ofthese64percentareheadedbypronouns.

PrepositionalphrasescanfunctionasSubject,thoughthisisveryrare.Twoexamplesfollowbelow.

14[PPUnderthebed]iswheredustandchildhoodmonsterslurk.

15[PPBetweenhalfandthree-quartersofthefarm]islikelytobegrassland.

AdverbphrasescanonlyfunctionasSubjectinsetexpressionslikethefollowing,thelasttwoofwhichareheadlines.

16SheffieldUnitedcouldemploytheirusualtacticandtrytogetafewArsenalplayerssentoffearlyon.[AdvPCarefully]doesit,though.

17[AdvPGently]doesit.

18[AdvPPrudently]doesitasbanker’sbankerseesoffhisinquisitors.

Finally,asmallnumberofSubjectsarerealizedasclauses.Anexamplewasgivenin(6)above.SeeChapters7and8forfurtherdiscussion.

4.1.1.3Subjectscharacteristicallyoccupyaclause-initialpositionindeclarativeclauses

Subjectsgenerallyoccuratthebeginningofdeclarativeclauses(sections1.6and6.1),asinalltheexampleswehavelookedatsofarinthischapter.Fromthepointofviewofmeaningtheycanoftenbesaidtoexpresswhattheclauseisabout.

4.1.1.4PronounsheadingNPsintheSubjectpositionoffiniteclausestakenominativecase

Infiniteclauses(section2.2.1.5)pronounswhichcanshowacasealternation(e.g.firstandthirdpersonpersonalpronouns)headingNPsin

Subjectpositionoccurinthenominativecase(section2.2.2.2).Innon-finitesubordinateclausesSubjectscanalsocarryaccusativeorgenitivecase,aswewillseeinChapter8.

4.1.1.5Subjectscanbesemantically‘empty’

Subjectscanberealizedbysemantically‘empty’elements,likeitandthere(sections3.2.2.1.2and3.2.2.1.3),asintheexamplesbelow.

19Itisabsolutelyboilinghere.

20Thereisasensethatnobodyisleftoutofthisgroup.

EmptyitandtherepredominantlyoccurinSubjectposition,thoughtheycanalsooccuras‘raisedObjects’(seesection8.1.3.3).

4.1.1.6Subjectsinvertpositionswithverbsininterrogativemainclauses

SubjectscanexchangepositionswithauxiliaryverbsorwiththelexicalverbsBEorHAVE(section3.6.3)inmaininterrogativeclauses,whicharetypicallyusedtoaskquestions(sections1.6and6.2).Eachoftheclausesin(21)–(24)displaysinversionoftheSubjectandaverb.

21Couldyoustartagain?

22Hasshebookedinyet?

23Isthiscoqauvin?

24Haveyouapen?

Interrogativeclauseswillbediscussedinsection6.2,andinChapters7and8.

4.1.1.7VerbsagreewiththeirSubjectsinthepresenttense

VerbsaresaidtoagreewiththeirSubjectsinthepresenttenseforpersonandnumber(section2.2.1.2).In(25)thethirdpersonsingularpresenttenseinflection-sisobligatory.In(26)theagreementontheplainpresentformoftheverbisnotvisibleasaverbinflection.

25Andyhatesthem.

26IliketheCatherineCooksonbooks.

InthepasttenseonlytheinflectionalformsofBEagreewiththeirSubject:wehavewasforthefirstandthirdpersonsingular,andwereelsewhere.

27Hewasnotamused.

28Theywereinterestedinsellingthebusiness.

4.1.1.8Subjectscanbetheantecedentsofpronounsininterrogativetags

Subjectscanactastheantecedentsofpronounsinso-calledinterrogativetags.Thispropertyisillustratedbytheexamplesin(29)–(34).

29Prosecutorsstoppedthevideo,didn’tthey?

30Ideleteditmanually,didn’tI?

31AcourtinIndiapostponedthereleaseofafilmentitledHariPuttar,didn’tit?

32Tonylikesfilmswithlotsofgratuitousviolence,doesn’the?

33IassumedthatImust’vecomethroughthequestioningsatisfactorily,didn’tI?

34ThatMorofeltcertainhewasbeingsacrificedisevidentfromhislastletters,isn’tit?

Theitalicizedportionsoftheseexamplesareinterrogativetags,whoseunderlinedpronounshavetheSubjectsofthematrixclausesastheirantecedents.Noticethatitisusedin(34)torefertotheclausalSubject(ThatMoro…sacrificed).

ThepropertiesofSubjectsaresummarizedinTable4.2.

TypicalSubjects…

•refertoapersonorentitythatinstigatesanactionexpressedbyaverbinadeclarativeactiveclause(thisisanotionalproperty);

•areobligatory(exceptinimperatives,textmessages,diaryentries);

•occupyaclause-initialpositionindeclarativeclauses;

•arerealizedasnounphrases;

•carrynominativecaseinfiniteclauses(thisonlyappliestopronounsthatcanalternateincase);

•invertwithaverbininterrogativemainclauses;

•induceagreementwithaverbinthepresenttenseandwithBEinthepasttense;

•canbetheantecedentsofpronounsininterrogativetags.

Table4.2:ThepropertiesoftypicalSubjects

4.1.2Predicate(Pred)andPredicator(PCR)

ThefunctionofPredicateappliesquitesimplytoeverythingtotherightoftheSubjectinaclause.Youmayrecallthatinsection3.6.2wesaidthatVPsconsistofverbstogetherwithanyassociatedphrases.WecannowsaythatVPsfunctionasPredicateswithinclauses.Furthermore,withinthePredicatetheverbisthepivotalelement,andfunctionsasPredicator.IntheexamplesbelowthePredicatesappearinitalicsandthePredicatorsareunderlined.

39IassumedthatImust’vecomethroughthequestioningsatisfactorily.

40ThatMorofeltcertainhewasbeingsacrificedisevidentfromhislastletters.

IneachofthesecasesthePredicateexpressestheaction,event,etc.withwhichtheSubjectisinvolved.PredicatorandPredicatearefunctionsthatoperateonlyatclauselevel.

4.1.3Complements

WeapplythefunctionallabelComplementtoanyconstituentinEnglishthatislicensedbyaparticularHead(verb,noun,adjective,preposition,etc.).LicensingisagrammaticalnotionwherebyaHeaddetermineswhichtypeofphrase(s)orclause(s)complementit,subjecttocertainmeaningrestrictions.Forexample,insideaVPtheverbDEVOURlicensesanNPComplementdenotingsomethingedible(Hedevouredthecarrot),whilePUTlicensestwoComplements,namelyanNPandaPP,withthePPspecifyingalocation(Weputthepresentinthebag).SomeHeadsallowdifferentComplementsindifferentstructures.Forexample,theverbBELIEVEcanlicenseanNP(Shebelievedthestory.,oraclause(Shebelievedthathewastellingthetruth).HeadsbelongingtootherwordclassescanalsolicensephrasesorclausesasComplements.Forexample,theadjectivefondlicensesaPP(Samisfondofhiscousin),whilethenounidealicensesaclause(Theideathattheworldisflatwasoncecommonplace).TheComplement-takingpropertiesoflexicalHeadsarelistedinthelexicon,thatis,thementalwordstoreordictionarythataspeakerofalanguagehasaccessto.

WithinverbphraseswerecognizesixtypesofComplements,namelyDirectObject(DO),IndirectObject(IO),Subject-relatedPredicativeComplement,Object-relatedPredicativeComplement,PPasComplement(PPC),andComplementClause(CC).

ItisimportanttopointoutthatAdjunctsarenotlicensedbyverbs.Thisisbecausetheysupplyadditionalinformationaboutasituationexpressed.Nevertheless,Adjunctsarepartoftheverbphraseinaclause,thoughtheyarelesscloselyrelatedtotheverbthananyComplementsthatmaybepresent,forthereasonjustmentioned.

4.1.3.1DirectObjects

Inchapter1wesawthatthegrammaticalfunctionofDirectObjectistypicallyexpressedbyaphrasethatreferstoapersonorentitythatundergoestheactionspecifiedbytheverb(seealsosection4.2below).VerbsthatlicenseaDirectObjectarecalledtransitiveverbsbecausetheverb+DOsequenceexpressesthatsomethingistransferred(e.g.anaction)fromoneentitytoanother.

Inouroriginalsetofexamplesbelow,thereferentsoftheitalicizedDOsin(41)and(42)undergotheactionsof‘stopping’and‘deleting’,respectively.Inamoreabstractsense—inthatnophysicalactionisinvolved—thisisalsotruefor(43).However,in(44)clearlythefilmsinquestionareinnosenseaffectedbyTony’senjoymentofthem.

Giventhatthenotionalcriterionof‘undergoingtheverbalaction’isnotsufficienttocharacterizeDirectObjects,weneedtoturntoagrammaticalcharacterization.

4.1.3.1.1DirectObjectsformaclosebondwithalexicalverb

ThefirstthingtoobserveisthatinunmarkeddeclarativeclausesDirectObjectsarepositionedafteralexicalverb,withwhichtheyformaclosebond,asin(41)–(44)above.WecannotleaveouttheDOs,asexamples(45)–(48)show.

45*Prosecutorsstopped.(Thisexampleisgrammatical,butwithadifferentmeaning,namely‘broughtthemselvestoastandstill’.)

46*Ideletedmanually.

47*AcourtinIndiapostponed.

48*Tonylikes.

InothercasestheDOcanbeomitted,butisimplicit.ThusifIutter(49)theaddresseewillunderstandthatImustbereadingsomething.

49I’mreading.

ThebondbetweenverbsandtheirComplementsisalsoevidentfromthefactthattheycannotgenerallybeseparatedfromeachother.

50*Prosecutorsstoppedimmediatelythevideo.

51*Ideletedwithoutreasonitmanually.

52*AcourtinIndiapostponedlegallythereleaseofafilmentitledHariPuttar.

53*Tonylikesverymuchfilmswithlotsofgratuitousviolence.

4.1.3.1.2DirectObjectsaremostlyrealizedasnounphrases

Intheone-million-wordICE-GBcorpusthereare55,276DirectObjects,thevastmajorityofwhichareNPs,namely77percent.Ofthesejustover21percentareheadedbypronouns.IntheICE-GBcorpustheremainingDirectObjectsarerealizedasclauses.SeeChapters5,7,and8fordiscussion.

4.1.3.1.3AsubsetofpronounsheadingNPsinDirectObjectpositiontakeaccusativecase

WhenanNPfunctioningasDirectObjectisheadedbyapronounthatcanhaveacasecontrast(e.g.firstandthirdpersonpersonalpronouns,who),thepronouncarriesaccusativecase(sections2.2.2.2and3.2.2).

4.1.3.1.4DirectObjectsofactivedeclarativeclausescangenerallybecometheSubjectsofpassiveclauses

DirectObjectsofactivedeclarativeclauses(section1.6)cancommonlybecometheSubjectsofpassiveclauses.Thisprocessiscalledpassivization,andwasbrieflydiscussedinsection3.6.3.4.Itisfurtherillustratedinthefollowingsetofexamples.

54Prosecutorsstoppedthevideo.>Thevideowasstopped(byprosecutors).

55Ideleteditmanually.>Itwasdeletedmanually(byme).

56AcourtinIndiapostponedthereleaseofafilmentitledHariPuttar.>ThereleaseofafilmentitledHariPuttarwaspostponed(byacourtinIndia).

Ineachofthesepairsthefirstclauseisreferredtoashavingactivevoice;thesecondisitspassivecounterpart.PassivizationinvolvestheintroductionofthepassiveauxiliaryBE(section3.6.3.4),andanoptionalby-phrase.Activeandpassiveclausesmeanthesame,thoughtheydifferinthewaythattheinformationispresentedtothehearer.(Wewillreturntothisissueinsection11.4.)

Notallverbsallowpassivizationtothesameextent,as(57)shows.

57Tonylikesfilmswithlotsofgratuitousviolence.>?*Filmswithlotsofgratuitousviolenceareliked(byTony).

TheNPfollowingtheverbintheactiveversionof(57)cannotbecometheSubjectofapassiveclause.ThesameistrueforthepostverbalNPsin(58)and(59),whichcontaintheverbsSUITandCOST.

58Thatberetdoesnotsuityou,youknow.>*Youarenotsuitedbythatberet,youknow.

59Yourprivatesighttestcosts£9.>*£9iscostbyyourprivateeyetest.

NoticealsothatcertaintypesofDirectObject,forexampleNPsheadedbyreflexivepronouns,cannotbecometheSubjectsofpassiveclauses.

60Hescarcelyknewhimself.>*Himselfwasscarcelyknownbyhim.

Table4.3summarizesthepropertiesoftypicalDOs.

TypicalDirectObjects…

•refertoapersonorentitythatundergoesanaction(anotional

property);

•formaclosebondwithalexicalverb;

•carryaccusativecase(thisonlyappliestopronounsthatcanalternateincase);

•ofactivedeclarativeclausescanbecometheSubjectsofpassiveclauses.

Table4.3:ThepropertiesoftypicalDirectObjects

Table4.4showsaselectionofEnglishtransitiveverbs.

Table4.4:Aselectionoftransitiveverbs

4.1.3.2IndirectObjects

Notionally,IndirectObjectsrefertopeopleorentitiesthatcarrythesemanticroleofGoal,Recipient,orBenefactiveofanactionorevent(seesection4.2below).ThefollowingsectionsdiscussthegrammaticalpropertiesofIOs.

4.1.3.2.1IndirectObjectsformaclosebondwithalexicalverb

IndirectObjectsoccurimmediatelyafterso-calledditransitiveverbs(i.e.

verbsthattakeanIOandDO),withwhichtheyhaveaclosebond.NoticethatIOscannotgenerallyoccurwithoutafollowingDirectObject.IntheexamplesbelowtheIOshavebeenitalicized,theDOsunderlined.

61Andthenhetellsherthestoryofhislife.

62TheybroughtmeabottleofCroft’sOriginal.

63HeleftusthefirsteyewitnessaccountoftheancientBritons.

64Igotheraminicakeandmadeheracard!

Theseexamplesalternatewithastructureinvolvingaprepositionalphrase,asin(65)–(68):

65Andthenhetellsthestoryofhislifetoher.

66TheybroughtabottleofCroft’sOriginaltome.

67HeleftthefirsteyewitnessaccountoftheancientBritonstous.

68Igotaminicakeforherandmadeacardforher.

InthesecasesthePPsfunctionasComplementswhichcarrythesamesemanticrolesasIndirectObjects,namelyGoal,Recipient,andBenefactive.(Seesection11.5onthemotivationsforusingtheconstructionin(61)–(64),ratherthantheonein(65)–(68).)

InthefollowingexamplesmeandEmilyfunctionasDirectObject,butcarryaroletypicallyassociatedwithanIO.

69A:IliveinSouthgate.B:Ohthat’sright.Youtoldme.

70SylviecameheretodaytoteachEmily.

4.1.3.2.2IndirectObjectsarevirtuallyalwaysrealizedasnounphrases

IndirectObjectsaremuchlessfrequentthanSubjectsorDirectObjects:thereareonly1,771intheICE-GBcorpus.Withoutexceptiontheyarerealizedasnounphrases.

4.1.3.2.3AsubsetofpronounsheadingNPsintheIndirectObjectpositiontakeaccusativecase

WhenanNPfunctioningasIndirectObjectisheadedbyapronounthatcanhaveacasecontrast(e.g.firstandthirdpersonpersonalpronouns,who),thepronouncarriesaccusativecase(sections2.2.2.2and3.2.2).

4.1.3.2.4IndirectObjectsofactiveclausescanbecometheSubjectsofpassiveclauses

IndirectObjectssharewithDirectObjectsthepropertythattheycanbecometheSubjectsofpassiveclauses,asthepassiveversionsof(61)–(63)show:

71Andthensheistoldthestoryofhislife(byhim).

72IwasbroughtabottleofCroft’sOriginal(bythem).

73WewereleftthefirsteyewitnessaccountoftheancientBritons(byhim).

However,thepassiveversionsofbothpartsof(64),involvingtheverbsGETandMAKE,areunacceptabletomany.

74?Shewasgotaminicakeandshewasmadeacard.

Table4.5summarizesthepropertiesoftypicalIndirectObjects,whereasTable4.6listsaselectionofditransitiveverbs.

TypicalIndirectObjects…

•refertopeopleorentitiesthatareGoals,Recipients,orBenefactivesofanactionorevent(thisisanotionalproperty);

•occurimmediatelyaftertheverb,withwhichtheyhaveaclosebond;

•mustbeaccompaniedbyafollowingDO;

•carryaccusativecase(ifheadedbyapronounthatcanhaveacasecontrast);

•canbecometheSubjectsofpassiveclauses.

Table4.5:ThepropertiesoftypicalIndirectObjects

Table4.6:Aselectionofditransitiveverbs

4.1.3.3PredicativeComplements

PredicativeComplementisafunctionlabelusedforconstituentsthatspecifyapropertythatisascribedtothereferentofanotherconstituent,orforconstituentsthatidentifythereferentofanotherexpression.WedistinguishSubject-relatedPredicativeComplementsfromObject-relatedPredicativeComplements.Theirpropertieswillbediscussedinthenexttwosections.Insection4.1.3.3.3IwilldiscusshowPCsdifferfromDirectandIndirectObjects.

4.1.3.3.1Subject-relatedPredicativeComplements

InthefollowingexamplestheitalicizedSubject-relatedPredicativeComplementsareobligatory,andindicateapropertythatisascribedtotheunderlinedSubjects.

75ThefirstLondonwasjust[NPacolonialoutpostoftheRomanempire].

76Theskywas[AdjPclear]aftertherainfall.

Semantically,Subject-relatedPCscanexpressdepictiveandresultativemeanings.Theformerisillustratedin(75)wherethebracketedNPexpressesapropertyattributabletotheSubject.Resultativemeaningis

illustratedin(77),wherethePCexpressestheresultofaprocessofchange.

77Hebecame[AdjPconvincedhecouldreachtheNorthPoleunaided].

OtherverbsthattakeresultativePCsareGO(crazy),GROW(old),PROVE(fatal),TURN(red).

MentionshouldbemadeofthespecifyinguseofBE,asin(78).HeretheverbspecifiesoridentifiesthereferentoftheSubject.

78HissonwasRoderick.

WhenaSubject-relatedPCisrealizedasanounphraseheadedbyapronounthatcanhaveacasealternationthepronouncharacteristicallyoccursintheaccusativecase,exceptinveryformalstyles.

79Doyouthinkit’sthem?

80Hi,it’sme.

Thereare31,414Subject-relatedPredicativeComplementsintheICE-GBcorpus.Ofthese42percentareAdjPs,whereas35percentareNPs(ofwhichalmost5percentareheadedbypronouns).OftheremainingSubject-relatedPCsaround11percentarerealizedasprepositionalphrases,8percentasclauses,andaverysmallpercentageasadverbphrases.Examplesofthesewillbediscussedinsection5.4.1.3.

VerbsthatlicenseaSubject-relatedPredicativeComplementarecalledlinkingverbs(section3.6.1),furtherexamplesofwhicharelistedinTable4.7.

Aselectionoflinkingverbs

APPEAR

BECOME

REMAIN

Table4.7:Aselectionoflinkingverbs

4.1.3.3.2Object-relatedPredicativeComplements

Object-relatedPredicativeComplements(italicizedintheexamplesbelow)indicateapropertythatisascribedtoDirectObjects(underlined),whichmustthereforebepresent.VerbsthatlicenseaDirectObjectandanObject-relatedPredicativeComplementarecalledcomplextransitiveverbs.Object-relatedPredicativeComplementsarerelativelyinfrequentintheICE-GBcorpus.Theyaretypicallyrealizedasnounphrasesoradjectivephrases.Herearetwoexamples.

81He’dworkedforthecompanywhohadnowmadehim[NPadistributor].

82Shefoundhim[AdjPreallyfrustrating],becausehedidn’tseembothered.

PrepositionalphrasesandclausesarealsopossibleasObject-relatedPCs.Thesewillbeexemplifiedbrieflyinsections5.4.1.4and8.3.5.

AswiththeSubject-relatedPCs,Object-relatedPCscandiffersemantically:in(82)thePCexpressesadepictivemeaning,whereasin(83)itexpressesaresultativemeaning:

83Policebelievethatalthoughthesuspectswashedtheknife[AdjPcleanofanyblood],theywereunabletoremovetheDNA.

Table4.8listssomeEnglishcomplextransitiveverbs.

Aselectionofcomplextransitiveverbs

BELIEVE

CONSIDER

DECLARE

PRESUME

PRONOUNCE

RENDER

Table4.8:Aselectionofcomplextransitiveverbs

4.1.3.3.3PredicativeComplementsvsDirectandIndirectObjects

HowdoPredicativeComplementsdifferfromDOsandIOs?Theyalloccurafterverbswithwhichtheyhaveaclosebond(whichiswhytheyarecalled

Complements),butPCscannotbereferringexpressions.Thismeansthatinanexamplelike(81)thenounphrasethatfunctionsasObject-relatedPredicativeComplement(adistributor)doesnotpointtoanindividualintheworld,butascribesaproperty(inthiscasetheoccupancyofaparticularkindofjob)tothereferentoftheDO.Inothercases,aswehaveseen,PCsidentifythereferentofaSubject.PredicativeComplementscannotbecometheSubjectofapassiveclause.

Table4.9summarizesthepropertiesofPredicativeComplements.

TypicalPredicativeComplements…

•specifyapropertyascribedtothereferentofaSubjectorDirectObject,oridentifythereferentofaSubject;

•arerealizedasnounphrases,adjectivephrases,prepositionalphrases,clauses,or(inthecaseofSubject-relatedPCs)adverbphrases;

•occurafterlinkingverbs(inthecaseofSubject-relatedPCs);

•areobligatory(inthecaseofSubject-relatedPCs);

•followaDO(inthecaseofObject-relatedPCs);

•cannotbecometheSubjectsofpassiveclauses.

Table4.9:ThedistributionalpropertiesoftypicalPredicativeComplements

4.1.3.4PrepositionalPhraseasComplement

TherearemanyverbsinEnglishthatlicenseaPrepositionalPhraseasComplement(PPC),withorwithoutanaccompanyingDirectObject.Herearesometypicalexamples.

84Senioroppositionfigureshavebeenarrested,andthegovernmenthasblamed[NPtroublemakers][PPfortheviolence].

85Youcanrefer[PPtoyournotes]wheneveryouneedto.

86Sincereachingprominencehehasbranched[PPout],writinga

newspapercolumnandpresentingdocumentariesaboutboatsandplanes–andhostingachatshow.

87Itisbesttoleave[PPout][NPperennialweedroots].

InthesectionsbelowthepropertiesofPPCswillbediscussed.

4.1.3.4.1Theverbsandprepositionscanbetransitiveorintransitive

In(84)and(85)abovethePPisheadedbyatransitivepreposition(section3.7.1),whereasin(86)and(87)thePPsareheadedbyintransitiveprepositions(Section3.7.2).

Theverbsin(84)and(87)aretransitive,whereasthosein(85)and(86)areintransitive.TheDOinthelastexamplecanalsobepositionedafterthePP,asin(88).

88Itisbesttoleave[NPperennialweedroots][PPout].

4.1.3.4.2TheHeadofthePPislicensedbytheverb

TheverblicensesnotonlythePPasComplement,butalsotheHeadofthePP.Thusin(84)theverbBLAMElicensesaPPheadedbyfor(oroninthealternativestructureblamedtheviolenceontroublemakers),andin(85)REFERlicensesaPPheadedbyto.

4.1.3.4.3PPCscannotbecometheSubjectsofpassiveclauses

UnlikeIndirectObjects,DirectObjects,andComplementsofprepositions,PPCscannotbecometheSubjectsofpassiveclauses.Forexample,(89)isnotapossiblepassivecounterpartof(85).

89*Toyournotescanbereferredbyyouwheneveryouneedto.

ThedistributionalpropertiesofPPCsaresummarizedinTable4.10,whereasTable4.11listsaselectionofverbslicensingPPCs.

TypicalPPCs…

•involveatransitiveorintransiveverb,aswellasatransitiveor

intransitivePPlicensedbythatverb;

•involveaPPwhoseHeadislicensedbyaverb;

•cannotbecometheSubjectsofpassiveclauses.

Table4.10:ThedistributionalpropertiesofPPCs

AselectionofverbslicensingPPCs

ENVYNPforNP BACKdown

INVESTNPinNP CATCHon

ACCOUNTforNP EATNPup

DECIDEonNP WRITENPdown

Table4.11:AselectionofverbslicensingPPCs

ThefullrangeofstructuresinvolvingPrepositionalPhrasesasComplementswillbediscussedinsection5.4.1.5.

4.1.3.5ComplementClauses

WeassignthefunctionlabelComplementClausetoclausesthatarelicensedbyaverb,butcannotbeassignedoneoftheotherComplementfunctionsDirectObject,IndirectObject,PredicativeComplement,orPPasComplement.Toillustrate,considerthebracketedfiniteandnon-finiteclausesin(90)and(91)whichcontainthematrixverbPERSUADE.IntheseexamplestheunderlinedphrasesareassignedthefunctionofDirectObject,whereasthebracketedclausesfunctionasComplementClause.

90Johnpersuadedthelocalchildren[clausethatthetoyoughttobeadapted

sothatinsteadofahumanriderthetoysfeaturedagorilla].

91SointhelatesixtiesIpersuadedatolerantsecondaryschoolheadinSudburySuffolk[clausetoletmelooseonaclassoffifteen-andsixteen-year-oldsforonelessonaweek].

AfulloverviewofstructuresthatinvolveComplementClauseswillbepresentedinChapters7and8.

4.1.3.6Adjuncts

WhereasComplementsarelicensedbyaHead,andareoftenobligatory(inthesensethatleavingthemoutmayresultinanungrammaticalstructure),Adjunctsarenotlicensed.BecausetheyareoptionaltheyhaveamuchlooserbondwiththeirassociatedHeadthanComplementsdo.InthesectionsthatfollowIwilldiscussthegrammaticalpropertiesofAdjuncts,focusingonthosethatoccurinsideverbphrasesandatclauselevel.AdjunctsthatoccurinsideotherphrasetypeswillbediscussedinChapter5.

4.1.3.6.1Adjunctssupplycircumstantialinformation

Adjunctssupplycircumstantialinformationaboutthe‘when’,‘where’,‘how’,or‘why’ofasituation,andcanexpressaverywiderangeofmeanings.Theseinclude‘aspectuality’,‘concession’,‘degree’,‘direction’,‘duration’,‘evaluation’,‘extent’,‘frequency’,‘instrument’,‘intensity’,‘location’,‘manner’,‘modality’,‘purpose’,‘reason’,‘result’,‘source’,‘time’,andsoon.(Seealsosection3.8.1.)

Itisimportanttobeawareofthefactthatifaphrasespecifiesareason,location,time,etc.thisisanecessary,butnotasufficientreasonforassigningthefunctionlabelAdjuncttoit.Forexample,thePPtherein(92)specifiesalocation,butweneverthelessanalyseitasaComplement,ratherthanasanAdjunct.ThereasonisthatthePPislicensedbytheverbLIVE,andisinfactobligatory.Ifweleaveitouttheexamplewillhaveanentirelydifferentmeaning.

92ThegirlI’mseeingatthemomentlives[PPthere].

Seesection5.4.1.5fordiscussion.

4.1.3.6.2Adjunctsaretypicallyrealizedasprepositionalphrasesandadverbphrases

ThevastmajorityofAdjunctsinsideverbphrasesarerealizedeitherasprepositionalphrasesorasadverbphrases;theremainderarerealizedasnounphrasesorclauses.

93Thesailingbarges[VPhadtremendouseconomicimportance[PPinthepast]].

94I[VPgotochurch[PPonSundays]].

95We[VPneedourcountrysidemore[PPbecauseweareanurbansociety]].

96Theengine[VPbeat[AdvPfrantically]].

97SometimesIthinkshe[VP[AdvPdeliberately]setsouttoangerMarcus].

98‘BlindDate’[VPpullsin12.5millionviewers[NPeachweek]].

99Many[VPdied[NPthatway][PPfortheirfaith]].

100I[VPletthemhavetenminutes[clausetogetthere]].

IwillreturntoclausalAdjunctsinChapters7and8.

4.1.3.6.3Adjunctscanbemoreorlessintegratedinclausestructure

Adjunctscanbeintegratedtoagreaterorlesserextentwithintheircontainingclauses.TheAdjunctsin(93)–(100)abovedirectlymodifytheverbphrasesinwhichtheyoccur,andarecalledVP-Adjuncts.Bycontrast,theAdjunctsin(101)–(103)belowaremuchlesstightlylinkedtotheirhostclauses.TheyarecalledClauseAdjuncts.Theyareintonationallysetapartwhenuttered.

101Theprospectsofgettingafull-timeortenuredpostwouldbeverydifficult.[AdvPHowever],itwouldbepossibletoobtainhoursatdifferent

collegesmakinguppart-timework.

102Nowthatwehaveadoptedasystemofmypayingallexpensesandthenclaiming,theproblemshouldbesolved.[AdvPNevertheless],Ihopethesewillbepaidpromptly.

103[AdvPProbably],youwon’twanttogodownandlookatthattoday.

SyntacticallyVP-Adjunctscanbeinthefocuspositionofacleftconstruction(section11.8),whereasClauseAdjunctscannot.Compare(104)and(105),wherethefocuspositionshavebeenitalicized.

104Itwasinthepastthatthesailingbargeshadtremendouseconomicimportance.(=oneofthecleftvariantsof(93))

105*Itwashoweverthatitwouldbepossibletoobtainhoursatdifferentcollegesmakinguppart-timework.(=anungrammaticalcleftvariantof(101))

Theadverbphrasesin(101)and(102)havealinkingfunction,whereastheAdvPin(103)conveysmodalmeaning.Seealsosections3.8and10.3.11.4.

IwillreturntoVP-Adjunctsinsection5.4.2.

4.1.3.6.4Adjunctsaremobile

Adjunctsaretypicallymobile,andcanoftenoccupydifferentpositionswithinclausesorphrases.Forexample,(95)hasthealternativeorderin(106),andtheAdvPdeliberatelyin(97)canalsobeplacedattheendoftheVP,asin(107).

106Becauseweareanurbansociety,weneedourcountrysidemore.

107SometimesIthinkshesetsouttoangerMarcusdeliberately.

4.1.3.6.5Adjunctsarestackable

As(108)shows,Adjunctsarestackable,whichmeansthatmorethanoneAdjunctcanappearinanyoneclauseorphrase.

108[NPYesterday]thesunwasjustasitis[PPinIndia].

InTable4.12thedistributionalpropertiesofAdjunctsaresummarized.

TypicalAdjuncts…

•arenotlicensedbyaHead;

•addcircumstantialinformationaboutthe‘when’,‘where’,‘how’,or‘why’ofasituation;

•arerealizedbyprepositionalphrasesandadverbphrases;

•canbemoreorlessintegratedinclausestructure;

•aremobile;

•are‘stackable’.

Table4.12:ThedistributionalpropertiesoftypicalAdjuncts

4.2Semanticroles

InthissectionIwilldiscusssemanticroles.Beforedoingsowefirstneedtointroducethetermpredicate(withalowercase‘p’).Thisnotionisaconceptfromthedomainofmeaning,andshouldbedistinguishedfromthesyntacticnotionPredicate.Recallthatthelatterisafunctionlabel(hencethecapitalletter‘P’)whichweassigntoastringofwordsotherthantheSubjectinaclause.Bycontrast,predicatesplayaroleinspecifyingthecoremeaningofaclause.Inasense,thepredicatespecifies‘whatgoeson’.Inthefollowingexamplesthewordsinitalicsaresemanticpredicateswhichrequiretheunderlinedphrasesastheirargumentsinordertomakeupameaningfulproposition(aspecificationofasituation,e.g.astateofaffairs,anactivity).

109Flintoffsmirkedashewalkedbacktohismark.

110Iopenedmymouth.

111Davegaveheroneofthemoisttissuesfromtheplasticdispenser.

Argumentscarrysemanticroles.Table4.13givesalistofsuchroleswithexamples.Ineachcasethepredicateisinitalics,andtheconstituentcarryingtheroleinquestionisunderlined.

Table4.13:Semanticroles

ArgumentscanbelinkedtoSubjectsandComplements,butnottoAdjuncts,becausethelattersupplyoptionalinformationinclauses.Semanticrolesareonlyassignedtoargumentsasparticipants.ThismeansthatanystringofwordsthatfunctionsasanAdjunctinaclauseorasa

PredicativeComplementisnotassignedasemanticrole.Forexample,ifweexpand(110)asin(112)weseethattheAdvPslowlymerelyaddsoptionalinformation,butisnotoneoftheparticipantsintheactofopening,whichinvolvesanAgent(I),andaTheme(mymouth).

112Iopenedmymouthslowly.

4.3Analysingclausesatthelevelsofform,function,andmeaning

Wehaveseenthatclausescanbeanalysedatthreedistinctbutrelatedlevels:grammaticalform,grammaticalfunction,andsemanticrole.Consider(113).

113[NPOurcorrespondent(Agent)]compiled[NPthisreport(Theme)][PPunderrestrictions].

InthisclausetheitalicizedpredicatelicensesthetwounderlinedargumentswhichcorrespondtothegrammaticalSubjectandDirectObject.BothargumentsarerealizedasNPs,andareassignedthesemanticrolesofAgentandTheme,respectively.ThePPunderrestrictionsisanAdjunct.Itisnotlicensedbytheverb,andnotanargument,andhencenotassignedasemanticrole.

4.4Representingthestructureofphrasesandclauses

InthissectionIwilldiscussawayinwhichwecanrepresentthestructureofclausesgraphicallyinso-calledtreediagrams,andhowwecanrecognizeunitsofstructurecalledconstituents.

Treediagrams(ortreesforshort)aregraphicalrepresentationsofsyntacticstructuresthatbeararesemblancetorealtrees,exceptthattheyareupsidedown.AsimpleDirectObjectnounphraselikethepianoin(114)canberepresentedasin(115).

114Sheplaysthepiano.

ThisrepresentationshowsthattheNPthepianoconsistsofadeterminativephrase(headedbyadeterminative)andanoun.TheformerfunctionsasDeterminer,whereasthelatterfunctionsasHead.IntreeswewilluseSMALLCAPITALStorepresentfunctionlabelsanditalictypetoindicatesemanticroles.ThestructureofSheplaysthepianocanberepresentedbythetreein(116),whichincorporatesthetreein(115).

Inthistreethehighestlevelrepresentsthemainclause(section3.9).TheSubjectNPisheadedbyanoun,tobeprecisebyapersonalpronoun,andthePredicateisrealizedbyaverbphrase.TheverbPLAYfunctionsasPredicatorwhichtakesthenounphrasethepianoasitsDirectObject.WithinthatNPthewordtheisadeterminativephraseheadedbya

determinativefunctioningasDeterminer,whilethenounpianofunctionsastheHeadoftheNP.Eachunitinthetreeiscalledanode.Wewillsaythatnodescandominateothernodes.Forexample,VPdominatesV,NP,DP,D,andN.

IfweaddtheAdjunctbeautifullyto(114)weobtain(117),anditsassociatedtreestructurerepresentationin(118).NoticethattheAdjunctcarriesnosemanticrole,becauseitisnotlicensedbytheverb,hencethereisnosemanticrolelabelontheAdjunctnode.

117Sheplaysthepianobeautifully.

Withinthetreesin(116)and(118)wecanclearlyseethatwordsgroupthemselvestogetherintoconstituents,whichweinformallydefinedatthebeginningofthischapterasstringsthatsyntacticallybehaveasunits.Wecandefineconstituentsabstractlyasfollows:YisaconstituentofXifandonlyifYisdominatedbyX.Asanexample,in(116)thenodesVandNPareconstituentsofVP(indicatedbythefactthattheyarebothdominatedbytheVP-node).ThereasonforthisgroupingistheclosebondbetweentheverbanditsComplement,discussedinsection4.1.3.1.1.Aswehaveseen,AdjunctsarenotlicensedbytheirassociatedHeads,andhencehaveamuchlessclosebondwiththem.Nevertheless,anAdjunctlikebeautifullyisstillpositionedinsidetheVP,asthetreein(118)shows,andthisisbecausebeautifullymodifiesthemeaningoftheverb:itspecifieshowtheplayingofthepianowascarriedout.However,noticethattheAdjunctcannotbreak

themuchcloserbondbetweentheverbandtheDO:itcannotbepositionedbetweenthem,cf.*Sheplaysbeautifullythepiano.

PartIII:Phraseandclausepatterns

Chapter5ComplexphrasesandcoordinationInthischapterwewilltakeacloserlookatthestructureofEnglishphrases.Morespecifically,wewillexaminethestructureofthecomplexphrase,wherethattermisunderstoodtodenoteaphrasethatcontainsanarrayofelementsinadditiontoitsHead.Iwillbeginwithadiscussionofphrase-levelfunctionsinsection5.1.Wewillseethattheskeletalstructureofthevariousphrasetypesisverysimilar.Insections5.2–5.6IwillturntoadetailedtreatmentofthestructureofeachofthephrasetypesNP,AdjP,VP,PP,andAdvP.Insection5.7Idiscusscoordination.

5.1Phraselevelfunctions

Wedistinguishthefollowingfunctionswithinphrases:Head,Complement,andAdjunct.InnounphrasesweadditionallyrecognizethefunctionsDeterminerandPredeterminer.Adjunctscanbedividedintoseveraldifferentkinds,aswewillseeinSection5.1.3below.Table5.1providesasummarylist.

Grammaticalfunctionsatphraselevel

•Head(H)

•Complement(Comp)

•Adjunct(A)

Pre-HeadAdjunct

Post-HeadAdjunct

ExternalAdjunct(onlyinNPs)

•Determiner(Det)andPredeterminer(Predet)(onlyinNPs)

Table5.1:Grammaticalfunctionsatphraselevel

5.1.1Head(H)

InChapter3wedefinedtheHeadofaphraseasitsmostprominentelement.Headsareobligatory,andforanyonephrasetheycanbedescribedastheelementwhichthephraseasawholeisa‘kindof’,andonwhichtheotherelementsofthephrasearedependent.Thusthestringaquiteferociouscatisanounphraseheadedbycatbecausethestringasawholedenotesakindofcat.ThedeterminativephraseaandtheadjectivephrasequiteferociousaredependentsoftheHead.Allphrasesmustbeendocentric,whichmeansthattheymustbeproperlyheaded.Thatistosaythatnounphrasesmustbeheadedbyanoun,adjectivephrasesmustbeheadedbyanadjective,verbphrasesmustbeheadedbyaverb,andsoon.

5.1.2Complementsinphrases

WithinphrasesHeadscanlicenseComplementsofvarioustypes.Asanexample,considertheadjectivefondin(1)below.

1Hewasn’tparticularly[AdjP[Adjfond][PPofBax]].

TheHeadofthisAdjPistheadjectivefondwhichlicensesthePPofBaxasitsComplement.WecannotleavethePPout:

2*Hewasn’tparticularlyfond.

ThevariousphrasalHeadseachlicenseadifferentarrayofComplements,aswewillseeinthesectionsthatfollow.

5.1.3Adjunctsinphrases

Adjunctsinsidephrasesspecifycircumstantialinformationatthelevelofthephrase.Here’sanexampleofanounphrasewithanAdjunct.

3[NPa[AdjPfairlywet]summer]

InthisNPtheHeadissummer,whichtakestheadjectivephrasefairlywetasanAdjunct.AnotherwayofputtingthisistosaythattheAdjPmodifiesthenounHead.(Indeed,thefunctionallabelusedforphrasalAdjunctsin

manygrammarsisModifier.)WithintheAdjPtheHeadwetitselftakesanAdjunct,namelyfairly.EachofthephrasetypeswewillbelookingathasadifferentrangeofAdjuncts.Wewilldistinguishbetweenpre-HeadAdjunctsandpost-HeadAdjuncts.FornounphrasesweadditionallyrecognizeExternalAdjuncts.

5.1.4Determiner(Det)andPredeterminer(Predet):onlyinnounphrases

ThefunctionalnotionsofDeterminerandPredeterminerareusedonlyfornounphrases.Determinersserveto‘specify’NPs.ThismeansthatthephrasesthatrealizetheDeterminerfunctionaddfairlygeneralandoftenabstractspecificationalmeaningstoNPs,forexample‘definiteness’,‘proximity’,‘number’,‘gender’,‘possession’,oracombinationofthese.Forexample,inasimpleNPlike(4),theisadeterminativewhichfunctionsastheHeadofadeterminativephrasewhichinturnfunctionsasaDeterminerwithinthelargerNP.

4[NP[DPthe]shoe]]

TheDPmarkstheNPas‘definite’,anotionwhichwepreviouslydefinedas‘uniquelyidentifiable’totheaddresseeinthemostcommoncases.

ThePredeterminerfunctioncanberealizedbyphraseswithaquantifyingmeaningthatareplacedbeforeNPs.TheymodifytheNPasawhole.HereisanexampleofaDPfunctioningasPredeterminer.

5Nomagictrickdealswith[NP[DPall][NPtheproblems]].

InanyoneNPonlyoneconstituentcanbeassignedthefunctionofDeterminerorPredeterminer.

5.1.5Thestructureofphrases

WecanrepresenttheskeletalstructureofNPsasin(6),andthestructuresofAdjPs,VPs,PPs,andAdvPsasin(7).Asexplainedinsection4.4,ineachcasethefunctionlabelsandformlabelsaregivenonseparatelines.Thesymbol‘¤’isusedwheretheformlabelcanbeofdifferentkinds(that

is,wherethefunctioncanberealizedbydifferentkindsofforms).Elementsinbracketsareoptional.Forexample,phrasescanconsistofonlyaHead,asinDogsarelazy,wheredogsisanNPconsistingsolelyoftheHeadnoun,andlazyisanAdjPconsistingoftheHeadlazy.

Asthesetreediagramsshow,AdjunctscanoccurbeforeoraftertheHead,andtheyarestackable,aswesawinsection4.1.3.6.5.ComplementsvirtuallyalwaysoccuraftertheHead.WithinverbphrasesmorethanoneComplementmayoccur,aswewillseeinsection5.4.

ComplementsgenerallyhaveatighterrelationshipthanAdjunctswiththeirassociatedHeadsinphrases.BecauseofthistheytendtobeplacedimmediatelytotherightoftheHead.Ifaphrasecontainsoneormorepost-HeadAdjuncts,theyoccurtotherightofanyComplement(s)thatmaybepresent.Asanexample,considerthebracketednounphrasebelow.

8By1978GrangerhadcontributedarticlestoTime,TheNewRepublicandothermagazines;andbecameadailycolumnist,televisioncriticand[teacherofjournalismatColumbiaCollegeinChicago].

InthisNPtheHeadnounteachertakesaComplementintheshapeofaPP(ofjournalism),aswellastwoPPAdjuncts(atColumbiaCollegeandinChicago).Aswewillseeinsection5.2.3.1,thephraseofjournalismisregardedasaComplementbecauseitcanberelatedtoaV+Complement

(DO)sequence,inthiscaseteachesjournalism.NoticethatbecauseofthetightrelationshipbetweentheHeadnounanditsComplement,theAdjunctscannotbeplacedimmediatelyaftertheHead,asthefollowingexamplesshow.

9*Hebecame[teacheratColumbiaCollegeofjournalisminChicago].(N+Adjunct+Complement+Adjunct)

10*Hebecame[teacherinChicagoofjournalismatColumbiaCollege].(N+Adjunct+Complement+Adjunct)

11Hebecame[teacheratColumbiaCollegeinChicagoofjournalism].(N+Adjunct+Adjunct+Complement)

ExceptionstothisgeneraltendencyoccurwhentheComplementis‘heavy’(i.e.consistsofmanywords),andisconsequentlyextraposed(section3.2.2.1.2)acrossthe‘light’Adjunct,asin(12).

5.2Complexnounphrases

5.2.1Determinersinnounphrases

WithinnounphrasesthefunctionofDeterminercanberealizedbydeterminativephrases,nounphrases,andprepositionalphrases(Table5.2).Asnotedinsection5.1.4,onlyoneconstituentinanyoneNPcanfunctionasDeterminer.

Determinersinnounphrases

•determinativephrases;

•nounphrases;

•prepositionalphrases.

Table5.2:Determinersinnounphrases

5.2.1.1DeterminativephrasesfunctioningasDeterminerinnounphrases

Anoverviewofdeterminativeswasgiveninsection3.3.IneachoftheexamplesinTable3.11thedeterminativeheadsaDPwhichfunctionsasaDeterminerinsideanounphrase.Thisisalsothecasefortheexamplesbelow,exceptthatinthesecasesthedeterminativeisitselfmodified.

13By[NP[DPalmostall]standardmeasures]Haiti,thepoorestcountryoftheregion,standsattheoppositepole.

14Thepredictionwasthatbrokingfirmswouldexpandtheiroperationsandthat[NP[DPverymany]newcompanies]wouldbecreated.

5.2.1.2NounphrasesfunctioningasDeterminerinnounphrases

NounphrasescanfunctionasDeterminerinEnglishintheshapeofgenitivepersonalpronouns,asin(15),genitiveinterrogativepronouns,asin(16),genitiverelativepronouns,asin(17),‘full’genitivenounphrases,asin(18),or‘ordinary’nounphrases,asin(19).

15[NP[NPMy]question]wasabout[NP[NPyour]interview].

16[NP[NPWhose]home]didyoutakeherto_?

17HefoundfavourasacourtphysicianamongthevariousprincedomsofEurope,buthealsoearnedhisbreadasanitinerantdoctor[NP[NPwhose]reputation]alwaysprecededhim.

18China’s100millionunder-fiveswillhavethechancetocuddlePostmanPatandhisblackandwhitecatandcollect[NP[NP[NPthemanfromGreendale]’s]bestexploitsonDVD]afterdealsstruckbyhisowner,EntertainmentRights.

19With[NP[NPthissize]zoom],imagestabilisationisessential,andtheSP-570UZhastwosystemstoreduceshake.

Aswesawinsection3.2.2,weregardmyin(15)andwhosein(16)and

(17)aspronouns,ratherthanasdeterminatives,byvirtueofthefactthattheycarrygenitivecase.In(15)and(17)thelargerbracketedNPsmyquestionandwhosereputationfunctionasSubject.TheNPsyourinterviewin(15),whosehomein(16),andthissizezoomin(19)functionastheComplementsoftheprepositionsabout,to,andwith,respectively.Notethatin(16)theNPwhosehomeisassociatedwiththegapindicatedby‘_’.In(18)-’sisattachedtotheNPthemanfromGreendaleasawhole.

5.2.1.3PrepositionalphrasesfunctioningasDeterminerinnounphrases

InthefollowingexamplesprepositionalphrasesfunctionasDeterminerwithinnounphrases.

20[NP[PPOvertwenty]Iranians]killedbyavalanche.(headline)

21Geneva-basedUnitedNationshumanitarianagenciesandtheInternationalRedCrosssaid[NP[PPuptoamillion]people]wereonthemove,fleeingtownsandcitiesforruralareasortryingtocrossborderstoIran,PakistanandTajikistan.

ThePPscannotco-occurwithotherDeterminers,cf.*overtwentytheIranians,*uptoamillionthosepeople.

5.2.2Predeterminersinnounphrases

Determinerscanbeprecededbyquantifyingexpressions,whichcanberealizedbydifferenttypesofphrases.Thesemodifythenounphrasethatfollowsasawhole,andfunctionasPredeterminer.ThePredeterminerfunctioncanberealizedbydeterminativephrases,nounphrases,adverbphrases,andcertainadjectivalelements(Table5.3).

Predeterminersinnounphrases

•determinativephrases;

•nounphrases;

•adverbphrases;

•adjectivalelements.

Table5.3:Predeterminersinnounphrases

5.2.2.1DeterminativephrasesfunctioningasPredeterminerinnounphrases

DeterminativephrasesheadedbyallandbothcanfunctionasPredeterminer,asintheexamplesbelow.

22Ibuybooks[NP[DPall][NPthetime]]forwork.

23[NP[DPBoth][NPthepossiblecontractorsImetthisweek]]spokeaboutputtingintrunkingreadyfortheethernetcabling.

Thedeterminativecanitselfbemodified,asin(24).

24Thepoliceadmitthat[NP[DPalmostall][NPtheitemsseized]]hadalegitimatepurpose.

Thisexampleresembles(13),butdiffersfromitbyvirtueofthepresenceofthe,whichfunctionsasDeterminerinsidetheNP.

5.2.2.2NounphrasesfunctioningasPredeterminerinnounphrases

ExamplesofnounphrasesfunctioningasPredeterminerareso-calledfractions,suchashalf,aquarter,one-sixth,andanumberofso-calledmultipliers,suchastwotimes,threetimes,double,triple.

25It’sprobablyonly[NP[NPhalf][NPthepopulation]]atbestthatarecovered.

26AndyetMalawihasalake[NP[NPone-fifth][NPthesizeofthecountry]].

27Inallbutthemostexceptionalcircumstances,itwillbecome“normalpractice”againforloanstobelimitedtoamaximumof[NP[NPthreetimes][NPtheborrower’ssalary]].

28Theinterfaceisextended,providingupto[NP[NPdouble][NPthe

speed]].

NoticethatineachcasetheDeterminerslotwithintheinnerNPisfilledbythe.

5.2.2.3AdverbphrasesfunctioningasPredeterminerinnounphrases

Intheexamplesthatfollow,multiplieradverbssuchasonce,twice,andthricefunctionasPredeterminer.

29That’s[NP[AdvPtwice][NPthepresentpopulationofAfrica]].

30Theyhavefoundthatemissionsofcarbondioxidehavebeenrisingat[NP[AdvPthrice][NPtherate]]inthe1990s.

5.2.2.4AdjectivalelementsfunctioningasPredeterminerinnounphrases

Anumberofadjective-likeelementscanfunctionasPredeterminerinsidenounphrases.Thissetincludeswordslikesuchandexclamativewhat(sections1.6and6.4),aswellasphrasalconstituents.

31You’re[NP[AdjPsuch][NPasnob]],honestly.

32ThesecondthingIwanttosayis[NP[AdjPwhat][NParemarkableweek]]it’sbeen.

33Itisinterestingtoremember,inthisconnection,[NP[AdjPhowimportant][NPapart]]willsandlegaciesplayinCharlesDickens’sfiction.

5.2.3Complementsinnounphrases

NounscantakeseveraltypesofComplements(listedinTable5.4):prepositionalphrases,clauses,andpre-Headreducednounphrases(i.e.NPswithoutaDeterminer).

Complementsinnounphrases

•prepositionalphrases;

•clauses;

•pre-Headreducednounphrases(withoutaDeterminer).

Table5.4:Complementsinnounphrases

5.2.3.1PrepositionalphrasesfunctioningasComplementinnounphrases

Complementsofnounsderivedorconvertedfromverbs(section2.3.1)canoccurintheshapeofaPP,asintheexamplesbelow.

34[NPOurreview[PPofthemarket]]inChapter1showsthatspacelinerswouldbeusedinitiallyforferryingstaffandcargotoandfromgovernment-fundedspacestations;andthenforspacetourism.

35[NPThedesire[PPformoney]]hasacorruptinginfluence.

36[NPAchievement[PPoftheextravolume]]wasthesubjectofconsiderableplanning.

37Irefertomytelephonecalltheotherdaytocheckon[NPyourreceipt[PPofmyapplicationformembership]].

TheheadofthePPisusuallytheprepositionof.IneachofthesecasestheN+ComplementsequencecanberelatedtoaV+Complement(DO)sequence.

38Wereviewedthemarket.

39(They)desiremoney.

40(They)achieveextravolume.

41Youreceivedmyapplicationformembership.

InothercasesaPPComplementislicensedbythenounwithouttherebeingalinktoaV+Complementsequence,asinthefollowingsetofexamples.

42Themilitaryisnotrulingout[NPthepossibility[PPofcontamination]]asaresultofthebombing.

43Itis[NPaform[PPofdance]].

44Andhe’sbeenlookingatthepossibilitiesofhaving[NPsomemeaningfuldialogue[PPbetweentheparties]].

ThePPsareComplementshere,ratherthanAdjuncts,becausethenounlicensestheprepositionthatheadsthePP.

5.2.3.2ClausesfunctioningasComplementinnounphrases

InthefollowingexamplesclausesfunctionasComplementsofnounsinsidenounphrases.

45AspokeswomanfortheLondonAmbulanceServicerefuted[NPtheclaim[clausethatliveswerebeingputatrisk]].

46IdetectintheUnitedStates’latestposition[NParealisation[clausethatitisimportanttokeeptheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncilconsensus]].

47Hestronglycriticised[NPthePrimeMinister’sfailure[clauseØtoallowBritishentryintotheExchangeRateMechanism]].

48Butthere’s[NPnoactualrequirement[clauseforthemtodoit]]underthetermsoftheoffice.

Thesymbol‘Ø’in(47)indicatesthattheSubjectoftheclauseisimplicit,thatis,notovertlyexpressed;itisinthiscaseunderstoodtobethePrimeMinister.IwillreturntothisconventioninChapters7and8.AgainwecanlinktheN+ComplementsequencetoaV+(NP)+Complementsequence,as(49)–(52)show.

49Somebodyclaimed[thatliveswerebeingputatrisk].

50(They)realised[thatitisimportanttokeeptheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncilconsensus].

51ThePrimeMinisterfailed[ØtoallowBritishentryintotheExchangeRateMechanism].

52(Nobody)requiresthem[Øtodoitunderthetermsoftheoffice].

ThereisalimitedsetofnounswhoseComplementscannotbelinkedtoverbalComplements.Thesealsotakefiniteornon-finiteclausalComplements,forexamplechance,fact,idea,occasion,proposition,question.Examplesfollow.

53[NPThefact[clausethattheaccusedwasignorantoftherulesofEnglishlaw]]willnotaffordanydefence.

54Youreallymustgetusedto[NPtheidea[clausethatpeoplewillcomeuptoyou]].

55Weneedtoknockonthehead[NPtheproposition[clausethatashortwarwillboosttheinternationaleconomy]].

56AdeclarationissuedattheEU’sLaekensummitin2001calledforaConventiononthefutureofEuropetolookintothesimplificationandreorganisationoftheEUtreaties,andraised[NPthequestion[clausewhethertheendresultshouldbeaconstitution]].

57Thismeansthatthereisnever[NPachance[clauseØtohaveacompleteweekendoff]].

58HemadetheQueen’sSpeechdebateonWednesday[NPtheoccasion[clauseØtoreassertmasteryofadividedparty]].

59Thatgivesme[NPanopening[clauseØtopryfurtherdowntheline]].

Thethat-clausesandto-infinitiveclausesspecifythecontentoftheclaim,realization,failure,fact,idea,andsoon.

ClausesthatfunctionasComplementsofnounsareoftencalledappositiveclauses.

5.2.3.3NounphraseswithoutaDeterminerfunctioningaspre-HeadComplementinnounphrases

TosomeextentnounscanalsobecomplementedbynounphraseswithoutaDeterminer,asin(60)–(63),thoughnotethat,exceptionally,the

ComplementshereprecedetheHead.

60[NPan[NPart]student]

61[NPthe[NPcompany]representative]

62[NPa[NPbananabread]eater]

63[NPa[NPtenpercent]saving]

Compare(60)-(63)with(64)-(67),wheretheNPsfunctionasDirectObject,orasComplementoftheprepositionof

64s/hestudiesart—astudentofart

65s/herepresentsthecompany—arepresentativeofthecompany

66s/heeatsbananabread—aneaterofbananabread

67s/hesavedtenpercent—asavingoftenpercent

Structureslike(60)–(63)arenotalwayseasytodistinguishfromcompounds(seesection2.3.2).

5.2.4Adjunctsinnounphrases

Withinnounphraseswedistinguishbetweenpre-HeadAdjuncts,whichoccurbeforetheHead,post-HeadAdjuncts,whichoccuraftertheHead,andExternalAdjuncts,whichmodifyNPsasawhole.RecallthatAdjunctsareoptional,andsupplycircumstantialinformation.AnoverviewofAdjunctsinnounphrasesisgiveninTable5.5.

Adjunctsinnounphrases

•Pre-HeadAdjuncts

adjectivephrases;

determinativephrases;

nounphrases(withoutaDeterminer);

prepositionalphrases;

verbphrases;

adverbphrases;

clausesandclause-likestructures.

•Post-HeadAdjuncts

nounphrases;

adjectivephrases;

adverbphrases;

clauses.

•ExternalAdjuncts

adverbphrases;

nounphrases.

Table5.5:Adjunctsinnounphrases

5.2.4.1Adjectivephrasesfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunctinnounphrases

NominalHeadscanbeprecededbyadjectivephrases,asin(68).

68[NPan[AdjPinteresting]period]

Notethatinterestingisanadjectivephraseinattributivepositionmodifying

thenounperiod,notjustanadjective.WecanshowthatinterestingonitsownoccupiesanAdjP-positionbyexpanding(68)into(69).

69[NPa[AdjPveryinteresting]period]

BecausetheyareAdjuncts,adjectivephrasescanbestacked(seesection4.1.3.6.5):

70[NPa[AdjPlengthy][AdjPenjoyable][AdjPinteresting]period]

Therearesomerestrictionsontheorderofadjectivephraseswithinnounphrases.Consider(71),whichsoundsquiteodd.

71abrownleatheroldpracticalsuitcase

Thereasonforthisisthatstackedadjectivestendtooccurinaparticularorder,dependingonthesemanticdomaintheybelongto.Thisorderisshownin(72).

72evaluation–property–age–colour–provenance–manufacture–type

Thus,evaluativeadjectivestendtoprecedepropertyadjectives,whichinturnprecedeageadjectives,andsoon.Hereareafewexamples:

thisexcellentfreshfood

hisuglythickredsocks

thebigoldbrowncottonhat

apracticaloldFrenchleathersuitcase

Therestrictionsaresemanticorderingtendencies,ratherthanhard-and-fastsyntacticrules,giventhatslightchangesinorderdonotalwaysresultinanunacceptableresult(cf.histhickuglyredsocks).Thismeansthatdeparturesfromtheorderin(72)arenotsomuchungrammaticalasjustodd-sounding.

5.2.4.2Determinativephrasesfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunctinnounphrases

In(73)and(74)belowthedeterminativesmanyandtwofunctionastheHeadsofdeterminativephraseswhichinturnfunctionaspre-HeadAdjunctsinsidethebracketedNPs.

73Andifwe’reacceptedin[NP[DPour][DPverymany]facets]],what’sourproblem?

74[NP[DPThese][DPtwo]images]sayitall.

TheDPsourandthesefunctionasDeterminer.Compare(73)with(14).SincetheformeralreadycontainsaDeterminer(our)weanalysetheDPverymanyasanAdjunct.

5.2.4.3NounphraseswithoutaDeterminerfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunctinnounphrases

HerearesomeexamplesofnounphraseswithoutaDeterminerfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunct.In(76)theNPtakesgenitivecase.

75Genesisalsofavouredthemelotron’suniquesoundandtheyfeatureditheavilyonmanyof[NPtheirclassic[NPearlyseventies]albums].

76Shealsorevealedthat[NPa[NPmen’s]magazine]hadapproachedherforaphotosession.

77FlyMetotheMoonoccasionallyfeelslikeithasn’tgotasmuchenergyorexcitementasitcouldhave,and[NPthereal[NPedge-of-your-seat]actionanddrama]comesquitelateinthefilm–butit’sworththewait.

Namescanalsofunctionaspre-HeadAdjunct,asintheexamplebelowfromafamousnovel.

78Ifyoureallywanttohearaboutit,thefirstthingyou’llprobablywanttoknowiswhereIwasborn,andwhatmylousychildhoodwaslike,andhowmyparentswereoccupiedandallbeforetheyhadme,and[NPallthat[NPDavidCopperfield]kindofcrap],butIdon’tfeellikegoingintoit,ifyouwanttoknowthetruth.

TheAdjunctnatureoftheitalicizedpre-HeadNPsbecomesclearwhenweparaphrasethecontainingNPs.Thustheirclassicearlyseventiesalbums

canberewordedastheirclassicalbumsfromtheearlyseventies.In(76)amen’smagazinecanbeparaphrasedasamagazineformen.Noticethatthedeterminativeagoeswithmagazine,notwithmen’s,sincethelatterisplural.

Examplesinvolvingpre-Headnounphrasesarenotalwayseasilydistinguishablefromcompounds.Wesawinsection2.3.2thatasarulethestressincompoundsisonthefirstcomponent,whileinphrasesthesecondcomponenttendstobestressed.Inthisconnectionconsidertheexamplesbelow.

79Wasitnotthecasethattheyrespondedtoanadvertisementthatyouplacedin[NPthetradepress]?

80ThehearingwastoldMsStewartthreatenedtostart[NPagrievanceprocedure]ifherloverwasnotallowedontothesameshift.

HerewecouldsaythatwithintheitalicizedNPstradeandgrievanceareNPswhichfunctionaspre-HeadAdjunct.However,wecanalsoregardtradepressandgrievanceprocedureascompounds,giventhatthestressisontradeandgrievance,respectively.

5.2.4.4Prepositionalphrasesfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunctinnounphrases

PrepositionalphrasescanpremodifyNPHeads,thoughthisisquiterare.Someexamplesareshownin(81)–(83).

81Forceschiefsback[NP[PPunder-fire]minister].

82[NPThe[PPunder-threat]GatwickExpressrailservice]hasbeensaved,thegovernmentannouncedtoday.

83WiththenewsthattheEUhasidentifiedariskofhearinglosstoanyonelisteningto[NP[NPin-ear]music]overavolumeof89db,wemustconsiderthewayweconsumemusic.

InalltheseexamplesthewritersusedahyphenbetweenthetwocomponentsofthePP.ThiscouldindicatethatthesePPsarefelttobeabitlikeadjectivesmodifyingnouns,cf.thebeleagueredminister,the

endangeredrailservice.

5.2.4.5Verbphrasesfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunctinnounphrases

Inthefollowingexamplesaverbphrasefunctionsaspre-HeadAdjunct.

84IntheOldTown,youcanseemullet-hairedskateboarders,scuttlingnuns,transvestitesand[NPthe[NPslowlygrowing]numbersofforeigners]allputtingthisconsensualapproachintopractice.

85Hewassuccessfulbefore,ofcourse;hewaswell-knownaroundmediaLondonasthemasterof[NPthe[VPquicklydelivered]opinionpiece],firstpersonorotherwise,toatightdeadline.

HowdoweknowthattheitalicizedstringsareVPs,andnotadjectivephrases?First,noticethatthewordsgrowinganddeliveredcannotbemodifiedbytypicaladjectivalAdjunctslikevery(cf.*verygrowing,*“verydelivered).Secondly,in(84)and(85)growinganddeliveredaremodifiedbyslowlyandquickly.Thesemanneradverbscanonlymodifyverbs.

Compare(84)and(85)with(86)and(87).

86That’s[NPa[AdjPveryinteresting]point]thatPhilip’smade.

87I’musedtoworkingwith[NP[AdjPveryable-bodied]people].

InthesecasestheHeadnounsaremodifiedbyveryinterestingandveryable-bodied.TheHeadsofthesephrasesmustbeadjectives,becausetheyaremodifiedbyvery.(However,noticethatinterestingisconvertedfromaverb;seeSection2.3.3.)

5.2.4.6Adverbphrasesfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunctinnounphrases

ItisrareforadverbphrasestomodifynominalHeads,butexampleslikethefollowingarepossible:

88Achancelessinningsofpatienceandclassfrom20-year-oldGordonMuchallsecuredatensefinishand[NP[AdvPalmost]victory]forDurhamafteraturgidlow-scoringaffair.

Aswithpre-HeadPPs,weoftenfindahyphenbetweentheadverbandthenoun(almost-victory),whichmayindicatethattheadverb-nounsequenceisregardedasacompoundnounofsomesort.

5.2.4.7Clausesandclause-likestructuresfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunctinnounphrases

Inthefollowingexamplesclausesandclause-likestructuresfunctionaspre-HeadAdjunct.

89Theinternationalmobiletelecomsproviderisofferingunlimitedfreeinternationaltextsuntil2Januarytocustomerson[NPtheir[clausepay-as-you-go]simcard].

90Gallonsofinkhavebeenspilledand[NP[clause’godknowshowmany]pixels]havebeenburnedtoreporttheyearlongsagaoftheForeignIntelligenceSurveillanceAct(Fisa),butitcanbeprettywellsummarisedinoneparagraph.

Hereagainthewordsthatmakeupthemodifyingclauseareoften,thoughnotalways,hyphenated,indicatingthatthewordstakentogetherareregardedasaunit,muchlikeanadjective.

5.2.4.8Nounphrasesfunctioningaspost-HeadAdjunctinnounphrases

IntheexamplesbelowtheHeadispostmodifiedbyanNP

91IsmyrighthonourablefriendawarethatonthissideoftheHousewefullysupportthecontents,aswellasthestyleandtoneof[NPhisstatement[NPthisafternoon]]?

92Easterfoundmesupineandsemi-nakedoncoralsand,doingaprettygoodimitationofacrabstick,toyingwithadewyFanta,staringoutatthesycophanticCaribbeanandwondering,asever,ifIdaredtowear[NPashirt[NPthatcolour]].

93Thisobviouslyhelped[NPbanks[NPthissideoftheAtlantic]].

In(91)and(93)thisafternoonandthissideoftheAtlanticcanalsobeconstruedasAdjunctsfunctioningattheVPlevel,ratherthaninsidethe

nounphrase,inwhichcasewecanparaphrasethesecondpartof(91)as‘thatonthissideoftheHousethisafternoonwefullysupportthecontentsaswellasthestyleandtoneofhisstatement’,and(93)canbereorderedasThissideoftheAtlantic,thisobviouslyhelpedbanks.Intonationisoftenaclueastotheintendedstructure.ThereisnointonationalbreakiftheAdjunctisconsideredtobepartoftheNP,andpassivizationispossible:[NPBanksthissideoftheAtlantic]wereobviouslyhelpedbythis.

InthefollowingexampletheitalicizednounphraseisanappositiveAdjunctofthenounfilm.Thetitlereferstothesameentityasthenoun.

94ToreadthewartimeWilliamsistobetransportedbacktothesuburbanhomefrontbutahomefrontobservedfromthechild’seyeviewjustasJohnBoormanobserveditin[NPhisautobiographicalfilm[NPHopeandGlory]].

5.2.4.9Adjectivephrasesfunctioningaspost-HeadAdjunctinnounphrases

AnadjectivephrasecanpostmodifyaHeadnoun,asintheexamplesbelow.

95Somepeoplehave[NPears[AdjPfullofwax]].

96Iunderstoodthatithadnotbeenpossibletoarrange[NPtheseparatedebate[AdjPrecommended]].

97Andtheirfirstrulerwasveryinterestedin[NPallthings[AdjPwestern]].

98OrdnanceSurveytakesitsnamefromtheBoardofOrdnancewhichintheeighteenthcenturywasanimportantelementofthemilitarybeingconcernedwithfortifications,artillery,engineering,and[NPallmatters[AdjPtechnical]].

99NationaltroopsretookthecityinMay,atthecostof[NPmanythousands[AdjP-coordinationdeadandimprisoned]].

Moreoftenthannot,theAdjPscanberegardedasreducedrelativeclauses(seesections3.2.2.3and7.3.3).Thus,(95)isarguablyareducedversionof(100),and(96)areducedversionof(101).

100Somepeoplehaveearswhicharefullofwax.

101Iunderstoodthatithadnotbeenpossibletoarrangetheseparatedebatewhichwasrecommended.

Theitalicizedstringofwordsin(99)isanadjectivephrasecoordination(seeSection5.7.1fordiscussion).

Thefollowingaresetphrases.

102[NPpoet[AdjPlaureate]]

103[NPgovernor/secretary/attorney/surgeon[AdjPgeneral]]

104[NPastronomer[AdjProyal]]

5.2.4.10Prepositionalphrasesfunctioningaspost-HeadAdjunctinnounphrases

PPspostmodifyingnominalHeadsareextremelycommon.Theycanaddaverywiderangeofdifferenttypesofcircumstantialinformation,including‘location’,‘time’,‘source’,aswellasmoreabstractmeanings.Someexamplesfollow.

105Ithinksomepeoplecomeinitiallytohelp[NPpeople[PPinwheelchairs]]dance.

106Wethinkwe’vegot[NPthemainpoint[PPaboutthat]].

107Anyway[NPothercountries[PPinEurope]]suchasAustriaandSwitzerlandmakefarmoremoneyoutoftourismthanwedoandtheyarerepublics.

108Iamawaiting[NPaleisurecard[PPfromthelibrary]]but,meantime,encloseacopyoftherelevantpageofmypassportasproofofmyage.

109Ihaven’thad[NPmoment[PPtomyself]].

5.2.4.11Adverbphrasesfunctioningaspost-HeadAdjunctinnounphrases

Inthefollowingexamplesadverbphrasesfunctionaspost-HeadAdjunct.

110He’llfindverylargenumbersofthemhave[NPverylowincomes[AdvPindeed]].

111We’venotbeenplayingbadly,though,and[NPtheresults[AdvPlately]]havecertainlybeenworsethantheperformances.

112Butoftaxrisestherewasnothing,anechoingsilencearoundtheCommonschamber-yetitisanissuethat[NPsomeday[AdvPsoon]]hewillhavetoaddress.

InthesecasesitisnotalwaysentirelyclearexactlywhattheAdvPsmodify.Thus,in(111)onecouldarguethatlatelyfunctionsasaVP-levelAdjunct,thoughitwouldthenbemorelikelytooccurafterhaveoraftercertainly.In(112)wecouldalsosaythatsoonistheHead,modifiedbytheNPsomeday(seesection5.6.2.3below).

5.2.4.12Determinativephrasesfunctioningaspost-HeadAdjunctinnounphrases

Somedeterminatives,forexampleeach,enough,less,andmore,canheaddeterminativephraseswhichfunctionaspost-HeadAdjunct,asinthefollowingexamples.

113Norwilltherebepreciseplansonthesizeofafutureexecutivewherethebiggerstatescurrentlyhave[NPtwoseats[DPeach]],withoneapieceforthe10smallerpartners.

114Theyhave[NPreasons[DPenough]],withoutbeinghandedmore.

5.2.4.13Clausesfunctioningaspost-HeadAdjunctinnounphrases

Relativeclausescanfunctionaspost-HeadAdjunct.Aswesawinsection3.2.2.3,theseareclausesthatsupplyadditionalinformationaboutthereferentoftheHeadofthenounphraseinwhichtheyoccur,andaretypicallyintroducedbyrelativepronouns.Herearesomefurtherexamples.

115He’s[NPtheguy[clausewhoissupposedtohaveleft]].

116Butitis[NPaformofdance[clausewhichalreadyexists]].

Finiteandnon-finiterelativeclauseswillbediscussedinmoredetailinSection7.3.3.

5.2.4.14ExternalAdjunctsinnounphrases

Anumberofphrasetypes,specificallyAdvPs,PPs,andNPs,canmodifyanentireNP,andfunctionasExternalAdjunct.TheycanbeattachedeitheratthebeginningorendofanNP.Examplesareshownbelow.

117ThenovelsofChristinaSteadspan[NP[AdvPalmost][NPtheentirecentury]].

118Attoday’sprices,[NP[NPthosetracts][AdvPalone]]areworth£130million.

119[NP[AdvPOnly][NPahandfulofinternationalreliefagencies]]arecurrentlyworkinginthecountry.

120IbegtodifferfromthissurveyandstatethatHeathrowis[NPperhaps[NP[Advpperhaps[NPthebestairportintheworld]],itsfacilitiesaresecondtonone.

121Todayis[NP[AdvPofficially][NPthemostdepressingdayoftheyear]]-butthankfullyhelpisathand.

122BythistimeCastilewaslooking[NP[PPbyfar][NPthemostvaluableally]]again.

123Therehesitslooking[NP[NPeverybit][NPachiefexecutive]]-greysuit,whiteshirt,redtie.

124[NP[NPTheGauls][NPthemselves]]werepartofthemuchlargerfamilyofCeltic-speakingpeopleswhointhelastcenturiesBCoccupiedallthebrownbitsyouseeonthismap.

ExternalAdjunctscanbedistinguishedfromPredeterminers(Section5.2.2)bothsyntacticallyandsemantically.Positionally,whentheyoccurbeforetheHeadofanNPtheyprecedeanyPredeterminers(andDeterminers)whicharepresent,astheexamplebelowmakesclear.Theelement

functioningasPredeterminerisunderlined.

125Ithasbeenquitegratifyingtoreadthat[NPeven[NPall[NPtheambitious,overworkedmanagersthatIseeattheoffice(andfailtocomprehend)]]]feeldeepdownthatthey’remissingoutonlife.

SemanticallyExternalAdjunctscanexpressawiderrangeofmeaningsthanPredeterminers,suchas‘focus’(e.g.alone,even,only),‘degree’(almost,entirely,much,nearly),‘viewpoint’(academically,financially,officially),‘evaluation’(fortunately,happily,regrettably),‘modality’(possibly,perhaps),andsoon.Predeterminerstypicallyexpressquantifyingmeanings,aswehaveseen.ExternalAdjunctscanoftenalsoappearasAdjunctsinclausesorotherphrasetypes.Compare(13),(24),and(88),wheretheadverbalmostfunctionsasanAdjunctinsideaphrase,with(117),whereitfunctionsasanExternalAdjunctmodifyinganentireNP.Comparealsoperhapsin(120)withthesameadverbin(126),whereitfunctionsasaClauseAdjunct(section4.1.3.6.3).

126Andwecanperhapsleaveasidewhethertheymeananythingornot.

5.3Complexadjectivephrases

5.3.1Complementsinadjectivephrases

AdjectiveHeadscanbecomplementedbyprepositionalphrases,clauses,andnounphrases(Table5.6).

Complementsinadjectivephrases

•clauses;

•nounphrases.

Table5.6:Complementsinadjectivephrases

5.3.1.1PrepositionalphrasesfunctioningasComplementinadjectivephrases

InPPComplementsofadjectivephrasestheprepositionisalwaysfixed.Forexample,fondalwaystakesaPPComplementintroducedbyoff.

127Iwasgetting[AdjPquitefond[PPofhim]].

128Heis[AdjPmindful[PPoftheterrorthatmusthavebeenvisiteduponthevictimthatday]].

129Thesystemistotally[AdjPdependent[PPonemployeegoodwill]]ifitistoproducegoodinformation.

130We’renot[AdjPinvolved[PPinthatsideofpolitics]].

InafewcasesleavingouttheComplementleadstoungrammaticality,asinexamples(127)and(128),thoughinothersitmayleadmerelytoachangeinmeaning,orasenseofinformationthatislacking.Forexample,withregardto(129),usingdependentwithoutaPPbeginningwith(up)onmayleadanaddresseetoask‘dependentonwhoorwhat?’aboutthesysteminquestion.

5.3.1.2ClausesfunctioningasComplementinadjectivephrases

Finiteandnon-finiteclausescanfunctionasComplementofadjectives.Non-finiteclausesinthisfunctioncanoccurwithorwithoutaSubjectoftheirown.

131I’m[AdjPpleased[clausethatyouhadacancellationthismorning]].

132We’renot[AdjPsure[clausewhattheseknivesmighthavebeenlike]].

133TheGardaappear[AdjPeager[clauseØtohelp]]thoughtheirresourcesareinadequate.

134I’m[AdjPperfectlyhappy[clauseforyoutoclapandsing]].

135Wereyou[AdjPtoobusy[clauseØdoingyourprojects]]?

5.3.1.3NounphrasesfunctioningasComplementinadjectivephrases

NounphrasescanonlyfunctionasComplementofasmallsetofadjectives,namelydue,like,NEAR,unlike,andworth,asinthefollowingexamples.NoticethatNEARisinitscomparativeformin(137).

136It’s[AdjPworth[NPamention]].

137Youcanwaituntil[AdjPnearer[NPthetime]]togodigital,oryoucanmaketheswitchnow.

5.3.2Adjunctsinadjectivephrases

TheinformationsuppliedbyAdjunctsinsideAdjPsisalwaysoptional.Theycanberealizedinavarietyofways,asTable5.7shows.

Adjunctsinadjectivephrases

•Pre-HeadAdjuncts

adverbphrases;

nounphrases;

‘verbphrases’.

adverbphrases;

determinativephrases.

Table5.7:Adjunctsinadjectivephrases

ThedifferenttypesofAdjunctsinadjectivephraseswillbediscussedinthesectionsthatfollow.

5.3.2.1Adverbphrasesfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunctinadjectivephrases

Adjectivescanbemodifiedbyadverbphrasesheadedbyintensifieradverbssuchasextremely,fairly,quite,really,reasonably,slightly,too,totally,very.

138[AdjP[AdvPfairly]elaborate]

139[AdjP[AdvPquite]small]

140[AdjP[AdvPreally]pleasant]

141[AdjP[AdvPtotally]idiotic]

142[AdjP[AdvPvery]narrow]

5.3.2.2Nounphrasesfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunctinadjectivephrases

Lesscommonly,nounphrasesmodifytheHead.TheNPstypicallyindicatemeasuresintimeorspace.

143[AdjP[NPsixyears]older]

144[AdjP[NPninemiles]long]

5.3.2.3Prepositionalphrasesfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunctinadjectivephrases

AlsonotverycommonarePPsfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunct.Herearetwoexamples.

145[AdjP[PPinnoway]radical]

146[AdjP[PPbynomeans]clear]

5.3.2.4Determinativephrasesfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunctinadjectivephrases

Inthenextbatteryofexamplesdeterminativephrasesfunctionaspre-HeadAdjunctinsideAdjPs.In(149)theDPsfunctioninthiswayinpairedAdjPs.

147Idon’tthinkit’s[AdjP[DPthat]risky].

148I’vegotalittlegarageandit’sonly[AdjP[DPthis]small].

149[AdjP[DPThe]worse]itseemed,[AdjP[DPthe]morecheerful]Ifelt.

5.3.2.5‘Verbphrases’functioningaspre-HeadAdjunctinadjectivephrases

Occasionallywefindpre-HeadAdjunctsthatresembleverbphrasesinsideAdjPs.

150It’s[AdjP[’VP’laugh-out-loud]funny]whichisprettygoodforabookondepression-comprehensiveandveryhelpful.

5.3.2.6Prepositionalphrasesfunctioningaspost-HeadAdjunctinadjectivephrases

Post-HeadAdjunctsthatarerealizedasprepositionalphrasesarenotalwayseasytodistinguishfromPPsthatfunctionasAdjunctatadifferentlevelofclausestructure.ThusonSaturdaymorningsin(153)canbemoved,as(154)shows.

151Itwas[AdjPtooearly[PPinthemorning]].

152Theyare[AdjPrich[PPbeyondtheirwildestdreams]].

153It’sabitofanuisanceparkingdownthere,buttheyare[AdjPopen[PPonSaturdaymornings]].

154It’sabitofanuisanceparkingdownthere,butonSaturdaymorningstheyareopen.

5.3.2.7Adverbphrasesfunctioningaspost-HeadAdjunctinadjectivephrases

Adverbphrasesheadedbytheadverbsindeedandstillcanfunctionaspost-HeadAdjunctinsideAdjPs,asin(155)and(156).

155It’llbe[AdjPverydestructive[AdvPindeed]]bothforsickpeopleandtheirbusinesses.

156Herhousewaslovelyandherfamily[AdjPlovelier[AdvPstill]].

5.3.2.8Determinativephrasesfunctioningaspost-HeadAdjunctinadjectivephrases

Thedeterminativeenoughcanfunctionaspost-HeadAdjunctinsideadjectivephrases,asintheexamplebelow.

157That’s[AdjPclear[DPenough]].

5.4Complexverbphrases

5.4.1Complementsinverbphrases

Aswesawinsection3.6.2,thesimplestverbphrasescontainanintransitiveverbwithorwithoutAdjuncts,oratransitiveverbwithaComplementandoneormoreAdjuncts.MorecomplexverbphrasescancontainmorethanoneComplement,andcanalsocontainoneormoreAdjuncts.ThemosttypicalComplementslicensedbyverbsinsideverbphrasesareshowninTable5.8.

Complementsinverbphrases

•nounphrases;

•adjectivephrases;

•clauses(finiteandnon-finite).

Table5.8:Complementsinverbphrases

TheComplementsofverbsinsideverbphraseswillbediscussedwithreferencetoEnglishverbcomplementationpatterns.ThesespecifywhichComplement(s)aPredicatorlicenses,ifany.ThepatternsinquestionareshowninTable5.9.

Basiccomplementationpatterns

PCR(nocomplement):intransitive

PCR+DO:monotransitive

PCR+IO+DO:ditransitive

PCR+Subject-relatedpC:complexintransitive

PCR+DO+Object-relatedpC:complextransitive

PCR+(DO+)PPC:prepositional

PCR=Predicator,DO=DirectObject;IO=IndirectObject,PC=PredicativeComplement,PPC=PrepositionalPhraseasComplement

Table5.9:Basiccomplementationpatterns

Notethatthepatternsareformulatedintermsofgrammaticalfunctionswhichcanberealizedindifferentways.Exampleswillbegiveninthesectionsthatfollow.Theintransitivepatternwillnotbediscussedfurtherhere.

5.4.1.1ThepatternPCR+DO:monotransitive

5.4.1.1.1Nounphrases,adjectivephrases,andprepositionalphrasesfunctioningasDirectObject

Aswesawinsection4.1.3.1.2,DirectObjectsareoverwhelminglyrealizedasnounphrases.Othertypesofphrases,includingPPsandAdjPs,canonlymarginallyfunctionasDirectObject.Considerfirst(158),wheretheDOisaprepositionalphrase.

158Theywant[PPbetween£8billionand£9billion]fromtheGovernment.

In(159)theadjectivephrasecouldbeanalysedasaDirectObject.

159Youmean[AdjPclosetoChristmas],Iassume.

However,thisexamplewasutteredinresponsetosomeonesaying‘Inmy

ownestimationtheturningpointoftheeconomycertainlyisnotgoingtobetillthebackendofthisyearattheveryearliest.’Becauseofthiswecouldregard(159)asashortenedversionof(160),inwhichtheAdjPfunctionsasComplementofapreposition.

160YoumeanthattheturningpointoftheeconomyiscertainlynotgoingtobetillclosetoChristmas?

5.4.1.1.2ClausesfunctioningasDirectObject

IntheexamplesbelowthebracketedclausesfunctionasDirectObject.Theclausein(161)isfinite,whereas(162)involvesanon-finiteclause.

161Weknow[clausethatnotallchoicesarewise],butwe’rereluctanttoletthatfactserveasthebasisforamoralconclusion.

162Ididn’texpect[clauseØtogetthatsortofreaction].

ThereexistsalargenumberofpatternsinwhichclausescanfunctionasDO.ThesewillbediscussedindetailinChapters7and8.

5.4.1.2ThepatternPCR+IO+DO:ditransitive

AswesawinChapter4,IndirectObjectsarealmostalwaysrealizedasnounphrases.Herearesomeadditionalexamples.InbothcasestheDirectObjectisalsorealizedasanounphrase.

163You’reinfactgiving[NPpeopleinhigh-valuedproperty][NPasubsidy].

164SheclaimedthatthenewPrimeMinisterJimCallaghanhadoffered[NPhispredecessor][NPthejobofForeignSecretaryinhisgovernment].

VeryrarelyIndirectObjectsarerealizedasprepositionalphrases,asintheinventedexamplethatfollows.

165Igaveunderthebedagoodclean.

5.4.1.3ThepatternPCR+Subject-relatedPC:complexintransitive

InthispatternaverbiscomplementedbyaPredicativeComplementthatascribesapropertytoaSubject,oridentifiesthereferentoftheSubject.ThePCcanberealizedbyanNP,AdjP,PP,AdvP,orclause.

5.4.1.3.1NounphrasesfunctioningasSubject-relatedPredicativeComplement

Aswesawinsection4.1.3.3.1,Subject-relatedPredicativeComplementsarecommonlyrealizedasnounphrases.Herearesomefurtherexamples.IneachcasetheSubjecttowhichthePCisrelatedisunderlined.

166Itseemed[NPasplendidwayofgettingmyideasstraight].

167Aswithmanychildren,origamibecame[NPanabsorbinghobbyofhis].

5.4.1.3.2AdjectivephrasesfunctioningasSubject-relatedPredicativeComplement

Subject-relatedPredicativeComplementsarealsofrequentlyrealizedasadjectivephrases.Asintheprevioussection,inthefollowingexamplestheSubjecttowhichthePCisrelatedisunderlined.

168Tanyaappeared[AdjPquiterelieved]asthetelephonerang.

169Hebecame[AdjPconvincedhecouldreachtheNorthPoleunaided].

5.4.1.3.3PrepositionalphrasesfunctioningasSubject-relatedPredicativeComplement

IntheexamplesthatfollowthepropertyexpressedbythePPisascribedtotheunderlinedSubject.

170Iwas[PPatalossforwords].

171Thisis[PPinapparentcontrasttothefindingsofalargersurveybyHicksonetal.(1986)].

Noticethatexample(172)belowisdifferentfromtheexamplesabove:herethepropertyascribedtothereferentoftheSubjectisnotexpressedbythePPasawhole,butratherbytheNPthatcomplementstheprepositionas

172Thatcounts[PPasadrawintheongoingbattlebetweenmanandmachine].

5.4.1.3.4AdverbphrasesfunctioningasSubject-relatedPredicativeComplement

AdverbphrasestoocanfunctionasPC;theyoftenprovideatimespecification:

173Thatwas[AdvPlater].

174Idon’tknowforsureifitwillbe[AdvPthatsoon].

5.4.1.3.5ClausesfunctioningasSubject-relatedPredicativeComplement

In(175)and(176)thebracketed(finiteandnon-finite)clausesfunctionasPredicativeComplementsrelatedtotheunderlinedSubjects.

175Theproblemwiththatofcourseis[clausethatpartiesmaynothaveamajority].

176Presumablythefirstjobwouldbe[clauseØtomarkthemup].

ClausalSubject-relatedPCswillbeexemplifiedfurtherinChapters7and8.

5.4.1.4ThepatternPCR+DO+Object-relatedPC:complextransitive

InthispatternaverbiscomplementedbyaDirectObject,aswellasbyaPredicativeComplementthatascribesapropertytotheDirectObject.ThePCcanberealizedbyanNP,AdjP,PP,orclause.

5.4.1.4.1NounphrasesfunctioningasObject-relatedPredicativeComplement

Aswesawinsection4.1.3.3.2,Object-relatedPCsarefrequentlyrealizedasnounphrases,asin(177)and(178).TheDirectObjectsareunderlined.

177Somepeoplecallthis[NPacompetitivesystem].

178[NPWhat]dotheycallit_?

(178)isaspecialcase:heretheObject-relatedPCisaclause-initialNPheadedbyaninterrogativepronoun(section3.2.2.5)whichisassociatedwiththegapfollowingtheDirectObject(indicatedby‘_’).

ThistypeofinterrogativeclausewillbediscussedfurtherinSection6.2.1.

5.4.1.4.2AdjectivephrasesfunctioningasObject-relatedPredicativeComplement

Likenounphrases,adjectivephrasesalsocommonlyfunctionasObject-relatedPC.

179Ifindit[AdjPfascinating].

180What’smakingme[AdjPsick]thisafternoonisthehonourablegentlemanforWansteadandWoodfordwhowasborninnineteenfifty-two.

5.4.1.4.3PrepositionalphrasesfunctioningasObject-relatedPredicativeComplement

PrepositionalphrasesfunctioningasObject-relatedPCarequiterare.Here’sanexample:

181Theremusthavebeenatime—maybebackin1966beforelivenewscoveragewascommonandCharlesWhitmanopenedfirefromaclocktowerattheUniversityofTexasinAustinandkilled16people—whenwitnesses,officialsandnewsannouncerswouldfindthemselves[PPatalossforwords].

Compare(181)with(170)wherethesamephrasefunctionsasaSubject-relatedPC.

Theexamplesin(182)and(183)belowalsocontainPPs,buthereitisthenounphraseComplementsoftheprepositionsasandforthatindicatethepropertiesascribedtotheDirectObjects,notthePPsasawhole.

182UntilthenAlicehadfeltparanoidandhelpless,woundedbythethoughtthatsomeoneinauthoritysawher[PPasathreat].

183Ifirstgotamillionaire[PPformyneighbour].

In(183)themostlikelymeaningis‘myfirstneighbourwasamillionaire’,ratherthan‘Ifirstprocuredamillionaireformyneighbour’.As(184)and(185)show,itispossibleforaprepositionheadingaPPfunctioningasObject-relatedPCtohaveanAdjPasComplement.

184Heleftthem[PPfordead].

185Anywayshe’sgivenusanarticle[PPforfree]whichisgood.

Noticethatin(185)thePPfunctionsasObject-relatedPCinaditran-sitiveconstruction.

5.4.1.4.4ClausesfunctioningasObject-relatedPredicativeComplement

IntheexamplebelowthetwobracketedNPsandthebracketedclausefunctionasObject-relatedPCs.TheyareassociatedwiththeunderlinedDirectObjects.Only-ingclausescanfunctionasObject-relatedPC.Thisisrare.

186Callit[NParebirth],callit[NParenewal],callit[clauseØfoolingfate].Whateverthisthingis,it’shelpingtheKingswinhockeygamesandtheythinkit’sabouttime.

5.4.1.5ThepatternPCR+(DO+)PrepositionalPhraseasComplement:prepositional

EnglishallowsalargenumberofpatternsinvolvingoneormoreprepositionalphrasesfunctioningasComplement.Theverbsoccurringinthesepatternscanbetransitiveorintransitive.Table5.10offersanoverviewofconstructionsinwhichthePPComplementsarenotlocative.Theywillbediscussedindetailafterthetable.

Constructionsinvolvingnon-locativePPsfunctioningasPPC

1.Intransitiveverb+PPi

Example:

(a)Somehowhiscomebackasa50s“commiebasher”intheColdWar

andKoreanevercaught[PPon].

Othercombinations:

BACKdown,BRANCHout,CLIMBup,CLOSEin,COMEapart/in,CROPup,DIEdown,DRAGon,GETby,GETup,GROWup,MOVEon,RUNoff,SITup,TOUCHdown,WORKout

2.Transitiveverb+NP+PPiorTransitiveverb+PPi+NP

Example:

(b)I’llturn[NPthelight][PPoff]there,soyoucanseebetter./(c)I’llturn[PPoff][NPthelight]there,soyoucanseebetter.

Othercombinations:

BRINGNPover,CLEANNPoff,EATNPup,FILLNPin,GIVENPback,HANDNPover,LEAVENPout,PAYNPback,SENDNPback,TEARNPup,TURNNPon,WIPENPoff,WRITENPdown

3.Intransitiveverb+PPt

Examples:

Type1:(d)Herelied[PPontheforensicevidence].

Type2:(e)Heserved[PPasdefenceminister]from2000-03.

Othercombinations:

Type1:ACCOUNTforNP,ASKforNP,ATTENDtoNP,CONSISTofNP-P,COMPLAINaboutNP,DAWNonNP-P,DEALwithNP,DECIDEonNP,DIFFERfromNP-P,FALLforNP-P,FEELforNP-P,FORGETaboutNP,HOPEforNP,INSISTonNP,LAUGHatNP,LOOKatNP,OBJECTtoNP,PAYforNP,REFERtoNP,RESORTtoNP,SENDforNP,TALKtoNP,VOTEforNP,WAITforNP,WORKforNP,WORRYaboutNP

Type2:COUNTasNP/AdjP,DOUBLEasNP,PASSforNP/AdjP,POSEasNP,RESIGNasNP,RETIREasNP

4.Transitiveverb+NP+PPt

Examples:

Type1:(f)AndsoBobdraftedthisquestionnaireandgave[NPit][PPtoDick].

Type2:(g)TheUSpresidentpaid[NPtribute][PPtoIslam’sinfluenceonreligion,cultureandcivilisation].

Type3:(h)PersonallyIagreewithH.G.Wellsthatitisagreatmistaketoregard[NPtheheadofstate][PPasasalespromoter].

Othercombinations:

Type1:LENDNPtoNP,OFFERNPtoNP,SENDNPtoNP,TELLNPtoNP

Type2:BLAMENPonNP,DOjusticetoNP,ENVYNPforNP,GIVEwaytoNP,INVESTNPinNP,PERSUADENPofNP,PROVIDENPwithNP,RAISEanobjectiontoNP,REFERNPtoNP,REMINDNPofNP,THANKNPforNP

Type3:ACCEPTNPasNP/AdjP,ACKNOWLEDGENPasNP/AdjP,BRANDNPasNP/AdjP,CONDEMNNPasNP/AdjP,DIAGNOSENPasNP/AdjP,HAILNPasNP/AdjP,IDENTIFYNPasNP/AdjP,INTERPRETNPasNP/AdjP,PORTRAYNPasNP/AdjP,RECOGNIZENPasNP/AdjP,TAKENPforNP/AdjP,TREATNPasNP/AdjP,VIEWNPasNP/AdjP

5.Intransitiveverb+PPi+PPt

Examples:

Type1:(i)Healsohastoput[PPup][PPwithasoppyelderbrotherRobert].

Type2:(j)TheirsonHarrywasbornin2003,10yearsafterhetook[PPover][PPashostoftheLateShow].

Othercombinations:

Type1:BREAKupwithNP-P,CHECKuponNP,COMEdownwithNP-P,GETawaywithNP-P,GETdowntoNP-P,KEEPawayfromNP-P,LOOKforwardtoNP,LOOKinonNP,LOOKoutforNP-P,LOOKuptoNP,RUNawaywithNP-P,STANDoutfromNP-P,STANDupforNP,WALKoutonNP

Type2:COMEacross/overasNP/AdjP,ENDupasNP,FINISHupasNP

6.Transitiveverb+NP+PPi+PPtorTransitiveverb+PPi+NP+PPtExamples:

Type1:(k)Theyfoundboredstaffwhofobbed[NPcustomers][PPoff][PPwithleaflets]./(l)Theyfoundboredstaffwhofobbed[PPoff][NPcustomers][PPwithleaflets].

Type2:(m)AuthoritiessayCurry-DemuskilledJohnsonandtriedtopass[NPJohnson’sinfantson][PPoff][PPasherown]./(n)AuthoritiessayCurry-DemuskilledJohnsonandtriedtopass[PPoff][NPJohnson’sinfantson][PPasherown].

Othercombinations:

Type1:BRINGNPinonNP,FIXNPupwithNP,GIVENPuptoNP,LETNPinonNP,PLAYNPoffagainstNP,PUTNPupforNP,PUTNPuptoNP,TAKENPuponNP

Type2:LAYNPdownasNP,PASSNPoffasNP/AdjP,PUTNPdownasNP/AdjP,RULENPoutasNP/AdjP,SHOWNPupasNP/AdjP,WRITENPoffasNP/AdjP

7.Intransitiveverb+PPt+PPt

Examples:

Type1:(o)AfterwalkingforsometimehecametoaGeorgianpolicecheckpointandappealed[PPtothem][PPforhelp].

Type2:(p)FromanearlyageIconceived[PPofmyself][PPasarationalist]andthoughImadespasmodiceffortsatbelief,Ineverfeltadivinepresence.

Othercombinations:

Type1:AGREEwithNPaboutNP,ARGUEwithNPaboutNP,ARRANGEwithNPforNP,BOASTtoNPaboutNP,COMPLAINtoNPaboutNP,LOOKtoNPforNP

Type2:LOOK(up)onNPasNP/AdjP,REFERtoNPasNP/AdjP,THINKofNPasNP/AdjP

8.Ditransitiveverb+NP+PPi+NP

Example:

(q)Asknicely,andI’llwrite[NPyou][PPout][NPalist].

Othercombinations:

PAYNPbackNP,RUNNPoffNP,SENDNPoverNP

PPi=PPheadedbyanintransitivepreposition;PPt=PPheadedbyatransitivepreposition.IneachcasetheNPisaDO,exceptinconstruction8wherethefirstNPisanIO.Thepatternsmarked‘-P’resistpassivization.

Table5.10:Anoverviewofconstructionsinvolvingnon-locativePPsfunctioningasPPC

Inconstruction1anintransitiveverbtakesaPPheadedbyanintransitiveprepositionasitsPPC.

Inconstruction2theverblicenseseitheranNPandaPPoraPPandanNPasComplements.ThePPsareheadedbyintransitiveprepositions.Theorderisdeterminedbyanumberoffactors,includinginformationstructuring(seeChapter11).WhentheNPisheadedbyapronounitmustoccurimmediatelyaftertheverb,unlessitisstressed.Thuswehave(187),(188),and(189)aspossiblestructures,butnot(190).

187Iturnedoffthelight.

188Iturnedthelightoff.

189Iturneditoff.

190*Iturnedoffit.

Construction3involvesanintransitiveverbfollowedbyaPPfunctioningasPPCheadedbyatransitivepreposition.Wehavetwosubtypeshere.InType1constructionstheprepositiontakesanordinaryNPasComplement.InType2constructionstheComplementPPfunctionsasSubject-relatedPredicativeComplement,butitistheNPcontainedinthisPPthatascribesapropertytotheSubjectoftheclause;theComplementoftheprepositioncanalsobeanadjectivephrase,asinThatcountsasradicalandShecouldhavepassedfordead.Noticethatin(191)wecaninsertaphrasebetweentheverbandthePP,whichshowsthatthePPisaconstituent.Unlikeinthecaseofconstruction2,theorderV-NP-PPin(192)isimpossible.

191Hereliedcompletelyontheevidence.

192*Hereliedtheforensicevidenceon.

PassivizationinvolvingtheNPinsidethePPispossibleformanyType1itemsofconstruction3,butnotforall.

Inconstruction4wehaveatransitiveverbfollowedbyanNPfunctioningasDO,andaPPfunctioningasPPC,headedbyatransitivepreposition.Thispatterninvolvesthreesubtypes.TheType1patternalternateswiththeditransitivepattern,discussedinsection4.1.3.2.TheNPthatcomplementstheHeadofthePPcarriesthesemanticroleofRecipient.Type2islessflexible,inthatinmanycasestheNPfollowingtheverbisfixed(tributeintheexamplegiveninthetable).IntheType3patternthetransitivePP(headedbyasorfor)functionsasObject-relatedPredicativeComplement,butitistheNPcontainedinthePPthatascribesapropertytotheDO.InsomecasesanAdjPfunctionsasComplementofthepreposition,asinWeportrayedherasfoolish.

Inconstruction5anintransitiveverbiscomplementedbytwoPPs.Thefirstoftheseisheadedbyanintransitivepreposition,whereasthesecondisheadedbyatransitivepreposition.Wehavetwosubtypeshere.Type1sometimesallowspassivizationinvolvingtheNPinsidethesecondPP;Type2doesnotallowthis.IntheType2patternthetransitivePPfunctionsasSubject-relatedPredicativeComplement,butitistheNPcontainedinthe

secondPPthatascribesapropertytotheSubjectoftheclause.AnAdjPcansometimesalsofunctionasComplementofthepreposition,asinHecameacrossasintelligent.

Construction6islikeconstruction5,exceptthatitinvolvesatransitiveverbwhichisfollowedbyanounphrasefunctioningasDO,andtwoPPs.ThefirstPPcanalsofollowtheverb,withtheNPinsecondposition.ThePPintheType2patternfunctionsasPredicativeComplement,butagainitistheNPcontainedinthePPthatascribesapropertytotheObjectoftheclause,ratherthanthePPasawhole.Asabove,insomecasesanAdjPcanalsofunctionasComplementofthepreposition,asinTheywrotethemanageroffasuseless.

Construction7involvestwoPPsasComplementsofanintransitiveverb,eachheadedbyatransitivepreposition.IntheType1patternbothPPstakeordinaryNPsastheirComplements.IntheType2patterntheNPcontainedinthesecondPPascribesapropertytotheNPcontainedinthefirstPP

Inconstruction8aditransitiveverbisfollowedbyanNPfunctioningasIO,aPPheadedbyanintransitiveprepositionfunctioningasPPC,andanNPfunctioningasDO.ThispatternisversatiletosomedegreeinthatitallowsforanalternativeorderingoftheComplementsiftheIOis‘heavy’enough.Comparethefollowingthreepossibilities,rankedinorderofacceptability.

193I’llwriteyourbrotheroutalist.

194I’llwriteyourbrotheralistout.

195I’llwriteoutyourbrotheralist.

Noticethatsomeofthepatternsshowninthetablehaveliteralmeanings(e.g.getup,clean(NP)off),whileothershaveunpredictablemeanings,andcanberegardedasidiomatic.Forexample,theprepositionoutinthecombinationWORKoutdoesnotcarryitsliteralsense.

Thenounphrasesinsidetheprepositionalphrasescanoftenbereplacedbyclauses.Forexample,inconstruction3(Type1),insteadofHereliedontheforensicevidencewecanalsohaveHereliedonwhathehadseen.

Insections7.3.1.2.3and8.3.3.1Iwilldiscussfurtherpatternsthatinvolvea

PPfunctioningasComplement,namely’MENTION([PPtoNP])[clausethat…]’,asinImentionedtoHarrythatitwaslate,and‘PREVENTclauseNP[PPfrom[clause-ingparticiple…]]’,asinShepreventedtheloutsfromdestroyingthesculpture.

NextweconsidertheconstructionsinTable5.11,whichallinvolvePPComplementsthatexpressalocation.

ConstructionsinvolvinglocativePPsfunctioningasPPC

1.Intransitiveverb+locativePPiorPPt

Examples:

(a)ThegirlI’mseeingatthemomentlives[PPthere].

(b)Iwork[PPinthePhysiologyDepartment].

Otherverbs:

BE,DWELL,REMAIN,RESIDE

2.Transitiveverb+NP+locativePPiorPPt

Examples:

(c)Iclearedoffthedeskandput[NPeverything][PPinside].

(d)He’sput[NPhiscertificate][PPonhiswall].

Othercombinations:

KEEPNPout,LEAVENPin,PUTNPup

3.Intransitiveverbortransitiveverb+locativePPt+locativePPt

Examples:

(e)Seamanthenwent[PPfromend][PPtoend].

(f)Thisbrought[NPhim][PPfromDublin][PPtoEngland],wherehe

receivedexcellentreviews.

Othercombinations:

SENDNPfromNPtoNP,TRANSPORTNPfromNPtoNP,TRAVELfromNPtoNP

4.Transitiveverb+NP+locativePPi+locativePPt+locativePPt

Examples:

(g)MartinBrundlehasactuallybrought[NPthatcar][PPup][PPfromlast][PPtothird].

Othercombinations:

GUIDENPdown/out/upfromNPtoNP,SENDNPdown/out/upfromNPtoNP

PPi=PPheadedbyanintransitivepreposition;PPt=PPheadedbyatransitivepreposition.

Table5.11:AnoverviewofconstructionsinvolvinglocativePPsfunctioningasPPC

Inconstruction1anintransitiveverbisfollowedbyalocativePPheadedbyeitheranintransitiveortransitivepreposition.IntheexamplesgivenherethePPCisobligatory.Ifitisleftouttheirmeaningchanges.

Construction2islikeconstruction1,exceptthataDOnowfollowstheverb.HowdoesaPPClikeonhiswallintheexampleshowndifferfromanObject-relatedPClikeatalossforwordsin(181)?Whilebotharerealizedasprepositionalphrases,theformerdoesnotascribeapropertytotheDO,whilethelatterdoes.Thusin(181)thepropertyof‘beingatalossforwords’isascribedtothereferentofthemselves,whileonhiswallobligatorilyspecifiesalocation.

Inconstruction3anintransitiveortransitiveverbiscomplementedbytwolocativePPs,bothheadedbytransitiveprepositions.

Construction4involvesatransitiveverbfollowedbyaDOandthreelocativePPCs.

5.4.2Adjunctsinverbphrases

Adjunctsinsideverbphrasesarenotlicensedbyverbs,aswesawinsection4.1.3.6.Theymodifyverb+Complementsequences,andcanoccurinvariousguises,expressingawidevarietyofmeanings.Table5.12showsthevarioustypesofVP-Adjuncts.

Adjunctsinverbphrases

•Pre-HeadAdjuncts

adverbphrases.

adverbphrases;

nounphrases;

clauses.

Table5.12:Adjunctsinverbphrases

5.4.2.1Adverbphrasesfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunctinverbphrases

Pre-HeadAdjunctsareoftenrealizedasadverbphraseswhichcanexpressarangeofmeaningssuchas‘manner’,‘frequency’,and‘time’(seealsosection3.8.1).

196I[VP[AdvPquickly]lookedaway],knowingthathewastryingtohidetheshaking.

197Dickens[VP[AdvPusually]doesthat].

198Andthepeople[VP[AdvPstill]playcricketonit].

199I[VP[AdvPnever]sawit,though].

200I[VP[AdvPdefinitely]likeAmericans].

5.4.2.2Adverbphrasesfunctioningaspost-HeadAdjunctinverbphrases

Inthefollowingthreeexamplesthepost-HeadAdjunctsarerealizedasadverbphrases.Liketheirpre-Headcounterparts,theycanexpressmanydifferentkindsofmeanings.

201Youwantashoewitharigidsolethatdecreasestheamountofpronationsoyou[VPcycle[AdvPefficiently]].

202I[VPwearthis[AdvPoccasionally]].

203ButI[VPdidit[AdvPreallybadly]].

5.4.2.3Nounphrasesfunctioningaspost-HeadAdjunctinverbphrases

NounphrasesfunctioningasAdjuncttypicallyexpressthesemanticnotionsoftimeandmanner.

204Well,I[VPhadchips[NPyesterday]],andtheyweredelicious.

205Someone[VPintroducedittome[NPtheotherday]].

206I[VPhadareally,reallygoodsupper[NPlastnight]].

207Many[VPdied[NPthatway]].

5.4.2.4Prepositionalphrasesfunctioningaspost-HeadAdjunctinverbphrases

Prepositionalphrasesfunctioningaspost-HeadAdjunctareextremelyfrequent,andcanexpressahugerangeofmeanings.

208Charlemagne[VPwassuccessful[PPIn799]],buthe[VPstillhadtosecurecontrolofthepeninsula[PPafterthisdate]].

209Fran[VPisveryhappy[PPatCheltenham]].

210You[VPlookedveryfat[PPinmywaistcoat]]pal.

211Let’s[VPstopit[PPforthemoment]].

TheHeadofaPPfunctioningasanAdjunctinsideaVPcanbeaconjunctivepreposition(section3.7.1)whichtakesaclausalComplement.ThistypeofPPwillbediscussedindetailinsection5.5.1.5.

5.4.2.5Clausesfunctioningaspost-HeadAdjunctinverbphrases

SubordinateclausescanfunctionasAdjunctinverbphrases.Herearetwoexamples.Thefirstisfinite,thesecondnon-finite.

212It[VPalsohassixmanuallycontrolled“steps”[clauseshouldyouwishtoassumecontrolyourself]].

213I[VPrushedovertothelibrary[clauseØtogetacoupleofthebooksthatRobinshadrecommended]].

FurtherexampleswillbediscussedinChapters7and8.

5.5Prepositionalphrases

5.5.1Complementsinprepositionalphrases

Prepositions(simpleorcomplex)verycommonlytakeNPsasComplements,buttheycanalsotakeAdjPs,AdvPs,PPs,andclauses,thoughmuchlessfrequently.Table5.13providesasummarylist.

Complementsinprepositionalphrases

•nounphrases;

•adjectivephrases;

•adverbphrases;

•clauses.

Table5.13:Complementsinprepositionalphrases

5.5.1.1NounphrasesfunctioningasComplementinprepositionalphrases

NounphraseComplementsofprepositionshavealreadybeendiscussedinsection3.7.1.Herearesomeadditionalexamples:

214Theearliestexamples[PPin[NPEngland]]arethebiforawindows[PPin[NPthetransepts[PPat[NPWinchester]]]].

215Sheslidandtumbled[PPdown[NPthegrassyoutcrop]]andtuggedthestar[PPoutof[NPthemoon-slurriedwaters]].

5.5.1.2AdjectivephrasesfunctioningasComplementinprepositionalphrases

IntheexamplesbelowtheprepositionstakeadjectivephrasesastheirComplements.In(216)thePPfunctionsasanObject-relatedPredicativeComplement(section4.1.3.3.2).TheadjectiveinsidethePPascribesapropertytotheunderlinedDirectObject.In(217)thePPfunctionsasanAdjunctwithintheverbphrase.

216Howcanyoudescribesomeoneelse[PPas[AdjPjealous]]?

217Ifyougetadescalerwhichreallyfizzes[PPlike[AdjPcrazy]]whenyouputitinthekettle,thatstuffwillcleanit.

Seealsoexample(160)wheretheadjectivephrasefunctionsasComplementofapreposition.

5.5.1.3AdverbphrasesfunctioningasComplementinprepositionalphrases

AdverbphrasesfunctionasComplementinthePPsbelow.

218[PPUntil[AdvPrecently]],allthatwasknownwaswhathadbeenwrittenbyVincent’ssister-in-lawJoin1914.

219Iwon’tleavetheslideon[PPfor[AdvPlong]].

220Thedominantclassremainsasdominant[PPas[AdvPever]].

221Andthere’sbeenalotofchangesofleadershipandnosignificantbreak[PPas[AdvPyet]].

5.5.1.4PrepositionalphrasesfunctioningasComplementinprepositionalphrases

ItisquitecommonforprepositionstotakeprepositionalphrasesasComplements,asin(222)-(224).

222Trytolighttheroom[PPfrom[PPbehindtheset]].

223Wait[PPuntil[PPaftertomorrownight]].

224[PPSince[PPbeforedawn]]todayBritain’sforceshavebeeninactionintheGulf.

5.5.1.5ClausesfunctioningasComplementinprepositionalphrases

Conjunctiveprepositionstake(mostlyfinite)clausesasComplements.Theyassociatesubordinateclauses(sections1.7and7.1)withmatrixclauses.Themeaningsexpressedbyconjunctiveprepositionsareveryvaried,astheexamplesbelowshow.

Time(after,as,before,since,until,when,while,whilst)

225[PPAfter[clauseheleftuniversity]]hestartedacareerinjournalismandworkedfortheNewcastleChronicle.

226Ithinkithappened[PPbefore[clause/waseight]].

227I’vealwayskeptverygoodtieswithJeremy[PPsince[causewebrokeup]].

Reason(as,because,for,seeing[that],since)

228[PPAs[clausethetopmodelsnowhaveJaguar-stylepricetags]],theymusthaveJaguar-styleluxurytoo.

229Thesebirdsareusuallyfoundonislands[PPbecause[clausetherearenopredators]].

230Theysaythat[PPsince[clauseweownthebuilding]],theywon’tincreasetheamountsofmoneywithinflation.

Concession(although,despite,eventhough,though,whereas,while,whilst)

231[PPAlthough[clausewaterwasakindofgodtotheRomans]],thebridgeitselfhadnoreligiousmeaning.

232Thenarrator,[PPdespite[clauseØidentifyingpossiblewaystofreedomforwomen]],isblindtotheanomalyofwomentakinglittlepartinpoliticalorsocialaction.

233[PPWhereas[clauseGermanywasseentopersonifyvictoryatallcosts]],Britain’swareffortwaspicturedinarchaic,chivalricimagesmadereadilyavailablebytheVictorians’medievalrevivalanditspopularisationinthedidacticliteratureofsocialheroism.

Condition(if,evenif,onlyif,unless)

234Theythinkthat[PPif[clauseyoupay]]itmustbydefinitionbebetter.

235[PPUnless[clausesomething’sdoneabouther]]she’llenduplikehermother.

Contrast(whereas,while,whilst)

236Jetstakeinoxygenfromtheair,[PPwhereas[clauserocketshavetocarrytheirown]].

237[PPWhilst[clausemyfiancéeseemstohavebeenquitelucky]]othersarenotso.

Purpose(inorder[that],so,soas)

238[PPInorder[clausethattheycancarryoutthisrole]],somegenerallyagreednotionsaboutwhatisandisnotacceptablebehaviourtowards

childrenmustbearrivedatandwrittendown.

239Morenationalitieshadbeenrecognized,assistedininverseproportiontotheirnumericalimportanceandhistoricseniority,[PPsoas[clauseøtodividethepopulationintosmallercategoriesandspeeduptheirintegration]].

Result(so[that])

240Todaysuitcasesarrived[PPso[clausethatshecouldstarttopack]].

Aswillbeclearfromtheseexamples,someprepositionscanexpressmorethanonemeaning.Forexample,sincecanexpress‘time’and‘reason’,andwhilecanexpress‘time’and‘concession’.

Donotconfusetheconditionalprepositionifwithinterrogativeif,exemplifiedin(241),whichweanalysedasasubordinatingconjunction(seesection3.9).

241Sheasked[clauseifshemightseeahand-mirror].

Anumberofprepositionsbelongbothtotheclassofregularprepositions(section3.7.1)andtotheclassofconjunctiveprepositions,forexampleafter,before,andsince.Comparetheuseofafterin(242)and(243).

242Rotasintroduced[PPafter[NPthedispute]]arealsofallingapart.[P+NP]

243Andthat’satrendthat’slikelytocontinuewell[PPafter[clausetheeconomybeginstoupturn]].[P+subordinateclause]

Analysingwordslikealthough,because,since,when,where,andwhileasprepositionsisamajordeparturefromtraditionalgrammar,wheretheyareregardedassubordinatingconjunctions.Wewillseeinsection7.1thatsubordinatingconjunctionsconnectmatrixclausesandsubordinateclausesinadifferentwayfromconjunctiveprepositions.

Non-finiteclausesarelesscommonasComplementsofprepositionsthanfiniteclauses.TheycanoccurwithorwithoutaSubjectoftheirown.IftheyhaveanounphraseheadedbyapronounasSubjectthepronouncanbe

intheaccusativecase(asin(244))orinthegenitivecase(asin(245)).

244Youcan’tjustputiton[PP[Pwithout][clausethemknowing]].

245Shehadvoicednoexception[PP[Pto][clausehisbeingthere]],butifshehadhewouldhavestoppedthisactivitytoo.

246I’mlookingforward[PP[Pto][clauseøseeingit]].

Table5.14listssomecommonconjunctiveprepositions.

Table5.14:Conjunctiveprepositions

ComplexprepositionsthattakeclausesasComplements(predominantly-ingparticipleclauses)arecalledconjunctivecomplexprepositions,aswesawinsection3.7.3.AsamplearelistedinTable5.15.Withtheexceptionofasif,aslongas,incase,inorder[that],andso[that],allitemscanalsolicenseanNPasComplement.

Table5.15:Conjunctivecomplexprepositions

5.5.2Adjunctsinprepositionalphrases

Asintheotherphrasetypes,inPPswedistinguishbetweenpre-HeadAdjunctsandpost-HeadAdjuncts.TheformercanberealizedasAdvPs,PPs,andNPs,thelatteronlyasPPs(Table5.16).

Adjunctsinprepositionalphrases

•Pre-HeadAdjuncts

adverbphrases;

nounphrases.

prepositionalphrases.

Table5.16:Adjunctsinprepositionalphrases

5.5.2.1Adverbphrasesfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunctinprepositionalphrases

Amongthepre-HeadAdjunctsareadverbphrasesheadedbyadverbsthathaveanintensifyingmeaning(e.g.clean,quite,right,straight,andvery),asin(247)-(254).NoticethatsomeofthePPsshownhere,andinsubsequentsections,areheadedbyanintransitivepreposition.

247ItwasfromthatbridgethatEdmundFoster“escapedthisworld”whenanewtrainlefttherailsandwent[PP[AdvPclean]throughtherailing].

248LutoncaptainKevinNichollscreatedtheopeningwithskilfulfootworkjustoutsidetheWednesdaypenaltyareaandapassthatleftthehomedefenceflat-footedandputHoward[PP[AdvPclean]through].

249She’s[PP[AdvPquite]intocarpentry].

250It’salsoavaluablestretchofagriculturalland[PP[AdvPright]ontheedgeofPrinceCharles’sestate].

251He’shardlylikelytosuddenlycome[PP[AdvPright]down]again.

252Thebestthingtodoistoturn[PP[AdvPstraight]totheindex].

253I’mgoingtogo[PP[AdvPstraight]back]toLondon.

254Youwere[PP[AdvPvery]ontime].

5.5.2.2Prepositionalphrasesfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunctinprepositionalphrases

Exampleslike(255)-(256)containprepositionalphraseswhichfunctionaspre-HeadAdjunctandareheadedbyintransitiveprepositionsthathaveadirectionalmeaning(e.g.down,out,over).

255Thewholearea[PP[PPdown]bythebeach]and[PP[PPdown]bythesea]isactuallyflattened.

256He’dbeentoalecturethepreviousnight[PP[PPup]inLondon].

5.5.2.3Nounphrasesfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunctinprepositionalphrases

In(257)–(261)thePPstakeanintransitiveprepositionasHead,andare

modifiedbypre-HeadAdjunctsrealizedasnounphrases.

257Andifyouwearit[PP[NPthatway]up]itmeansyou’regoingoutwiththem.

258Checkin[PP[NPaboutanhour]before].

259Wellthey’re[PP[NPagoal]down]atthemoment.

260ButtherefereesaysitwasknockedonandhegivesthescrumtoEngland[PP[NPfifteenmetres]in].

261AndsoIwasaskingthequestionaboutwhatwouldhappen[PP[NPtwenty-fiveyears]on].

Notethatin(258)thewordaboutisanadverbwhichfunctionsasPredeterminer.

5.5.2.4Prepositionalphrasesfunctioningaspost-HeadAdjunctinprepositionalphrases

Post-HeadAdjunctswithinPPscanberealizedbyotherPPs,asin(262)and(263).

262Hodgeisnow[PPin[PPwithachanceofvictory]].

263Theygo[PPout[PPinthecold]]withnoclotheson.

HeretheHeadsofthehigher-levelPPsaretheintransitiveprepositionsinandout,whichtakethePPswithachanceofvictoryandinthecoldasAdjuncts.ThereissomedoubtastowhetherthesePPsareseparateVP-levelAdjuncts,thoughnoticethattheycannotbemovedelsewhere(cf.*WithachanceofvictoryHodgeisnowin;?*Inthecoldtheygoout),whichsuggeststhattheyarelinkedwiththeprepositionsinandout,respectively.

5.6Adverbphrases

5.6.1Complementsinadverbphrases

AdverbsarenotasversatileastheotherwordclassesintheirComplement-andAdjunct-takingproperties.Complementsofadverbscanbeprepositionalphrasesorclauses(Table5.17).

Complementsinadverbphrases

•clauses.

Table5.17:Complementsinadverbphrases

5.6.1.1PrepositionalphrasesfunctioningasComplementinadverbphrases

Complementsofadverbsaremostlyprepositionalphrases,oftenwithforortoasHead.

264But[AdvPunfortunately[PPforitscreator]],thenewdesignhasalreadybeencomparedtowallpaper,shopbar-codesanddeckchairfabric.

265[AdvPHappily[PPfortheTottenhamsupporters]],VinnieSamwaysisfitandwell.

266Surelyitwouldbebetterforthegovernmenttocontrolcannabis’consumptionandmakeprofitfromit,[AdvPcomparably[PPtootherdangeroussubstancessuchasalcohol,cigarettesandpetroletc.thatotherreadershavelistedabove]].

267Thisfacultymayofcourseexist[AdvPindependently[PPofReason]].

5.6.1.2ClausesfunctioningasComplementinadverbphrases

In(268)and(269)clausesfunctionasComplementoftheadverbs.

268DidtheyhandJeanettetoyou[AdvPimmediately[clauseshewasborn]]?

269TheSunadmitsthatitsetouttofindHoare[AdvPdirectly[clausehewasreleasedfromprison]]andoftencameclosetodiscoveringhimduringarigoroussix-monthsearchacrossBritain-fromBristol,throughWalesand

ontothenorth-east.

5.6.2Adjunctsinadverbphrases

Pre-HeadAdjunctscanberealizedasAdvPs,DPs,andNPs,whereaspost-HeadAdjunctscanberealizedasPPs,AdvPs,andDPs(Table5.18).

5.6.2.1Adverbphrasesfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunctinadverbphrases

Adverbscanbepremodifiedbyotheradverbs(oradverbphrases,tobeprecise),asintheexamplesbelow.

Adjunctsinadverbphrases

•Pre-HeadAdjuncts

adverbphrases;

nounphrases.

adverbphrases;

determinativephrases.

Table5.18:Adjunctsinadverbphrases

270Withbase-jumping,stuffhappens[AdvP[AdvPreally]fast]andsmallproblemscanleadtobigaccidents.

271I[AdvP[AdvPvery]often]supplyoneofthesereportsandwillbehappytodosoforhim.

272ThereisaparticularrangeofvaluesforthegreenhouseeffectwheretheEarthcanexist[AdvP[AdvPquite]happily]eitherwithorwithoutanicecap

overtheArcticOcean.

5.6.2.2Determinativephrasesfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunctinadverbphrases

Examplesofdeterminativephrasesfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunctareshownbelow.

273[AdvP[DPThe]longer]thisdishcooks[AdvP[DPthe]better]ittastes,andanhourisideal.

274First,Ineverneedtoseethings[AdvP[DPthat]clearly]again.

5.6.2.3Nounphrasesfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunctinadverbphrases

Nounphrasesfunctioningaspre-HeadAdjunctinsideAdvPsoftenexpresstheextenttowhichthemeaningoftheadverbapplies.

275It’snowcomefullcircle[AdvP[NPseventeenyears]later].

276Icouldhavedoneit[AdvP[NPalot]better].

5.6.2.4Prepositionalphrasesfunctioningaspost-HeadAdjunctinadverbphrases

Post-HeadAdjunctsinadverbphrasescanberealizedbyPPs,asinthefollowingexample,wherethePPfurtherspecifiesthemeaningoftheadverblater.

277Ministersrefusedtocaveintoteachers’demandsforanimprovedannualsalary-andfurtherstrikeswereaverted[AdvPlater[PPIntheyear]].

5.6.2.5Adverbphrasesfunctioningaspost-HeadAdjunctinadverbphrases

AdverbslikeindeedandstillcanheadAdvPswhichfunctionaspost-HeadAdjunctinsideAdvPs.

278We’vetakenit[AdvPvery,veryseriously[AdvPindeed]],theissueofracism.

279Shewasnotpiteous,enjoyedlifeandspentagooddealoftimetalking

toservants,firstinSheffield,laterinLondonand[AdvPlater[AdvPstill]]inherfather’scountryhouseontheoutskirtsofEsher.

5.6.2.6Determinativephrasesfunctioningaspost-HeadAdjunctinadverbphrases

ThedeterminativeenoughcanheadaDPwhichfunctionsaspost-HeadAdjunctinanAdvP.

280Idon’tknowIan[AdvPwell[DPenough]].

281[AdvPFunnily[DPenough]],manypatientswhoshowsuchlearningconsequentlydenyeverhavingdonethetaskbefore!

5.7Coordination

5.7.1Coordinatedstructures

Coordinationwasdiscussedbrieflyinsection3.9.Coordinatedstructuresinvolvetwoormorephrasesorclausesthatarelinkedbycoordinatingconjunctionssuchasand,or,andbut.Thefollowingexamplesshowcoordinatednounphrases,adjectivephrases,prepositionalphrases,verbphrases,adverbphrases,andclauses.

282Wehave[NP-coordination[NPtutorials],[NPlectures]and[NPpracticals]].

283I’m[AdjP-coordination[AdjPverysurprisedattheircommitment]and[AdjPpleased]].

284Theyspreadthroughthebloodsystemandthelymphaticsystemparticularly[PP-coordination[PPtothebrain]and[PPtotheliver]].

285Thelight[VP-coordination[VPflared]and[VPdiminished]],castingaflickeringlightacrossthestreets.

286TheGovernmenthasalso[Advp-coordination[AdvPquietly]but[AdvPstead-fastly]]maintaineditsoppositiontocommercialwhaling.

287Ihope[clause-coordination[clauseSimeyiswell]and[clausehisexamswereOK]].

WewillrefertocoordinatedNPsasNP-coordinations,tocoordinatedAdjPsasAdjP-coordinations,andsoon.Theconstituentsthatarecoordinatedarecalledcoordinates,andareatthesamesyntacticlevel.Whatthismeansisthatthecoordinatedphraseshaveequalsyntacticstatus,andtogetherperformaparticulargrammaticalfunction.Thusinthecaseof(283)thetwoconjoinedadjectivephrasestogetherfunctionasSubject-relatedPredicativeComplement.

Notethatdifferenttypesofphrasescanalsobecoordinated.In(288)wehaveanAdjP/PP-coordination.

288Asforallshots,youneedtobe[AdjP/PP-coordination[AdjPalert]and[PPonyourtoes]].

5.7.2Syndetic,asyndetic,andpolysyndeticcoordination

Wedistinguishbetweensyndeticcoordinationandasyndeticcoordination.Theformerinvolvestheuseofacoordinatingconjunction,whereasinthelattercoordinatingconjunctionsareomitted,asinthefollowingexamples.

289Theywereoftenmusicians,philosophers,physicists.

290He’sgoingallroundItaly,Austria,Switzerland.

Omittingtheconjunctionscreatesthefeelofanopen-endedlistofitems.

Whenwehavemultiplecoordinatorswespeakofpolysyndeticcoordination:

291Soforsomebodyinvolvedinthevisualartsit’saveryliberatingprocesstosuddenlybegoingpublicinaway,workingwithideasofmovementandshapeandform.

Byusingmorethanonecoordinatingconjunctiontheindividualcoordinatesareemphasized,andinthiswaytheirindividualimportanceissignalled.

5.7.3Correlativecoordination

Correlativecoordinationinvolvestheuseofthestringsboth…and,either…or,orneither…nor.

Examplesaregivenbelow.

292IbelievebothParliamentandSterlinghaveservedourcountryandtherestoftheworldverywell.

293Astheprosecutingcounsel,BrianBrownishamperedfirstbyalackofeyewitnessesmostofthembeingeitherdeadortooilltotestify.

294Neitheryounoryourpartnerhavetobeaparentofthechildorchildrenprovidedtheylivewithyouasmembersofyourfamily.

Theuseofthecorrelativepatternagainhighlightsthedifferentcoordinatesindividually,aswellastherelationshipbetweenthem.

Chapter6ClausetypesandnegationInEnglishwecandefineanumberofdifferentclausetypesbasedontheirsyntacticcharacteristics.Wedistinguishbetweendeclarative,interrogative,imperative,andexclamativeclauses.Withtheexceptionofimperatives,thesystemofclausetypesappliestomainandsubordinateclauses.Inthischapterwewillfocusonmainclauses.Thefinalsectionofthischapterwilldiscussnegation,bothclausalandsubclausal.

6.1Declarativeclauses

DeclarativeclausesdisplaytheregularconstituentorderofSubject-Predicator-(Complement(s))-(Adjunct(s)).Thelattertwofunctionsareoptional,asindicatedbythebrackets.Asanexample,consider(1),whereIfunctionsasSubject,interviewedfunctionsasPredicator,AndrewistheDirectObject,andonFridayisanAdjunct.

1IinterviewedAndrewonFriday.

Declarativeclausesarecharacteristicallyusedtomakestatementswhichthespeakerbelievestobetrue.AswesawinChapter2,Englishusedtohaveinflectionalformstorealizemood.However,incontemporaryEnglishitdoesnotmakesensetoregardmoodasaninflectionalnotion,andwesayinsteadthatmoodisgrammaticallyimplementedthroughtheuseoftheclausetypes,and/orthroughtheuseofmodalauxiliaryverbs.Wewillseeinsection6.5thatdeclarativeclausesarenotexclusivelyusedformakingstatements.

Asnotedabove,wewillalsousethelabel‘declarative’forsubordinateclauses(seesection1.3andChapters7and8).Thebracketedstringin(2)isadeclarativesubordinateclausewhichfunctionsastheDirectObjectoftheverbSAY.Itisintroducedbythesubordinatingconjunctionthat.

2Isaid[thatIinterviewedAndrewonFriday].

Table6.1summarizesthepropertiesofdeclarativeclauses.

Declarativeclauses…

•havearegularconstituentorderSubject+Predicator+(Complement(s))+(Adjunct(s));

•aretypicallyusedtomakestatementswhichthespeakerbelievestobetrue.

Bracketedclauseelementsareoptional.

Table6.1:Thepropertiesofdeclarativeclauses

6.2Interrogativeclauses

Interrogativeclausesarecharacteristicallyusedtoaskquestions.Wedistinguishbetweenopeninterrogativesandclosedinterrogatives.

6.2.1Openinterrogativeclauses

Openinterrogativeclausesaretypicallyusedtoaskquestionswhichcansolicitanunrestrictedsetofanswers.Examplesaregivenbelow.

3[NPWho]saidthat?

4[NPWhat]dowewanttoachieve_fromtheexpenditure?

5[NPWhich]didyouenjoy_themost?

6[NPWhom]didyoutelephone_afterthediscovery?

7[PPWhen]isyourbirthday_?

8[PPWhere]didsheseeme_?

9[AdvPWhy]doyouwantthat_?

10[AdvPHow]didyoumanagetomakethemistake_?

Thefirstthingtonoteisthat,exceptin(3),theconstituentorderintheseexamplesismarkedlydifferentfromthatofdeclarativeclauses:ineachcasetheclausehasaninitialwh-phraseheadedbyawh-word(section3.2.2.3).Example(3)isexceptionalbecausethewh-phraseisinSubjectposition.Theseinterrogativeclausesarecalled‘open’becauseinprincipletheycansolicitalimitlessarrayofanswers,aswehaveseen.Thus,inanswerto(8)wecansay‘atJoe’shouse’,‘intherestaurantaroundthecorner’,‘inAmsterdam’,andsoon.

Asecondobservationisthatinterrogativeclauseswithanon-Subjectinitialwh-phrasedisplaySubject-auxiliaryinversion,firstdiscussedinsection3.6.3.1.Anyofthedifferenttypesofauxiliaryverb,aswellasthelexicalverbsBEandHAVE,caninvertwithaSubject.Aswewillseeinsection7.3.1.2.2,inversiondoesnotoccurinsubordinateclauses.

Thethirdobservationwecanmakeisthatineachcase,againwiththeexceptionof(3),thewh-phraseisassociatedwitha‘gap’laterintheclause,indicatedby‘_.Aswesawinsection3.2.2.3,wecanconceptualizetheassociationbetweenthewh-phraseandthegapasinvolvingmovementfromthegappositiontoaclause-initialposition.In(4),(5),and(6)weassociatewhat,which,andwhomwiththeDirectObjectpositionsoftheverbsACHIEVE,ENJOY,andTELEPHONE,respectively.In(3)whofunctionsasSubject,andisnotassociatedwithagap.In(7)weassociatewhenwithaPredicativeComplementposition(cf.Yourbirthdayiswhen?),whilein(8)-(10)thegapsareAdjunctpositions.

Fourthly,in(3)-(6)thewh-phrasesarenounphrasesheadedbyinterrogativepronouns.In(3)and(6)respectivelytheycarrynominativeandaccusativecase.Accusativecaseisnotobligatoryin(6):bothwhoandwhomarepossible.Thedifferenceisthataccusativecaseismoreformal,andmorecommoninwrittenthaninspokenlanguage.Recallthatwhenandwherein(7)and(8)areanalysedasprepositionsheadingPPs(seesections3.7and5.5.1.5),whereaswhyandhowin(9)and(10)areadverbsheadingadverbphrases.

Finally,itisimportanttopointoutthatitisalsopossibleforopeninterrogativestoinvolvewh-phraseswhichcontainmorethanjustasinglewh-word,asin(11)-(15).

11[NPWhatsortofinformation]dowewanttocollect_?

12[NPWhichcar]didyoutake_?

13[NPWhoseproject]isit_?

14[PPInwhichbook]isavillainturnedtomincemeatbythesnow-fanofatrain_?

15[PPTowhatdegree]willyougo_tosucceed?

In(11)and(12)whatandwhichareanalysedasinterrogativedeterminativesfunctioningasDeterminers(Section3.3.4),whereasin(13)whoseisaninterrogativepronouninthegenitivecase(sections3.2.2.5and5.2.1.2),alsofunctioningasDeterminer.Thewh-phrasesinthelasttwoexamplesareprepositionalphrases.WithinthesePPsthewh-wordsareinterrogativedeterminatives.

Table6.2summarizesthepropertiesofopeninterrogativeclauses.

Openinterrogativeclauses…

•aretypicallyusedtoaskquestionswhichcanhaveanopen-endedlistofanswers;

•containawh-phraseheadedbyawh-wordwhichisnormallyinclause-initialposition,andisassociatedwithapositionlaterintheclause(exceptwhenthewh-phraseisaSubject);

•displaySubject-auxiliaryinversionwhenthewh-phraseprecedestheSubjectinmainclauses.

Table6.2:Thepropertiesofopeninterrogativeclauses

6.2.2Closedinterrogativeclauses

Herearesomeexamplesofclosedinterrogatives.

16Isyourbackbetterenoughforyoutodoallthatsambadancing?

17Didyougethertelephonenumber?

18Willyouhaveanothercupoftea,grandpa?

19Cantheyappointmeastheiragent?

Syntactically,theseinterrogativeclausesarecharacterizedbySubject-auxiliaryinversion.Theyarereferredtoas‘closed’becausetheycanonlysolicittheanswers‘yes’or‘no’.Whileitisofcourseperfectlypossibletoreplyto(18)bysaying‘I’mfine’or‘maybelater’,orto(19)bysaying‘Ihopeso’,theseareconsideredtoberesponses,notanswers.Ingeneral,thestructureofaninterrogativeclausedeterminestheanswersthatcanbegiven,butthisisnotthecaseforresponses.

Wecandistinguishaspecialtypeofclosedinterrogativeclause,calledanalternativeinterrogative,exemplifiedin(20):

20Isitatragedyoracomedy?

Inthiscasethepossibleanswersarelimitedto‘atragedy’and‘acomedy’.

Itisimportanttobeawareofthefactthattheterm‘question’isnotusedinitseverydaysenseinthischapter,butinaspecializedway:aquestionisthetypicalusethatismadeofaninterrogativestructureinordertosolicitananswer.Althoughinterrogativesaretypicallyusedtoaskquestions,thisisnotalwaysthecase,asIwillmakeclearinsection6.5.

Table6.3summarizesthepropertiesofclosedinterrogativeclauses.

Closedinterrogativeclauses…

•aretypicallyusedtoaskquestionswhichsolicittheanswers‘yes’or‘no’;

•displaySubject-auxiliaryinversion.

Table6.3:Thepropertiesofclosedinterrogativeclauses

6.3Imperativeclauses

Imperativeclausescontainaverbintheplainform,andusuallylackaSubject,thoughsee(27)and(28)below.Theyaretypicallyusedtoissuedirectives,whichcanbeorders,instructions,andthelikeexhortinganaddresseetodosomething.Unliketheotherclausetypes,theycanonlyoccurinmainclauses.DOcanoptionallybeaddedforemphasis,asin(25),butitisrequiredinnegativeimperatives,cf.(26).

21Tellhimwearewaitingfortheorder.

22Haveaguess.

23Hangon.

24Think.

25(Do)becareful!

26Don’tbeshy.

27Youbecarefulgoingback.

28SomebodypleasetellmeI’mrightotherwisemylittleremainingfaithintheUK’svoterswillevaporatecompletely.

Imperativescanbe(perceivedtobe)rude,dependingontherelationshipbetweenthespeakerandtheaddressee.

Notallverbsallowimperativesequallyeasily.Asaruleofthumb,verbsthatdonotallowthereferentsoftheirSubjectstocontroltheeventexpressedbytheverbs(e.g.verbsexpressingcognitivestates:KNOW,UNDERSTAND,etc.)aregenerallynotusedinimperativeclauses,simplybecauseitispragmaticallyoddtotellsomeonetoknoworunderstandsomething.Exceptionsarepossible,asthefollowingexampleshows.

29Realisethatthisprogramisdirectedatyou.RealisethatgrouphysteriaisthefeedoftheNewWorldOrder,andrealisethatyouareintheWarofyourlife.

Aspecialtypeofimperativeistheletimperative,exemplifiedin(30)and(31).Inthesecasesthespeakerisincludedinthedirective.Thuswecan

interpret(30)as‘Let’syouandIhavealookatthelist’.ThenegatedversionsofletimperativesareformedwiththenegateddummyauxiliaryverbDO.

30Let’shavealookatthelist.

31Don’tlet’stellthepolice.

Table6.4summarizesthepropertiesofimperativeclauses.

Imperativeclauses…

•aretypicallyusedtoissuedirectives;

•usuallylackaSubject;

•occuronlyasmainclauses;

•takeaverbintheplainform;

•mostlyoccurwithdynamicverbs.

Table6.4:Thepropertiesofimperativeclauses

6.4Exclamativeclauses

Exclamativeclausesaretypicallyusedtomakeexclamativestatements.Theyarecharacterizedeitherbyawordorderthatinvolvesanexclamativewh-wordwhatatthebeginningofaclause-initialnounphrase,orbyhowusedinfrontofanadjectiveoradverbinaclause-initialAdjPorAdvPHowcanalsooccuronitsown.ThereisnormallynoSubject-auxiliaryinversion,andinwritinganexclamationmarkisoftenused.Herearesomeexamples.Ineachcasethebracketedphrasesareassociatedwiththepositionsindicatedby’_’.

32[NPWhataworryingman]heis_!

33[NPWhatrubbish]shetalked_.

34[NPWhatshamefuldecisions]theytook_!

35Itshowed[clause[NPwhatabargain]CECwasgetting_]and[clause[AdvPhowhard]peopleactuallyworked_]!

36Lindagetsoffonthisbigbusinessaboutsnobappeal:[clause[AdjPhowclever]allheracquaintancesare_],and[clause[AdjPhowwonderful]theyare_inonewayoranother].

37[AdjPHowtrue]thatis_!

38[AdvPHow]helaughed_.

In(32)theSubjectoftheclauseishe,whilethephrasewhataworryingmanfunctionsasa(preposed)Subject-relatedPredicativeComplement.Noticethatwhatprecedesthedeterminativea.In(33)and(34)DirectObjectsarefronted,whereasaDOandAdjunct,respectively,arepreposedin(35).Notethattheexclamativeclausesin(35)and(36)arecoordinated(seesection5.7).In(36)and(37)AdjPscontaininghowandfunctioningasSubject-relatedPredicativeComplementarepreposed.Finally,in(38)howoccursonitsown,andfunctionsasa(preposed)Adjunct.

Table6.5summarizesthepropertiesofexclamativeclauses.

Exclamativeclauses…

•aretypicallyusedtoutterexclamatorystatements;

•involveexclamativewhatorhowinpreposedphrases;

•donotnormallydisplaySubject-auxiliaryinversion.

Table6.5:Thepropertiesofexclamativeclauses

6.5Theclausetypesandtheiruses

Inthesectionsabovewelookedatthesyntaxofeachoftheclausetypes,aswellastheirtypicalusesinmainclauses.ThediscussionissummarizedinTable6.6.

Table6.6:Overviewoftheclausetypes:syntaxanduse

Thesyntaxofaparticularclausecanbedeterminedwithreferencetothecriteriadiscussedinthischapter.However,theusethatismadeofthatsameclause,andhowitisunderstood,isdependentonthecontextinwhichitisuttered.Incaseswhereaclauseinaparticularcontextisusedinanexpected,typicalway(asshowninTable6.6)wespeakofadirectspeechact.Forexample,ifaspeakerutters(39)theyareusingadeclarativestructurewhichislikelytobeaninformativestatementwhichtheybelievetobetrue,perhapsinresponsetosomeoneaskingWhatdidhewrite?

39HewroteDeathinVenice.

Similarly,ifaspeakerutters(40)theyarelikelytobeaskingaquestion.

40Didyougotothatmeeting?

YoumayhavewonderedwhyIusedtheword‘likely’twiceinthetextabove.Thereasonisthatthevariousclausetypescanalsobeusedasindirectspeechacts.Thishappenswhenaclauseisusedinanuntypical

way.Asanexample,consideragain(39),whichissyntacticallydeclarative.Ifitisutteredwitharisingintonationattheend,thatis,withavoicerisinginpitch,thespeechactisnolonger‘makingastatement’,but‘askingaquestion’.Anotherexamplewhichcanbeusedasanindirectspeechactis(41).

41CanyouanswerthequestionIposedearlier?

Thisutteranceisaclosedinterrogativebyvirtueofitssyntax,andcouldbeusedtoaskifsomeoneisableorinapositiontoansweraparticularquestion.Thiswouldbeadirectspeechact.However,inmanysituations,forexampleinaconfrontationalradiointerview,(41)couldbeusedto(politely)directsomeonetodosomething,thatis,answeraquestion.Ifthewordpleaseisaddedto(41)thedirectiveforceoftheutterancebecomesapparent,becausewedonotnormallyusethiswordwhenweaskaquestion.

Considernext(42).

42Didyourealisethattheredesignoftheroofmeantthatthebluewallwouldbecarryingasubstantiallygreaterpartoftheroofthanbefore?

Syntacticallythisclauseisagainaclosedinterrogative,anditcanbeusedtosoliciteither‘yes’or‘no’asananswer.However,whenaspeakerwhoutters(42)doesnotexpectananswer,theyareineffectmakingastatementequivalenttothedeclarativestructurein(43).Insuchasituation(42)iscalledarhetoricalquestion.

43Theredesignoftheroofmeansthatthebluewallwillbecarryingasubstantiallygreaterpartoftheroofthanbefore.

Thepossibilitiesforusingindirectspeechactsareendless,andallowforvariationinlanguageuse.Herearesomefurtherexamples.Ineachcasetheutterancescanhavealiteralmeaning,butcanalsobeusedindirectly,dependingonthecontextofutterance.Somepossibleinterpretationsaregiveninbrackets.Aswewillsee,thelistofspeechactsisnotlimitedtothoseshownintheright-handcolumnofTable6.6.

Declarativesusedas…

directive

44I’mtellingyoutogo.

45Iamworking.(Inasituationinwhichsomeonedoesnotwanttobedisturbed:‘Goaway.’)

46Iamasecretary.(Inasituationinwhichsomeoneisbeingaskedtodosomethingthatisnotpartoftheirjob:‘Idon’twanttoemptytheofficebins.’)

47It’slatenow.(Inasituationinwhichsomeonewantstoleave:‘Let’sgo.’)

48Heisserious.(Inasituationinwhichsomeonebelievessomeoneelsenottohavebeenjoking:‘Stoplaughing.’)

question

49Jayceewasamale?(Witharisingintonation:‘Washereallyamale?’)

50Perhapsthisrepresentscashadvanced?(Witharisingintonation:‘Doesthisrepresentcashadvanced?’)

apology

51I’msorryit’sgoneonsolong.

52Ibegyourpardon.

Interrogativesusedas…

statement

53WhatdoyouknowabouthowIfeel?(withstressonyou:’Youknownothingaboutthis.’)

54Howcanyoupossiblyknowthat?(‘Youdonotknowthat.’)

55Dad,willyouhavesomemorejuice?

invitation

56WouldyouliketotakeaseatwhileItellhimyou’rehere?

directive/request

57Joe,wouldyouliketonominateKatherine?(i.e.‘PleasenominateKatherine.’)

58Canyoupointmeintherightdirection?(i.e.‘Pointmeintherightdirection.’)

59Willyoupleasesendittomenow?(i.e.‘Sendittomenow.’)

Imperativesusedas...

expressionofwish/hope

60Havealovelyday,mydear.(‘Ihopeyouhavealovelyday.’)

apology

61Pleaseforgivemeforinadvertentlysendingmysubscriptiontothewrongaddress.

62Pleaseexcusemebeinglazybywordprocessingthisletter!

statement

63Pleasefindenclosedchequeno.123456.(i.e.‘Chequeno.123456isenclosed.’)

6.6Negation

NegationinEnglishcanoperateattheclausalandsubclausallevels.Intheformercaseanentireclauseisnegated,whereasinthelattercaseaconstituentofaclauseisnegated.

6.6.1Clausalnegation

Clausescanbenegatedbyusingnegativewordssuchasnever,not,nobody,ornothing,orbyusingtheending-n’tonverbs.Examplesareshownbelow.

64Iwillnotofferyourashpromisesabouthowquicklythiscanbedone.

65Thatplacenevercloses.

66Ididn’tgiveittoher.

67Nobodyknowsaboutit.

Wecandeterminewhetheraclauseispositiveornegativebyaddinganinterrogativetagtoit:negativeclausesareusuallyfollowedbyapositiveinterrogativetag(asin(68)and(69)),whereaspositiveclausesareusuallyfollowedbyanegativeinterrogativetag(asin(70)and(71);section4.1.1.8).

68Welltheywon’tlearnanythingiftheymessabout,willthey?

69Ohgod,shejustdoesn’tlisten,doesshe?

70Andhewillbehappystickingtobluewallpaper,won’the?

71TheLeviteshadaroleintheothertemples,didn’tthey?

Thisisnotahard-and-fastrule:positiveclausesoccasionallyhavepositivetags,andnegativeclausesoccasionallyhavenegativetags.

Clausescontainingwordssuchasbarely,few,hardly,orscarcelyarealsonegative.Thiscanbedemonstratedbyaddinganinterrogativetag.Thus,(72)isanegativeclause,becausewecanaddcanyou?

72Youcanhardlyaskforitback.

6.6.2Subclausalnegation

Withsubclausalnegationonlyaconstituentisnegated.Itistypically

broughtaboutbyusingaffixes(section2.1):aprefixsuchasdis-,in-,un-,non-,orasuffixsuchas-less.

73BritainandGermanywillnodoubtcontinuetodisagreeonparticularpolicyissues.

74Well,Ithinkit’sabitunreasonable.

75Wellwe’regoingtohaveendlessdiscussionsoverwhatkindoffilmtogetout,aren’twe?

Thefactthat(75)hasanegativeinterrogativetagshowsthattheclauseasawholeispositive.

Chapter7FinitesubordinateclausesInthischapterIwilldiscussthenotionofsubordination,specificallywithregardtofiniteclausesthatfunctionasComplementsorAdjunctsinverbphrases.FiniteclausesthatfunctionasComplementsorAdjunctsinothertypesofphraseswerediscussedinChapter5.Chapter8willdealwithnon-finitesubordinateclauses.

7.1Subordinationdefined

Subordinationisagrammaticalphenomenonwhichinvolvesanarrangementoftwoormoreunits(words,phrases,orclauses)thatareinanunequalrelationship.Wewillsaythatwhenaunitissubordinatetoanotheritisdependentonit.Forexample,in(1)theclauseintroducedbythesubordinatingconjunctionthat(section3.9)isdependentontheverbFEELbecauseitislicensedbyit(section4.1.3):itfunctionsasitsDirectObject.Werefertoitasasubordinateclause.

1Ifeel[clausethatthisareahastoomuchdevelopment].

In(1)wedistinguishtwoclauses:amatrixclause,whichiscoextensivewiththestructureasawhole,indicatedbythesolidarrowin(2),andasubordinateclause,indicatedbythedashedarrow.

Aswesawinsection3.9,matrixclausesaredefinedasclausesthatcontainsubordinateclauseswithinthem.Clausesthatarethemselvesnotsubordinatetoanotherclausearecalledmainclauses.In(2)thematrixclauseisalsoamainclause.(InwhatfollowsIwillusethelabel‘mainclause’onlyifitissignificanttodrawattentiontothefactthattheclauseinquestionisnotsubordinatetoanother.)

Noticethatthesubordinateclausein(2)hasaSubjectofitsown(thisarea),aPredicator(has),andaDirectObject(toomuchdevelopment).Furtherlayersofsubordinationarepossible,asin(3),whichcontainstwosubordinateclauses.

Hereclause2islicensedbytheverbDESCRIBE,whereasclause3islicensedbytheverbTHINK.Morespecifically,clause2functionsastheDirectObjectofDESCRIBE,whereasclause3istheDOofTHINK.Noticethatclause2isamatrixclauseforclause3.

Recallfromsection2.2.1.5thataclausethatistensedisalsofinite.Giventhatin(1)theverbhasisapresenttenseform,itispartofafiniteclause.Similarly,clauses2and3in(3)arefinitebecausetheverbsthinkandiscarrytense.

7.2Markersofsubordination

Subordinationcanbemarkedsyntactically.ThereareanumberofwaysinwhichthiscanbedoneinEnglish.

First,aswesawinsection7.1,subordinateclausescanbeintroducedbysubordinatingconjunctions(alsocalledsimplysubordinators;seesection3.9)whichfunctionasmarkersofsubordination.Englishhasthreesubordinatorsforfiniteclauses,namelythat,whether,andif,andonesubordinatorfornon-finiteclauses,namelyfor.(Recallfromsections3.7.1and5.5.1.5thatwedonotincludeitemssuchassince,before,although,becauseintheclassofsubordinators.)

Itisalsopossibletosignalsubordinationthroughconstituentorder.Forexample,inthebracketedclausein(4)thepreposedwh-phrasewhyiscombinedwiththe‘regular’orderofaSubjectfollowedbyaverb.Thisistypicalofsubordinateinterrogativeclauses(seesection7.3.1.2.2).

4Theauthorseemstohaverealised[clausewhyhehadtoleave_].

Recallfromsection6.2.1thatmaininterrogativeclauseshaveSubject–auxiliaryinversion(cf.Whydidhehavetoleave?).

Consideralsotheexamplein(5):

5[clauseHadIspentmytimeinsomeotherhostelry],IshouldnowbereturningtoOxford.

Hereagaintheconstituentorderinthebracketedclausemarksitassubordinate.TheorderwewouldexpectinamainclausedoesnotinvolveSubject–auxiliaryinversion(cf.Ihadspentmytimeinsomeotherhostelry).Iwillreturntothistypeofsubordinateclauseinsection7.3.1.5.

7.3Theclassificationoffinitesubordinateclauses

InEnglishwedistinguishthreetypesoffinitesubordinateclauses(Table7.1):contentclauses,comparativeclauses,andrelativeclauses.

Finitesubordinateclauses

contentclauses

comparativeclauses

relativeclauses

Table7.1:Finitesubordinateclauses

Eachtypeofsubordinateclausewillbediscussedseparately.

7.3.1Contentclauses

Contentclausesaredefinedasfinitesubordinateclausesthatsyntacticallyresemblemainclauses,butlackthefeaturesattributabletocomparativeclausesandrelativeclauses.TheycanbesyntacticallycharacterizedintermsoftheclausetypeswediscussedinChapter6.WedistinguishbetweenthethreetypesofcontentclausesshowninTable7.2.

Contentclauses

declarativecontentclauses

interrogativecontentclauses

exclamativecontentclauses

Table7.2:Contentclauses

(Becauseimperativescanonlyoccurinmainclauses,thereisnosuchthingasanimperativecontentclause.)

Contentclausescanperformavarietyoffunctions,someofwhichwerealreadydiscussedinsections5.2.3.2,5.3.1.2,and5.5.1.5,namelyComplementofanoun,Complementofanadjective,andComplementofapreposition.InthesectionsthatfollowIwilldiscusscontentclausesfunctioningasSubject,DirectObject,ComplementClause,Subject-relatedPredicativeComplement,andAdjunct.Iwillusemodelverbstoexemplifycomplementationpatterns,andIwilllistasampleofverbsoccurringinthesepatterns.Itisimportanttobeawareofthefactthatifaverbappearsinoneofthetablesinthischapter,thisdoesnotmeanthatitdoesnotoccurinanyotherpattern(s).Forexample,theverbBELIEVEcantakeaDirectObject(Webelievedthestory,Webelievedthatthestorywastrue),oraDirectObjectandaComplementClause(Webelievedthestorytobetrue).ThelatterpatternwillbediscussedinChapter8.

7.3.1.1ContentclausesfunctioningasSubject

IntheexamplesbelowtheitalicizedclausesfunctionasSubject.

6[clauseThattheappetitecomeswitheating]maybeanadageasoldasthehills.

7[clauseWhethertechnologycanbeconsideredasthe‘motorofsociety’]isachickenandeggdebate.

8[clauseWhatheneeds_]ismentalflexibility.

9[clauseWhatadisastertheconferencehadbeen]becamecleartwoweeks

later.

Theclausein(6)isdeclarative,whereastheclausesin(7)and(8)areinterrogative.Closedinterrogativecontentclausesareintroducedbywhether,whereasopeninterrogativecontentclausesareintroducedbyawh-phrasewhichisheadedbyawh-word,andisassociatedwithagapmarkedby‘_’(unlessthewh-phraseisaSubject;seesections3.2.2.3and6.2.1onwh-wordsandgaps).TheSubjectclausein(9)isexclamative.

Thesubordinatorswhetherandifareofteninterchangeable,aswewillseeinsection7.3.1.2.2,butnotininterrogativecontentclausesfunctioningasSubject.Hereonlywhetherispossible.Althoughthebracketedclausein(8)resemblesafreerelativeclause(tobediscussedinsection7.3.3.5),itisaninterrogativeclausebecausewecanparaphraseitasfollows:‘Theanswertothequestionwhatdoesheneed?ismentalflexibility.’

IftheSubjectclauseisfelttobelengthy,itmaybeextraposedtotheendoftheclause(section3.2.2.1.2).Theextrapositionprocessfor(6),(7),and(9)isshownin(10)–(12).(TheSubjectclausein(8)cannotbeextraposed.)Therearetwostages.Inthefirststagethecontentclauseisdisplacedtotheendofthematrixclause,afterwhichanticipatoryit(section3.2.2.1.2)isslottedintothematrixclauseSubjectposition.

Ipresentextrapositioninthiswayonlyforexpositorypurposes.Thereisnosuggestionthatthetwostagesareprocesseswhichtakeplaceinthemind.

Extrapositionwillbediscussedfurtherinsection11.3.2.2.

7.3.1.2ContentclausesfunctioningasDirectObject

7.3.1.2.1Thepattern‘DECIDE[clausethat…]’

Asin(1)above,intheexamplesbelowdeclarativecontentclausesfunctionasDirectObject.

13Wedecided[clausethatwewouldworktogether].

14Ithought[clauseØsubhewashere].

Noticethatin(14)thesubordinatorthathasbeenomitted(indicatedby‘Øsub’).(Thisisnotpossiblefortheothersubordinators.Forexample,wecannotomitwhetherfromIwonderedwhetherthey’reanygoodinpattern7.3.1.2.2below.)

WeregardthecontentclausesintheexamplesaboveasDirectObjectsbecausetheycanbecometheSubjectsofpassiveclauses,althoughtheyarethenusuallyextraposed.Asanexample,considerthetwopassiveversionsof(13)in(15)and(16).Whiletheformerisclumsy,ifnotunacceptable,thelatter,whichinvolvesextraposition,isfine.

15[clauseThatwewouldworktogether]wasdecided.

DeclarativecontentclausesfunctioningasDirectObjectseemtobelesscloselyrelatedtotheverbthatlicensesthemthannounphrasesfunctioningasDO.Thisisbecausesuchclausesdonotneedtofollowtheverbimmediately:adverbsmayintervene,as(17)shows.

17Ithinkreally[clauseit’sverydifficulttoproduceanyformofartunlessyouaredriven].

NounphrasesfunctioningasDOaregenerallypositionedimmediatelyaftertheverb(seesection4.1.3.1.1),thoughevenherethereareexceptions,especiallyinspokenEnglish.

OtherverbsthatcantakeadeclarativeclausefunctioningasDirectObjectarelistedinTable7.3.

Table7.3:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘DECIDE[clausethat…]’

7.3.1.2.2Thepattern‘WONDER[clausewhether/if/wh-phrase…]’

ThispatterninvolvessubordinateinterrogativeandexclamativeclausesfunctioningasDirectObject.Aswehaveseen,closedinterrogativeclausesareintroducedbywhetherorif,whereasopeninterrogativeclausesareintroducedbyawh-phrasewhichisheadedbyawh-word,andisassociatedwithagapmarkedby‘_’(unlessthewh-phraseisaSubject).SubordinateinterrogativeclausesdifferfrommaininterrogativeclausesinlackingSubject–auxiliaryinversion.Theitalicizedclausesin(18)and(19)areclosedinterrogatives,whereasthosein(20)–(23)areopeninterrogatives.

18Canyourecall[clausewhethertherewasatrialwithinatrialinPayne’scase]?

19Idon’tknow[clauseifthey’reanygood].

20Iwonder[clausewhosuppliesthematthemoment].

21Itisthensenttothetaxonomistdealingwiththatfamily,whowilldiscover[clausewhatgenusitbelongsto_]and[clausewhatspeciesitis_].

22Idon’tknow[clausewhatyoudid_withit].

23Althoughregretisdisplayeditisnotselfpitying,fortheauthorseemstohaverealised[clausewhyhehadtoleaveOxford_].

Inexampleswherewehavethesequencewhether…ornot,thesubordinatorcannotnormallybeexchangedforif.However,occasionalexceptionsdooccur,asinthefollowingexample.

24Hedidn’tknow[clauseifSallyhadheardhimornot].

In(25)and(26)thebracketedconstituentsareexclamativeclauses,introducedbyanadjectivalwh-word(section5.2.2.4).

25Youknow[clausewhatagoodfriendIam_],Jafar,don’tyou?

26Iwanttounderscore[clausehowextremelyessentialyoureffortsare_].

SomefurtherverbsthatcanlicenseinterrogativeorexclamativeclausesfunctioningasDirectObjectarelistedinTable7.4.

Table7.4:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘WONDER[clauseif/whether/wh-phrase…]’

7.3.1.2.3Thepattern‘MENTION([PPtoNP])[clausethat….]’

InthispatterntheverblicensestwoComplements:anoptionalprepositionalphrase,andadeclarativecontentclausefunctioningasDirectObject.Anexampleisshownin(27).

27Hementioned[PPtoyou][clausethathewaswritingit].

TheheadofthePPcanalsobefrom,of,orwith,asin(28)–(30).

28Manycommentatorshaveconcluded[PPfromthis][clausethatvoterscaremostaboutfairness—thesensethatthereshouldbealevelplayingfieldwithopportunitiesforall].

29Hehadrepeatedlydemanded[PPoftheEuropeans][clausethatthey“stepuptotheplate”andatleastmatchthe$335mtheUShasmadeavailable].

30Now£64,000isnotamillion,butTarrantpleaded[PPwithus][clausethat“intheseverytoughtimesit’samassiveamountofmoney”].

SomeverbsthatcanoccurinthispatternarelistedinTable7.5.

Table7.5:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘MENTION([PPtoNP])[clausethat…]’

7.3.1.2.4Thepattern‘TELLNP[clausethat…]’

AhandfulofverbsthatoccurwithIndirectObjectslicensedeclarativeclausesfunctioningasDirectObject,asintheexamplebelow,wheretheitalicizedNPfunctionsasIndirectObject.

31Shetold[NPme][clausethatshewasstartingthisclasswithAdam].

TheIOcanbecometheSubjectofapassiveclause,asin(32).

32IwastoldthatshewasstartingthisclasswithAdam.

TheverbsthatoccurinthispatternarelistedinTable7.6.TheycanalsooccurinthepatternV+IO+DO,wheretheIOandDOarenounphrases(e.g.Itoldheralie).

‘TELLNP[clausethat…]’

TheNPfunctionsasIndirectObject,andcanbecometheSubjectofapassiveclause.Thethat-clausefunctionsasDirectObject.

PROMISE±NP TEACH±NP

SHOW±NP TELL

Verbsmarked‘±NP’canoccurwithorwithoutanNP.WhentheyoccurwithoutanNPtheclausefunctionsasDirectObject.

Table7.6:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘TELLNP[clausethat…]’

7.3.1.2.5Thepattern‘ASKNP[clausewhether/if/wh-phrase…]’

InthispatterntheverbisfollowedbyanNPfunctioningasIndirectObject,andaclosedinterrogative((33)and(34)),openinterrogative((35)),orexclamative((36))contentclausefunctioningasDirectObject.

33MayIask[NPher][clausewhethershethinksthattheelevenarenotnowbothisolatedandintransigentinrelationtoagriculturalpolicyandtheGATTround].

34Hedidn’ttell[NPus][clauseifhewantedtopslicingofthelicencefeetohelpfundpublicserviceprogrammingonChannelFour].

35Idon’tthinkhe’severasked[NPme][clausewhatIwasdoing_].

36We’vegottohavemechanismsinplacesothatwhenwegobackformoremoney,we’llbeabletotell[NPCongress][clausewhatagreatjobwedid_spendingthemoneythey’vealreadygivenus].

Aswiththepatterndiscussedintheprevioussection,verbsthatoccurinthispatterncanalsooccurinthepatternV+IO+DO,wheretheIOandDOarenounphrases(e.g.Iaskedthemaquestion).TheIOcanbecometheSubjectofapassiveclause.Forexample,thepassiveversionof(35)is(37).

37Idon’tthinkI’veeverbeenaskedwhatIwasdoing.

VerbsthatcanoccurinthispatternareshowninTable7.7.

‘ASKNP[clausewhether/if/wh-phrase…]’

TheNPfunctionsasIndirectObject,whichcanbecometheSubjectofapassiveclause.Thewh-clausefunctionsasDirectObject.

ASK±NP TEACH

SHOW±NP TELL

TheverbsASKandSHOWcanoccurwithorwithoutanNP.WhentheyoccurwithoutanNPtheclausefunctionsasDirectObject.

Table7.7:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘ASKNP[clausewhether/if/wh-phrase…]’

7.3.1.2.6

InthisunusualcomplextransitivepatternthecontentclausefunctionsasaDirectObject.Intheexamplethatfollowsthedeclarativecontentclauseisextraposed.Anticipatoryit(section3.2.2.1.2)isinsertedintoitsoriginalposition.

In(39)thecontentclauseisinterrogative.Thistimeithasnotbeenextraposed.

39Weconsider[clausehowtheproblemisdealtwith_][NPamajorconcern].

ThenounphraseoradjectivephraseinthispatternfunctionsasObject-relatedPredicativeComplement.

7.3.1.3ContentclausesfunctioningasComplementClause

7.3.1.3.1Thepattern‘PERSUADENP[clausethat…]’

InthispatterntheNPfunctionsasDirectObject,whereasthethat-clausefunctionsasComplementClause.AswesawinChapter4,weusethefunctionlabelComplementClauseforanyclausethatislicensedbyaverb,butcannotbeassignedoneoftheotherComplementfunctionsDirectObject,IndirectObject,orPredicativeComplement.Hereisanexample.

40Wepersuaded[NPthem][clausethatwecoulddoit],andintheendtheygavein.

TheDOcanbecometheSubjectofapassiveclause,asin(41):

41Theywerepersuadedthatwecoulddoitbyus,andintheendtheygavein.

Althoughthereissomeindeterminacyhere,wewillnotregardtheNPasanIndirectObject.ThereasonisthatPERSUADEcannotoccurinthetypicalV+IO+DOpattern,wheretheIOandDOarerealizedasnounphrases(cf.*Ipersuadedhimacourseofaction).

SomefurtherverbsthatcanoccurinthispatternarelistedinTable7.8.

Table7.8:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘PERSUADENP[clausethat…]’

7.3.1.3.2Thepattern‘REMINDNP[clausewhether/if/wh-phrase…]’

Asintheprevioussection,inthispatterntheNPfunctionsasDirectObject,whereastheinterrogativeclausefunctionsasComplementClause.Closedinterrogativeclausesareintroducedbywhetherorif(cf.(42)),whereasopeninterrogativecontentclausesareintroducedbyawh-phrasewhichisassociatedwithagapmarkedby‘_’(cf.(43)),unlessthewh-phraseisaSubject(seesections3.2.2.3and6.2.1ongaps).

42WhyhavethreeshelvesofhistoriesofimperialIndia,whenyoucouldjusttypethekeywordsintoGoogle,andremind[NPyourself][clausewhetheritwasDyerorO’DwyerwhoorderedtheshootingatAmritsar]?

43It’sacompletelydifferentjobbutit’sgoodthatIcanadvise[NPthem][clausewhatit’slike_]whentheygetbacktoBirmingham.

Aprepositioncanbeplacedbeforetheclause,asin(44).

44Thescenestherereminded[NPme][PPof[clausewhatIsaw_]]whenIwenttoSriLankaafterthetsunami.

However,inthiscasetheverboccursinthepattern‘transitiveverb+NP+PP’(seesection5.4.1.5),andtheclauseisafreerelativeclause(seesection7.3.3.5below).

TheDOcanbecometheSubjectofapassiveclause,asthecontrastbetween(43)and(45)shows.

45It’sacompletelydifferentjobbutit’sgoodthattheycanbeadvisedwhatit’slikewhentheygetbacktoBirmingham.

Theverbsinthispatternarenotditransitive(cf.section7.3.1.2.5),becausetheycannotoccurwithanIOandDOrealizedasnounphrases,cf.*Heremindedmetheproblem.(AlthoughthisisacceptablewithaPP,cf.Heremindedmeoftheproblem,thePPdoesnotfunctionasDOhere,butasaPPComplement.Seesection5.4.1.5.)

VerbsthatcanoccurinthispatternarelistedinTable7.9.

Table7.9:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘REMINDNP[clausewhether/if/wh-phrase…]’

7.3.1.3.3Thepattern‘ItSEEM(PP)[clause(that/asif)…]’

InthispatternthematrixclausecontainsthelinkingverbSEEM(Section3.6.1)whichlicensestwoComplements:anoptionalPPandaclausefunctioningasComplementClause.Thelatterisintroducedbythatorasif,whichcanbeleftout.TheSubjectofthematrixclauseisthedummypronounit(section3.2.2.1.2).

46Itseems[clausethattheremustbequitealotoflateparrotsinCloudCuckooLandiftherighthonourablegentlemancancomeoutwiththatstuff].

47Sometimesitappears[clauseasifsocialworkerscannotwinintheeyesofthepublic,nomatterwhattheydo].

48Itappears[PPtome][clausethatwecanfundmanyuselessprojects]but

whenitcomesdowntolifeordeath,inthisparticularinstancewefallshort.

49Itwas[clauseasifIhadbeenhypnotisedbythefear].IcouldonlyfeelfearandIcouldonlyvisualiseablock.

OtherverbsthatcanoccurinthispatternarelistedinTable7.10.

Table7.10:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘ItSEEM(PP)[clause(that/asif)…]’

7.3.1.4ContentclausesfunctioningasSubject-relatedPredicativeComplement:thepattern‘BE[clausethat/wh-phrase…]’

Recallfromsections3.6.1and4.1.3.3thatstringsthatcomplementlinkingverbsfunctionasSubject-relatedPredicativeComplement.OfthelinkingverbsonlyBEcanlicenseacontentclausewiththatfunction.

50Thesecondmythis[clausethatembryoexperimentationisnecessary].

51WhatIwonderis[clausewhetherwecouldtakeitfurther].

52Buttheonlysurprisingthingis[clausehowfewcoronariesseniorministerssuffer_].

Theclausesin(50),(51),and(52)aredeclarative,interrogative,andexclamative,respectively.ThedifferencebetweenthispatternandtheoneintheprevioussectionisthattheclauseidentifiesthereferentoftheSubject,andhencehasapredicativefunction(seesection4.1.3.3.1).

7.3.1.5ContentclausesfunctioningasAdjunct

ContentclausesfunctioningasAdjunctalmostalwaysdisplaySubject–auxiliaryinversion.Despitethis,weregardthemasdeclaratives.Thisisbecausethesubordinateclausescaninallcasesbeparaphrasedbyusing

conditionalif-clauses,whichhaveadeclarativewordorder.Intheabsenceofif,Subject–auxiliaryinversionmarkstheclausesassubordinate.

53[clauseHadIspentmytimeinsomeotherhostelry],IshouldnowbereturningtoOxford.(=(5))

54Thatmightnothavemattered[clausehadwecontinuedtoregardEuropeassomebodyelse’sproblem].

55Youcankeepintouchwitholdfriends(andenemies),andrevisitoldhaunts[clauseshouldyouwishto].

Theexamplein(55)soundsslightlyformal.

7.3.2Comparativeclauses

Beforediscussingcomparativeclausesweneedtodistinguishdifferentcross-cuttingtypesofcomparisons.First,considerscalarandnon-scalarcomparisons.Theformerinvolvepredicatesonascale,suchashotandcold,oldandyoung,whichcanbeprecededbywordslikevery.Thelatterconcernpredicatesthatarenormallynotlocatedonascale,suchas(the)sameanddifferent(thoughthesecanalsooccurasscalarpredicateswhenmodifiedbymoreormuch).Nextwedistinguishcomparisonsofequalityandinequality.Theformerareconcernedwithexpressingparitybetweenthetermsthatarecomparedinaparticularrespect,whereasthelatterexpressnon-parity.Finally,comparisonsofinequalitycanbesubdividedintocomparisonsofsuperiorityandcomparisonsofinferiority.

Wecanapplythesedifferenttypesofcomparisonstocomparativeclauses.Examples(italicized)areshowninTable7.11.

Table7.11:Thescalar/non-scalarandequality/inequalitycontrasts

In(a)and(d)thecomparisonsofequalityinvolveacomparativeclausethatfunctionsasaComplementoftheprepositionas,whereasthecomparisonsofinequalityin(b),(c),and(e)areComplementsofthan.In(b)thematrixclauseexpressesthefactthataparticularproperty(‘beinggood’)appliestoahigherdegreetotheaddressee’smemorythantothespeaker’s.Werefertothisasacomparisonofsuperiority,whichisasubtypeofcomparisonofinequality.Example(56)belowalsoinvolvesacomparisonofsuperiority,despiteappearances.Theadjectiveshorterheremeans‘shorttoagreaterdegreethansomethingelse’.Notethattheconflictreferredtomayinfacthavebeenverylong.

56Theconflicthasprovedshorter[PPthan[clausesomanypeoplepredicted]].

In(c)inTable7.11wehaveacomparisonofinferiority,anothersubtypeofcomparisonofinequality.Thisinvolvesthewordless.Themeaninghereisthatleafmouldisacidtoalesserdegreethanpeat.

Averynotablefeatureofcomparativeclausesisthattheyinvolvereduction,whichissometimesobligatory.Itispossibleforonlyoneconstituenttoremaininthecomparativeclause,asin(c)inTable7.11andin(57)and(58)below,whereonlyNPsremain.

57Mystilllifestudioisasbig[PPas[clausethisroom]]actually.

58Mydadisbigger[PPthan[clauseyourdad]].

IntheexampleswehavelookedatsofarthematrixclauseconformstothepatternSubject+Predicator+Subject-relatedPredicativeComplement,wherethePredicativeComplementisanadjectivephrase.Otherpatternsarealsopossible.Thusin(59)thecomparativeclauseispartofanadverbphraseinthematrixclause,andin(60)itispartofanNP.

59StandardOilgotitsmoneyback[AdvPadamnsightquicker[PPthan[clausemosttaxrebatescomethrough]]].

60It’sgot[NPmorecontours[PPthan[clauseminehas]]]actually.

7.3.3Relativeclauses

Thethirdclassoffinitesubordinateclausesarecalledrelativeclauses.TheseareclausesthatprovideadditionalinformationabouttheHeadnountowhichtheyarelinked,calledtheantecedent.

7.3.3.1Whrelativeclauses

Intheexamplesbelowthebracketedrelativeclausesareintroducedbytheunderlinedrelativepronounswho(m)andwhich(section3.2.2.3).

61Andshetoldmethatmyfather,[clause[NPwho]haddiedmanyyearsbefore],wasstandingbymyside.

62Theonlycolleague,[clause[NPwhom]Iknew_already],wasthesocialandphysicalgeographerDoctorDudleyStamp.

63Thisisadancegroup[clause[NPwhich]doesnotexcludepeople].

TherelativepronounsfunctionastheHeadofsimplerelativephraseswhichconsistofonlyoneword.Becauserelativepronounsarenouns,thesimplerelativephrasesarenounphrases.Werefertothewh-wordineachoftheseexamplesastherelativizedelement.Thisistheelementinsidearelativephrasethattakesthenouninboldasitsantecedent.

Relativephrasescanperformavarietyoffunctionsinrelativeclauses.Thus

in(61)and(63)theyfunctionasSubject,whilein(62)therelativephrasefunctionsastheDirectObjectoftheverbKNOWandisassociatedwiththegapindicatedby‘_’(seesections3.2.2.3and6.2.1ongaps).Noticethatthepronountakesaccusativecase(section2.2.2.2).Usingwhoinsuchconstructionsisequallyacceptable.

Theexamplesbelowinvolvecomplexrelativephrases,thatis,relativephrasesthatcontainmorethanoneword.TheyaretypicallyNPs,AdjPs,orPPswithinwhichtherelativizedelementsarecontained.Asbefore,inthefollowingexamplesthenounsinboldaretheantecedentsoftheunderlinedrelativizedelements.

64I’vegotafriend[clause[NPwhoseparents]areCatholic].

65Youwillgothroughaseriesofbasicmanoeuvres[clause[NPtheroutineofwhich]willbecomethefoundationofyourroadridingtechnique].

66Overthecourseoftwodecades,1965-85,heundertookmajorconstructionprojectsinSaudiArabia,[clause[AdjPmostimportantamongwhich]weretheoilrefineryandportinstallationsatRabighontheRedSeaandKingFahd’spalaceandadjacentmissilebaseatRiyadh].

67TheFamilyPractitionerCommittee[clause[PPtowhom]yourformwillbesent_]maycheckyourclaim.

68Thosefewminutesofherlife,[clause[PPofwhich]shewasthenconscious_],arelosttohermemory.

In(64)thewordwhoseisarelativepronouninthegenitiveformwhichfunctionsasaDeterminerinthecomplexrelativenounphrasewhoseparents.In(65)–(68)therelativizedelementistheComplementofapreposition.Wheretherearegapstheyareassociatedwiththerelativephraseasawhole.Thusthegapaftersentin(67)isassociatedwithtowhom,andthegapafterconsciousin(68)isassociatedwithofwhich.

Recallthatwordslikewhen,where,while,andsoonaretreatedasprepositionsinthisgrammar(seeSection5.5.1).ThismeansthatinthefollowingexamplestheunderlinedrelativizedelementsareintransitiveprepositionsheadingPPs.TheyfunctionasAdjunctintherelativeclauses,

andareassociatedwiththepositionsindicatedby‘_’.

69Intheperiod[clause[PPwhen]hewaswritinginthefifties_],hewasreachingtheclimaxofhiscareer.

70Nothingisputawayandnothingreallyhasafixedplace[clause[PPwhere]itiskept_].

Thewordwhyin(71)istheHeadofanadverbphrase,associatedwiththegapindicatedby‘_’.

71Thereason[clause[AdvPwhy]arevivedHalloweenisapproved_]isbecauseitisamassivenewadvertisingopportunity,inparticularinthechildren’smarket.

Finally,insententialrelativeclauses,therelativizedelementdoesnothaveanounasitsantecedent,butanentireclause.Hereisanexample.

72IfeelathomeinVirginia,[clausewhichisodd].

7.3.3.2Non-whrelativeclauses

Relativeclausescanalsobeintroducedbythewordthat,asin(73)and(74)below.

73Thepower[clausethatenablesthisunion]Coleridgecategorizedastheimagination.

74Thenatureofthework[clausethatwedo]isnodifferentfromanyothercreativeartsgroup.

Inthisgrammarweanalysethatasasubordinatingconjunction.WedonotregarditasarelativepronounbecausepronounscanfunctionastheComplementsofprepositions(cf.towhom/towhich),whereastheconjunctionthatcannot(cf.*thepersontothat…).

Eventhoughthereisnoovertrelativizedelementin(73)and(74),itmakessensetosaythatthereareimplicitrelativizedelementspresentinthesecases,indicatedby‘Ørel.’in(75)and(76),whichhavethenounsin

boldtypeastheirantecedents.

75Thepower[clausethatØrel.enablesthisunion]Coleridgecategorizedastheimagination.

76Thenatureofthework[clausethatwedoØrel.]isnodifferentfromanyothercreativeartsgroup.

In(75)theimplicitrelativizedelementfunctionsasSubject,whereasin(76)itisaDirectObject,positionedaftertheverbDO.Whentheimplicitrelativizedelementisassociatedwithanon-Subjectgap,asin(76),thatcanbeomitted.

7.3.3.3Restrictiveandnon-restrictiverelativeclauses

Considertheexamplesbelow.

77Successivesurgesofviolence,[clausewhichsweptthroughjailsonasinglenightin1986],havefocusedattentiononlivingconditions.

78Thecycle[clause[NPwhich]youordered_]isnowcompleteandreadyforcollection.

In(77)and(78)therelativeclausesareintroducedbytherelativepronounwhich.Thereisadifferencebetween(77)and(78)withregardtotheinformationthattherelativeclausesimpart.Theformerinvolvesanon-restrictiverelativeclause.Suchclausesareoften(thoughnotalwaysconsistently)setapartbycommas.Whentheclauseisuttered,alowerpitchisusedfortherelativeclause.Theexamplein(78)containsarestrictiverelativeclausewhichisnotsetoffbycommas,andisnotutteredatalowerpitch.Thedifferenceissubtle,butimportant.Thenon-restrictiverelativeclausein(77)merelyfurnishesadditionalinformationabouttheviolenceinquestion,whereastherestrictiverelativeclausein(78)providesidentifyinginformationaboutthecycle:itistheonethatwasorderedbytheaddressee.Thesubordinatingconjunctionthatisgenerallyusedinrestrictiverelativeclauses,whereaswho/whichcanbeusedinbothrestrictiveandnon-restrictiverelativeclauses,thoughthisisbynomeansahard-and-fastrule.Noticethattherelativeclausein(78)couldalsohavebeenintroducedbythat.

Therestrictive/non-restrictivedistinctionalsoappliestorelativeclausesintroducedbywho.Anexampleofarestrictiverelativeclausewithwhoisshownin(79),whereas(61)and(62)abovecontainnon-restrictiverelativeclauseswithwho.

79He’stheguy[clausewhoissupposedtohaveleft].

7.3.3.4Non-finiterelativeclauses

Relativeclausescanalsobenon-finite.Idiscusssomeexampleshere,ratherthaninChapter8onnon-finitesubordinateclauses,soastobeabletodiscussallrelativeclausetypesinoneplace.

80Ifrequiredtheusermayhaveonlytwosquares[clausefromwhichØtoselect_].

81ThepointtheToriesseemtobemakingisthatanythingisbetterthangoingtothesortofuniversitythatmostgraduatesgoto,andifyoucan’tgotoOxfordandCambridgethebestthing[clauseØtodo_]isnottogoanywhere.

Thebracketedrelativeclausesin(80)and(81)arerelativeto-infinitiveclauses,bothwithanimplicitSubject(indicatedby‘Ø’),thoughin(81)wecanaddaSubjectprecededbythesubordinatingconjunctionfor,asshownin(82).

82…thebestthing[clauseforyoutodo]…

Noticethat(80)containsawh-phraseheadedbywhichfunctioningastheComplementoftheprepositionfrom,but(81)doesnotcontainawh-phrase.

Non-finiterelativeclausescanoftenberegardedasincompletefiniteclauses,asintheexamplesbelow.Herethestringswhowas,whoare,whichis,andwhichwas,respectively,canbesaidtohavebeenomittedfromtheitalicizedrelativeclauses.

83[NPTheyounglady[clausesittingnexttoyou]]waswearingtheT-shirt.

84Theonerealproblemisthenumberof[NPhomelesspeople[clausebeggingonthestreets]].

85TheMansionHouseitselfis[NPafineneoclassicalbuilding[clausesustainedbyaporticoofsixCorinthiancolumns]].

86Manyheadteachersbelieve[NPthenationalcurriculum,[clauseintroducedbythegovernmenttwoyearsagotoimprovestandards]],hasbecometooprescriptive.

Inothercases,suchas(87)below,anaccountofthestructureofthenon-finiterelativeclauseintermsofclippingislessattractive,becauseverbslikeRESEMBLEgenerallydonotoccurintheprogressiveconstruction.

87Wealthyfemaleswouldfindtheprospectofhavinganaffairwith[NPaman[clauseresemblingaSwissbankmanager]]irresistiblyerotic.

Herethenon-finiterelativeclauseisanalternativeversionforwhoresemblesaSwissbankmanager,notforwhoisresemblingaSwissbankmanager.

7.3.3.5Freerelativeclauses

Weneedtodistinguishaspecialtypeofrelativeclause,namelyfreerelativeclauses,brieflydiscussedinsection3.2.2.4.Theseclausesaresaidtobe‘free’becausewhatcharacterizesthemsyntacticallyisthefactthatthereappearstobenoovertHeadfortherelativeclausetobeanchoredto.Withinfreerelativeclauses,bracketedintheexamplesbelow,thewh-phraseisheadedbyafreerelativepronoun(section3.2.2.4).Asbefore,thewh-phraseisassociatedwithagapindicatedby‘_’,unlessitfunctionsasSubject.

88Thepointisyoucando[whatyoulike_].

89[WhatBoccionisaid_]wasthis:lifeisnotastationarything.

90Thisreinforcestheearlierstatement,thatmanisblindto[whathecannotsee_].

91Youchoose[whichyouprefer_].

92Youcanalsochoose[whoyouwish_]todealwithyouraffairsafteryouhavegone.

93Webribe[whoeverneedstobebribed]togetonthatplane.

94Itmakesforanenjoyablenightjusttotry[whicheverofthebarsseemsliveliest]and,onfineevenings,thepartyinggoesonwellintotheearlyhours.

95Youforgetthereasonthatyouwantedtowrite[whateveryouwerewriting_]tobeginwith.

Astheseexamplesshow,freerelativeclausescanperformavarietyoffunctionsinthematrixclause,suchasSubject,DirectObject,andPrepositionalComplement.

Freerelativeclausescanperformthesamegrammaticalfunctionsasnounphrases,buttheylooklikeclausesbyvirtueofthefactthattheyalwayscontainatensedverb.IntheexamplesaboveitispossibletoexplicitlymentiontheHeadnoun.Thus,weinterpret(88)asin(96).

96Thepointisyoucandothatwhichyoulike.

Thereisasenseinwhichthefreerelativepronounwhatin(88)istheresultofafusionofthatandwhich(thatwhich>what).In(97)therearetwoinstancesofaHeadandrelativepronounwhichhavenotfusedintoafreerelativepronoun.Thealternativeversionof(97)in(98)containsfusedrelativeclauses.

97Butifyouwantashortanswertowhythehumanitiesmatter,it’sthis:werepeat[NPthatwhichisworthrepeating],and[NPthatwhichisindangerofbeingforgotten].

98Butifyouwantashortanswertowhythehumanitiesmatter,it’sthis:werepeat[clausewhatisworthrepeating],and[clausewhatisindangerofbeingforgotten].

AswesawinSection3.3.5,freerelativeclausescanalsoinvolvefree

relativedeterminatives,asthefollowingexampleshows.

99Thecheapestoptionofall,however,isasetoffourknifemagnetsthatcanbeattachedtothewallin[whateverarrangementyouwish_].

Freerelativeclausesstructurallyresembleinterrogativecontentclauses,butcanoftenbedistinguishedfromthembylookingattheverbofthematrixclause.Compare(100)and(101).

100Iwondered[interrogativeclausewhathesaid_].

101Irejected[freerelativeclausewhathesaid_].

BecauseWONDERdoesnotnormallytakeanNPasComplement,andbecausefreerelativeclausesresemblenounphrasesintheirdistribution,thebracketedstringin(100)mustbeaninterrogativeclause.Conversely,becauseREJECTcannottakearegularclauseasComplement,butdoestakeanNPasComplement(e.g.herejectedtheproposal),thebracketedstringin(101)mustbeafreerelativeclause.Wecandemonstratethatthesubordinateclausein(100)isinterrogativebyparaphrasingitasin(102).

102Iwonderedwhatistheanswertothequestion‘whatdidhesay?’.

Intheexamplesbelowthebracketedstringsarealsofreerelativeclauses,andwhen,whenever,where,andwhereverarefreerelativeconjunctiveprepositions(seesections3.7.1and5.5.1.5onconjunctiveprepositions).

103However,youcanmoveyourmoney[whenyoulike],withnopenaltiesorrestrictions.

104LouisXIV,ithasbeensaid,usedtostartawar[wheneverhefeltbored],andweseemtoneedabitofrisktoreduceennui.

105IputthestrawintheglassandIputit[wherehecouldsipit].

106It’snotadonedealthathecango[whereverhelikes]givenhisrecord.

Themotivationforthisanalysisisthatthebracketedstringscanbeparaphrased,thoughnotalwaysequallyeasily,byaHeadnoun+relativeclausestructure.Thus(103)canbeparaphrasedasin(107).

107Youcanmoveyourmoneyatatime[clausewhenyoulike].

However,thesefreerelativeclausesdifferfromtheotherswelookedatbecausetheydonotoccupytypicalNPpositions.

Freerelativeclausesalsooccurascomponentsofpseudocleftconstructions,whichwillbediscussedinSection11.8.2.

Chapter8Non-finiteandverblesssubordinateclausesThischapterwilldealwithnon-finitesubordinateclausesfunctioningasComplementsorAdjunctsinverbphrases.Non-finiteclausesthatfunctionasComplementsorAdjunctsinotherphraseswerediscussedinChapter5.

Recallfromsection2.2.1.5thatwedistinguishfourtypesofnon-finiteclauses,aslistedinTable8.1.Theseclausescanperformvariousfunctionswithinthematrixclausestheyarepartof.Theywillbediscussedinturninsections8.1–8.4.

Non-finiteclauses

to-infinitiveclause

bareinfinitiveclause

-ingparticipleclause

pastparticipleclause

Table8.1:Non-finiteclauses

Insection8.5Iwilldiscussdegreesofclauseintegration.Section8.6looksatthestructureofclauseswithoneormoreauxiliaryverbs,andthefinalsectioninthischapterbrieflydiscussesclausesthatdonotcontainaverb.

8.1To-infinitiveclauses

To-infinitiveclausescanfunctionasSubject,DirectObject,ComplementClause,Subject-relatedPredicativeComplement,andAdjunct.

8.1.1To-infinitiveclausesfunctioningasSubject

In(1)and(2)belowto-infinitiveclausesfunctionastheSubjectofthe

matrixclause.NeitherclausehasanovertSubjectofitsown,thoughinbothcasesthereisanimplicitSubject,indicatedby‘Ø’,whichisinterpretedas‘peopleingeneral’.Theto-infinitiveclausein(2)isaninfinitivalinterrogativeclauseintroducedbyawh-phrasewhichisassociatedwiththegapindicatedby‘_’(seesections3.2.2.3and6.2.1ongaps).

1[clauseØTomakemoraljudgements]istobejudgemental.

2[clauseWhatØtoeat_atChristmas]isadifficultquestion.

In(3)and(4)theto-infinitiveclausesalsofunctionasSubjectofthematrixclause.ThistimetheyhaveaSubjectoftheirown(underlined),andareintroducedbythesubordinatorfor.Asexample(5)shows,theSubjectcanberealizedasanounphraseheadedbyapronounintheaccusativecase.

3[clauseForthoseinthethirdagetowantajob]istogobackonthesystem.

4[clauseFortherolestobereversed]wouldbeatragedyformanyConservativeMPsandvoters.

5[clauseForthemtoknowthatHelenDuncanisnotclassedasawitch]wouldbetheicingonthecake.

Noticethattheto-infinitiveclausein(4)ispassive.

8.1.2To-infinitiveclausesfunctioningasDirectObject

InthefollowingsectionsIwillusemodelverbstodiscusspatternsinwhichto-infinitiveclauseswithorwithoutaSubjectoftheirownfunctionasDirectObject.

8.1.2.1Thepattern‘WANT[clause(for)NPto-infinitive…]’

TheverbWANTinthefollowingexamplelicensesato-infinitiveclausefunctioningasDirectObjectwithitsownSubject(underlined).

6Ijustwant[clauseyoutoalterthescenarioveryslightly].

WeregardtheNPyouastheSubjectofthesubordinateclause,ratherthanastheDirectObjectofthematrixclause,becauseitcannotbecometheSubjectofapassivematrixclause,as(7)shows.

7*Youwerewantedtoalterthescenarioveryslightlybyme.

SomematrixverbsallowthepostverbalNPtotakegenitivecase,asin(8)and(9),thoughthisisrare.GenitiveNPscannotfunctionasDirectObject,sothisisfurtherevidenceforanalysingthepostverbalNPsinthispatternasSubjects.

8Ihate[clausehisalwayshumiliatingthem].

9Ilove[clausethePresident’scontinuallydefendingtherightsofstudents].

ThefactthatthepostverbalNPafterWANTcantakeaccusativecaseifitisheadedbyapronounthatcanhaveacasecontrast,asin(10),isnotasufficientreasonforassigningDirectObjectstatustoit.

10Ijustwanthimtoalterthescenarioveryslightly.

NoticethatthepostverbalNPin(6)isnotasemanticargumentoftheverbWANT(seesection4.2),butaSubjectargumentofALTER.Thusin(6)itisnotthecasethat‘Iwantyou’,butwhatIwantis‘thatyoualterthescenario’.Consideralso(11),whichistheresultofpassivizingthebracketedclausein(6).

11Ijustwant[thescenariotobealteredveryslightlybyyou].

Whatisnoteworthyaboutthisexampleisthatitmeansexactlythesameas(6),despitethefactthattheNPfollowingtheverbisdifferentinthetwoexamples.ThisagainshowsthatthepostverbalNPin(6)isnotasemanticargumentofWANT.AsafinalpieceofevidencethattheNPafterWANTisnotoneofitsarguments,consider(12)and(13).

12Ideallywewouldwanttheretobegoodcontactbetweenthechildandbothparents.

13It’sbeenhotwhenyouwantittobecold,andcoldwhenyouwantittobehot.

Becauseexistentialthereanddummyitaremeaningless(section4.1.1.5)theycannotberegardedassemanticargumentsofWANT.Putdifferently,WANTdoesnotassignasemanticroletothereandit.

Inthepatternunderdiscussionthesyntacticanalysismatchesthesemanticanalysis.Wewillseebelowthatthisisnotalwaysthecaseforthepatternsdiscussed.

Alimitedsetofverbsoccurringinthispatterntakethesubordinatorfor(seesections3.9and7.2)beforethepostverbalNP,asintheexamplesbelow.

14Herarelyventuredbeyondhissmallcircleoffriends,andhisgirlfriendcomplainedabouthisreclusiveness–healwayspreferred[clauseforthemtosithome].

15Ifyouknowthatyouarelikelytobealonewhenyougetoffabusataremotedestination,trytoarrange[clauseforsomeonetomeetyou].

16OntheonehandIadmirehisspeedandagility,takeprideinhisstatureasagenuineworld-classplayer,rejoiceinhis100percentBritishness,yearn[clauseforhimtowinWimbledon],andratherfancyhiswife.Ontheotherhand,heremindsmeofaspoilt,rathersullenchild.

VerbsthatpatternlikeWANTareshowninTable8.2.

‘WANT[clause(for)NPto-infinitive…]’

Theto-infinitiveclauseistheDOoftheverb,andtheNPistheSubjectofthesubordinateclause.ThelattercannotbecometheSubjectofapassivizedmatrixclause.

ACHE+F LIKE

ARRANGE+F LONG+F

CAN’TAFFORD+F NEED

CAN’TBEAR+F OPT+F

CAN’TSTAND+F PINE+F

CLAMOUR+F PREFER+F

DESIRE WANT+F

HATE+F WISH+F

INTEND+F YEARN+F

Verbsmarked‘+F’canoccurwiththesubordinatorfor,sometimesobligatorily.

Table8.2:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘WANT[clause(for)NPto-infinitive…]’

Asbefore,itisimportanttobeawareofthefactthatifaverbappearsinoneofthetablesinthischapter,thisdoesnotmeanthatitdoesnotoccurinanyotherpattern(s).Forexample,theverbINTENDcanalsolicenseaDirectObjectfollowedbyaComplementClause(e.g.TheyintendedJohntowriteabookforher);seesection8.1.3.3below.WANTcanalsooccurinthepatterndescribedinthenextsection.

8.1.2.2Thepattern‘HESITATE[clauseØto-infinitive…]’:Subjectcontrol

Intheexamplesbelowtheto-infinitiveclausesfunctionasDirectObject,anddonothavetheirownovertSubjects.

17Iihesitate[clauseØitomentionthis].

18Ii’dlike[clauseØitoanswerthatinaslightlydifferentway].

WewillsaythatinbothcasesthematrixclauseSubjectcontrolstheimplicitSubjectofthesubordinateclause(indicatedby‘Ø’),inthesensethatthereferentofthematrixSubjectdeterminestheinterpretationofthereferentoftheimplicitSubjectofthesubordinateclause.Thesubscriptindices(‘i’)indicatecoreference.

VerbsthatbehavelikeHESITATEarelistedinTable8.3.

Table8.3:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘HESITATE[clauseØto-infinitive…]’

8.1.2.3Thepattern‘WONDER[clausewhether/wh-phraseØto-infinitive…]’:Subjectcontrol

In(19)theto-infinitiveclauseisaclosedinfinitivalinterrogativeclause(cf.section7.3.1.2.2onfinitesubordinateinterrogativeclauses)introducedbywhether(ifisnotpossiblehere).

19[NPThemorenervypro-Europeans]ihavewondered[clausewhetherØitorunforcover].

Suchclausescanalsobeoftheopentype,asin(20),introducedbyawh-phraseassociatedwiththepositionindicatedby‘_’.

20Butnowthatwearetakingthepirateson,doesanyoneiknow[clausewhatØitodo_]whenwecatchthem?

IntheseexamplesthesubordinateclausesfunctionasDirectObject.AsintheprevioussectionthesearecasesofSubjectcontrol:weinterprettheSubjectofthesubordinateclause(indicatedby‘Ø’)tobecoreferentialwiththeSubjectofthematrixclause.

VerbsthatpatternlikeWONDERareshowninTable8.4.

Table8.4:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘WONDER[clausewhether/wh-phraseØto-infinitive…]’

8.1.2.4Thepattern‘TELLNPi[clauseØito-infinitive…]’:IndirectObjectcontrol

To-infinitiveclausescanalsofunctionasDirectObjectwhentheyareprecededbyanIndirectObject.Consider(21)below.

21Theytold[NPthem]i[clauseØitogatherroundwaterholes].

InthisexampletheNPisanargumentofthematrixclauseandfunctionsasitsIndirectObject.NoticethattheNPisheadedbyapronounintheaccusativecase.Theto-infinitiveclausedoesnothaveaSubjectofitsown,butweinterprettheimplicitSubjectofthesubordinateclausetobecoreferentialwiththeIndirectObject.ThisisacaseofIndirectObjectcontrol.

TheIOcanbecometheSubjectofapassiveclause,asin(22).

22Theyweretoldtogatherroundwaterholes.

PROMISEalsooccursinthispattern,butwiththisverbtheSubjectofthesubordinateclauseiscoreferentialwiththeSubjectofthematrixclause.WithPROMISEwethusexceptionallyhaveacaseofSubjectcontrol.

23[NPPresidentKibaki]ipromised[NPus][clauseØitofightcorruption].

HerePresidentKibakiwasthepersonwhomadeapromise,suchthathewouldfightcorruption.(23)doesnothaveapassivecounterpart.

VerbsthatoccurinthispatterncanalsooccurinthepatternV+IO+DO,wheretheIOandDOarenounphrases(e.g.Itoldhimalie).

OtherverbsthatcanoccurinthispatternarelistedinTable8.5.

‘TELLNPi[clauseØito-infinitive…]’

TheNPistheIOoftheverb;theto-infinitiveclausefunctionsasDO.TheIOcanbecometheSubjectofapassivematrixclause.TheimplicitSubjectoftheto-infinitiveclause(Ø)isunderstoodasbeingcoreferentialwiththeIO(exceptforPROMISE).

ASK TEACH

PROMISE TELL

TheverbASKcanoccurwithorwithoutanNP.WhenitoccurswithoutanNPtheclausefunctionsasDirectObject,e.g.Iaskedtoleave.

Table8.5:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘TELLNPi[clauseØito-infinitive…]’

8.1.2.5Thepattern‘TELLNPi[clausewh-phraseØito-infinitive…]’:IndirectObjectcontrol

SomeverbscanbefollowedbyanIndirectObjectintheshapeofanNPandaDirectObjectintheshapeofanopeninterrogativeclause,asin(24).

24TheChinese,unsurprisingly,told[NPher]i[clausewhatØitodo_withhersuggestions].

InthisexamplethesubordinateclausedoesnothaveaSubjectofitsown,but,asinsection8.1.2.4,weinterprettheimplicitSubjectofthesubordinateclause(indicatedby‘Ø’)tobecoreferentialwiththeIndirectObject.ThisisthusanothercaseofIndirectObjectcontrol.TheIOcanbecometheSubjectofapassiveclause,as(25)shows.

25Unsurprisingly,shewastoldwhattodowithhersuggestionsbytheChinese.

VerbsthatoccurinthispatterncanalsooccurinthepatternV+IO+DO,wheretheIOandDOarenounphrases(e.g.Itoldherajoke).

In(26)wealsohaveanIndirectObjectintheshapeofanNP(me)andaDirectObjectintheshapeofaninterrogativeclause.Notice,however,thatthistimetheinterrogativeclauseisoftheclosedtype,anditsimplicitSubjectisnotcontrolledbytheIO,butbytheNPanyone,whichfunctionsastheComplementoftheprepositionto.Ifcannotbesubstitutedforwhetherhere.OnlytheverbASKcanlicenseaclosednon-finiteinterrogativeclauseafteranIOinthisunusualpattern.

26“I’dsayto[NPanyone]iwhoasked[NPme][clausewhetherØitojoinastreetretreat],‘Tryit,wakeup’,”saysPierreRacine,54,apsychologistandanotherretreater.

VerbsoccurringinthepatterndiscussedinthissectionareshowninTable8.6.

‘TELLNPi[clausewh-phraseØito-infinitive…]’

TheNPistheIOoftheverb;theto-infinitiveclausefunctionsasDO.TheIOcanbecometheSubjectofapassivematrixclause.TheimplicitSubjectoftheto-infinitiveclause(Ø)isunderstoodasbeingcoreferentialwiththeIO.

ASK TEACH

SHOW TELL

SomeverbscanoccurwithorwithoutanNP.WhentheydosotheclausefunctionsasDirectObject.

Table8.6:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘TELLNPi[clausewh-phraseØito-infinitive…]’

8.1.3To-infinitiveclausesfunctioningasComplementClause

ThefollowingpatternsallinvolveclausesthatfunctionasComplementClause.AswesawinChapters4and7,weassignthislabeltoanyclausethatislicensedbyaverb,butcannotbeassignedoneoftheotherComplementfunctionsDirectObject,IndirectObject,orPredicativeComplement.

8.1.3.1Thepattern‘PERSUADENPi[clauseØito-infinitive…]’:DirectObjectcontrol

Considerthestructurein(27).

27TheAmericanspersuaded[NPtheUN]i[clauseØitoimposethedeadline].

InthisexamplethepostverbalNPfunctionsasaDirectObject,andtheto-infinitiveclausefunctionsasaComplementClause.HeretheDirectObjectcontrolstheSubjectofthesubordinateclause.Inotherwords,thereferentoftheimplicitSubjectoftheto-infinitiveclauseisdeterminedbythereferentoftheDO.TheNPisanargumentofthematrixclauseverb.ItfunctionsasDObecauseitcanbecometheSubjectofapassiveclause,asin(28).

28TheUNwaspersuadedtoimposethedeadlinebytheAmericans.

IfthepostverbalNPisheadedbyapronounthatcanhaveacasecontrast,itmusttakeaccusativecase,as(29)shows.

29TheAmericanspersuadedthemtoimposethedeadlineforwithdrawal.

In(27)theNPisasemanticargumentofthematrixverbinthispatternbecausetheUNwasdirectlyaffectedbytheAmericans’persuasion.NoticethatwecannothaveexistentialthereordummyitimmediatelyfollowingPERSUADE:

30*Sarahpersuadedtheretobeameetingnextweek.

31*LeonpersuadedittorainonWednesday.

Compare(30)/(31)with(12)/(13).Furthermore,contrast(27)with(32).

32*TheAmericanspersuadedthedeadlinetobeimposedbytheUN.

InthiscasethestringtheUNtoimposethedeadlinein(27)hasbeenpassivized,resultinginastructurethatisunacceptablebecauseonecannotpersuadedeadlines.ThisagainshowsthatthepostverbalNPinthispatternisanargumentoftheverb.Compare(27)/(32)with(6)/(11).

Theverbsoccurringinthispatternarenotditransitive(cf.section8.1.2.4),becausetheycannotoccurwithanIOandDOrealizedasnounphrases,cf.*Thethiefpersuadedthejudgehisinnocence.(AlthoughthisisacceptablewithaPP,cf.Thethiefpersuadedthejudgeofhisinnocence,thePPdoesnotfunctionasDOhere,butasaPPComplement.Seesection5.4.1.5.)

VerbsthatpatternlikePERSUADEareshowninTable8.7.

‘PERSUADENPi[clauseØito-infinitive…]’

TheNPistheDOoftheverbandoneofitssemanticarguments;theto-infinitiveclausefunctionsasComplementClause.TheDOcanbecometheSubjectofapassivematrixclause.TheimplicitSubjectoftheto-infinitiveclause(Ø)isunderstoodasbeingcoreferentialwiththeDO.

ADVISE INCITE

BEG INSPIRE

BESEECH INSTRUCT

CHALLENGE INVITE

COMMAND ORDER

COMPEL PROMPT

DIRECT REMIND

ENCOURAGE REQUEST

ENTICE TEMPT

ENTREAT URGE

FORCE WARN

IMPLORE

Table8.7:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘PERSUADENPi[clauseØito-infinitive…]’

8.1.3.2Thepattern‘ADVISENPi[clausewhether/wh-phraseØito-infinitive…]’:DirectObjectcontrol

IntheexamplesbelowtheNPsfunctionasDirectObject(theyareargumentsofthematrixclauseverb),andtheinterrogativeto-infinitiveclauses(oftheclosedandopentypes)functionasComplementClause.

33Pleaseadvise[NPus]i[clausewhetherØitoturnthecomputerofforØileaveitonstandby].

34Noonehasinstructed[NPme]i[clausewhatØitoprepare_],butIhavetoproduceasoliddeckwithabalancebetweenbatandball.

ThesubordinateclausesdonothaveaSubjectoftheirown,but,asinsection8.1.3.1,weinterprettheimplicitSubjectsoftheto-infinitiveclauses(indicatedby‘Ø’)tobecoreferentialwiththeDirectObjects.ThesearethusfurthercasesofDirectObjectcontrol.

Theverbsinthispatternarenotditransitive(cf.section8.1.2.5)becausetheycannotoccurwithanIOandDOrealizedasnounphrases,cf.*Headvisedmeacourseofaction.(AlthoughthisisacceptablewithaPP,cf.Headvisedmeofacourseofaction,thePPdoesnotfunctionasDOhere,butasaPPComplement.Seesection5.4.1.5.)

VerbsoccurringinthispatternareshowninTable8.8.

Table8.8:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘ADVISENPi[clausewhether/wh-phraseØito-infinitive…]’

8.1.3.3 Consider(35).

35Heintended[NPthem]i[clauseØitosellonly50percentofTestmatchestosatellitetelevision].

InthisexamplethepostverbalNPthemistheDirectObjectofthematrixclauseverbINTEND,whereastheto-infinitiveclausefunctionsas

ComplementClause.TheimplicitSubjectoftheto-infinitiveclause(indicatedby‘Ø’)isunderstoodasbeingcoreferentialwiththeDO.

TheDOstatusofthepostverbalNPbecomesclearwhenweconsiderthatitcanbecometheSubjectofapassivematrixclause:

36Theywereintendedtosellonly50percentofTestmatchestosatellitetelevision.

What’smore,noticethatthepostverbalNPin(35)isheadedbyapronounthattakesaccusativecase.

Inthispattern,althoughthepostverbalNPisgrammaticallytheDOofthematrixverb,semanticallyitisnotoneofitsarguments.Inotherwords,INTENDdoesnotassignoneofthesemanticrolesshowninTable4.13ofsection4.2(e.g.Agent,Patient,Experiencer)toitsDirectObject.Afterall,‘he’didnotintend‘them’;‘he’intendedasituationtocomeabout,namely‘theirselling50percentofTestmatches’.Instead,theDOisassignedasemanticrolebythelexicalverbSELLinsidetheto-infinitiveclause.WecandemonstratethatthepostverbalNPin(35)isnotasemanticargumentoftheverbbytakingacloselookat(37)whichinvolvesapassiveclause(tobesoldtosatellitetelevisionbythem).

37Heintendedonly50percentofTestmatchestobesoldtosatellitetelevisionbythem.

HeretheDirectObjectofINTENDistheNPonly50percentofTestmatches.Importantly,noticethat(37)meansthesameas(35).ThismeansthattheNPfollowingINTENDcannotbeoneofitssemanticarguments.

ThegrammaticalityofthefollowingexamplealsoshowsthatthepostverbalNPpositioncannotbefilledbyanargumentofINTEND.

38Icertainlyintendtheretobeanincreaseinrangerandwardenservicestoensurethatresponsibilitiesareexercisedbythosewhohavethenewright.

Asnotedbefore,there(alongwithdummyit)ismeaningless,andcannotthereforebeasemanticargumentoftheverbthatprecedesit.

Thepattern‘INTENDNP[clauseØto-infinitive]’differsintheaboverespects

fromthepattern‘PERSUADENP[clauseØto-infinitive]’,discussedinsection8.1.3.1,inwhichthepostverbalNPisaDOaswellasasemanticargumentofthematrixverb.

TheverbINTENDiscalledaraising-to-ObjectverbbecausewecanconceptualizetheSubjectofthesubordinateclauseashavingbeen‘raised’totheDirectObjectpositionofthematrixclause,asshownbythearrowin(39).

TheDOofaraising-to-ObjectverbiscalledaraisedObject,whichwedefineasanObjectthatdoesnotreceiveasemanticrolefromtheverbthatlicensesit(INTENDin(39)),butfromalexicalverbinsideasubordinateclause;inthisparticularcasetheverbSELLinsidetheto-infinitiveclause.InthisgrammarwewillusethearrowannotationasawayofvisualizingthedualnatureofthepostverbalNPasthegrammaticalDirectObjectofthematrixclause,andasthesemanticSubjectofthesubordinateclause.ThereisnosuggestionthattheSubjectofthesubordinateclausehasactuallybeendisplaced.

OtherverbsthatpatternlikeINTENDareshowninTable8.9.

TheNPistheraisedObjectoftheverb,anditisnotoneofitssemanticarguments;theto-infinitiveclausefunctionsasComplementClause.TheDOcanbecometheSubjectofapassivematrixclause.TheimplicitSubjectoftheto-infinitiveclause(Ø)isunderstoodasbeingcoreferentialwiththeDO.

ALLEGE GUESS

ASSUME JUDGE

BELIEVE KNOW

CONCLUDE MEAN

CONSIDER PRESUME

DECLARE PRONOUNCE

EXPECT SUSPECT

FIND UNDERSTAND

Table8.9:

8.1.3.4

IntheexamplebelowthesubordinateclausefunctionsasComplementClause,anddoesnothaveanovertSubject.

40[NPTheauthor]iseems[Øitolookonthepastwithakindofmaturity].

ThematrixclausepredicateinthisexampleistheverbSEEM.ItsSubjecttheauthordoesnothaveasemanticroletoplaywithrespecttoit,butonlywithrespecttotheverbinthesubordinateclause,inthiscaseLOOK.Putdifferently,SEEMdoesnotassignasemanticroletoitsSubject.Thisbecomesclearwhenweparaphrase(40)usingafinitesubordinateclause,asin(41),analysedasin(42).

41Itseemsthattheauthorlooksonthepastwithakindofmaturity.

HeretheSubjectofthematrixclause(thattheauthorlooksonthepastwithakindofmaturity)hasbeenextraposed,andisreplacedbyanticipatoryit(section3.2.2.1.2).Thispronounismeaningless,andhencebydefinitioncannotcarryasemanticrole.ThesamepointcanbemadebyshowingthatanotherkindofsemanticallyemptyelementcanfunctionastheSubjectofseem,namelythere,as(43)shows.

43ThereseemstobeagoodrepertoireaboutLewis.

Now,noticethatin(40)and(41)theNPtheauthorisanAgentwithrespecttotheverbLOOK.Bearingthisinmindwecanrepresentthestructureof(40)asin(44),wheretheSubjectofthematrixclauseisassociatedwiththeSubjectpositioninthesubordinateclause(indicatedby‘Ø’).

TheverbSEEMisaraising-to-SubjectverbbecausewecanconceptualizetheSubjectofLOOKashavingbeen‘raised’outofthesubordinateclausetothematrixclauseSubjectposition,asindicatedbythearrow.TheSubjectinthisexampleiscalledaraisedSubject,whichwedefineasaSubjectthatdoesnotreceiveasemanticrolefromtheverbthatfollowsit,butfromalexicalverbinsideasubordinateclause;inthisparticularexampletheverbLOOKinsidetheto-infinitiveclause.Aswithraising-to-Objectverbsweagainusethearrowannotation,thistimetovisualizethedualnatureoftheclause-initialNPasthegrammaticalSubjectofthematrixclause,andasthesemanticSubjectofthesubordinateclause.Again,thereisnosuggestionthattheSubjectofthesubordinateclausehasactuallybeendisplaced.

OtherverbsthatpatternlikeSEEMareshowninTable8.10.

ThematrixclauseSubjectisnotoneofthesemanticargumentsoftheverb.TheNPSubjecthasbeen‘raised’outoftheto-infinitiveclausefromthepositionmarkedbytheoutsymbol‘Ø’.Theto-infinitiveclausefunctionsasComplementClause.

APPEAR LOOK

BEGIN OUGHT

CEASE PROVE

COMMENCE START

CONTINUE TEND

HAPPEN TURNOUT

Table8.10:

8.1.4To-infinitiveclausesfunctioningasSubject-relatedPredicativeComplement:thepatterns‘BE[clauseØto-infinitive…]’and‘BE[clauseforNPto-infinitive…]’

In(45)and(46)theto-infinitiveclausesfunctionasSubject-relatedPredicativeComplementafterthelinkingverbBE.Intheseexamplestheto-infinitiveclausesdonothavetheirownSubjects.ThereferentsoftheimplicitSubjectcannotalwaysberetrievedfromwithinthematrixclause.Whentheycannottheycanusuallybeinterpretedfromthewidercontext.

45Presumablythefirstjobwouldbe[clauseØtomarkthemup].

46TheimmediateresponseofsomeseniorAmericanofficerswas[clauseØtostartplanningaretaliatorystrikeagainsttheSovietUnion].

Whentheto-infinitiveclausedoeshaveitsownSubject,itmustbeprecededbyfor.

47Theideawas[clauseformetoseethematerial].

48Theotheroptionwas[clauseforthemtovoteforthedebatetobecontinued].

8.1.5To-infinitiveclausesfunctioningasAdjunct

To-infinitiveclausesfunctioningasAdjunctoftenexpressapurposivemeaning.In(49)thebracketedclausehasitsownSubject(underlined),introducedbythesubordinatorfor,whereastheclausesin(50)–(52)areSubjectless.

49[clauseForsuchasystemtobesuccessful],accuratemappingofagenericheadmodelontoanactualheadisrequired.

50Youwillalsogetavoucher[clauseØtohelpyoupayforyourglassesorcontactlenses].

51[clauseØTobefair],Ithinkpeoplewilltakethisintoconsideration.

52Ican’tremember,[clauseØtobehonest].

TheclausalAdjunctstypicallyappearininitialorfinalposition.

8.2Bareinfinitiveclauses

BareinfinitiveclausescanfunctionasDirectObject,ComplementClause,andSubject-relatedPredicativeComplement.

8.2.1BareinfinitiveclausesfunctioningasDirectObject:thepattern‘HAVE[clauseNPbareinfinitive…]’

In(53)thesubordinateclause,whichhasaSubjectofitsown,functionsasDirectObject.TheNPinthispatternisnotasemanticargumentofthematrixverb.What(53)expressesisthatsomethingwasbroughtabout,namely‘thattheQueenopenedtherefurbishment’.

53“SheentertainedpeoplelikeMelvynBragg,CherieandTonyBlairandhad[clausetheQueenopentherefurbishment],”saidthesource.

WedonotanalysethepostverbalNPastheDObecauseitcannotbecometheSubjectofapassiveclause:

54*TheQueenwashadopentherefurbishment.

However,afewverbsoccurringinthispatterndoallowmatrixclausepassivization,buttoistheninserted.Compare(55)and(56).

55Alcoholmakesyoufeelinvinciblewhenyouaremostvulnerable.

56Youaremadetofeelinvinciblewhenyouaremostvulnerablebyalcohol.

IfthepostverbalNPisheadedbyapronounthatcantakeacasecontrast,itmusttakeaccusativecase,as(57)shows.

57Welethimkeepthegun.

Verbsthatoccurinthispatternmostlycarrythemeaningsof‘causation’and‘perception’.TheyareshowninTable8.11.

‘HAVE[clauseNPbareinfinitive…]’

TheclauseistheDirectObjectoftheverb.ThepostverbalNPcannotbecometheSubjectofapassivematrixclause;exceptionsaremarked‘+P’

FEEL MAKE+P

HAVE NOTICE+P

HEAR+P OBSERVE+P

HELP+P SEE+P

LET WATCH

Table8.11:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘HAVE[clauseNPbareinfinitive…]’

Intheexamplesbelow,themodalverbslicensebareinfinitiveclausesfunctioningasComplementClause.ThebareinfinitiveclausesdonothaveanovertSubject:thesehavebeenraisedtotheSubjectpositionofthematrixclause.WeunderstandtheimplicitSubjectsofthesubordinateclausesasbeingcoreferentialwiththematrixclauseSubjects.

Noticethatitispossibleforthebareinfinitiveverbtoberealizedasanotherauxiliaryverb,asin(61),whereitistheperfectauxiliaryHAVE.(Seesection8.6foradiscussionofsequencesofauxiliaryverbs.)

DummyDOalsooccursinthispattern,asin(62).

ThemodalverbsanddummyDOareanalysedasraisingverbsbecausethematrixclauseSubjectbearsasemanticrolevis-à-vistheverbinthesubordinateclause(e.g.COMEin(58)),notthematrixclauseverb(CANin(58)).Noticethatwecanparaphrase(58)asin(63).

63Itispossible[clauseforhertocomewithAnnaandPeter].

VerbsoccurringinthispatternareshowninTable8.12.

ThebareinfinitiveclausefunctionsasComplementClause;itsSubjecthasbeen‘raised’fromthebareinfinitiveclausetothematrixclauseSubjectposition.TheimplicitSubjectofthesubordinateclauseisunderstoodasbeingcoreferentialwiththematrixclauseSubject.

CAN/could WILL/Would

MAY/might MUST

SHALL/Should DO/did

8.2.3BareinfinitiveclausesfunctioningasSubject-relatedPredicativeComplement:thepattern‘BE[clauseØbareinfinitive…]’

BareinfinitiveclausescanfunctionasSubject-relatedPredicativeComplementonlywiththeverbBE.Herearesomeexamples.

64Whatyouidois[clauseØiwearitlikethat].

65Andallyouihavetodois[clauseØiwritearulethatsaysPPgoestoPNP].

NoticethatthebareinfinitiveclausesdonothavetheirownSubjects,butweunderstandtheirimplicitSubjectsasbeingcoreferentialwithanounphrasehigherupinthematrixclause.

8.3-Ingparticipleclauses

-IngclausescanfunctionasSubject,DirectObject,ComplementClause,Subject-relatedPredicativeComplement,Object-relatedPredicativeComplement,andAdjunct.

8.3.1-IngparticipleclausesfunctioningasSubject

-IngparticipleclausescanoccurwithaSubjectoftheirown(underlined),asin(66),orwithout,asin(67).InthelattercasethereferentoftheimplicitSubjectiseitherrecoverablefromthecontext,orhasageneralinterpretation(‘forpeopletogetaidthrough’).

66[clauseThurnandTaxishavingwrongfulmonopolyoftheEuropeanpostalsysteminthepast]causedTrysterotoclaimtohavebeendisinherited.

67[clauseØGettingaidthrough]isanightmare.

8.3.2-IngparticipleclausesfunctioningasDirectObject

-IngparticipleclausescanfunctionasDirectObjectwithorwithouttheirownSubject.

8.3.2.1Thepattern‘REMEMBER[clauseØ-ingparticiple…]’

In(68)belowthe-ingparticipleclausefunctionsasDirectObject.

68Iiremember[clauseØipassingoutinSainsbury’sonce].

InthiscaseweagainsaythatthesubordinateclausehasanimplicitSubjectwhichweinterprettobecoreferentialwiththeSubjectofthematrixclause.Inotherwords,thespeakerisdoingtherememberingaswellasthepassingout.However,considernexttheexamplein(69).

69Thisroleofcorporationshouterisalongandhonourableone,thoughprobablynotdatingbacktothedaysofLordReith,whodiscouraged[clauseØshoutingatpoliticians],evenbyreportersineveningdress.

HeretheinterpretationoftheimplicitSubjectisnotrecoverablefromtheclause,butisinterpretedas‘peopleingeneral’.

OtherverbsoccurringinthepatternunderdiscussionareshowninTable8.13.

Table8.13:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘REMEMBER[clauseØ-ingparticiple…]’

8.3.2.2Thepattern‘RECOMMEND[clauseNP/NP’s-ingparticiple…]’

Inthispatternthe-ingparticipleclauseagainfunctionsasDirectObject.ThistimeittakeseitheraregularnounphraseasitsSubject,asin(70),oragenitiveNP,asin(71).

70Theadministratorsrecommended[clauseJillcarryingoutthisproject].

71Othercommunitycountrieswouldaccept[clauseBritain’sdelayingadecisiononjoiningasinglecurrencyuntilafterthenextelection].

StructureswithgenitivalSubjectsarenotveryfrequentandconsideredformal.Thegenitiveinflection-’sin(71)couldbeleftoutwithoutaperceptibledifferenceinmeaning.WeareregardingtheNPsJillandBritain’sasbeingpartofthesubordinateclausesin(70)and(71),andnotasDirectObjectsoftheverbsRECOMMENDandACCEPT.ThisisbecausetheseNPscannotbecometheSubjectofapassiveclause,astheungrammaticalityof(72)and(73)belowshows.

72*Jillwasrecommendedcarryingoutthisprojectbytheadministrators.

73*Britain’swouldbeaccepteddelayingadecisiononjoiningasinglecurrencyuntilafterthenextelectionbyothercommunitycountries.

Notice,however,thatthe-ingparticipleclauseasawholecanbecometheSubjectofapassiveclause.ThisisaDO-likeproperty.

74[Jillcarryingoutthisproject]wasrecommendedbytheadministrators.

75[Britain’sdelayingadecisiononjoiningasinglecurrencyuntilafterthenextelection]wouldbeacceptedbyothercommunitycountries.

Aspecialconstructionappearsin(76).

76Bob,youneed[clauseyourheadexamining].

The-ingparticipleclauseinthisinfrequentconstructionhasapassiveflavour,giventhatyourheadisinterpretedastheDirectObjectoftheverbEXAMINE:‘youneedyourheadtobeexamined’.

OtherverbsthatpatternlikeRECOMMENDandACCEPTareshowninTable8.14.

8.3.2.3Thepattern‘CALL[clauseNP/Ø-ingparticiple…]NP/AdjP/PP’

Inthisunusualpatternthe-ingparticipleclausefunctionsasDirectObject,andthefollowingnounphrase,adjectivephrase,orprepositionalphrasefunctionsasObject-relatedPredicativeComplement.ThesubordinateclausecanhaveanexplicitorimplicitSubject;thelatterisinterpretedas‘someone’.

‘RECOMMEND[clauseNP/NP’s-ingparticiple…]’

The-ingparticipleclauseistheDOoftheverb,andNP/NP’sistheSubjectofthe-ingparticipleclausewhichcannotbecometheSubjectofapassivizedmatrixclause.

CAN’TBEAR NEED

CAN’TSTAND PRECLUDE

CELEBRATE PREFER

CONTEMPLATE PREVENT

FORESEE PROHIBIT

GET-G REMEMBER

HATE RESENT

HAVE-G START-G

KEEP-G STOP

LOATHE TOLERATE

Verbsmarked‘-G’cannotbefollowedbyagenitiveNP.

Table8.14:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘RECOMMEND[clauseNP/NP’s-ingparticiple…]’

77Theydonotregard[clauseJohn/John’sfiddlingwithexpenses][PPasethical].

78Doyoucall[clauseØdoodlingpicturesonawall][NPart]?

NoticethatitistheComplementoftheprepositionas,notthePPasawhole,thatascribesapropertytothesituationdescribedinthe-ingparticipleclausein(77).

8.3.3-IngparticipleclausesfunctioningasComplementClause

-IngparticipleclausescanfunctionasComplementClauseinanumberofpatterns.

8.3.3.1

InthefirstofthesepatternsthepostverbalNPfunctionsastheraisedObjectoftheverb,whereasthePPheadedbyfromfunctionsasaComplementoftheverb.The-ingparticipleclausefunctionsasaComplementoftheprepositionfrom.Theverbsinthispatternareoftenreferredtoasexpressing‘negativecausation’.(79)and(80)areanalysedasin(81)and(82).

79Thestatepreventedyoufromteaching.

80Otherconditionsprohibitedhimfromenteringanycluborpremisesprovidingsportingfacilitiesforwomen.

TheNPscanbecometheSubjectofapassivematrixclause,as(83)and(84)show.

83Youwerepreventedfromteachingbythestate.

84Hewasprohibitedfromenteringanycluborpremisesprovidingsportingfacilitiesforwomenbyotherconditions.

WhenthepostverbalNPisheadedbyapronounthatcanhaveacasecontrastitmusttakeaccusativecase;genitivecaseisimpossible.

85Thestatepreventedhimfromteaching.

86*Thestatepreventedhisfromteaching.

Ifweleaveouttheprepositionfrom,theverbsoccurinthepattern‘RECOMMEND[clauseNP/NP’s-ingparticiple…]’,discussedinsection8.3.2.2,withNP/NP’sfunctioningastheSubjectofthe-ingparticipleclause,andtheclauseasawholefunctioningasDO.Themeaningdoesnotchange.

87Thestateprevented[clause[NPyou]teaching].

88Balletdancingwasherfirstchoiceofcareer,butahorse-ridingaccidentprevented[clause[NPher]pursuingthatambition].

TheverbKEEPisexceptionalinthisregard.Thus,omittingfromin(89)leadstoanoppositemeaningin(90).

89Whilethepilotquicklyleveledtheplaneoffafterthebirdstriketokeepitfromstallingandthoughtaboutwheretoland,theco-pilotkepttryingtorestarttheengines.

90Whilethepilotquicklyleveledtheplaneoffafterthebirdstriketokeepitstallingandthoughtaboutwheretoland,theco-pilotkepttryingtorestarttheengines.

Noticethattheexamplesin(87)and(88)havenopassivecounterparts,as(91)and(92)show.

91*Youwerepreventedteachingbythestate.

92*Shewaspreventedpursuingthatambitionbyahorse-ridingaccident.

OtherverbsthatpatternlikePREVENTareshowninTable8.15.

TheNPistheraisedObjectoftheverb,becauseitisnotoneofits

semanticarguments;the-ingparticipleclausefunctionsasComplementoftheprepositionfrom.TheDOcanbecometheSubjectofapassivematrixclause.TheimplicitSubjectofthe-ingparticipleclause(indicatedby‘Ø’)isunderstoodasbeingcoreferentialwiththeDO.Theprepositionfromcanbeleftoutwithoutachangeinmeaning,exceptinthecaseofKEEP.

KEEPPROHIBITSTOP

ThesecondpatterndiscussedinthissectionisverysimilartothepatternwithPREVENT,exceptthatthemeaningoftheverbdoesnotinvolve‘negativecausation’.Itisfairlyrare.Someexamplesaregivenin(93)and(94),andverbsoccurringinthepatternareshowninTable8.16.

93However,thepoorperformanceofFreshfields’juniorrecruitswillamuseothersectorsoftheCitythathavelongregarded[NPlawyers]i[PPas[clauseØilackingcommercialawareness]].

94IngekepthisprofessionalattitudeeventhoughtheTigerstreated[NPhim]i[PPas[clauseØibeinglessthanvaluablelastseason]].

TheNPistheraisedObjectoftheverb,becauseitisnotoneofitssemanticarguments;the-ingparticipleclausefunctionsasComplementoftheprepositionas.TheDOcanbecometheSubjectofapassivematrixclause.TheimplicitSubjectofthe-ingparticipleclause(indicatedby‘Ø’)isunderstoodasbeingcoreferentialwiththeDO.

CONSIDERREGARDTAKETREAT

8.3.3.2Thepatterns‘FINDNPi[clauseØi-ingparticiple…]’and‘DESCRIBENPi[PPas[clauseØi-ingparticiple…]]’:objectcontrol

Aswithto-infinitiveclausesweneedtodistinguishstructureslike(71),repeatedhereas(95),withagenitiveSubjectinthesubordinateclause,fromsuperficiallysimilarstructureslike(96).

95Othercommunitycountrieswouldaccept[clauseBritain’sdelayingadecisiononjoiningasinglecurrencyuntilafterthenextelection].

96Mary-Janefound[NPme]i[clauseØilyingontopofthebed].

In(96)thenounphrasemeisasemanticargumentoftheverbFIND,andfunctionsasitsDirectObject.ItcontrolsthereferenceoftheimplicitSubjectofthe-ingparticipleclausewhichfunctionsasComplementClause.ThefactthatmeisaDOisclearfromthefactthatitisapronouncarryingaccusativecase,andfromthefactthatthisNPcanbecometheSubjectofapassiveclause,asin(97).Itcannottakegenitivecase.

97IwasfoundlyingontopofthebedbyMary-Jane.

OtherverbslikeFINDareshowninTable8.17.

SomeverbstakeanNPandPPasComplements.TheHeadofthePPisaswhichtakesasubordinateclausewithanimplicitSubjectasitsComplement.Twoexamplesareshownbelow.

98Witnessesdescribed[NPit]i[PPas[clauseØibeinglikeabayonetandupto10inlong]].

‘FINDNPi[clauseØ-ingparticiple…]’

TheNPistheDOoftheverb,andthe-ingparticipleclausefunctionsasComplementClause.TheDOcanbecometheSubjectofapassivematrixclause.ØistheimplicitSubjectofthe-ingparticipleclause,coreferentialwiththeDO.

CATCH OBSERVE

DISCOVER OVERHEAR

FEEL PORTRAY

HEAR SEE

NOTICE WATCH

Table8.17:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘FINDNPi[clauseØi-ingparticiple…]’

99Amanwhoidentified[NPhimself]i[PPas[clauseØihavingwornoneofthecostumes]]soughttoputthestuntincontextinaninterviewwithRoanoke’sWSLSNews(Channel10).

Thisstructureresemblesthepatterninsection8.3.3.1,butitdoesnotinvolvearaisedObject.ParticipatingverbsareshowninTable8.18.

‘DESCRIBENPi[PPas[clauseØi-ingparticiple…]]’

TheNPistheDOoftheverb,andthe-ingparticipleclausefunctionsasComplementoftheprepositionas.TheDOcanbecometheSubjectofapassivematrixclause.ØistheimplicitSubjectofthe-ingparticipleclause,coreferentialwiththeDO.

DIAGNOSE RECOGNIZE

IDENTIFY REMEMBER

PORTRAY REPRESENT

PRAISE SEE

Table8.18:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘DESCRIBENPi[PPas[clauseØi-ingparticiple…]]’

8.3.3.3

Aswesawinsection8.1.3.4,to-infinitiveclausescanfunctionasComplementClausein‘raising’constructions.Thesameistrueforthe-ingparticipleclauseinthefollowingexample.

100Thecompanybegangroundingitsplaneslastnight.

Weanalysethisexampleasin(101).

InthiscasetheSubjectofthematrixclausebearsasemanticrolevis-à-visthelowerverbGROUND,notthematrixverbBEGIN.ForthisreasonweconceptualizethematrixclauseSubjectthecompanyashavingbeen‘raised’fromtheSubjectpositionofthesubordinate-ingparticipleclause,tothematrixclauseSubjectposition.ThefactthatBEGINisaraisingverbbecomesclearfromthefactthatitcantakethemeaninglesswordthereasaSubject,asinTherebeganapartywhichlastedallnight(seesection11.6).

WewillalsoregardtheaspectualauxiliaryBEin(102),analysedasin(103),asaraisingverb,againbecausethematrixclauseSubjectbearsasemanticrolevis-à-visthelowerverb(ENTER),notthematrixverb.

102Americaisenteringaneconomicdownturn.

Thestructurein(102)istheprogressiveconstruction(seesections2.2.1.2,3.6.3.3,and9.3.2).RecallthatitinvolvestheaspectualauxiliaryBEfollowedbyaverbendingin-ing.The-ingparticipleclauseagainfunctionsasComplementClause.

Verbsthatcantake-ingparticipleclauseswitharaisedSubjectareshowninTable8.19.

The-ingparticipleclausefunctionsasComplementClause;‘Ø’isanimplicitSubjectassociatedwiththematrixclauseSubjectwhichhasbeen‘raised’outofthe-ingparticipleclause.

BEGIN KEEP

CEASE START

COMMENCE STOP

CONTINUE progressiveBE

Table8.19:

8.3.4-IngparticipleclausesfunctioningasSubject-relatedPredicativeComplement

-IngparticipleclausescanfunctionasSubject-relatedPredicativeComplementwithorwithoutaSubjectoftheirownaftertheverbBE,asin

(104)and(105),respectively.In(105)thereferentoftheSubjectisnotrecoverablefromthematrixclause,thoughitislikelytobeinterpretedas‘us’.

104Thisis[clauseherbeingexecutrixtoPierce’swill].

105Thedifficultyis[clauseØproducingthequantitywemayneedatexactlytherightmoment].

8.3.5-IngparticipleclausesfunctioningasObject-relatedPredicativeComplement

In(106)thatisanNPfunctioningasDirectObject,whereastheitalicizedclause,whichlacksanovertSubject,functionsasObject-relatedPredicativeComplement.ThereferentoftheimplicitSubjectisnotrecoverablefromthematrixclause.

106TheIsraeliscall[NPthat][clauseØrestoringthearmy’sdeterrentpower].

8.3.6-IngparticipleclausesfunctioningasAdjunct

Intheexamplesbelowtheitalicized-ingparticipleclausesdonotplayaroleasparticipantsintheoverallstructures.Instead,theyfunctionasAdjunctsprovidingcircumstantialinformation.

107[clauseEgyptianarchaeologicalsitesbeingwhattheyare],Hekekyancameacrosssomestoneobjectormonumentalmosteverywherewhereheputinadrill.

108Wemuddledthrough,[clausehimaskingquestions],[clausemeansweringthebestIcould].

109EveryTuesdayIistoodthere,[clauseØiwaitingbythedoor].

Noticethatin(107)and(108)the-ingparticipleclauseshaveSubjectsoftheirown,andcanbeparaphrasedas‘inviewofwhatweexpectEgyptianarchaeologicalsitestobelike’,‘whilehewasaskingquestions’,and‘while

IwasansweringthebestIcould’,respectively.Theclausein(109)doesnothaveaSubjectofitsown,thoughitisinferrablefromthematrixclause.Itcanbeparaphrasedas‘whileIwaswaitingbythedoor’.

8.4Pastparticipleclauses

PastparticipleclausescanfunctionasDirectObject,ComplementClause,andAdjunct.Modelverbswillagainbeusedtodiscussthevariouspatterns.

8.4.1PastparticipleclausesfunctioningasDirectObject:thepattern‘HAVE[clauseNPpastparticiple…]’

In(110)thepastparticipleclausefunctionsasDirectObject,andoccurswithaSubjectofitsown(underlined).

110Ihad[clausemytonsilsremoved].

Thesubordinateclauseispassive,witnessthefactthatwecanaddaby-phrase.

111Mr.Gombossysaidhehad[clausethecolumnapprovedbyhiseditor].

TheunderlinedNPsin(110)and(111)arenottheDOsofthematrixclauseverbsbecausetheycannotbecometheSubjectsofpassivematrixclauses.

112*Mytonsilswerehadremoved.

113*Thecolumnwashadapprovedbyhiseditorbyhim.

AlthoughtheNPafterHAVEcantakeaccusativecaseifitisheadedbyapronounwhichcanhaveacasecontrast,asin(114),thisisnotasufficientreasonforassigningDirectObjectstatustoit(cf.thetreatmentofWANTinsection8.1.2.1).

114HewasheldforalmostninemonthswhiletheUSattemptedtohave[clausehimextradited].

TheNPsmytonsilsandthecolumnin(110)and(111)arenotsemanticargumentsoftheverbHAVE,butargumentsofREMOVEandAPPROVE.Themeaningof(110)isnot‘Ihadmytonsils’,but‘Ibroughtaboutthatmytonsilswereremoved’.Similarly,(111)doesnotmeanthat‘hehadthecolumn’,but‘hebroughtaboutthatthecolumnwasapprovedbyhiseditor’.Inthepatterndiscussedinthissectionthesyntacticanalysismatchesthesemanticanalysis.

WecanrelatethepatternwithHAVEdiscussedheretothepatterninSection8.2.1.Ifwepassivizethesubordinateclausein(115),wederive(116).

115She…had[clausetheQueenopentherefurbishment].(=(53))

116She…had[clausetherefurbishmentopenedbytheQueen].

However,thisdoesnotworkforallverbs.Compare(117)and(118).

117LocalactivistJerryRubingot[clausetheorderapprovedbyajudge]onbehalfofSantaMonicaTreesavers.

118*LocalactivistJerryRubingot[clauseajudgeapprovetheorder]onbehalfofSantaMonicaTreesavers.

Wecan‘salvage’(118)byaddingto:

119LocalactivistJerryRubingot[clauseajudgetoapprovetheorder]onbehalfofSantaMonicaTreesavers.

VerbsthatcantakepastparticipleclausesfunctioningasDirectObjectareshowninTable8.20.

‘HAVE[clauseNPpastparticiple…]’

ThepastparticipleclausefunctionsasDirectObject.

FEEL OBSERVE

GET ORDER

HAVE SEE

HEAR WANT

LIKE WATCH

Table8.20:Verbsoccurringinthepattern‘HAVE[clauseNPpastparticiple…]’

8.4.2PastparticipleclausesfunctioningasComplementClause

8.4.2.1

Thispatterninstantiatestheperfectconstructionwhichwasdiscussedinsection2.2.1.2.ItinvolvestheperfectauxiliaryHAVEfollowedbyaverbendingin-ed(or-(e)nforsomeverbs).

120Ihaveinformedthepoliceofthetheft.

WeassignthefunctionComplementClausetotheparticipleclauseinthispattern.Aswiththeprogressiveconstructiondiscussedinsection8.3.3.3,weregardtheaspectualauxiliaryinthisconstructionasaraisingverb,becausethenounphraseSubjectofthematrixclausebearsasemanticrolevis-à-vistheverbINFORMinthesubordinateclause.Seealsosections3.6.3.3and9.3.1.

8.4.2.2

Theclausesin(122)and(123)arepassiveconstructions,whichwerealreadydiscussedinsections2.2.1.2,3.6.3.4,and4.1.3.1.4.RecallthatsuchconstructionsinvolvethepassiveauxiliariesBEorGETfollowedbyaverbendingin-ed/-(e)n.

122Herheadwasburied_inTommy’sneck.

123Noonegotkilled_.

Asnotedinsection3.6.3.4,theunderlinedSubjectNPsareassociatedwiththeDirectObjectpositionsofBURYandKILL,respectively,asindicatedbythesymbol‘_’.WecannowexpandonthisanalysisbyobservingthattheunderlinedNPsdonotreceiveasemanticrolefromBEandGET,butfromBURYandKILL.WeaccordinglyanalysetheseconstructionsasinvolvinganNPraisedfromtheDirectObjectpositioninsidetheverbphrasetothematrixclauseSubjectposition,asindicatedin(124)and(125).

ThistypeofraisingisdifferentfromtheraisingtoSubjectpatternweencounteredearlier,forexampleinsection8.1.3.4,whereaSubjectisraisedtoamatrixclauseSubjectpositionfrominsideasubordinateclause.InthissectionweareconcernedwithanounphrasethatisraisedfromanObjectpositioninsideaVPtotheSubjectpositionofthesameclause.ThebracketedstringinthispatternisnotasubordinateclausebecauseitcannothaveaSubject.

8.4.3PastparticipleclausesfunctioningasAdjunct

PastparticipleclausesfunctioningasAdjunctcanoccurwithaSubject(underlined),asin(126),orwithoutaSubject,asin(127).

126Sevenvillagerswerearrested,[clausetheirfeetboundtogetherwithrope],andtheyhungupsidedownforhours.

127[clauseØDressedincivilianclothes]theygavetheimpressionofbeingmembersofarabblearmy.

8.5Degreesofclauseintegration

Weneedtorecognizethatsubordinateclausesaresubjecttodegreesofclauseintegration.SubordinateclausesthatfunctionasComplementsofaparticularHeadaremorecloselyintegratedintothestructureofthephraseinwhichtheyoccurthanclausesthatfunctionasAdjuncts.Tomakethisclear,considerfirsttheexamplesbelow,repeatedfromChapters5and7.

128IdetectintheUnitedStates’latestposition[NParealisation[clausethatitisimportanttokeeptheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncilconsensus]].

129Successivesurgesofviolence[clausewhichsweptthrough18jailsonasinglenightin1986],havefocusedattentiononlivingconditions.

Aswehaveseen,in(128)thecontentclausefunctionsasComplementofthenounrealisationinsideanounphrase.TheclauseisaComplementbecausewecanrelatethenounrealisationtotheverbREALISE.Compare(128)with(They)realisedthatitisimportanttokeeptheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncilconsensus.In(129)wehaveanon-restrictiverelativeclause(section7.3.3.3)whichisoptional,andmerelyfurnishesnon-essentialinformationabouttheHeadviolence.ThisrelativeclausefunctionsasanAdjunctinsidetheNP.

Similarly,in(130)and(131)theclausesfunctionasComplementandAdjunct,respectively.

130Ithink[clausethat’sfascinating].

131IwastakingyoutoNewtonAbbot[clausetocatchatrain].

In(130)thecontentclauseislicensedbytheverb:wecannotsay*Ithinkwithoutfurtherspecification.In(131)thesubordinateclauseisnotsyntacticallylicensed:theoverallstructurewouldmakeperfectlygoodsensewithoutit.Itmerelyspecifiessomefurtherinformation,inthiscaseapurpose.

Recallthatwhenwesaythataclauseisoptional,wemean‘grammaticallyoptional’,inthesensethatleavingitoutdoesnotleadtoanungrammaticalstructure.

8.6Thestructureofclauseswithoneormoreauxiliaryverbs

RecallfromSection3.6.3thatEnglishdistinguishesthefollowingtypesofauxiliaries:modalauxiliaries,aspectualauxiliaries,passiveBE,anddummyDO.Eachoftheseauxiliariescanoccurontheirowninaclause,followedbyalexicalverb,asin(132).

132Theagentswillbookthetickets.[modal+lexicalverb]

However,itisquitecommonforclausesinEnglishtocontainasequenceofauxiliaries.Intheexamplesbelowtheauxiliariesareitalicized,andthelexicalverbsareunderlined.

133Theagentswillhavebookedthetickets.[modal+perfectHAVE+lexicalverb]

134Theagentswillhavebeenbookingthetickets.[modal+perfectHAVE+progressiveBE+lexicalverb]

135Theticketswillhavebeenbeingbookedbytheagents.[modal+perfectHAVE+progressiveBE+passiveBE+lexicalverb]

Thepatternin(135)isunusual,thoughperfectlygrammatical.

Inanysequenceoftwoormoreauxiliariestheywillalwaysoccurintheordershownin(136).

136modal—perfect—progressive—passive—lexicalverb

Itisimportanttoseethatauxiliaries,occurringontheirownwithalexicalverb,orinasequence,alwaysdeterminetheformoftheverbthatfollowsthem.

•Modalauxiliariesarealwaysfollowedbyabareinfinitiveform.

•DummyDOisalsoalwaysfollowedbyabareinfinitiveform.

•TheperfectauxiliaryHAVEisalwaysfollowedbyapastparticiple,i.e.averbformendingin-ed(-(e)nforsomeverbs,e.g.been,broken,eaten,forgotten,grown,mown).

•TheprogressiveauxiliaryBEisalwaysfollowedbyan-ingparticipleform.

•ThepassiveauxiliaryBE,liketheperfectauxiliary,isalwaysfollowedbyapastparticiple.

Itispossibleforoneormoreofthe‘slots’in(136)tobeskipped,buttheobservationsregardingtheorderandinflectionalshapeoftheverbsstillhold.

137Theagentswillbebookingthetickets.[modal+progressiveBE+lexicalverb]

138Theagentshavebookedthetickets.[perfectHAVE+lexicalverb]

139Theagentsarebookingthetickets.[progressiveBE+lexicalverb]

140Theagentshavebeenbookingthetickets.[perfectHAVE+progressiveBE+lexicalverb]

141Theticketswerebookedbytheagents.[passiveBE+lexicalverb]

142Theticketswillbebookedbytheagents.[modal+passiveBE+lexicalverb]

143Theticketswillbebeingbookedbytheagents.[modal+progressiveBE+passiveBE+lexicalverb]

144Theticketswillhavebeenbookedbytheagents.[modal+perfectHAVE+passiveBE+lexicalverb]

145Theticketswerebeingbookedbytheagents.[progressiveBE+passiveBE+lexicalverb]

146Theticketshavebeenbookedbytheagents.[perfectHAVE+passiveBE+lexicalverb]

147Theticketshavebeenbeingbookedbytheagents.[perfectHAVE+progressiveBE+passiveBE+lexicalverb]

IwillreturntoadiscussionofthemeaningsofsomeofthesecombinationsinChapters9and10.

Theorderingrestrictionsonauxiliaries,andthefactthattheydeterminetheformoftheverbthatfollowsthem,leadsustoconcludethattheybehavesyntacticallylikelexicalverbstotheextentthatlexicalverbsalsolicensetheComplementstheytake(ifany).Thus,aswehaveseen,intransitiveverbsarefollowedbynothing;transitiveverbscanbefollowedbyaComplementintheshapeofanNP,clause,etc.,andlinkingverbsarefollowedbyPredicativeComplements(NP,AdjP,etc.).WecannowsaythatauxiliaryverbsarefollowedbyComplementsintheshapeofnon-finiteclauseswhichfunctionasComplementClause.

Wecanrepresentstructureslikethosein(132)–(147)byusinglabelledbracketings,asshownbelowforexamples(132)and(133).Eachnestedbracketingisanon-finitesubordinateclausewithanimplicitSubject(indicatedby‘0’),whichisinterpretedasbeingcoreferentialwiththehighestSubject(underlined).RecallfromSection8.2.2thatthematrixclauseSubjectisaraisedSubject.

Thesestructurescanbeunderstoodmorereadilyifweusetreediagrams(seesection4.4).Thetreefor(148)lookslike(150).Atriangleisusedwhentheinternalstructureofaconstituentcanbesurmisedfromotherpartsofthetree,orisnotatissue.

Andhereisthetreefor(149).

InthesetreestheverbsWILLandHAVElicenseaComplementClausewithanimplicitSubjectthatiscoreferentialwiththematrixclauseSubject,whereastheverbBOOKtakesanounphraseasDirectObject.

8.7Verblessclauses

Considerthefollowingexampleswhichinvolveclauseswithoutanovertverb.

152Shewasbornin1896,daughterofawell-to-doandrigidlyconventionalfamily,[clauseherfatheradoctor].

153Theatmosphereisthatofastudenthouse,withfriendscallinginand[clausetheteapotalwaysfull].

154Theeasiestwaytoremembercorrectroundaboutprocedureistothinkofitasacrossroadswith[clauseanislandinthemiddle].

155*It’sbestforcustomerstoenjoytheirdinnerswhile[clauseØatease],”saidTakakoOsuga,arestaurantmanagerwhosaidshewitnessedtoomanycustomers,especiallyoldoneswithbrittlebones,havingdifficultysittingonthefloor.

156NodoubtPersonnelwillcontactmeif[clauseØnecessary].

157Becket,[clausehimselfamasterofflamboyanceandhistrionics],wasactuallykilledinthenorth-westtransept,onaspotcalledtheMartyrdom.

IneachofthesecasesweregardtheitalicizedbracketedstringsasclausesbyvirtueofthefactthatthedoublyunderlinedphraseswithinthemfunctionasSubject-relatedPredicativeComplementwhichtakethesinglyunderlinedphrasesastheirSubjects,orhaveanimplicitSubject,asin(155)and(156).Alltheseclausesarelikecomplexintransitivestructures(sections4.1.3.3.1and5.4.1)involvingtheverbBE.TheycanperformavarietyoffunctionssuchasAdjunctin(152),Complementofapreposition,asin(153)–(156),orparenthetical,asin(157).Althoughtheyhavenoverb,theyareakintonon-finiteclauses.

PartIV:Grammarandmeaning

Chapter9TenseandaspectInthispartofthegrammarIwilldiscussanumberoftopicsthatlieattheinterfacebetweengrammarandmeaning.InthepresentchapterIwilldiscussthenotionsoftenseandaspectinsections9.2and9.3,butwefirstturntoaverybriefdiscussionofthenotionoftime.

9.1Time

Whenwespeakoftime,wearetalkingaboutareal-worldnotionwhichweallexperienceasthehours,days,weeks,andyearspass.ItisdefinedbytheConciseOxfordEnglishDictionaryas‘theindefinitecontinuedprogressofexistenceandeventsinthepast,present,andfuture,regardedasawhole’.AstheCOEDdefinitionindicates,weconceiveoftimeashavingthree‘zones’,past,present,andfuture,whichwecanrepresentona‘timeline’,asfollows.

9.2Tense

Thetermtensedenotesagrammaticalsystemwhichisusedtolocatesituationsintime.Asituationiswhataclauseisabout.Aswewillseeinsection9.3.4.1,wecandistinguishvarioustypesofsituation,suchasstates,occurrences,processes,andachievements.Themostbasicdistinctionisbetweenstatesandoccurrences.Statesareunbounded,thatis,theydonothaveabeginningandanend,whereasoccurrences(whichcanbeboundedorunbounded)aredynamicsituationswhichcomeabout.Languageslocatesituationsintimemostcommonlybymeansofverbalinflections.Thus,whenwereadorhear(2),thepasttenseinflectionontheverbindicatesthattheoccurrenceinquestiontookplaceinthepast.TheAdjunctmakesexplicitexactlywhenthespeakerarrivedinIsrael.

2IarrivedinIsraelattwoo’clockinthemorning.

Wecanrepresent(2)asfollowsonatimeline.

ItmustbesaidattheoutsetthattheinflectionalsystemoftenseinEnglishisquitesimpleinallowingonlyapresenttenseandapasttense.Englishhasnofuturetense,becauseithasnofuturetenseinflections,inthewaythatmanyotherlanguagesdo,noranyothergrammaticalformorcombinationofformsthatcanexclusivelybecalledafuturetense.Thisdoesnotmeanwecannottalkaboutthefuture:theEnglishlanguageoffersvariousalternativewaysofdoingso,aswewillsee.

9.2.1Thepresenttenseanditsuses

InitsbasicusetheEnglishpresenttenseencodesthatasituationobtainsatthepresenttime,conceivedofasthetimeofutterance.Thepresenttenseinflectionisvisibleonlexicalverbsinthethirdpersonsingular,suchaswalks,dances,falls,reads,leaves,hears,aswellasonthenon-modalauxiliaryverbs.Otherpresenttenseformsareintheplainpresentform.AnexceptionistheverbBE,whichhasthreedistinctformsinitspresenttenseparadigm(section2.2.1.2).

InwhatfollowsweturntotheprincipalusesoftheEnglishpresenttense.

9.2.1.1The‘state’useofthepresenttense

Thepresenttenseisoftenusedtodescribeasituationthatobtainswithinaspanoftimethatincludesthemomentofutterance,andextendsintothepastandfuture.

4I’msotallandyou’resoshort.

5ThismeansthattheamountofFamilyCredityougetdependsonyournormalnetearnings.

6Hespeaks3languagesandlivesalloverEurope.

7Wellmycousinishousemasterataprivateschool.

8Itfacessouthandithasbigroomsandit’sanicehouse.

So-calledpsychologicalverbs—verbsthatdescribecognitivestates,suchasTHINK,BELIEVE,andKNOW—alsooftenoccurinthepresenttense.

9Ithinkthosepeopleareveryquicklydisabusedofthatnotion.

10ThisGovernmentbelievesinthepoundsterling.

11Heknowshewillhaveonlyonechance.

12Iwonderifthey’vegoneout.

Thepresenttenseisalsocommonlyusedtoexpressaseriesofidenticalsituations,thatis,ahabit.

13Shewearseight-inch,reallyhighheels.

14HetravelstoManchesterformusiclessons.

Inthesecasestherepeatedsituationscanbeviewedasmakingupastate.

Thepresenttensecanalsodescribea‘scientifictruth’,forexampleinmathematicalformulae,orstatementsaboutthenaturalworld,asintheexamplesshownbelow.

15Seventimeseightmakesfifty-six.

16Becauseofitssalinity,seawaterfreezesataslightlylowertemperaturethanfreshwater.

9.2.1.2The‘instantaneous’or‘event’useofthepresenttense

Thepresenttenseformsofverbscanbeusedtodescribeanoccurrence(event)thatissimultaneouswiththemomentofspeaking,forexampleinspontaneouscommentarieson(sportsandother)events,asintheexamples

below.

17Carlingcallsfortheballinsidehisownhalf.

18TonyCottygetshisninthgoaloftheseason.

19ThebandoftheScotsGuardscontinuestoentertainthecrowd.

20HesalutesHerMajesty,informsherthattheguardsarereadytomarchoff,andtrotsbacktoresumecommandoftheparade.

21AndherecomestheNorthernLine.

Presenttenseverbformsarealsooftenusedforperformativeverbs,suchasAPOLOGIZE,NAME,andPROMISE.Suchverbscanbeusedbyspeakerstoperformtheactionsthattheverbsdenote.

22Iapologisefortheveryshortnotice.

23Inamethisblog“AnEditor’sBlog”.

24IpromisetothinkbeforeIspeak.

9.2.1.3Thehistoricpresent

Inspontaneousspeech,whenrecountingoccurrencesthathappenedinthepast,speakerscanopttoportraythoseoccurrencesinamorelivelywaybyusingpresenttenseverbforms,ratherthanpasttenseforms.Thisuseofthepresenttenseiscalledthehistoricpresent.Intheexamplein(25)thespeakerisdescribingoccurrencesastheyunfoldinafilm,whereasin(26)thespeakerrecallsbeingtoldabouttheintroductionofrunningcontractsattheBartlett.Theverbformtellsin(26)isequivalentto‘toldmerecently’.Inbothcasestheuseofapresenttenseformmakesthereportedoccurrencessoundmorerecentandrelevant.Wecouldsaythatinreferringtopastoccurrencesthepresenttenserecounts,whereasthepasttensereports.

25Hegoesshootingoffinthecaruptheroadandhehastocatchontothatelectricbit,andthenthatflashoflightningcomesanditknocksthethingdown.

26AndPeterLearfromPersonneltellsmethattheBartletthaveintroducedrunningcontracts.

TheexamplesabovearefromspokenEnglish,butthehistoricpresentisalsousedinwriting,bothinmoreformalstyles,asin(27),fromanacademicbookentitledRomanImperialThemes,andininformalstyles,suchasinthenewspaperheadlinein(28).

27CiceroconstantlyappealedtothesentimentsofallItaly,andVirgilcelebratestheprowessoftheItalianswhohadresistedAeneas,theprototypeoftheconqueringRoman,andlooksforwardtothecircumstancesofhisownday,whenallhadbeenreconciledandhadbecome‘Latinsofasinglespeech’.

28Karpovslipsup.

Noticehowtheauthorof(27)usesthepasttenseoftheverbAPPEALtotalkaboutCicero,butpresentformsoftheverbsCELEBRATEandLOOKtotalkaboutVirgil.InsettingupacontrastbetweenCiceroandVirgil,theauthorseemstobemoreinterestedinVirgil,whoselastinglegacyisthefocusofinteresthere.Inthenewspaperheadlinein(28),thepresenttenseformoftheverbSLIPdrawsthereaderintoanaccountofarecentoccurrenceinawaythatapasttenseverbformcouldnotdo.

Avariantofthehistoricpresent(arguablyaseparateuse,sometimescalledtheimaginarypresent)isusedinnovelswherepresenttenseverbformsareoftenusedtorecounttheoccurrencesasiftheywerehappeningrightnow.Theymakethewritingmorelivelyanddirect.Someexamplesappearbelow.

29Cathyavertshereyesfromthetemptingbutcalorie-ladentoastandpicksatthemuesli.

30Sherearrangeshernightdressandfallsasleepalmostimmediately,thinkingabouthowniceandsafesheislyingherenexttoherhusband.

Pasttenseformsoftheitalicizedverbswouldalsohavebeenperfectlypossibleintheseexamples.

9.2.1.4The‘timeless’useofthepresenttense

Inanumberofcontextsthepresenttenseisusedwithoutreferringtopresenttime.Theseincludegeneraldescriptions,descriptionsofjourneysormuseumexhibitsintravelguides,instructionsinmanuals,stagedirectionsinplays,photocaptions,andsoon.Herearesomeexamples.

31AsummaryofthevariousoperationsinvolvedinshaftconstructionisgiveninTable1,whichshowsananticipatedprojectscheduleextendingfor34weeks.

32AndthenyouseethisbeautifulmarblestatueofanakedCelt.

33Gustieshislaces,rises,yawnsandbeginstowalkslowlytothedoor,left.Hestops,looksdown,andshakeshisfoot.

34Makesureitsitsclosetoyourbodywiththefasteningsnexttoyou.

9.2.1.5Thepresentfuturate

Inthefollowingexamplesapresenttenseisusedtorefertofuturetime.Wecallthisthepresentfuturate.

35I’vedecidedtogobacktocollege,sonextweekIstartmydegreecourse!

36MysisterarrivestomorrowfromVenice.

37‘TheSportsman’,Britain’sfirstnationaldailyfor20years,launchesnextweek.

Itwouldhavebeenpossibletouseothermeansofreferringtothefutureintheseexamples,butwiththepresentfuturatethefuturesituationisanchoredinthepresent,andinsomewayscheduledtotakeplaceasa‘diariedoccurrence’orasanaturaloccurrence.Theuseofthepresentfuturateinspeechmakestheconversationmorelivelybybringingtheanticipatedsituationtothefore.Noticethatfortheseexamplestobeinterpretedasfuturateuses,atimespecificationisnormallyrequired.

Inasubordinateclauseapresenttenseverbcanalsorefertothefuture.

38I’lltellyouaboutitwhenIseeyou.

39ThatwillhappenonlyiftheGovernmentmanagestoreplacethepolltaxwithamoreacceptablealternative.

Intheseexamplesthesuperordinateclauseshaveamarkeroffuturetime,suchasWILL(underlined).Thesubordinateclausescanexpressarangeofmeanings,forexampletemporalmeaningorconditionalmeaning.Thefuturetimereferenceofthepresenttenseinthesubordinateclausedependsonthefuturetimemarkerinthesuperordinateclause,whichisgenerallynotrepeated.Thus(40)wouldberegardedasungrammaticalbymostspeakers.

40*ThatwillhappenonlyiftheGovernmentwillmanagetoreplacethepolltaxwithamoreacceptablealternative.

Logically,thereisnothingwrongwith(40)becauseboththematrixandsubordinateclausesrefertofuturetime.ItseemsthatgrammaticallyWILLisexcludedfromthesubordinateclausebecausethematrixclausehasalreadysetupafuturetimespherewhichextendsintothesubordinateclause,obviatingtheneedforWILLtoberepeated.

9.2.2Thepasttenseanditsuses

ThepasttenseisgrammaticalizedinEnglishasaverbinflectiononlexicalverbs(-ed),orbyothermeans,typicallyavowelchange(e.g.sing–sang).Insections9.2.21–9.2.2.5Idiscusstheprincipalusesofthepasttense.ThepasttenseformsoftheauxiliaryverbswillbediscussedinSection9.2.3.

9.2.2.1Thepasttenseasusedtorefertopastsituations

Thepasttenseinitsbasicuseencodesthatasituationobtainedatsomepointinthepast,relativetothemomentofutterance.TheremaybeanexplicitAdjunctlocatingthesituationintime.Herearesomeexamples,withtheAdjunctsunderlined.

41Whenwehadaheadofdepartments’meetinglastweekIcirculatedapieceofpaperandseveralpeoplehavereturnedittome.

42Themeetingfinishedatabout5o’clock.

43From1974to1978heworkedforGranadaTelevisioninManchester.

9.2.2.2Thepasttenseusedforpoliteness

Thepasttensecanbeusedforpoliteness,asin(44)–(46),whichexpressrequests.

44Wewonderedwhetheryouwouldliketohaveagoatyourjigsawpuzzle.

45IwantedtoaskyoualittleaboutTheExorcist.

46Sorry,couldyoustartagain?

Theserequestswithpasttenseformsaremorepoliteandself-effacingthantheircounterpartswithpresenttenseforms.Thepasttensedistancesthespeakerfromtheirrequest,whichmakesiteasierfortheaddresseetoturnitdown.

9.2.2.3Themodalpasttense

Thepasttenseofverbscanbeusedtotalkaboutmodalsituations,forexamplesituationsthatarehypotheticalornon-factual.Forthisreasonwecallitthemodalpasttense.Typically,themodalpasttenseoccursinclausesthatexpressremoteconditions,thatis,conditionswhicharenotlikelytobefulfilled.Theycanbeintroducedbyif(only),imagineif,orsuppose/supposing.Herearesomeexamples.Ineachcasethematrixclause(oranassociatedclause)containsamodalverb(inbold).

47Ifyouturnedupforaday’sshooting,thepheasantswoulddielaughing.

48IfIwastogotoDubai,Icangetthingslikeelectricalgoods.

49Ifonlyhehadadarling,cuddly,relaxingdog,perhapshewouldn’tbesuchamiserabletoad.

50“…Imagineifyouportrayedotherpolice-statecriminalsinthisway.Therewouldbeanoutcry.”

51Supposinghehadthemanagementteamwhosointelligentlyadvise

Beckham;mightithavemadeadifference?

Wecanturntheif-clauseinanexamplelike(47)intoaclauseexpressinganopencondition,thatis,aconditionthatcanrealisticallybefulfilled,bychangingthepasttenseformstopresenttenseformsinbothclauses.

52Ifyouturnupforaday’sshooting,thepheasantswilldielaughing.

Wealsofindthemodalpasttenseafterexpressionslikeit’stimeandafterverbslikeWISH.

53It’stimepeopleknewhowtheirmoneywasbeingspent.

54Iwishitwasovernow.

In(54)wecanreplacewasbywere.Thispossibility,whichinvolvesasubjunctiveclause,willbediscussedinsection10.3.2.

9.2.2.4Thepasttenseinindirectreportedspeech

Thedirectreportedspeechin(55)isrenderedin(56)asindirectreportedspeech.

55Shesaid‘Idon’tknowwhatit’sliketobehusbandlessbutIcanimagine.’

56Shesaidshedidn’tknowwhatitwasliketobehusbandlessbutshecouldimagine.

TheSubjectpronounIin(55)ischangedtoshein(56),andtheauxiliaryverbsandtheverbBE(intheclausewhatit’slike)havebeenbackshifted,thatis,turnedintopasttenses:don’tbecomesdidn’t,’sbecomeswas,andcanbecomescould.Thenon-backshiftedversionisshownin(57).

57Shesaidshedoesn’tknowwhatit’sliketobehusband-lessbutshecanimagine.

Thislastpossibilityismorelikelyifthespeakerknowsatthetimeofutterancethatthepersonreferredtoas‘she’stilldoesnotknowwhatitisliketobehusbandless,butcanimagineit.

IwillreturntoindirectreportedspeechinconnectionwithshouldinSection9.2.3,andinconnectionwiththepastperfectinsection9.3.1.2.

9.2.2.5Thepastfuturate

Thepastfuturateisapasttensethatisusedtotalkaboutfuturesituationsviewedfromthepast(a‘futureinthepast’).Herearetwoexamples.

58Whenwelastspoke,themeetingwastotakeplacenextweek.

59In1956Lumumbawasapostofficeclerk;fouryearslaterhewouldbeprimeminister.

9.2.3Thepasttenseformsofauxiliaryverbs

ProgressiveBE,perfectHAVE,passiveBE,andthedummyauxiliaryDOallhavepasttenseforms.Examplesaregivenbelow.

60Theirevidencesuggestedthattheholewasgrowingbiggerthroughtime,andsatellitesurveillanceconfirmedtheinitialreports.

61Cosmothoughthervoicehadnotchangedatall.

62Suddenlytheissueofozonedepletionwastakenseriously.

63Andhesaysifciviliansdiddiehe’ssorry.

Modalverbs,withtheexceptionofMUST,haveamorphologicalpasttenseform,aswesawinsection3.6.3.2.Theformswould,could,might,andshouldarehistoricallyandmorphologicallypasttenseforms,andsomecanbeusedtodenotepasttime.Forexample,in(64)themodalverbCANexpressesthesemanticnotionof‘ability’atthepresenttime(‘Iamabletofeel…’),whereasin(65)itexpressesthesamesemanticnotioninthepast(‘Iwasabletofeel…’).

64Icanfeelyoubeginningtobuckleundertheweightofallthissincerity.

65Icouldfeelyoubeginningtobuckleundertheweightofallthissincerity.

However,inothercasesthepasttenseformscannotsemanticallyberegardedasthepasttensecounterpartsofthepresenttenseforms,as(66)and(67)makeclear.

66WeshallmakeupourmindwhentheIMFhasreported.

67WeshouldmakeupourmindwhentheIMFhasreported.

In(66)SHALLexpressesan‘intention’todosomething.However,(67)doesnotexpressan‘intentioninthepast’,butrather‘obligation’.ForthisreasonsomegrammarsarguethatshouldisanentirelyseparateverblexemeSHOULD.

Despitesuchsemanticmismatches,inthisgrammarwewillregardthepasttenseformsofthemodalsasthemorphologicalpasttensecounterpartsofthepresenttenseforms.Thereasonsforthisaretwofold.First,wenotethatthepasttenseformscanbeusedwithpasttensemeaningsinconditionalconstructions(section9.2.2.3).Considerfirst(68)withanopenconditionexpressedinthesubordinateclause.

68Ifsherecommendsmybookafterthat,Ishallbeverysurprised.

Ifweturnthisintoaremoteconditionweobtain(69).

69Ifsherecommendedmybookafterthat,Ishouldbeverysurprised.

TheverbshouldinthisexampleissemanticallyandgrammaticallyastraightforwardpasttenseformofSHALL.Putdifferently,themeaningexpressedbyshouldisthesameasthemeaningexpressedbySHALLin(68),apartfromthemodalremotenessexpressedbythepasttense.ItisthereforeinappropriatetoregardshouldasaseparatelexemeSHOULDinthiscase.

Secondly,thepasttenseformscanbeusedinbackshiftedcontexts.Aswesawinsection9.2.2.4,thesearecontextswhereaverbinasubordinateclauseis‘shiftedbackintime’bytakingonapasttenseform.Consider(70)anditsbackshiftedversionin(71).

70MrGhaisaid:‘Ishallappealuntiltheveryend,inthefaiththatmydyingwishwillnotgounheard.’

71MrGhaisaidheshouldappealuntiltheveryend,inthefaiththathisdyingwishwouldnotgounheard.

HeretheverbSHALLhasbeenbackshifted,resultinginshould.ThisexampleshowsthatinthistypeofcontexttoowemustrecognizeshouldasapasttenseformofSHALL.(Theverbformshouldin(71)isactuallyambiguous,becauseitcanalsocarrythe‘obligation’meaning.)

Furtherdiscussionofthemeaningsexpressedbytheauxiliarieswillbepresentedinsections9.3.3and10.3.4–10.3.8.

9.2.4Otherwaysofreferringtopresent,past,andfuturetime

InEnglishavarietyofexpressionscanbeusedtorefertotime.Herearesomeexamplesofdifferenttypesofphrasesreferringtopast,present,andfuturetimes.

72[NPYesterday]theywentintogameninewiththescoreslockedat4-4afterawinapieceandsixdraws.

73I’mgoingtobeinRamsford[NPtomorrow].

74In[AdjPrecentxsyearsseveralschoolsofthoughthaveemerged,eachchampionedbyleadingexponentsoftheperiod.

75Whatareyour[AdjPfuture]studyplans?

76[PPAfterhemarried],hetoldhiswifenottoopenthemetalboxbecauseitbelongedtoafriend.

77Idonotneedthislightheartedhumour[PPatthemoment].

78There’snoseats[PPinthemorning].

79I’vetriedtogetintouchwithJanetseveraltimes[AdvPlately]butIthinkshe’smoved.

Torefertofuturetimewecanalsousetheprogressivefuturate(section9.3.2.4.4),WILLorSHALLfollowedbyabareinfinitive(sections10.3.4and

10.3.5),orthemodallexicalverbBEgoing[to](section10.3.11.3.3).

9.3Aspect

Whenwediscussedtimeandtenseearlierwesawthattimeisarealworldnotion,whereastenseisagrammaticalnotion:tenseisthewayagrammarallowsspeakerstoencodethenotionoftime.Inthesameway,aspectualityisanotionwhichconcernshowasituationisperceivedtobeunfoldingintimeintherealworld(ascompleted,ongoing,orthelike),whereasaspectisthewaythatagrammarencodesthis.Manylanguages,especiallytheSlaviclanguages,haveveryrichaspectualsystems.Intheselanguagesthewaysituationsunfoldcanbeencodedinverbalinflections.InEnglishwerecognizeperfectaspectandprogressiveaspect.Thesearenotencodedinverbalinflections,butasconstructions.

9.3.1Perfectaspect

Insection9.2.2wesawthattheprincipalwaytorefertopastoccurrencesisbyusingthepasttense,andthatthegrammarofEnglishencodesthepasttensethroughthe-edendinginthecaseofregularverbs,andthroughavowelmodificationinthecaseofmanyirregularverbs(e.g.eatlate;seeAppendix1).Englishhasafurthermeansofreferringtopasttime,namelytheperfectconstruction,whichcombinestheperfectauxiliaryHAVEwithapastparticipleformofaverb.Wedistinguishthepresentperfectconstructionfromthepastperfectandnon-finiteperfectconstructions(seesections2.2.1.2and3.6.3.3).Theywillbediscussedinturninsections9.3.1.1–9.3.1.3.

9.3.1.1Thepresentperfect

ThepresentperfectinvolvesapresenttenseformoftheauxiliaryverbHAVEfollowedbyapastparticiple.

80IhavefinishedtheworkthatIhadtodo.

81Ihavebeenunwellforthepast6weeks.

AsageneralcharacterizationoftheEnglishpresentperfectconstruction,

wecansaythatitreferstoasituationthathappenedorbeganinthepast,andhasrelevanceatthepresentmoment.Thisiscalledcurrentrelevance.In(80),whiletheworkinquestionwasfinishedbeforethepresentmoment,thisisfeltbythespeakertoberelevantatthetimeofutterance,perhapsinindicatingthatheisnowreadytodoanewjob.In(81)theperfectisusedtoindicatethatthespeakerhasbeenunwellforsometime,andthisisinsomewayrelevantatthemomentofspeaking,forexampleinanassessmentoftheirperformanceatthepresentmoment.Wecanrepresentthemeaningofthepresentperfectonatimelineasin(82)for(80),andasin(83)for(81).

Inbothexamples‘|’indicateswhenthesituationoccurredorbeganintime.Currentrelevanceisindicatedbythedashedarrow.Thetimespanofthesituationdenotedby(81)isindicatedbyanglebrackets(‘>’)in(83).Inthisrepresentationtheygobeyondthepresentmomenttoindicatethatasituationcaninsomecasesbeinterpretedtoextendpastthepresentmoment(seealsosection9.3.1.1.1).However,ifanAdjunctlikeuntilnoworuptonowisused,asin(84),thesituationexplicitlyextendsonlyuptothepresent.

84EstoniahasuntilnowbeenthecalmestofthethreeBalticrepublics.

Thepresentperfectdiffersfromthepasttense;thelatterisusedtorefertosituationsthatcanbesaidtobe‘overanddonewith’.Whilesituationsinthepastcanalsoberelevantatthepresenttime,itisimportanttostressthatthepasttensedoesnotencodecurrentrelevance,whereasthepresentperfectconstructiondoes.Compare(81)with(85),whereapasttenseisused.Thismeansthatthespeakerwasunwelllastweekwhichmayormay

notberelevantatthepresentmoment.

85Iwasunwelllastweek.

(85)canberepresentedonatimelineasfollows.

ThepresentperfectinEnglishisnormallynotcompatiblewithadefinitetimereference,as(87)shows.

87*Ihavebeenunwelllastweek.

Thereasonwhy(87)isungrammaticalisthatthereisasemanticclashbetweenthemeaningencodedbythepresentperfect,namelycurrentrelevance,andthemeaningconveyedbylastweek,namelythatthesituationisperceivedasbeingoveranddonewith.However,Englishisshowingsignsofchangeinthisrespect.Manycommentatorshaveobservedthephenomenonoftheso-calledfootballer’spresentperfectwhichoccurswithsomefrequencyinthesportspress,andinthespokenlanguageusedbyfootballers.Itinvolvesapresentperfectconstruction,sometimesincombinationwithanexplicitdefinitetimereference,whereonewouldnormallyexpectapasttense.Hereisanexample.

88Thelinesman’sgiventhedecision,butwhatastoundsmeisthathehassentTariccooffbeforehespoketothelinesman.

ItispossiblethattherestrictionontheuseofdefinitetimeAdjunctsincombinationwiththepresentperfectisbeingrelaxedbeyondthedomainofsports.Hereisanexampleofapresentperfectconstructioncombinedwithadefinitetimereferencefromaninformalconversation.

89IhavecaughtuponalotofsleepwhenIwastooill.

Considernow(90)and(91).

90Themassmediahaveundergoneradicalchangesincethen.

91Overthepast15years,theyhavebecomethemostriot-proneintheWest.

HerewealsohaveAdjunctsoftime,namelysincethenandoverthepast15years,but,asinthecaseof(81),theydonotcauseungrammaticality,becausebothAdjunctsarecompatiblewithacurrentrelevancereading:theyindicateaperiodbeginninginthepastandleadinguptothepresent,ascanbeseenin(92),whichrepresents(90)and(91)diagrammatically.

InthesectionsthatfollowIwillgiveanoverviewoftheprincipalusesoftheEnglishpresentperfect.Ineachcaseanelementofcurrentrelevancecanbedetected,butindifferentways.

9.3.1.1.1Thecontinuativepresentperfect

Thisuseofthepresentperfectdenotesasituationthatbeganinthepastandleadsuptothepresenttime,andpossiblybeyond.Inadditionto(81)somefurtherexamplesfollowbelow.

93IhavelivedhereeightornineyearsandIwouldknowiftherewascrack.

94Butthefactremainswehavebeenfaced,sincethemiddleofJanuary,withwar.

95IntheLatviancapitalRigakeybuildingshavebeenblockedoffsincethebeginningoftheweek.

96YouhavebeenthereformeallthroughthiscrazyrelationshipwithColin.

Thedurationofthesituationreferredto,oritsinceptionpoint,isusuallyindicatedbyanAdjunctoftime.Adjunctsthatconvey‘continuation’cannotbeusedinthepresentperfectconstructionwithverbsthatareincompatiblewiththatnotion.Thus‘breakingthespeedrecord’in(97)isan

instantaneousoccurrencewithoutduration.

97*Ihavebrokenthespeedrecordeversincethesummer.

Thecontinuativeperfectcanalsobeusedtorefertorecurringorhabitualsituationsinthepastleadinguptothepresent.

98ForcenturiescountlessthousandsofpeoplehavearrivedinmagicalProvenceforthesunshineandthequalityoflifethatitprovides.

99AndonoccasionIhavelenthardbacksandnotgotthemback.

In(98)itisevidentthatthefavourableconditionsofProvencestillobtain,andthatuptothemomentofspeakingpeoplehavebeengoingthere.Thelinkwiththepresentisrathermoreimplicitin(99),butbecomesclearfromwhatthespeakersaidimmediatelyafteruttering(99)inthesameconversation,namely‘soIjustdon’tlendhardbackstoanyonenow’.Inallthesecases,except(94)and(95),apasttensewouldhavebeenpossible,buttherewouldthenbenosuggestionthatthesituationsreferredtoarerelevantatthepresenttime,andmaycontinuetoberelevantintothefuture.

9.3.1.1.2Thepresentperfectoftherecentpast

Wecanreportsituationsthattookplaceintherecentpastusingthepresentperfectconstruction,asthefollowingexamplesmakeclear.Ineachcasewhatisbeingsaidisinsomewayrelevantatthepresenttime.Adjunctslikerecently,oflate,andjustareoftenused.

100AfinancialadviserfromSmithJonesBrowncametoseeme,andhehasrecentlysentmehisadvice.

101Oflate,therehasbeenresearchtoindicatethatprocedurallearningisretainedinagreatmanycontexts.

102IhavejustmetwithSelectwhowillbesupplyinguswithourBoxOfficeComputer.

Thisuseofthepresentperfectisespeciallycommoninreportage.Thefollowingexamples,fromnewspapers,reportonoccurrencesintherecentpast.

103Policehavereleasedtwowomenandtwomen,whiletwomenwhowerefoundtohaveoverstayedtheirimmigrationconditionsarebeingdealtwith.

104Estateresidentshavewonthefirststageoftheirbattletostopdevelopersdemolishingfamilyhousesandbuildingflats.

105InvestorsaregettingincreasinglynervousaboutMurdoch,andNewsshareshavetumbledtotheirlowestforsixyears.

Notethatapasttensecouldhavebeenusedinthesecases,butthiswouldhavehadtheeffectofthereportslosingtheir‘hotnews’feel.

9.3.1.1.3Thepresentperfectofresult

Inthefollowingexamplesthepresentperfectexpressesaresult.

106Bothofyouhaverecordedquiteagooddealofmusic.

107ThelessontheBritishhavelearnedisnottoappeasedictatorsbecausetheycannotbeassuaged.

108Butwehavedecidedthatwewillteachthefundamentalsofethics.

109IhavefoundoutthatIgoonMonday8thJuly,somaybeI’llhaveachancetoseeyoubeforeIgo.

110TheMogulshavebuiltabridgetogettotheenemy.

Ineachcasetheresultsareidentifiable,namelyrecordingsofmusic,alearntlesson,adecision,apieceofknowledge,andabridgethathasbeenbuilt.

9.3.1.1.4Theexperientialpresentperfect

Theexperientialpresentperfectisusedtoindicatethatsomesituationobtainedonceormorethanonceduringanindefiniteperiodbeginninginthepastandleadinguptothepresent.Herearesomeexamples.

111IhavetouredtheVoronezh.

112Well,thesedamnplantshaveshotupinpricesomuchoverthelastyearortwo.

113Haveyouseenitbefore,Caroline?

114Haveyoueverseen‘MarriedwithChildren’?

Adjunctscompatiblewiththistypeofperfectconstruction(underlinedintheexamplesabove)indicatethatthesituationobtainedinaperiodleadinguptothepresent.Thusbeforein(113)canbeglossedas‘atanypointbeforenow’.

9.3.1.2Thepastperfect

Let’snowturntoanexampleofthepastperfect(sometimescalledthepluperfect).

115Sixteenyearsbefore,hehadmarriedJessie,thepretty,musical,ambitiousdaughterofaSheffieldclergyman.

Weunderstandthepastperfectconstructioninthisexampletorefertoasituationthattookplacesixteenyearsbeforeanunspecifiedreferencepointinthepast,asshownonthetimelinein(116).

Inthisexamplethepastperfectislikethepasttense,exceptthatthesituationisviewedfromareferencepointinthepast,ratherthanfromthepresent(compare:SixteenyearsagohemarriedJessie).Insuchcasesthepastperfect,unlikethepresentperfect,iscompatiblewithadefinitetimereference,as(117)and(118)additionallymakeclear.

117Evenatthebeginningofthecenturypoliticallinkshadhadtensions.

118Checkingmarriagerecords,hefoundthatEugenieLoyerhadmarried

atSt.Mary’sChurch,Lambeth,on10April1878,hertwenty-fourthbirthday.

Thefirstoftheseexamplesexpressesthatthetensionstookplacebeforethedefinitetimereference(‘thebeginningofthecentury’),whereasinthesecondexampleEugenieLoyer’smarriageprecededthespeaker’sdiscoveryofthisfact.

Considernext(119),whichinvolvesaprocesslastinguptoareferencepointinthepast.

119SouthernEnglandhadbecomeacivilisedareabythesecondcentury.

HeretheprocessofSouthernEnglandbecomingcivilizedstartedatsomepointintheindefinitepast,andleduptothesecondcentury,whichfunctionsasareferencepointinthepast,asshownonthetimelinebelow.

Thisexampleislikethecontinuativepresentperfect,exceptthatagainthesituationisviewedfromareferencepointinthepast,ratherthanfromthepresent(compare:SouthernEnglandhasbecomeacivilisedarea).In(121)thesituationisslightlydifferent.

121MargaretThatcherhadbeenbythattimeleaderofherpartyfornearlyfouryears.

HerethetimespanofMargaretThatcher’sleadershipanditsendpointareexplicitlymentioned.

Whatweseehereisthatthetimespanshownin(92)forthepresentperfecthasbeenshiftedbackwardsintimein(120)and(122),suchthatthe‘present’in(92)correspondswiththereferencepoints‘thesecondcentury’and‘thattime’inthecaseofthepastperfect.

Consideralso(123).

123WesetoffforFranceontheeveningofthe12th.Wehadbookedaheadforahotel,andstayedinCalaisthatnight.

Thepastperfectconstructioninthesecondpartof(123)isusedhererelativetothetimeof‘settingoff’inthefirstpart.

Thepastperfectcanalsobeusedtoexpressaremotecondition(section9.2.2.3)inthepast,asin(124)and(125).

124IfhehadbeenabuyerIwouldhavesenthimacontractforbuying.

125Well,ifIhadreaditI’msureitwouldhavebeenabsolutelyfascinating.

IntheseexamplesthepasttenseinflectiononHAVEisamodalpasttense(section9.2.2.3),andtheperfectconstructionindicatespastness.

Finally,incasesofindirectreportedspeech(seesection9.2.2.4),iftheverbinthe‘original’utterancewasinthepasttenseorinvolvedaperfectconstruction,apastperfectconstructionisusedintheback-shiftedversion,asthefollowingexamplesshow.

126Hethensaid:‘Ihobbledintoworkthenextday.’

127Hethensaidhehadhobbledintoworkthenextday.

128Hesaid:‘Ihavewaitednearlysixyearstofindoutwhathappenedtomyson.’

129Hesaidhehadwaitednearlysixyearstofindoutwhathadhappenedtohisson.

9.3.1.3Thenon-finiteperfectconstruction

Sofarwehaveonlylookedatcaseswheretheperfectauxiliarycarriespresentorpasttense.Inthefollowingexamplesweencounternon-tensedformsofHAVE.

130Anyway,it’snice[clausetohavemether].

131Shenevermarried,claiming[clausenevertohavebeeninlove].

132Iwouldlike[clausetohaveproposedamotiontotakeindustrialaction].

133So,[clausehavingdoneoneyearofplanning],whatmadeyoudecidetothengointotheArchitecture?

134[clauseHavinglistenedtotheForeignSecretary],doyouthinkthat’shisviewtoo?

In(130)theto-infinitiveclauseisanextraposedSubject(sections3.2.2.1.2and8.1.3.4),whereasin(131)and(132)theto-infinitiveclausesareDirectObjectsoftheverbsCLAIMandLIKE,respectively(seeSection8.1.2).In(133)and(134)the-ingparticipleclausesfunctionasAdjuncts.

Initsnon-finiteformtheperfectconstructionsignalsageneralmeaningof‘pastness’,andcancorrespondtothepasttenseortothepresentperfect.Todemonstratethis,considerfirst(135).

Todemonstratethis,considerfirst(135),whereanoccurrenceisreported.

135TheIraqisclaimtohaveshotdownfourteenaircraft.

Hereweinterprettheperfectconstructionsimplyasreferringtopasttime.Itcorrespondstothepasttense(compare:TheIraqisshotdownfourteenaircraft).Aswesawabove,thepresentperfectconstructioncannotnormallybecombinedwithadefinitetimereference(cf.(87)),butsuchAdjunctscanunproblematicallyoccurinthenon-finiteperfectconstruction,as(137)shows.

136TheIraqisclaimtohaveshotdownfourteenaircraftlastweek.

Currentrelevanceisnotpartofthemeaningencodedbythenon-finiteperfect.However,itispossibleforanAdjunctaccompanyingthisconstructiontoexpresscurrentrelevance.Compare(136)with(137)and(138).Herewearedealingwithsituationsinaperiodleadinguptothepresent.

137TheIraqisclaimtohaveshotdownfourteenaircraftsincethewarbegan.

138MrBell,unmarried,issaidtohavelivedalonesincethedeathofhismotherayearago.

Noticethatin(139)thematrixverbisinthepasttense.InthiscasetheshootingdownoftheaircraftshouldbeunderstoodtohavetakenplacebeforetheIraqismadetheirclaim.

139TheIraqisclaimedtohaveshotdownfourteenaircraft.

Theshootingdownoftheaircraftcaneventakeplaceinthefuture,asin(140).

140TheIraqisaimtohaveshotdownfourteenaircraftbythetimethewarisover.

Youcanaimtodosomethingonlyinthefuture,andweunderstand(140)tomeanthatthedowningoftheplaneswillhavehappenedinthepastrelativetoafuturepointintime(‘whenthewarisover’).Thisisanexampleofthesemanticnotionofapastinthefuture.Furtherexamplesareshownbelow,involvingWILLandMUST.Ineachcaseanexplicitreferencetofuturetimeisadded(underlined).

141However,about75percentofthoseaffectedwillhavestoppedhavingattacksbythetimetheyaretwenty.

142Studentsmusthavesubmittedessaysbynextweek.

In(141)thepastisviewedfrom‘thetimetheyaretwenty’,whereasin(142)thereferencepointinthefutureis‘nextweek’.

9.3.2Progressiveaspect

Theprogressiveconstruction,brieflydiscussedinsections2.2.1.2and3.6.3.3,isusedinEnglishtopresentadynamicsituation,whichisnotnecessarilycomplete,asbeinginprogressoveralimitedperiod.IthasbeenpartofthelanguagesinceOldEnglishtimes,butstartedtobeusedmuchmorefrequentlyinthe19thcentury,atrendthatiscontinuingtothisday.Wedistinguishthepresentprogressiveconstructionfromthepastprogressiveandnon-finiteprogressiveconstructions(seesection3.6.3.3).Theywillbediscussedinturninsections9.3.2.1–9.3.2.3.Otherusesoftheprogressivewillbediscussedinsection9.3.2.4.

9.3.2.1Thepresentprogressive

Thepresentprogressiveisusedtodenotesituations,typicallyactivities,thatunfoldfromsomepointinthepastintothefuture,asintheexamplesthatfollow.Wegenerallyinterpretthesituationbeingdescribedashavingarestrictedduration.

143AndhewillnowpresenthertothosewhoarewaitinginsidetheWestDoorofthisgreatoldchurch.

144I’mrambling.

145Sheiswearingalimegreensuit,carryingadarkbluehandbag,whitegloves,andapalehat.

Wecanrepresentthepresentprogressiveasfollowsonatimeline.

Herethepresentmoment(indicatedby‘||’)functionsasareferencepointforthesituation.Thereisnoindicationin(143)–(145)whenthesituationsreferredtostartedinthepast,andnoendpointisbeingpresentedeither.

Noticethatthesituationreferredtousingtheprogressiveconstructionneednotbetakingplaceattheexactmomentofspeaking,butcantakeplaceinamorebroadlyconceived‘presenttime’.Thesituationsinthenexttwoexamplesclearlytakeagooddealoftime,andwillbeinterruptedbybreaks,eating,sleeping,andsoon.

147Ineverreadtheclassicsoranythinglikethat,andnowI’mreadingthem.

148AndattheCollegeofSpeechSciencesI’mputtingthingsinalphabeticalorderforthem.

Typically,theprogressiveisusedtodenotetemporarysituations,buttheexamplebelowmakesclearthatthesituationdoesnothavetobetransient.

149I’mgettingold.

Heretheprocessofgettingoldstretchesintothe(distant)future.

Theprogressiveconstructionisgenerallynotusedwithverbsthatexpressastate,suchasBELONG,CONTAIN,REMAIN,orso-calledpsychologicalverbssuchasBELIEVE,KNOW,UNDERSTAND,WANT,andthisisbecauseinsuchcasesthereisasemanticclashbetweenthemeaningoftheprogressiveconstruction(‘unfoldingsituation’)andthemeaningoftheverb.Forthisreasonthefollowingexamplesareodd,thoughnottothesameextentfordifferentpeople.

150?*Iamunderstandingwhatyousay.

151?*IambelievinginGod.

152?*Thiscatisbelongingtome.

Exceptionstothisgeneralizationwillbediscussedinsection9.3.2.4.1.

9.3.2.2Thepastprogressive

Inthepastprogressiveconstructionasituationispresentedasunfoldingoveraperiodoftimeinthepast.Here’sanexample.

153Warholwasdesigningshoes.

Thiscanberepresentedasfollows.

Often,asin(153),thereisnoindicationastoexactlywheninthepastasituationunfolded,althoughitmaybeimpliedinthecontext.Itispossible,however,tospecifyareferencepoint.In(155)and(156)theunderlinedAdjunctsprovidethereferencepoint,whereasin(157)thereferencepointisanactivityinthematrixclause.

155IwaslivingwithSarahatthetimeyoucametoLondon,butwesplitupatthebeginningofDecember.

156Shewasspoolingtheprogrammeontothetapemachinewhenthephonerang.

157WhenwewerewalkingoverthebridgeMaryJanestoppedtotakeashotofawomanontheothersideoftheroadwhowasdraggingachildalongbythehand.

Wecanrepresentthesetemporalsituationsasfollowsonatimeline.

Itisalsopossibleto‘frame’theprogressivesituationbyusinganAdjunctthatspecifiestheperiodwithinwhichitiscontained.

159WeweretravellinginJanuary.

160Shewasaskedbythejuniorflyingcorpstocometothecelebrationstheywereholdingthatnight.

(159)and(160)canberepresentedasonthetimelinebelow.Notethatthesituationsexpressedin(159)and(160)donotnecessarilyextendfromthemarkedstartpointuptotheendpoint.

9.3.2.3Non-finiteprogressiveconstructions

WhenprogressiveBEdoesnotcarrytensewespeakofanon-finiteprogressive,asin(162)and(163)below.

162Itjustdidn’tlookgoodtobelivingitupattaxpayers’expense.

163Thetotalshavebeengrowingrapidlyweekinweekoutformorethanadecade.

9.3.2.4Furtherusesoftheprogressive

InthefollowingsectionsIwilldiscusssomeadditionalusesoftheprogressive,otherthantheprogressiveofongoingsituations.

9.3.2.4.1Theprogressivewithstateverbs

Insection9.3.2.1wesawthattheprogressivetypicallydoesnotcombinewithstateverbs.Thereare,however,exceptionstothisgeneralization,andtheseoccurwhenwewishtoindicatethatastateverbisinterpretedinaparticularway,usuallydynamically,andwithanimplicationoftemporariness,asinthefollowingexamples.

164MaybeIambeingfussy,butIdon’twanttospendmylifeasasecretary.

165Itsoundsthatyou’rewantingtotakecareofyourselfphysicallyaswell.

166IhavetosayI’mmissingallmyfriends.

167TheonlythingIamlackingisawardrobe.

168I’mreallyhopingtoclearsomespaceinmylifeverysoontobeabletodoallthat.

In(164)thespeakerissayingthattheyareknowinglyactinginafussymanner.ThesameexamplewithouttheprogressiveindicatesapropertyascribedtothereferentoftheSubject.Thus,Iamfussymeansthatfussinessispartofmypersonality.In(165)theimplicationisthattheaddresseeactivelywantstotakecareofhimself,whileinexamples(166)–(168)thereisasenseofacuteness:in(166)thespeakermissestheirfriendskeenly,rightnow,whilein(167)nothavingawardrobeisstronglyfelttobeaproblematthemomentofspeaking.InthelastexampleprogressiveHOPEexpressesawilful,determineddesire‘toclearsomespace’.Thisisreinforcedbytheadverbreally.

9.3.2.4.2Theinterpretiveprogressive

Sometimestheprogressiveconstructionisusedtoindicatethatasituationisinterpretedinacertainway.Thisiscalledtheinterpretiveprogressive.(169)isanexample.

169Oh,you’rekidding.

Herethespeakerissaying‘I’minterpretingwhatyouhavejustsaidasajoke’.Theinterpretivereadingisnotavailablein(170),wherethespeakeristellingyouwhattheyaredoing,notinterpretingtheirownwords.

170I’monlykidding.

However,compare(170)with(171),wherethespeakerisofferinganinterpretationoftheirownwords.

171WhenIsaidyouwereahopelesscase,Iwasonlykidding.

Theinterpretiveprogressivealsooccursinexampleslikethefollowing.

172IfNicksayshe’llrepairtheroof,he’sdeceivingyou.

173WhenJohnclaimedhereceivedahugebonus,hewasexaggerating.

Inthesecasesthematrixclausesthatcontaintheprogressiveconstruction

offeraninterpretation,explanation,orconclusionaboutwhateverisexpressedinthesubordinateclauses.

9.3.2.4.3Theprogressiveofirritation

Theprogressiveconstructioncanbeusedtosignalirritation,asinthefollowingexample.

174She’salwayspokingherdamnnosein,isn’tshe?

Thesenseofirritationcomesaboutthroughacombinationofthediscoursecontext,theverbalmeaning,wordsexpressingnegativeemotiveforcelikedamn,andthepresenceofAdjunctslikealways,forever,continually.

9.3.2.4.4Theprogressivefuturate

Whenthepresentprogressiveisusedtotalkaboutfuturetimewecallitthepresentprogressivefuturate.Itisexemplifiedin(175)and(176).

175Weareleavingthedepartmentatteno’clock.

176TomorrowI’mmeetingSarahDuncanforlunch.

Theuseoftheprogressiveintheseexamplesindicatesthatanot-so-far-offfuturesituationisthoughtofasanarrangementorplanonthepartofahumanagent.Itoftenoccurswithverbsofmotion(COME,GO,LEAVE,etc.).Itisimportanttobeawareofthefactthatthisuseoftheprogressiveisnotaspectual,thatis,thesituationisnotregardedasunfoldingovertime.

Thepastprogressivefuturatein(177)expressesanarrangementinthepastofafuturesituation,seenfromapointintimeinthepast.

177IwasgoingSundaynightyousee,butI’mnotanymore.

Theactivityinquestionmayormaynotbeactualized.Inthisparticularexampleitwillnotbe:thespeakerexplicitlysayshewillnotleaveonSunday.Thepastprogressivefuturateismorecommonthanthepastfuturate,discussedinsection9.2.2.5.

9.3.3Perfectandprogressivecombinations

Insection8.6wediscussedthesyntaxofcombinationsofauxiliaryverbs.Thepossiblestructuresexemplifiedthereincludeelevenwithcombinationsoftwoormoreauxiliaryverbs.Ofthose,teninvolveaperfectand/orprogressiveauxiliaryverb.Examplesofthesecombinationsarerepeatedbelow.InmanybooksonEnglishgrammareachcombinationisregardedasaseparatetense.Forexample,thecombinationin(178)isoftencalledthemodalperfecttense,andthecombinationin(179)themodalperfectprogressivetense.Forreasonsthatwereexplainedinsection9.2,wedonotadoptthisterminology.Insteadwewillspeakof‘constructions’,suchthatwehaveamodalperfectconstructionin(178),amodalperfectprogressiveconstructionin(179),andsoon.

178Theagentswillhavebookedthetickets.[modal+perfectHAVE+lexicalverb]

179Theagentswillhavebeenbookingthetickets.[modal+perfectHAVE+progressiveBE+lexicalverb]

180Theticketswillhavebeenbeingbookedbytheagents.[modal+perfectHAVE+progressiveBE+passiveBE+lexicalverb]

181Theagentswillbebookingthetickets.[modal+progressiveBE+lexicalverb]

182Theagentshavebeenbookingthetickets.[perfectHAVE+progressiveBE+lexicalverb]

183Theticketswillbebeingbookedbytheagents.[modal+progressiveBE+passiveBE+lexicalverb]

184Theticketswillhavebeenbookedbytheagents.[modal+perfectHAVE+passiveBE+lexicalverb]

185Theticketswerebeingbookedbytheagents.[progressiveBE+passiveBE+lexicalverb]

186Theticketshavebeenbookedbytheagents.[perfectHAVE+passiveBE+lexicalverb]

187Theticketshavebeenbeingbookedbytheagents.[perfectHAVE+

progressiveBE+passiveBE+lexicalverb]

Someofthesecombinationsarehighlyunusual.Aconstructionlike(180)hardlyoccurs,nodoubtbecauselanguageusersarenotlikelytofrequentlyfindthemselvesinsituationsinwhichtheywanttoexpressacombinationofmodal,perfect,progressive,andpassivemeaningsatthesametime.

Theinterpretationsoftheexamplesaboveareshownbelow.

188‘Itisprobablethattheagentsbookedthetickets.’=(178)

189‘Itisprobablethattheagentswereintheprocessofbookingthetickets.’=(179)

190‘Itisprobablethattheticketswereintheprocessofbeingbookedbytheagents.’=(180)

191‘Itisprobablethattheagentsareintheprocessofbookingthetickets.’=(181)

192‘Inaperioduptothepresentmomenttheagentswereintheprocessofbookingthetickets.’=(182)

193‘Inthefuturetheticketswillbeintheprocessofbeingbookedbytheagents.’=(183)

194‘Beforesomepointinthefuturethebookingoftheticketsbytheagentswillbecompleted.’=(184)

195‘Atsomepointinthepasttheticketswereintheprocessofbeingbooked.’=(185)

196‘Inaperioduptothepresentmomenttheticketswerebookedbytheagents.’=(186)

197‘Inaperioduptothepresentmomenttheticketswereintheprocessofbeingbookedbytheagents.’=(187)

Inmanycasestheseconstructionscombinethemeaningsoftheirindividualcomponents.Forexample,in(181)themodalverbintroducesasemantic

elementof‘intention’(seesection10.3.4.2),whereastheprogressiveconstructioncontributesanelementof‘ongoingness’.Similarly,in(182)thecurrentrelevancemeaningofthepresenttenseperfectauxiliaryiscombinedwithaprogressiveelementofmeaning.

9.3.4Aspectandlexicalmeaning

Apartfromintheperfectandprogressiveconstructions,aspectualitycanalsobeexpressedbytheinherentmeaningofverbs,orbyaverbincombinationwithadependent.

9.3.4.1Situationaspect

Verbsandtheirdependentscanexpressvarioustypesofsituations.Werefertothisphenomenonassituationaspect.(ThetermslexicalaspectandAktionsartarealsofrequentlyused.)Asituationiswhataclauseisabout,aswehaveseen,andcanbeastateoroccurrence.Statesdenotesituationsthatsimplyexist.Theyareunbounded,thatis,theydonothaveabeginningandanend,andareinternallyundifferentiated(e.g.Thecarpetisold;Unicornsexist).Bycontrast,occurrencesaredynamicsituationswhichcomeabout.Theycanbesubdividedintoachievements,whicharepunctual(e.g.Ispottedafoxinthegarden;Sheblinked),andprocesses,whichhaveaduration.Amongtheprocesseswefurtherdistinguishbetweenactivities,whichhavenobuilt-inendpoint(e.g.Theyarewatchingfootball),andaccomplishments,whichdohaveabuilt-inendpoint(e.g.Heiswritingatextmessage).

9.3.4.2Aspectuallexicalverbs

AsmallsetofverbsinEnglishcarriesmeaningsthatcanbesaidtobeaspectualbecausetogetherwiththeirComplementstheyfocusontheunfoldingofsituationsintime.Examplesofsuchaspectuallexicalverbs(alsocalledaspectualizers)areBEGIN,CEASE,CONTINUE,DISCONTINUE,FINISH,KEEP,PROCEED,QUIT,START,andSTOP.Someexamplesfollow.

198FlowerscontinuedtoarriveatDowningStreetthismorning.

199Can’tyouwaituntileverybody’sfinishedhavingtheirlunch?

Theaspectualityoftheseverb–ComplementsequencescomesaboutasaresultoftheinherentlyexpressedaspectualmeaningsoftheverbsincombinationwiththemeaningsexpressedbytheComplements,ratherthansituationally,asdiscussedintheprevioussection,orasaresultofacombinationofanauxiliaryverb(HAVE/BE)andalexicalverb,asdescribedinsections9.3.1and9.3.2.

9.3.4.3USED[to]

ThecombinationofthepasttenseformoftheverbUSEwithato-infinitiveclause(indicatedby‘[to]’)expressesahabitualsituationinthepast,andassuchisaspectual.Thefactthatthisverbtakesato-infinitiveclauseasComplementmakesitlikealexicalverb.

200StevenWinyardusedtobeacroupierinNassau.

201Yeah,weusedtobuyMumavaseeveryyearforherbirthday.

IninterrogativestructuresUSED[to]normallytakesDO-support(section3.6.3.5),whichisalsoapropertyoflexicalverbs.Someexamplesareshownbelow.

202Didn’tJohnusedtodealwithdivorceinhisearlierdays?

203Didn’tthereusedtobedeerinRichmondPark?

USED[to]cannotoccurincombinationwithcoremodalauxiliaries,andhasnopresenttenseforms(*usesto/*useto)orparticipleforms.Morphologicallyitisapasttenseform.ForsomespeakersinversionwithoutDO-supportandnegativecontractionarepossible,asin(204)and(205).Thesearecharacteristicsofauxiliaryverbs,andforthisreasonsomegrammarsclassifyUSED[to]asamarginalauxiliaryverb.Itshouldbenoted,however,thatstructuressuchastheseareveryrare.

204Usedtheytowalkhomeatnight?

205Thereusedn’ttobeanythingthereinmyyoungdays,I’msure.

ItisimportanttodistinguishUSED[to]fromtheverbUSEintheexamplebelow.

206Themotionoftheplatformisusedtobuildupacontinuousimagebycarefulsynchronizationofsubsequentpulseswithplatformvelocity.

TheanalysisofthisexampleinvolvesthelexicalverbUSEfollowedbyato-infinitiveclausefunctioningasanAdjunctexpressingapurpose.Whenuttereditispronouncedwitha[z],andthereisaveryshortpauseafterit.Wecanreorder(206)asin(207),inwhichtheto-infinitiveclausehasbeenfrontedfromthepositionindicatedby‘_’.

Chapter10MoodInthepreviouschapterwediscussedthegrammaticalnotionsoftenseandaspect,andtheassociatedsemanticnotionsoftimeandaspectuality.Inthischapterwelookatmood.

10.1Moodandmodality

Theterm‘mood’referstothewayinwhichthegrammarofalanguageencodesmodality,aconceptwhichisconcernedwithsuchsemanticnotionsas‘possibility’,‘probability’,‘necessity’,‘obligation’,‘permission’,‘intention’,and‘ability’.Thesearecalledmodalmeanings.Whatunitestheseseeminglyunconnectednotionsisthattheyareallusedtotalkaboutsituationsthatarenotfactualornotactualized.Asanexample,ifwetalkaboutasituationasbeing‘possible’,itisnotknowntobethecaseatthemomentofspeaking,butitcouldcomeabout.Similarly,ifIamobligedtodosomething,thenIamcompelledtobringitabout(toactualizeit).Forexample,(1)below,whichcontainsthemodalverbMAY(section3.6.3.2),canbeparaphrasedas‘itispossiblethatsheisthin-skinned’,andthesecondclausein(2),withthemodalverbMUST,canbeparaphrasedas‘heisobligedtoactnow’.

1Shemaybethin-skinned.

2Thereisacrisis,andhemustactnow.

Aclausethatcontainsamodalexpressionissaidtobemodalized.InOldEnglish(spokenbetweenapproximatelyAD450and1100)modalmeaningcouldbeconveyedthroughinflectionalendingsonverbs(the‘subjunctivemood’).Inpresent-dayEnglishitdoesnotmakesensetospeakofasubjunctivemood,aswesawinsection2.2.1.3.How,then,aremodalmeaningsexpressedinthelanguageasitisspokentoday?ItisusefultothinkofEnglishasdisplayingasystemofanalyticmood,thatis,agrammaticalsystemofmoodinwhichthemeaningstypicallyexpressedbyinflectionalendingsonverbsinolderformsofEnglisharecarriedbya

construction,suchasthecombinationofamodalverbfollowedbyalexicalverb,oraclausetype.

IntheremainderofthischapterIwilldiscussthreetypesofmodality(section10.2),andthevariouswaysinwhichmodalityinEnglishcanbeexpressed(section10.3).

10.2ThreetypesofmodalityinEnglish

WedistinguishbetweenthreetypesofmodalityinEnglish:deonticmodality,epistemicmodality,anddynamicmodality.

Deonticmodalityisconcernedwithgettingpeopletodothingsor(not)allowingthemtodothings,thatis,withsuchnotionsas‘obligation’and‘permission’,asintheexamplesbelow.

3Well,youmustbeslightlymoresuccinctthen.

4Youmayvoluntarilygiveupyourrighttoreducedliability.

Epistemicmodalityisconcernedwith‘knowledge’and/or‘inference’.Herearetwoexamplesthatmakethisclear.

5‘Hemustbeheresomewhere,’Annesaid.

6Youmaybeleftoutofitbecauseyouareafreelancer.

Inbothcasesthespeakerhassomeevidencefortheconclusiontheyaredrawing.Inthefirstexample,Annehassomeknowledgewhichallowshertomakeaninferenceaboutthewhereaboutsofthepersonsheistalkingabout,whilein(6)theconclusionthatitispossiblethattheaddresseewillbeleftoutisbasedontheknowledgethattheyareafreelancer.

Inthecaseofdeonticandepistemicmodalitythe‘source’oftheobligation,permission,orknowledgeistypicallythespeaker.Forexample,in(3)itisthespeakerwhoisimposinganobligationontheaddressee,andin(5)and(6)thepersondrawingtheconclusionisalsothespeaker.

Deonticandepistemicmodalityarecloselyrelated.Forexample,ifIdrawa

certainconclusiononthebasisofmyknowledgeoftheworld,thenIamobligedtodrawthatconclusion,sometimesevenlogicallyobliged(e.g.JohnkilledtheflyentailsTheflymustbedead).Ithasbeensuggestedthathistorically,epistemicmodalitydevelopedfromdeonticmodality,andthisexplainswhythesamemodalscanbeusedtoexpressbothtypesofmodality(e.g.MUSTcanexpress‘obligation’and‘(logical)conclusion’).

Dynamicmodalitytypicallyconcerns‘ability’and‘volition’,andthesesemanticnotionsrelatetotheSubjectoftheclausethatcontainsthemodalverb,ratherthantothespeaker.Thusin(7),theindividualsreferredtoaswehavethe‘ability’tospeaktheirnativelanguage,whilein(8)WILLsignals‘volition’onthepartofthereferentoftheSubjectoftheclause,namelyyou.Wecangiveanapproximateparaphraseof(8)as‘Ifyouarewillingtogodownstairs,…’.

7Intwoorthreeyearsoflearningthatlanguagewe’renevergoingtobeabletospeakittothesamestandardwecanspeakournativetongue.

8Soifyouwillgodownstairs,andthenyoucouldlookthroughthesetwopostgraduateguides.

Dynamicmodalityalsocoversneutralcircumstantialmeaningsrelatingto‘possibility’and‘necessity’,asexpressedforexamplebyCAN(e.g.Youcanbuynewspapershere)andMUST(e.g.Theenvelopemustbesealedbeforebeingposted).Herethesourceofthemodalityisthewaytheworldisorganized,thatis,circumstances.

10.3TheexpressionofmodalityinEnglish

ModalityisexpressedinanumberofwaysinEnglish,aswewillseeinthesectionsthatfollow.

10.3.1Themodalpasttense

Themodalpasttensewasdiscussedinsection9.2.2.3.Herearesomefurtherexamples.

9Iforganisationsoperatedaccordingtoclassicalfree-markettheory,there

wouldbenoorganisationalproblem.

10IfIhadarecordingofthemwouldIbeabletounderstandit?

Ineachcasethepasttensesignalsthatthesituationexpressedintheconditionalclauseisnotlikelytohappenortobethecase:itisanimprobable,doubtfulpossibility.Alternatively,thesituationexpressedbytheconditionalclauseisknownnottobethecase.

10.3.2Subjunctiveclauses

Inmanylanguagesmodalityisexpressedthroughverbalinflections.ComparethefollowingexamplesfromSpanish.

11Juansiempretraeunregalo.Juanalwaysbring-3RD-PS-SG-PRES-INDapresent‘Juanalwaysbringsapresent’

12EsperoqueJuantraigaunregalo.hope-1ST-PS-SG-PRES-INDthatJuanbring-3RD-PS-SG-SUBJVEapresent‘IhopethatJuanbringsapresent’

PS=person;SG=singular;PRES=present;IND=indicative;SUBJVE=subjunctive

InthefirstexampleJuan’salwaysbringingapresentispresentedasafact.Thestatementisthereforeunmodalized.Inthesecondexample,however,thespeakerisexpressingthehopethatJuanwillbringapresent,andisforthatreasontalkingaboutaparticulartypeofmodalsituation,namelya‘hoped-forsituation’.Thistimewehaveapresentsubjunctiveverbform(traiga),whichisquitedifferentfromtheregularindicativepresenttenseform(trae).Aswesawearlier,OldEnglishalsohadsubjunctiveverbforms,buttheverbalparadigmsofEnglishchangedovertime,suchthatModernEnglishdoesnothaveasubjunctivemoodtospeakof.Itthereforemakeslittlesensetospeakofthe‘presentsubjunctive’formsofEnglishverbs,simplybecausetheycannotbedistinguishedfromtheplainforms,asin(13),wheretheverbURGEtriggersthepresenceoftheplainformofthepassiveauxiliaryBE.InAmericanEnglishthisisthedefaultoption.However,as(14)shows,aplainformisnotalwaysused:herewehaveare

,apresenttenseverbform,ratherthanbe.ThisconstructionisbarelyusedinAmericanEnglish,butquitecommoninBritishEnglish.Recallfromsection2.2.1.3thatwerefertothebracketedclausein(13)asasubjunctiveclausewhichexpressesmodalmeaning.Morespecifically,wewillrefertoitasamandativesubjunctiveclausewhichexpressesadirectivemeaning.

13Iurgedinmypreviousletter[thattheseresearchstaffbetreatedastheirpresentcolleagues].

14Somewaterboardsinsist[thatallcoldwatertapsinthehousearetakenfromtherisingmain].

Insection10.3.5.2.3Iwilldiscussaspecialtypeofmandativeclausewhichinvolvesthemodalverbshould.

Englishalsodoesnothavepastsubjunctiveverbforms,aswesawinsection2.2.1.3.TheonlyexceptionistheverbBEwhichhasthepastsubjunctiveformwereforthefirstandthirdpersonsingular,asin(15)and(16).ThisistheonlytrueremnantofasubjunctiveverbforminEnglish.

15IfIwereyou,I’dapplyfortheYorkpositionjustfortheexperience.

16AskedwhetherhewouldaccepttheEvertonjobifhewereofferedit,hereplied:“Inevercommentonhypotheticalsituations.”

Thesimplepasttenseformwaswouldbeusedbymanyspeakersintheseexamples.Inthisconnectionconsidertheexamplein(17).HerethespeakeruseswereaftertheSubjectheinthefirstif-clause,butwasaftertheSubjectIinthesecondone.

17Iwouldn’tbesurprisedifhewerefoundhangingontheendofthatphoneveryshortly,soI’ddialquicklyifIwasyou.

Giventhattheyexpressconditions,thatis,hypotheticalpossibilities,if-clausestypicallycreatemodal,non-factualcontexts.Conditionalmeaningcanalsobesignalledbyinversion,asin(18).

18WerethisaYoshizawabook,thedesignswouldbeyetmorebeautiful,butwesternwritersarenotusuallypermittedtopublishtheverybestofhiswork.

Otherexpressionsthatcreatemodalcontextsincludeasifandasthough.

19Well,IsupposeifIlivedeachyearasifitweremylastIcouldenjoymyself,couldn’tI?

20It’sasthoughtherewereagardenroundhimwithcoolnessandroses.

Inthefollowingexample,theexpressionasitwereisfossilized.

21Inoneleap,asitwere,theunravellingofthatfrustratingknotmadethelawapproachableforthem.

Inthenextsectionweturntoadiscussionofthecoremodalverbs.

10.3.3Thecoremodalverbs

Aswehaveseen,thecoremodalverbsinEnglishareWILL/would,CAN/could,MAY/might,SHALL/should,andMUST.Recallfromsection9.2.3thattheformswould,could,might,andshouldareshowninitalicsbecausetheycanhavespecializedusesinwhichtheydonotbehaveaspasttenseformsofWILL,CAN,MAY,andSHALL.

Asonemightexpect,thedifferentmodalsdonotoccurinequalmeasure.Table10.1showsthefrequenciesofthemodalauxiliariesintheICE-GBcorpuspermillionwords,differentiatedbymedium.

Table10.1:FrequenciesoftheEnglishcoremodalauxiliariespermillionwordsintheICE-GBcorpus

ThetableshowssomestrikingdifferencesintheuseofthemodalsinEnglish.Willandcanandtheirpasttensecounterpartswouldandcouldfaroutnumbertheothermodals.Asmightbeexpected,shallisveryinfrequent.Recentresearchhasshownthatitisdeclininginuse,possiblybecauseitisperceivedtoberatherformal.MUSTisalsonotverycommon,andagainresearchhasshownthatitsuseisdeclining.Perhapsthisisbecauseitisperceivedasbeingauthoritarian.

ThemodalverbsaresyntacticallycharacterizedbytheNICEpropertieswhichtheysharewiththelargersetofauxiliaries(seesection3.6.3.1),buttheyalsohaveafewpropertiesthatonlypertaintothem.

First,modalverbsarealwaysfollowedbyabareinfinitiveverbform,whichcanbealexicalverb,asin(1)and(2)above,oranotherauxiliaryverb,asin(22)–(24),repeatedfromsection8.6.

22Theagents[modalauxiliaryverbwill][progressiveauxiliaryverbbe][lexicalverbbooking]thetickets.

23Thetickets[modalauxiliaryverbwill][passiveauxiliaryverbbe][lexicalverbbooked]bytheagents.

24Thetickets[modalauxiliaryverbwill][perfectauxiliaryverbhave][passiveauxiliaryverbbeen][lexicalverbbooked]bytheagents.

Secondly,modalauxiliariesarealwaystensed.Therearethereforenomodalparticiplesormodalinfinitives(*hasmayed,*aremusting,*toshall).Ifthereisamodalverbinaclause,itmustalwaysbeplacedbeforeanyotherverb.

Finally,modalverbsaresaidtobedefective:althoughtheyhavepasttenseforms(withtheexceptionofMUST),andnegatedforms,theydonottakeathirdpersonsingularpresenttense-sending.

25*Hecansdoit.

26*Shewillsattendtheconference.

AnoverviewofthepropertiesofthemodalverbsisgiveninTable10.2.

Modalverbs…

•canhave‘unpredictable’meaningswhentheyoccurintheirpasttenseforms;

•conformtotheNICEproperties;

•arealwaysfollowedbyabareinfinitiveverbform;

•donothavenon-tensedforms(*mayed,*musting,etc.);

•haveinvariantpresenttenseforms,i.e.donothavethirdpersonsingularpresenttenseendings(*hemays,*shemusts,etc.).

Table10.2:Themorphosyntacticpropertiesofthemodalverbs

InthefollowingsectionsIwilldiscussthemeaningsofthecoremodalverbsinturn.Aswewillsee,eachmodalhasmorethanonemeaning.Itisimportanttobeawareofthefactthatveryoftenitisnotclearinaparticularclausewhichmeaningamodalverbexpresses,andveryoftenmeaningsoverlap.Wewillalsosee(insection10.3.13.1)thatcontextualordiscoursefactorsfrequentlyaffecttheinterpretationofmodalverbs.

10.3.4WILL/would

InthesectionsbelowIwilloutlinetheusesofWILLandwould.

10.3.4.1Epistemicmodality:futurityandevidence-basedpredictionsorconclusions

ThemostcommonuseofWILLfollowedbyaninfinitiveverbformistorefertofuturetime.Oftenthisverbexpressestheepistemicmeaningof‘prediction’,basedoncircumstantialknowledge.Herearesomeexamples.

27IsuggestyouwaittillSeptemberwhenitwillbemuch,muchcooler.

28Windswillreachgaleforce.

29Thistreatmentwillmakeyoualotmorecomfortable.

Thesituationsreferredtointheseexamplesmayormaynotcomeabout.

ThemodalWILLcaninadditionexpressevidence-basedpredictionsorconclusions,alsoatypicalepistemicuse,asin(30)and(31).NoticethatthisuseofWILLmayconcernpresenttime,asin(30),orpasttime,asin(31),whereWILLisfollowedbytheperfectauxiliaryHAVE.

30Momentslater,thedoorbellrings.“That’llbethegirls!”shoutsPaloma,assheskipsoffdownthehallwaybeforereturningwithClaire,asmartlydressedbrunette,andBianca,anelfinfigurewithlongauburnhair.

31YouwillhavegatheredfromtheabovethatI,forone,donotintendtore-apply.

Theprecedingexamplesinvolveaconclusionwhichthespeakerbasesonpreviousknowledgeand/orexperience.Insomecasespredictionsarebasedonthespeaker’sknowledgeofanexistingscheduleorastatutorycourseofevents,asin(32)–(34).

32PracticallyallthechildrenthatIcoachwillbeoffthatweek.

33Andinafewmomentswewillhearthetrumpeteronhisgreyhorsesoundthecommandtotrot.

34Ifapproved,theproposedCouncildecisionwillauthoriseCommunitymembershipoftheEBRD.

Considernext(35),whichisslightlydifferent,becauseitinvolvesaconditionalclause.

35Ifyouhavetwoidenticaltwinsandoneofthemisschizophrenicthereisafiftypercentchancethattheotherwillbeschizophrenic.

Inthisexamplethespeakerdrawsaconclusiononthebasisofmedicalknowledge.Themodalverbexpressesameaningthatmightbeparaphrasedas‘scientificprediction’.Importantly,itdoesnotrefertofuturetimehere.

Finally,in(36)theverbwouldexpressesapastfuturate(section9.2.2.5):

thefutureisviewedfromapointofviewintimefifteenyearsbeforetheBerlinwallfell.

36FifteenyearslaterhewouldplayBachinthanksgivingagain–amidtherubbleofthenewlydemolishedBerlinWall.

10.3.4.2Dynamicmodality:volition

WILLcancarrythedynamicmodalmeaningof‘volition’,thoughpureexamplesofthisarehardtofind.Anexamplewasgivenin(8)above,andanotherexampleisgivenin(37).

37Ifyousellyourvehiclethroughamotorauction,pleaseaskwhethertheauctioneerwillcompletethenotificationofsaleonyourbehalf.Iftheywillnot,youshouldtellDVLAinwritingthatyouhavetransferredthevehicletotheauctionfirm.

Inthenexttwoexamplesthepasttenseformwouldexpressesvolition.

38IwouldnotliveanywhereelseinEngland.

39Shewouldn’tgotosleep,shewouldn’teat,shewouldn’tdoanything.

Volitionalmeaningisparticularlyclearwhenthemodalverbisstressed,asinIwillgotoNewYork,evenifyoudon’tapprove.

AnothermeaningsignalledbyWILLis‘intention’,whichisaweakerkindofvolition,asintheexamplesthatfollow.

40Well,wewillhavedipsandcrispsandthingslikethat.

41ThestatementalsosaidthathewouldbesendingapersonalenvoytoBaghdadforameetingwiththeIraqileader.

10.3.4.3Dynamicmodality:predisposition

InsomecasesWILLexpressesapredispositiononthepartofthereferentoftheSubject.

42AnewbookbyMsHolland,WeDon’tPlaywithGunsHere,urges

early-yearscentrestoreconsiderthebanon“war,weapon,andsuperheroplay”,arguingthatboyswillbeboys.

43Asolventisasubstance,usuallyliquid,thatwilldissolveanothersubstance.

After(42)wemightadd‘that’swhattheyarelike’,andafter(43)‘thatisitsnature’.

10.3.4.4Deonticmodality:obligation

In(44)belowthespeakerisdirectingtheaddresseetodosomething,sothatthemodalverbinthisexample(whichhasstressonit)clearlyexpressesdeonticmeaning.

44YouwilldoasItellyou.

TheusesofWILLandwouldaresummarizedinTable10.3.

TheusesofWILL/would

epistemicmodality:futurityandevidence-basedpredictions/conclusions

dynamicmodality:volition

dynamicmodality:predisposition

deonticmodality:obligation

Table10.3:TheusesofWILL/would

10.3.4.5WILL+infinitiveisnotafuturetense

InsomegrammarstheWILL+infinitivecombinationisregardedasafuturetense.Wedonottakethisviewhere.ThereasonisthatWILLalmostneverreferspurelytofuturetime,typicallycontributingamodaldimensionofmeaning.Itthereforesemanticallybelongswiththemodalverbs.Syntactically,too,itbelongswiththemodals(seesection10.3.3foranoverviewofthesyntacticpropertiesofthemodals).

10.3.4.6WILL/SHALL+progressive

Considertheexamplebelow.

45Andyou’llstartbyridingaroundasmallcircuitundercloseobservationfromyourinstructorwhowillbemonitoringyourprogress,asyoulearntocontrolyourbike.

InthisexamplethemodalauxiliaryWILLcombineswiththeprogressiveauxiliaryBEandthelexicalverbMONITOR.(WithfirstpersonSubjectsSHALLisalsopossible.)Aswesawinsection9.3.2,theprogressiveconstructionexpressesthatadynamicsituationisinprogressoveracertainperiodoftime.In(45)theongoingmonitoring‘frames’theprocessoflearningtorideabike.

Considernow(46)–(48)whichalsocontainWILL+progressiveBE+alexicalverb,butlackthesemanticelementof‘unfolding’overtime.

46Myrighthonourablefriendwillbemakingthatclearinhisownstatement.

47FollowingafatalaccidenttheinspectorwillbemakingareporttotheCoroner.

48IregrettonowinformyouthatwewillbeterminatingallourcontractswithyouasofMonday22ndofJuly1991.

Intheseexampleswehaveacombinationofthearrangementmeaningoftheprogressivefuturate,discussedinsection9.3.2.4.4,andthefuturemeaningofWILL.Thisspecialmeaninghasbeenglossedas‘futureasamatterofcourse’.Whatthismeansisthatthefutureeventsreferredtoareinsomewayexpectedtotakeplace,givenwhatthespeakersknowaboutthepresentcircumstances.Thusin(46)thespeaker,aMemberofParliament,knowsthathiscolleagueisduetomakeaclarificatorystatementofhisowninthepre-scheduledparliamentaryproceedings,while(47)carriestheimplicationthat‘afatalaccidentnormallyentailsaninspector’sreport’.In(48),fromaletter,thewordnowissignificant.Theletterinquestionisbeingwrittenasaresultofsomeunmentionedeventthattookplaceearlier,resultingintheimpendingterminationofthecontracts.Wecanparaphrase(48)asfollows:‘nowthatXhastakenplace

itfollowsthatcontractswillbeterminated’.Asnotedalready,thefutureeventsintheseexamplesarenotviewedasunfoldingovertime,asisthecasewiththe‘regular’progressive,andhencetheyarenotaspectual.Thisisthereasonwhythisconstructionisdiscussedinthischapter.

10.3.5SHALLandshould

Insection9.2.3wesawthattheverbshouldisthepasttenseformofSHALLdespitethefactthattherelationshipbetweentheseverbsismostlynotamatteroftense.Wewillregardshouldasbeingidiomatic.ForthisreasonIwilltreatSHALLandshouldseparately.

10.3.5.1SHALL

10.3.5.1.1Futurity

AswithWILL,themainuseofSHALListorefertofuturetime.

49Ishallregretthisfortherestofmylife!

50WeshallarriveonMonday18MarchandleaveonThursday2May.

51Whateveritis,weshallnothavethatkindofquality,ifwedonothaveaprosperouseconomyfoundedonaqualityworkforce.

IntheseexamplesWILLisalsopossible,andinfactmuchmorelikelytooccur.ThedifferencebetweenthetwoverbsisthatSHALLisratherformal-sounding,andalittleold-fashioned.What’smore,itismostlyusedinBritishEnglish,andnormallyonlywithfirstpersonsingularorpluralSubjects.RecentresearchhasshownthattheuseofSHALLisdecliningrapidlybothintheUKandintheUS.

10.3.5.1.2Deonticmodality:rulesandregulations,askingforinstructions,self-imposedobligation

SubjectsotherthanfirstpersonsingularandpluralarepossiblewithSHALLinwrittenlanguage,especiallyin‘rulesandregulations’,asin(52)–(54).Thisisnotafuturetimeuse.

52ThecommitteeshallhavethepowerofconsultationwithappropriateexpertsnotbeingmembersoftheCentralActivityorSchoolinquestion.

53Thetimespentonprivateclinicalpracticeshallnotexceedtheequivalentofonehalfdayperweek.

54Professorsandreadersshallretireattheageof65.

Ininterrogativeclauses(section6.2)SHALLcarriesdeonticmeaningbecausethespeakerisaskingtheaddresseeforinstructions.

55ShallIkeepitheretillthesummer?

Finally,asomewhatmarkeduseofdeonticSHALLoccursin(56).

56Youshallgototheshow.

Herethespeakerpromisestheaddresseethataparticulareventwillhappenbyimposinganobligationonhimselftobringitabout.Theverbwillnormallycarryheavystress.

10.3.5.1.3Dynamicmodality:volition

InthefollowingexamplesSHALLexpresses‘volition’,morespecifically‘intention’,whichistypicallyadynamicconceptbecauseitrelatestotheSubjectoftheclause.

57Ishallbearthatinmindforfuturereference.

58WeshallmakeupourmindwhentheIMFhasreported.

Table10.4providesanoverviewoftheusesofSHALL.

TheusesofSHALL

futurity

deonticmodality:rulesandregulations,askingforinstructions,self-imposedobligation

dynamicmodality:volition

Table10.4:TheusesofSHALL

10.3.5.2Should

10.3.5.2.1Deonticmodality:necessity

Shouldcanbeusedtoexpressdeonticmeaning,asin(59)–(62).

59Ithinksheshouldwaitattheairport.

60Andofcourseasalearneryoushouldbeextracareful.

61Atheoremshouldcometoyourmindlikeaflashoflightning.

62Themainfocusofeconomicplanningshouldbeonmeetingthemedium-termimpactoftherecession,particularlyonemployment.

Thisuseofshouldisconcernedwiththewaytheworldmustbeconstituted,asperceivedbythespeaker,orasdictatedbycircumstances.ThereisnoexpectationthatthesituationthatisexpressedintheComplementClause(‘waitattheairport’,‘becareful’,etc.)willcomeabout.ThisuseofshouldisinterchangeablewithOUGHT[to],discussedinsection10.3.9.2.

10.3.5.2.2Epistemicmodality:evidence-basedsupposition

Theepistemicuseofshouldoccurswhenaspeakerorwritermakesasuppositionaboutafuturesituationonthebasisofknowledgeorexperiencetheypossess.Thesituationinquestionmaynotbeactualizedinthewaythatisanticipated.

63OnSaturdayI’mofftoafireworks&classicalmusiceveningatLeedsCastlewhichshouldbegood.

64Well,I’mhavingGayputoutareminderslipatthemomentwhichshouldbeinyourpigeon-holebeforeten-thirty.

Theknowledgeonwhichthesuppositionsarebasedcanvaryinstrength.InthefirstexamplethespeakerisledtotheconclusionthattheforthcomingeventwillbegoodonthebasisofwhatsheknowsisonofferatLeedsCastle.Inthesecondexampletheconclusionisbasedonaknowledgeof

circumstances,forexamplehowquicklythepersonreferredtoasGayusuallydispatchesmessages.Arguablyalsoepistemicarethefollowing,perhapssomewhatmannered,locutionswhereIshouldthinkandIshouldhavethoughtaremoretentativeandspeculativethanIwouldthinkandIwouldhavethought.

65Ishouldthinkthenumberofpeoplewhowouldactuallyrunaprocesslikethiswouldbereallyquitesmall.

66Ishouldhavethoughthe’d’vehadonebeforenow.

EpistemicshouldisweakerthanepistemicMUST(discussedinsection10.3.8.2).

10.3.5.2.3Mandativeandputativeshould

Certainverbs,adjectives,andnounstriggertheuseofshould.Herearesomeexamples.

67Italsorecommended[thattheserviceshouldhaveatleast240lines,whichhappenedtobethelimitfortheBairdsystematthetime].

68ItwasinnineteenhundredandsixthattheQueen’sgreat-grandfatherKingEdwardtheSeventhdecreed[thatprivatesintheHouseholdCavalryshouldhenceforthtobeknownastroopers].

69Itisimportant[thatallrandomisedclinicaltrialsshouldbepublishedirrespectiveoftheirresults].

Werefertoshouldinthethat-clausesasmandativeshould,andtotheclausesthemselvesasmandativeshouldclauses.Theseexpressadirectivemeaning.Whenthesubordinateclausecontainsonlyaplainformoftheverbwespeakofmandativesubjunctiveclauses,whichexpressthesamedirectivemeaning,aswesawinsection10.3.2.In(67)–(69)thetriggerword(underlined)is‘forward-looking’(i.e.modal),inthesensethatwhatisrecommended,decreed,orimportanthasnot(yet)beenbroughtabout.Noticethatthematrixclauseverbcanbeinthepasttense,asin(67)and(68).OthertriggersformandativeshouldincludetheverbsBEG,DEMAND,ENTREAT,INSIST,ORDER,RECOMMEND,SUGGEST;thenounsdecision,demand,intention,recommendation,order,proposal,request;andtheadjectives

advisable,desirable,essential,necessary,preferable,urgent,andvital,amongothers.

Whenthethat-clauseexpressesanevaluative,reflective,attitudinaloremotivemeaningwespeakofputativeshould,asin(70)–(72).Thebracketedclausesarecalledputativeshouldclauses.

70Itisdisappointing,therefore,[thatthesubmitteddesignshouldfallfarshortofitsclearlystatedgoal].

71Itseemsamazingnow[thatsomebodyIrememberassoconventionalshouldhavebeensoaheadofhertimeinfemalerights].

72Thereweregoodreasons[whytheCommonwealthshouldnothavebeenpopularwiththeEnglishandWelshingeneral].

Shouldisnotrequiredintheexamplesabove,as(73)–(75)show.Herethebracketedclausesareunmodalized.

73Itisdisappointing,therefore,[thatthesubmitteddesignfallsfarshortofitsclearlystatedgoal].

74Itseemsamazingnow[thatsomebodyIrememberassoconventionalwassoaheadofhertimeinfemalerights].

75Thereweregoodreasons[whytheCommonwealthwasnotpopularwiththeEnglishandWelshingeneral].

Othertriggersforputativeshouldincludegood,incredible,sad,surprising,remarkable,apity,andashame.MandativeandputativeshouldareafeatureofBritishEnglish,andnotusedfrequentlyinAmericanEnglish.

10.3.5.2.4Shouldinconditionalandpurposiveclauses

Shouldcanalsooccurinconditionalclauseswhereacertainamountofdoubtisexpressedastotheactualizationofthesituationreferredto.Thusin(76)thespeakerprobablythinksitunlikelythattheaddresseewillrunintohim,orwillhavefurtherqueries,inthecaseof(77).

76I’llacceptcashifyoushouldrunintome.

77Shouldyouhaveanyfurtherqueriespleasedonothesitatetocontactme.

In(78)shouldisusedinaclausethatexpresses‘purpose’.

78Therewasadeliberateefforttomakeitappearsurgical,andalmostconsequence-freeinorderthatpublicopinionathomeshouldnotbeeroded.

Table10.5givesanoverviewoftheusesofshould.

Theusesofshould

deonticmodality:necessity

epistemicmodality:evidence-basedsupposition

mandative/putativeuses

conditionaluse

purposiveuse

Table10.5:Theusesofshould

10.3.6CAN/could

Wedistinguishdynamic,deontic,andepistemicmeaningsforCAN/could,discussedinthefollowingsections.

10.3.6.1Dynamicpossibility:neutralpossibility,ability,andexistentialmeaning

ThecoremeaningofCANis‘possibility’,exemplifiedin(79)–(82),paraphrasableas‘Itispossiblefor…’.Weregardthisneutraltypeofmodalityasdynamicbecauseitconcernscircumstancesingeneral,notthespeaker.

79Idon’tunderstandwhytheservicesectorcanshowanyoptimism.

80Whenthoseresolutionsarefulfilledorareintheprocessofbeingfulfilledthenoperationscancease.

81Forexample,onecouldrecordeveryminuteoftheoperationandgainanenormousamountofdata.

82Youcouldwalktoourcabins,andnotmeetasoul.

Intheexamplesabovecouldismoretentative,orexpressesatheoretical,ratherthanareal,possibility.

Anothertypeofdynamicpossibilityis‘ability’,asexemplifiedintheexamplesbelow.

83Thoughdolphinscansenseanoil-slickandwillmoveawayfromit,thesizeofthecurrentspillguaranteesthatitwillcatchsomeanimals.

84Petecoulddobasicthingsonacomputer,butitwasn’tenough.

Finally,the‘existential’meaningofcantypicallyconcernsapropertythatisascribedtosomemembersofaparticularsetofindividuals,animals,orthelike,orapropertythatappliestoareferentatcertaintimes.In(85)–(87)thepropertiesof‘beingaggressive’,‘beingfatty’,and‘beingbrave’areascribedtotheSubjectsoftheclauses,andforthisreasonthemodalverbsexpressdynamicmodality.Theexamplein(88)withcouldreferstopasttime,andcanbeparaphrasedas‘Itwaspossibleforhertobenegativeabouthim’.

85Don’tblamebreed,alldogscanbeaggressive.

86Lambcanbefattywhenyoubuyitsomakesureyoutrimoffanyobviousandexcessivechunksoffatbeforeputtingthemeatinformincing.

87Thepublic,whichhasaclearviewofwhatitexpectsfromthepolice,understandstheneedformeasuredpoliceresponsesandknowsthatindividualpoliceofficerscanbeoutstandinglybrave.

88Givenalittlebitofanexcuseshecouldbenegativeabouthim.

10.3.6.2Deonticpossibility:permission

AlesscommonmeaningforCANisdeonticpossibility,thatis,‘permission’.Examplesareshownin(89)and(90).

89Youcanonlyhaveshowersonweek-daysaftersupper.

90Youcannotdumptheminhere.

Itisnotalwayspossibletodistinguishthe‘possibility’and‘permission’sensesofCAN.Intheexamplebelow,bothreadingsarepossible:‘Isitpossibletochangemyflight?’or‘AmIpermittedtochangemyflight?’

91CanIchangemyflighttotheeightfortyoneonThursdayevening?

Ifcouldhadbeenusedinthisexample,therequestwouldhavebeenmoretentativeandpolite.Attestedexamplesofcouldinitspermissionsensearehardtofind.Twocandidatesareshownin(92)and(93).Thefirstoftheseexamplesislikelytomean‘ArewepermittedtohaveourLocoscript2discback?’The‘possibility’senseisunlikely,giventhattheclausebeginswithifpossible,andthenotionofpossibilitywouldthenbeexpressedtwice.Example(93),like(91),isambiguous:both‘possibility’and‘permission’arepossibleinterpretations.

92Ifpossible,couldwepleasehaveourLocoscript2discback?

93Couldwehaveanindiediscoonthethirdfloor?

Itshouldbestressedthatinmanycasesthediscoursecontextmakesclearwhichmeaningwasintended.

Prescriptivistsandschoolteachershaveinthepastfrowneduponthe‘permission’useofCAN,andhavearguedthatspeakersshoulduseMAYinstead,butinfactthepermissionsenseiswellestablished,andposesnocommunicativeproblems.

10.3.6.3Epistemicnecessity:knowledge-basedconclusion

Inthefollowingexamplethespeakerconcludes,onthebasisofhisknowledgeofSimon,thatheisnotanyolderthanthepeoplereferredtoas‘us’.TheverbCANclearlyexpressesepistemicmeaninghere.Itcanonlybeusedwiththissensewhenitisnegated.

94Actually,Simoncan’tbetoomucholderthanus.

Table10.6summarizestheusesofCAN/could.

TheusesofCAN/could

dynamicpossibility:neutralpossibility,ability,andexistentialmeaning

deonticpossibility:permission

epistemicnecessity(innegativecontexts):knowledge-basedconclusion

Table10.6:TheusesofCAN/could

10.3.7MAY/might

Inthefollowingsectionswelookattheepistemic,deontic,andformulaicmeaningsofMAY/might.

10.3.7.1Epistemicpossibility:knowledge-basedsupposition

ThemodalverbMAY,withitspasttenseformmight,commonlyexpressesepistemicpossibility,paraphrasableas‘Itispossiblethat…’.

95Iappreciatethatitmaybetoolate,ornotdesirabletomakeanychange,butIjustthoughtIwouldsendyouthisanyway.

96Itmaymeanhe’snotnormal.

97ShemightbecomingtoClare’sparty.

98YousaidtomeonceyoumightcometoLondontovisit.

Theseexamplesexpressepistemicmeanings,becausethespeakershavesomeknowledgeorevidencefortheirassumptions,thoughthisevidenceislikelytobeweak.

Howdoesmaydifferfrommight,andhowdoesitdifferfromCANexpressing‘possibility’?Theanswertothefirstquestionisthataspeakerexpressesahigherdegreeofuncertaintywhenusingmightthanwhenusingmay.Thepasttenseformmightseemstodistancethespeakerfurtherfrom

thenon-factualityoftheclausethandoesmay.Putdifferently,thestrengthofthemodalmeaningislessenedinthecaseofmight.Inanexamplelike(97)thismeansthatthespeakerislesscommittedtothepossibilitythatClarewillcometothepartythanifmayhadbeenused.Asforthesecondquestion,ifwelookatanexamplelike(96)MAYcanbesaidtoexpressa‘real’possibility,unlikeCAN,whichwouldexpressamoreremoteortheoreticalpossibility.Atherapistnotwantingtoinfluencehercolleagues’viewswhendiscussingwiththemthepossiblediagnosesforapatient’sproblemsmightutter(96)usingCAN.

Inthefollowingexamples,wecanparaphrasetheclausescontainingMAY(calledconcessiveMAY)byusinganunmodalizedclauseintroducedby(al)though.

99Itmaybegoodforyou,butit’snotverygoodfortheblackpeopleinSouthAfrica.>‘Althoughitisgoodforyou,it’snotverygoodfortheblackpeopleinSouthAfrica.’

100Itmaybebadfortheearth’sclimate,butintheshorttermit’sgoodforBrazil’seconomy.>‘Althoughitisbadfortheearth’sclimate,intheshorttermit’sgoodforBrazil’seconomy.’

10.3.7.2Deonticpossibility:permission

AlesscommonmeaningforMAYis‘permission’.

101MayIpointouttheyneedtradeasmuchastheyneedaid?

102MayIalsoaskifyouwouldsendmedeadlinedatesforwhentheJournalgoesintosixissuesayear?

103Ifyouareexceptedyoumay,ifyouwish,payClass2contributionsvoluntarilytokeepupyourrighttothebenefitstheyprovide.

Wesawinsection10.3.6.2thatitisalsopossibletouseCANtoexpress‘permission’.HowdoCANandMAYdifferinthisregard?Ingeneral,MAYismuchmoreformal,andaspeakerwhograntspermissionusingthisverbismorelikelytobeinaroleofauthority.Conversely,aspeakerwhoasksforpermissionusingMAYcanbeperceivedtobeoverlypolite.

Thepermissionmeaningofmightisrare.Anexampleisshownbelow.

104WhenshedecidedthattheShah–himselfachain-smoker–wassayingnothingofinterest,shestoppedtakingnotesandaskedwhethershemightsmoke.

10.3.7.3FormulaicMAY

InmainclausesMAYcanbeusedformulaicallytoexpressawish,asin(105).Inmanylanguagesasubjunctiveverbformisusedhere.

105Longmaytheyfail.

Table10.7summarizestheusesofMAY/might.

TheusesofMAY/might

epistemicpossibility:knowledge-basedsupposition

deonticpossibility:permission

formulaicuse

Table10.7:TheusesofMAY/might

10.3.8MUST

MUSTcanexpressdeontic,epistemic,ordynamicnecessity.

10.3.8.1Deonticnecessity:obligation

ThecoremeaningofMUSTisdeonticnecessity,thatis,‘obligation’.

106Youseemtobeseekingtodestroyyourselfinsomeway,butyoumustnotincludemeinyourplanofaction.

107Shemustnotputhimthroughthatagonyagain.

108Youmustkeepthemmoist.

DeonticMUSTexpressesobligationmorestronglythanshould(section10.3.5.2.1)orOUGHT[to](section10.3.9.2).

Asalreadynoted,MUSThasnopasttense,andhadtoisusedinstead.

109Anditwasawfulbecausetheyhadtogiveheraninjectioninherback.

110Two-yearoldDarrenhadtogointocarewhenhismotherAngelahadamentalbreakdown.

OnHAVE[to]seealsosection10.3.11.3.2.

10.3.8.2Epistemicnecessity:knowledge-basedconclusion

WhenMUSTisusedepistemicallythespeakerorauthorhasevidenceorknowledgethatwarrantsaparticularconclusion.

111God,itmust’vebeenawfulinthosedays.

112Youmustberunningoutoftime.

113Youmustmisshimheaps!

EpistemicMUSTisstrongerthanepistemicshould(section10.3.5.2.2):thespeakerorwriterhasagreaterdegreeofconfidenceintheconclusiontheyaredrawing.

10.3.8.3Dynamicnecessity:apropertynecessarilyattributabletoaSubject-referent,orneutralnecessity

MUSTcanbeusedwhenweexpressapropertythatisnecessarilyinthenatureofthereferentoftheSubjectofaclause,orimposedonit,asintheexamplesbelow.Thisuseisrare.

114Ontheotherhand,andnotwithstandinganacknowledgementthat‘anydevelopmentmustbesubordinateandcomplementarytothepresenceofthisgreatbuilding’,thedesignisunmistakablyPost-Modernist.

115Theagreementbetweenthepartiesmustbeonewhichconfersuponthemanauthoritywhichiswideenoughtoincludealltheinstalmentsofhire.

TheverbMUSTcanalsoexpressaneutral(orcircumstantial)meaningofnecessitywhichcanbeparaphrasedas‘Giventhecircumstancesitisnecessarythat…’,asinthefollowingexamples.

116Thecityhasnoriverandmustbeartheheavycostofpumpingwaterin,andsewageout,overthesurroundingmountains.

117First,theremustbesuccessfulnation-building.

TheusesofMUSTaresummarizedinTable10.8.

TheusesofMUST

deonticnecessity:obligation

epistemicnecessity:knowledge-basedconclusion

dynamicnecessity:apropertynecessarilyattributabletoaSubject-referent,orneutralnecessity

Table10.8:TheusesofMUST

10.3.9Marginalmodals

ApartfromthecoremodalsEnglishhasanumberofverbswhicharecalledmarginalmodalsbecausetheydifferfromthecoremodalauxiliariesintheirsyntacticbehaviourtoagreaterorlesserextent.ThisclassincludesDARE,NEED,andOUGHT[to].USED[to]isnotincludedhere,asisdoneinsomegrammars,buttakentobeaspectualinstead.Seesection9.3.4.3.

10.3.9.1DAREandNEED

BothDAREandNEEDcanbelexicalverbsandmodalverbs.Wethereforehavefourverblexemes.Whenusedaslexicalverbstheycantaketenseinflections,ato-infinitiveclauseasComplement,andDO-support(section3.6.3.5),asintheexamplesbelow.

118OneplacethatdarestobedifferentisSofia’sHristoBotev.

119Ithinkhejustneedstoshavefivetimesaday.

120Idon’tevendaretowritewhatthebestandtheworstIcanexpectis.

121Youdon’tneedtobother.

122WhydidtheydaretorobtheNorthernBankofmorethan£26million?

123Whydoyouneedtochopthemdown?

Theto-infinitiveclausecanhaveaSubjectofitsown,asin(124)and(125)(section8.1.2.1),thoughforDAREthisinvolvesadifferentmeaning(‘challenge’).

124IdareyoutovisitJohannesburg,thecityforsofties.

125Ineedyoutodomeahugefavour.

LexicalDAREcanalsotakeabareinfinitiveComplement,asin(126)below.Inthisexampleitisprecededbyamodalverb,andcannotthereforeitselfbemodal.

126Hewouldn’tdaretakeitfromyou.

Inaddition,NEEDcantakeanounphraseasDirectObject,asin(127).

127Theydon’tneedanymorebusiness.

Asmodalverbs,DAREandNEEDtakeabareinfinitiveComplementinnegatedand/orinvertedstructures.Theydonothavethirdpersonsingularforms.

128Ordaren’tyouask?

129Youneedn’treadeverychapter.

130AnddareIsuggestthatthatisthematch-winner?

131NorneedIlookfurtherthanmyowncityofSheffield.

AsamarginalmodalverbNEEDhasnopasttense:wecannotsayforexample*Heneededreadeverychapter.Itexpresses‘necessity’whichisclearlyacentralmodalmeaning.DAREisnotobviouslymodalfromthe

pointofviewofmeaning,thoughitis‘forward-looking’,andissometimesregardedasinstantiatingdynamicmodality,duetothefactthattheactofdaringrelatestotheSubjectofaclause.

10.3.9.2OUGHT[to]

Syntactically,OUGHTisfollowedbyato-infinitive(indicatedby‘[to]’),anditisthisfactthatmakesOUGHTamarginalmodal,becausecoremodalsarefollowedbybareinfinitives.Herearesomeexamples.

132Ohwell,IsupposeIoughttogotobed,asit’sworktomorrow.

133Doyouthinkweoughttobringsomewine?

134IthinkCaroloughttoleaveatthispoint.

OUGHTresemblesMUSTinhavingnopasttenseform.

ForsomespeakersOUGHT[to]cantakeDO-support(section3.6.3.5),apropertyoflexicalverbs,thoughthisisnon-standard.

135Bristolwasbuiltontheslavetrade,didn’tweoughttoflattenitjusttoshowhowsorryweare?

InterrogativeandnegativestructureswithOUGHT[to],exemplifiedbelow,arerare.Noticethatininvertedstructurestheto-infinitiveisseparatedfromtheverb.

136Oughtthedoctortohaveintervenedashedid?

137PeterJacksonconfirmedatComic-Conthathiseagerly-anticipatedtwo-partHobbitfilmisstillsomewayoff,butthatoughtn’ttostopusspeculatingaboutcasting.

SomegrammarianshavenotedthatOUGHTcanbefollowedbyabareinfinitiveinAmericanEnglishininterrogativeandnegativestructures,asin(138)and(139).

138But,oughtIdeceiveyou?

139Thisoughtn’tbeaone-timething.

TheinfinitivalmarkertodoesnotbelongwithOUGHT,becauseitcanbeseparatedfromit,asin(136)above,andin(140)belowwhereanadverbisplacedbetweenOUGHTandto.

140ButweneedtogetoutofthiswarintoapeacewhichtheArabsthemselveshavetomakeandanythingwhichsuggeststhattheWesternChristianworldisimposingitsownvaluesontheMuslimworldissomethingwhichweoughtnowtoavoid.

OUGHT[to]mainlycarriesthesamedeonticmeaningasshould(discussedinsection10.3.5.2.1),whichisconcernedwiththewayaspeakerbelievestheworldmustbeconstituted.Aswithshould,thereisnoexpectationthatthesituationexpressedintheComplementClausewillbeactualized.AlmostalwaysshouldcanbesubstitutedforOUGHT[to].

10.3.10Modalidioms

Modalidiomsareidiosyncraticverbalformationswhichconsistofmorethanonewordandwhichhavemodalmeaningsthatarenotpredictablefromtheconstituentparts(comparethenon-modalidiomkickthebucket).UnderthisheadingweincludeHAVEgot[to],hadbetter/best,wouldrather/sooner/assoon,andBE[to].

10.3.10.1HAVEgot[to]

WeregardHAVEgot[to]asidiomatic,becausetheelementgotisfixed,andbecauseitderivesitsmeaningfromthecombinationasawhole(oftenshortenedasgotta).Inthisconnectionnotethatthemeaningofgotis‘bleached’(i.e.haslostitsoriginalmeaning),anddoesnotcarrythemeaning‘possess’.

TheverbHAVEwithinthecombinationHAVEgotbehaveslikeanauxiliaryverbbecauseitcaninvertwithaSubjectandcanbenegated,asin(141)and(142),butcannotbeprecededbyotherauxiliaryverbs,modalorotherwise,as(143)and(144)show.Inthisrespectitbehaveslikethecoremodals.Alsolikethecoremodals,HAVEgotisalwaystensed(italmostalwaysoccursinthepresenttense);butunlikethecoremodals,itcanagree

withaSubject,asin(145),anditisfollowedbyato-infinitive(indicatedby‘[to]’).Inthisrespectitresemblesthemodallexicalverbs(section10.3.11.3),thoughnotsufficientlytoputitinthatclass.

141HaveyougottopayforBettytogo?

142Areyousureyoujusthaven’tgottosenditofftotheAmericanaddress?

143*Eachofuswillhavegottodoitthreetimes.

144*Eachofusishavinggottodoitthreetimes.

145Eachofushasgottodoitthreetimes.

TheverbHAVEcanbeattachedtotheSubjectinshortenedform,asin(146)and(147),orleftout,asin(148).

146You’vegottokeepitthere.

147It’sgottosoundasthoughitfitsinsomehow,hasn’tit?

148Yougottohavethemoney,though,haven’tyou?

WeknowthatHAVEisleftoutin(148)becauseofthepresenceoftheinterrogativetaghaven’tyou?Interrogativetagsalways‘pickup’theverbinthematrixclause(seesection4.1.1.8).

HAVEgot[to]isusedininformalsettings,mostlyinBritishEnglish,andcanexpressthedeonticmeaningofnecessity(i.e.‘obligation’),asin(149).ItisveryofteninterchangeablewithMUST,thoughitexpressesanobjectivenecessity,ratherthanasubjectiveone.

149Youhavegottoworkhard,youhavegottoperformwell.

WithHAVEgot[to]thesourceoftheobligationisoftennotthespeaker,butexternalcircumstancessuchasregulations,procedures,etc.,asin(150)and(151).Theidiomthenexpressesdynamicmeaning.

150“You’vegottogetaform,acomplexform–thegovernment’sgoodat

complexforms;youhavegottogetaphotograph.”

151“It’sgottobethesamewhetheryou’reabackbencher,orwhetheryou’rethechancelloroftheexchequer,thesameruleshavegottoapplytoyou,”sheadded.

LesscommonlyHAVEgot[to]expressesepistemicmeaning,asin(152).

152Thesegirlsarehavingalotofpressureputonthem–ithasgottobeexcruciatinglydifficult.

WemustdistinguishHAVEgot[to]fromHAVEgot(=‘possess’),asin(153),andHAVEgottodo[with](=‘relateto’),asin(154).

153I’mdeliberatelytakingthisoutoforderbecausewehavegotanominationforSecretary.

154Soyoumightwonderwhatthishasgottodowithclimate.

IwilldiscussthemodallexicalverbHAVE[to]insection10.3.11.3.2.

10.3.10.2Hadbetter/bestandwouldrather/sooner/assoon

Weregardhadbetter/bestandwouldrather/sooner/assoonasidiomatic,becausetheycontainfixed,semanticallybleachedcomponents.Syntactically,thesemodalidiomsarefollowedbyabareinfinitive,apropertyofthecoremodals.

155Wehadbetterkeepourfeetontheground.

156Iwouldratherspendthemoneyonsomethingelse.

157“Iwouldsoonerdieinjail,”GilfoyletoldTheTimesinanexclusiveinterviewthisweek.

158Sometimesyouhappenonanareayouwouldassoonkeeptoyourself.

Theidiomswithwouldcanalsobefollowedbyafiniteclause,asintheexamplebelow.

159Ifyoufeelyou’reindanger,rememberthatBRwouldratheryourtrainweredelayedthanthatyoubecamethevictimofacrime.

NoticetheoccurrenceofwereintheComplementClause.

Morphologically,theseidiomsresemblethecoremodals:therearenothirdpersonsingularpresenttenseforms(*hasbetter,*willsrather/sooner),andnonon-tensedforms(*havingbetter),althoughhadandwouldcanbeattachedtoaprecedingSubject,asin(160)and(161),orevenleftout,asin(162).

160You’dbetternotletJogetholdofthis.

161WellI’dratherafriendpickedtheirearpersonally.

162IthinkIbettershowyou.

Thefirstelementofthesecombinationsbehaveslikeanauxiliarybecauseinversionandnegationarepossible.

163SohadIbettershutupconcerningthem?

164WouldIratherdrinkteathanwater?

Twotypesofnegationareattested:onewithhadn’torwouldn’t,theotherwiththewordnotfollowingtheidiom.

165Ihadn’tbetteraskhimagainincasesomebodyherenotices.

166PoorwholesomeToddhadbetternotletthesidedownorSarah’llgethergun.

167Peopleusedtoaskhimsometimesifhewouldn’tratherhavehadason,andheusedtosaythatAmandawasasonaswellasadaughter.

168Wewouldrathernotuseanimalsandwetryhardtofindalternatives.

Thenegatedstructuresareinterchangeableinthecaseofhadbetter,butthisisnotalwayssofortheotheridioms.Thus,wouldn’tratherhavehadasonin(167)doesnotmeanthesameaswouldrathernothavehadason.

Hadbetterexpressesdeonticnecessity,whichisverysimilartothemeaningexpressedbyshouldandOUGHT[to].Theidiomscontainingwouldexpressthedynamicmeaningof‘preference’.

10.3.10.3BE[to]

ThecombinationBE[to]isidiomaticbecausetheverbBEisusedwithaspecializedmodalmeaning.Likethecoremodalsitisalwaystensed,andhencecannotbeprecededbyotherauxiliaryverbs.As(169)and(170)show,inversionandnegationarepossibleforBE;thisisanauxiliary-likeproperty.However,modalBEisalwaysfollowedbyato-infinitive(indicatedby‘[to]’),andcanagreewithaSubject,asshownin(171)–(173).Inthisrespectitresemblesmodallexicalverbs(section10.3.11.3).However,aswithHAVEgot[to],discussedinsection10.3.10.1,thisisnotsufficientlythecasetoassignittothisclass.

169Arewetostart?

170Thegroupbegandevisingsomeformofpunctuationtomarkpoststhatweren’ttobetakenseriously.

171HeistoholdtalksontheGulfcrisiswiththePrimeMinister.

172Judgesaretotakefarlessaccountoftheoffender’spastrecord.

173ThepeoplesofEuropearenottobeformallyconsultedatanypoint,byreferendumorotherwise.

BE[to]canexpressthedeonticmeaningsof‘obligation’and‘necessity’,asin(169)and(170),orcanbeusedtoexpressfuturearrangements,plans,andsoon,asin(171).Theexamplesin(172)and(173)areambiguous:theformercanmeaneither‘judgesmusttakefarlessaccountoftheoffender’spastrecord’(themostlikelyreading),or‘judgeswillbetakingfarlessaccountoftheoffender’spastrecord’.(173)canmeaneither‘theconsultationmustnottakeplace’or‘theconsultationisnotplannedtotakeplace’.

InthepasttenseBE[to]canexpressanarrangementinthepastora‘futureinthepast’.

174AndthesebuildingsweretobethehomeofOrdnanceSurveyforthenextonehundredyears.

175LivingwithherfamilyinOxford,shehadsetherselftolearnLatinandGreekasagirl,laterattendingStAnne’sCollegeofwhichshewastobecomeanhonoraryfellow.

10.3.11Lexicalmodality

Modalmeaningscanbeexpressedlexicallybynouns,adjectives,verbs,andadverbs.Thesetrigger(or‘govern’,astraditionalgrammarhasit)amodalcontext,usuallyintheshapeofasubjunctiveclause(sections10.3.2and10.3.5.2.3).

10.3.11.1Modalnouns

Examplesofmodalnounsincludecondition,decree,demand,necessity,order,requirement,request,resolution,andwish.Intheexamplebelowthemodalnounintentioncreatesamodalcontextwhichcontainsthemodalverbshould.

176SoIdrewtheinferencethattheintentionwasthatthemediashouldreproducetheprogramme.

Noticethatshouldinthisexampleismandativeshould(section10.3.5.2.3).In(177)theverbbeinthesubjunctiveclauseis‘governed’bythemodalnouninsistence.Thisexamplecontainstwofurthermodalexpressions:wereintheif-clause,andwouldinthematrixclause.

177AndyetifitwerenotforMrsThatcher’sinsistencethatthe12waterbusinessesofEnglandandWalesbemadeeconomicallyhealthy,theLowermoorplantwouldhavehadsomeoneondutyonthedaythealuminiumsulphatewasdumpedintothewrongtank.

Anotherexampleofamodalnouniswish,illustratedbytheexamplebelow,inwhichitlicensesasubjunctiveclause.

178Werespectthejudge’swishesthatwenotraisethetemperaturefurther.

10.3.11.2Modaladjectives

Examplesofmodaladjectivesincludeable,advisable,anxious,bound,concerned,crucial,desirable,essential,fitting,imperative,important,likely,necessary,possible,supposed,sure,vital,andwilling.Thesecreatemodalcontextstovaryingdegrees,oftendependingonhowthespeakerorwriterviewsthesituationexpressedbytheComplement.

179Survivorsarelikelytoexperienceadversephysicalandpsychologicaleffects.

180Thereareboundtobeguardsatthecheckout,whetherthealarmisoutforusornot.

181Itwouldbedesirabletohaveasmuchanalysisaspossibledoneautomatically.

182Imeanascouncillorswearelegallyobligedtotryandensurethatourexpenditurematchesourincome.

183Itisthereforenecessarytoencouragetheoperatorstotakeshortbreakstokeepthemproperlyalert.

IntheexamplesabovetheComplementsareviewedasnon-actualized,potentialsituationsinthefuture.

Noticethatshouldin(184)and(185)ismandativeshould(section10.3.5.2.3),whereas(186)involvesamandativesubjunctiveclause(section10.3.2).

184HewasanxiousthatargumentswithintheCommunityshouldnotleaveBritainisolated.

185Itisdesirablethattherobotshouldbedeflectedwhenitiskickedsothatthecowisnotharmed.

186Itisimperativethatanewmaturitybeachievedindomesticandinternationalcommunications.

10.3.11.3Modallexicalverbs

10.3.11.3.1ModallexicalverbstakingaDirectObject

Wehavealreadycomeacrossexamplesofmodallexicalverbs,namelyURGEin(13)andDECREEin(68).OthersincludeADVISE,INTEND,PROPOSE,RECOMMEND,REQUIRE,SUGGEST,andWISH.Theseverbscanlicensemandativeshouldclausesormandativesubjunctiveclauses.

187WeintendthatthisbankshouldprovidethestimulusforprivateinvestmentinEasternEurope.

188Werecommendthatfrontbrakepadsbecheckedforwearatleastevery12,000milesor12months.

189Bothdivisionssuggestthattreatmentbedirectedtowardsthecauseunderlyingthediseaseratherthanthesymptoms.

10.3.11.3.2HAVE[to]

Unlikethecoremodalauxiliaries,modallexicalHAVEcantakeinflectionalendings,andlicensesato-infinitiveclauseasComplement(indicatedby‘[to]’).

190Youhavetopayforthese.

AlthoughitreadilytakesDO-support,asin(191),inversionandnegation,asin(192)and(193),arebarelypossibleformostspeakers.

191Dowehavetotakeabottleofwine?

192HavewetoconsiderthealarmingpossibilitythattheBritishjustdon’thavethetennisgene?

193“Wehaven’ttogetworriedafterthisbecauseweplayedwellandweneedtorememberwewereplayingawaytoMilan,whoareaprettystrongside.”

HAVE[to]canoccurasanon-tensedform,andcanbeprecededbyanauxiliaryverb,modalornon-modal,as(194)and(195)demonstrate.

194ButI’llhavetodrive.

195AtthemomenttheGunnersarehavingtodefendasSavavakosbringsthatup.

LikethecoremodalverbMUST,andlikeHAVEgot[to],thecombinationHAVE[to]canexpress‘obligation’.ThelatterismoreformalthanHAVEgot[to].However,unlikewithMUST,butlikewithHAVEgot[to],theobligationisimposedbysomeoneotherthanthespeaker.Forexample,in(190),therequirementtopayisimposedbytheseller,notbythespeaker.RecallthatMUSThasnopasttenseform(sections10.3.3and10.3.8).ToexpresspastobligationHAVE[to]isusedinstead,asin(196).

196Ihadtogetdowntherebynine.

AnothermeaningexpressedbyHAVE[to]isdynamicnecessity.In(197)theobligationofcheckingonthebabiesisimposedonthenursebyhospitalregulations.

197Twentybabieshavebeenbornovernightandshehastocheckthey’reallhealthy.

Finally,HAVE[to]canexpressepistemicmeaning,asin(198),thoughthisismorecommoninAmericanEnglish.

198Ithastobetrue;theymustbeputtingsomethinginthewater.NoticethatthissentencealsocontainsanexampleofepistemicMUST.

10.3.11.3.3BEgoing[to]

BEgoing[to]isanidiosyncratic,idiomaticcombination,whichresemblesotherverbsandverbalconstructionsinanumberofways,aswewillsee.

Firstly,BEinthiscombinationcantakeafullrangeofinflectionalforms,includingnon-finiteforms.Forexample,in(199)BEtakesabareinfinitiveform,placedafterthemodalwill.

199Theadmissionsprocessforentryin2007beginswhentheschoolsgobackthismonth,althoughchildrenwillonlyfindoutinMarchwhichschoolstheywillbegoingtoattend.

ExampleslikethismakeclearthatinthisrespectBEgoing[to]behaveslike

alexicalverb,andcannotsyntacticallyberegardedasacoremodalverb,becausesequencesoftwoormoremodalauxiliariesarenotpossibleinStandardEnglish(thoughtheyareattestedinthesouthernUS,inTyneside,andinScotland).Thisexampleisparticularlyinterestingbecauseitcombinestwofuturetimemarkers.

Secondly,BEgoing[to]takesato-infinitiveclauseasComplement(indicatedby‘[to]’),whichisagainapropertyoflexicalverbs.However—andinthissenseBEgoing[to]isidiosyncratic—withinthiscombinationBEbehaveslikeanauxiliaryverb(theprogressiveauxiliaryBE)whichconformstotheNICEproperties(section3.6.3.1),as(200)–(203)show.

200JohnBrownisn’tgoingtobethere.[Negation]

201Ishegoingtocomebackhere?[Inversion]

202Heisn’tgoingtocomeback,andneitherisshe.[Code]

203Heisgoingtocomeback.[Emphasis]

OnthebasisofthedatapresentedaboveweconcludethatonbalanceBEgoing[to]behaveslikealexicalverbwithamodalmeaning.Itsidiomaticnatureisreflectedinthefactthattheelementgoingissemanticallybleached.However,wedonotregardBEgoing[to]asamodalidiom(section10.3.10),becausethemembersofthatclassbehavelikethecoremodalstoamuchgreaterextent.

BEgoing[to]iscommoninspokeninformalEnglish,andisusedtorefertofuturetime.Despiteouranalysingitascarryingmodalmeaning,italsohasaspectualqualitiesbyvirtueofthepresenceoftheprogressiveauxiliaryBE,andbecauseithas‘currentorientation’.Thismeansthatitoftenconveysasenseofimmediacy,orthecurrencyofpresentpurpose,astheexamplesbelowshow.

204Right,I’mgoingtodishthisupnow.

205OhGodI’mgoingtostopforaminute.

206I’mgoingtobeinRamsfordtomorrow.

Bycontrast,theverbWILL,whichisalsousedtorefertofuturetime,hasamoreneutralfuturemeaning.VeryoftenBEgoing[to]andWILLareinterchangeable,thoughnotalways.Thusin(207)WILLcannotreplaceBEgoing[to].

207IfI’mgoingto(*will)makesuchamealoutofeveryexercise,I’llnevercompletethecourse.

HereBEgoing[to]occursinaconditionalsubordinateclausewhereWILLisrare,andonlyoccursinrestrictedcircumstances,forexamplewhenitexpressesvolition.Avolitionalreadingisexcludedin(207),becauseonewouldnotnormallywillingly‘makeamealoutofeveryexercise’.However,considernext(208)whereavolitionalreadingisplausible(‘Iftheyarenotwillingto…’).HereBEgoing[to]wouldsoundodd.

208Pleaseaskwhethertheauctioneerwillcompletethenotificationofsaleonyourbehalf.Iftheywillnot(?*arenotgoingto),youshouldtellDVLAinwritingthatyouhavetransferredthevehicletotheauctionfirm.

In(209),too,themostlikelyreadingforWILLis‘volition’.Ifwesubstituteisn’tgoingtoforwillnot,theif-clausewillexpress‘intention’(i.e.itwillmean‘ifParliamentdoesn’thavetheintentiontorestrainitslaw-makingzeal’).

209IfParliamentwillnotrestrainitslaw-makingzeal,itshouldatleasthaveaddressedthisstateofaffairsbymakinglegaladviceandassistanceavailabletothemyriadcaughtinitstentacles.

BEgoing[to]canalsoexpressepistemicmeaning,asinthefollowingexample.

210Ithinkthatthere’sgoingtobeincompetenceineveryprofession.

Themeaningconveyedhereis‘prediction’basedongeneralknowledge.

Thepasttenseformswas/weregoing[to]expressapastfuturate(section9.2.2.5),asexemplifiedin(211).

211Bobwasgoingtotryandfindhimtoday.

10.3.11.4Modaladverbs

AmongthemodaladverbsinEnglishwefindarguably,probably,maybe,possibly,perhaps,andsurely.Herearesomeexamples.

212Theageoftotalwarisarecentphenomenon,arguablydatingfromtheThirtyYearsWar.

213Ithoughtmaybeyou’dcomeround.

214Theymaypossiblyincreasethecapacityofanindividualorganismtotrackoravoidchange.

215Theteachersaren’tperhapsawareofhowtheycanworkwiththedisabledstudent.

216Probablytheworstthingthatonecanhaveisalarge,southfacingwindowglazedwithreededglasswhichcandispersethesun’sraysinalldirections.

Noticethepositionalversatilityofmodaladverbs,andthatin(214)modalityisdoublyencoded:herewehaveamodalverb,aswellasamodaladverb,bothexpressingthemeaning‘possibility’.

10.3.12Hedges

Hedgesareexpressionsthatqualifyastatementwithregardtoitstruth.Somecanaddanelementofmodalmeaning(e.g.doubt)toanutterance,asin(217)–(220).

217Soyouwouldactuallysay,Iwouldhavethought,withinyourexecutivesummary,somethingtotheeffectthatthedetaileddesignworkyou’vedonehasbeenfocusedonthekeyelementoftheprocess.

218ButImeanit’sworkingextremelywell,andIthinkhopefullythatwillcontinue.

219Wellwe’resortofworkingtowardsourfirstperformance.

220Iusedtokindofsayyouknowplease,pleaseGodgetmeoutofthis.

10.3.13Otherissuespertainingtomodality

10.3.13.1Contextualinfluencesontheinterpretationofmodalverbs

Thewayweinterpretmodalexpressions,especiallymodalverbs,oftendependsonthediscoursecontextinwhichaparticularverbisused.Asanexample,consider(221).

221MayIputitinadifferentway?

Ifthisisutteredbysomeonewhoisaskingforpermissiontomakeapointdifferently,thenthereisnothingremarkableaboutit,apartfromthefactthatCANismoreusualinsuchrequests.However,imaginenowthedirectorofabigcompanyuttering(221)atanimportantmeeting.Insuchasituation,dependingonhowitisuttered,thispersonmaysimplybeexpressinganintention,namely‘I’mgoingtoputitinadifferentway’.Byuttering(221)containingtheover(t)lypoliteMAY,acertaindegreeofdeliberatelyunderstatedauthoritycanbeconveyed.Usingthemodalsinthiswaytoconveyaparticularstanceinaconversationisextremelycommon,asafewfurtherexampleswillmakeclear.

Theinterpretationof(222)inaparticularcontextdependsoninterpersonalrelationships,conversationalsetting,andsoon.Forexample,if(222)isutteredbyafrienditislikelytoconstituteapieceofadvice,butifitisutteredbyone’sgrandfatheritmightbeastrongexhortation,orperhapsevenanorder.

222Youshouldkeepyourancestralpaintings.

Similarconsiderationsapplyto(223)and(224).Thesearenotexamplesofspeakersimposingtheirdemands,butratherthesortofthingswesaytoeachotherinfriendly,politeinterchanges.Themostlikelyreadingfor(223)isthatitisanoffer,while(224)isaninvitation.

223Ah,you’reexquisite;youmustletmepaintyou.

224However,theimportantthingisthatwearehavingahousewarmingpartyandyoumustcome.

Finally,considertheexamplesin(225),fromatrainingvideoonhowto

rideamotorbike,and(226),fromacookbook.

225Youcannowletgoofthefrontbrake.

226Youcan,ifyoulike,addsomeanchovyinapatternbetweentheeggs.

Whileostensiblyexpressing‘permission’or‘possibility’,itispossibletointerpretthefirstuseofCANasaninstruction,whereastheseconduseislikelytobeunderstoodasasuggestion.Noticetheparentheticalifyoulike.

10.3.13.2Indeterminatemeanings

Modalexpressionscanbesemanticallyindeterminate:itisnotalwayspossibletodetectoneclearmeaninginaparticularexample.Wecameacrossafewinstancesofambiguitiesinearliersections.Asanadditionalexample,consider(227),fromasportscommentary.Herewecanperceivethemeaningsof‘ability’and‘possibility’.Ofcourse,thesemeaningsarecloselyrelated,becauseifsomeoneisabletodosomethingitisgenerallypossibleforthemtodoit(circumstancespermitting).

227NowPaulAllencanrunatthoseArsenaldefenders.

Wheremorethanonemeaningisapplicabletoaparticularverbwespeakofsemanticmerger.

Chapter11InformationstructuringThischapterdiscussesthesyntacticchoicesspeakershaveinpresentinginformationtotheiraddressees.

11.1Introduction

Whenwecommunicatewithotherstherearevariouswaysinwhichwecanconveyaparticularmessageinspeechorinwriting.Forexample,ifwewanttomakeastatementaboutaparticularstateofaffairsintheworldwhichwebelievetobetrue,wenormallyuseadeclarativeclause(seesection6.1),asinexample(1).

1Petemarriedastrongwoman.

TheconstituentorderhereisSubject–Predicator–DirectObject.Wecanembedanexamplelike(1)intheconversationalsituationin(2).

2Jim:Petemarriedastrongwoman.

Meg:HowcomePetemarriedthewrongwoman?

Inthismini-interchangeMegmishearsJim.Tosetthisright,JimreorderstheinformationconveyedinhisoriginalutterancebydisplacingtheDirectObjectfromitsoriginalpositionfollowingtheverbMARRY(indicatedby‘_’)toaninitialposition,thusderivingtheorderDirectObject–Subject–Predicator.Inaddition,thewordsstrongandwrongarestressed,asindicatedbytheboldtypeface.ItisverycommonforusersofEnglishtohighlightcertainpartsofthecontentofaclauseinthismanner,andinthischapterwewilllookatanumberofwaysinwhichspeakersandwriterscandoso.Thisiscalledinformationstructuring.

Beforeweproceedweneedtodistinguishbetweentwotypesofmeaning:

propositionalmeaningandnon-propositionalmeaning.Theformerisasemanticnotion,concernedwithwhatisexpressedbytheverbanditsarguments,aswellasanyAdjuncts,abstractingawayfromaparticularcontextofuse.Inthecaseofanexamplelike(1)thepropositionalmeaningroughlyequatesto‘xmarryy(atsomepointtinthepast)’,withthevaluesforxandyfixedas‘Pete’and‘astrongwoman’,respectively.Bycontrast,whenwespeakofnon-propositionalmeaningwearetalkingabouthowprocessessuchasinformationstructuringcanaffectinterpretation.Asaruleofthumb,iftheconstituentsinaclausearereorderedbyaninformationstructuringprocess,thepropositionalmeaningoftheclausedoesnotchange,butthenon-propositionalmeaningdoes.

Wecouldsaythatthemeaningofanutteranceonaparticularoccasionisthesumtotalofitspropositionalmeaninganditsnon-propositionalmeaning.Returningto(1)andJim’ssecondutterancein(2),theirpropositionalmeaningisthesame,namely‘xmarryy(atsomepointtinthepast)’,againwiththevaluesforxandyfixedas‘Pete’and‘astrongwoman’.However,Jim’ssecondutterancein(2),withadisplacedDirectObject,hasanaddedlayerofnon-propositionalmeaning,namelytheinformationstructuringeffectsofdisplacingandstressingtheDirectObject.Inthisparticularconversationalsetting,theinformationstructuringeffectamountstocorrectingawrongassumptiononthepartofMegthatPetemarriedthewrongwoman.

Presentinginformationdifferentlycanbedoneinmanyways,forexamplebydisplacementandstress,asabove,butalsobynon-linguisticmeanssuchasaccompanyinganutterancewithfacialexpressions,gestures,andsoon.InthischapterIwillfocusonlyonthedifferentsyntacticpossibilitiesofexpressingapropositionindifferentways.

11.2Twoprinciplesofinformationstructuring

Informationstructuringis‘regulated’byanumberofprinciples,chiefamongthemtheGiven-Before-NewPrincipleandthePrincipleofEndWeight.Theformerstipulatesthatspeakersandwriters,incomposingtheirmessages,willtendtoplacegiveninformationbeforenewinformation.Weunderstandgiveninformationtobeinformationthatis‘known’intheprevioussituationalorlinguisticcontext,thatis,sharedbetween

interlocutors.Newinformationhasnotbecomeknowninthisway.Bycontrast,thePrincipleofEndWeightstipulatesthat‘heavy’constituents,inthesenseofunitscontainingmanywords,tendtobeplacedattheendofamessage.Wewillcomeacrossexamplesofthesetwoprinciplesinwhatfollows.Aswewillsee,bothprinciplescanbeoverridden.

11.3Movement

Insection11.1wesawthatwecanhighlightinformationbydisplacingaparticularunitinaclause.Asinpreviouschapters,thereisnosuggestionherethatweshouldregarddisplacementasaprocessthathappensinthemind;makinguseofthenotionofdisplacementismerelyaconvenientwayofdescribingthestructureswearedealingwith.

Weneedtodistinguishobligatorymovementfromoptionalmovement.Theformerisexemplifiedbyopeninterrogativeclausessuchas(3)(seeSection6.2.1).

HeretheDirectObjectofSAYhasbeendisplacedfromthepositionindicatedby‘_’tothebeginningoftheclause.Toformanopeninterrogativeclauseaspeakermustmovethewh-phrasetoaclause-initialposition,aswellasimplementSubject–auxiliaryinversion(seesection11.7below).Bycontrast,whenmovementiseffectedforinformationstructuringreasons,itisnormallyoptional,aswewillsee.Wedistinguishleftwardmovementsfromrightwardmovements.

11.3.1Leftwardmovements

DisplacementstotheleftaretypicallyregulatedbytheGiven-Before-NewPrinciple,ortheyaremotivatedbyadesireonthepartofaspeakertoestablishacontrastbetweenconstituentsindifferentclauses.

11.3.1.1Preposing

Considerthefollowingfragmentfromaconversation.

4IgoinWaterstones,orwherever,andbuypaperbacksandreadthemandprobablycastthemasideorgivethemorlendthemtosomeoneelse,andforgetwhoyou’velentthemto.ButhardbacksIwouldn’tlendtoanyone.

NoticethatinthesecondsentencetheDirectObjectoftheverbLEND,hardbacks,isnotplacedinitscanonicalpositionaftertheverb,butatthebeginningoftheclause.Wecanrepresentthisdisplacementasin(5).

Thistypeofpreposingiscalledtopicalization.Thisisbecausethefirstslotinaclauseisoftenoccupiedbyastringofwordsthatspecifieswhattheclauseisabout;itisthetopicposition.Topicscharacteristicallyrepresentgiveninformationinclauses,andusuallyfunctionasSubject.In(4)thetopicNPhardbacksrepresentsgiveninformationbecausetheconversationisaboutbooks.Thepreposedphraseestablishesalinkwithasimilarphrase(paperbacks)earlieroninthediscourse.Hereisafurtherexamplefromanovel.

6Shewaspreventedfrommeetingamanwithwhomshewasinfatuated,amanwhospenteverydayoftheweekthreehundredyardsfromherownhousebytheproprieties,bythoseabsurdsocialconventionswhichdictatedwhatwasbecomingaladyofherposition,andfurthermorebydutytoKingandcountry.Sheshudderedassherememberedherprejudiceswhichamountedtospurningwithcontumelyanddisgusttheenemyatherdoor.Herdutytoherhusband,fightingonforeignfieldforhisandherfreedom,shedidnotconsideratall.

Thesecondpartofthisfragmentisanalysedasin(7).

ThepreposedphraseclearlyestablishesalinkwiththephrasedutytoKingandcountryintheprecedingcontext.

Althoughitisrare,IndirectObjectscanalsobepreposed,asintheexampleshownbelow.

8WellI’vebeendoingalotofresearchintothis,and

TheclauseintroducedbyhowfunctionsasDirectObject(seesection7.3.1.2.5).

Othertypesofphraseswithdifferentfunctionscanalsobepreposed,asintheexamplesbelow.

In(12)and(13)wehaveavariantofpreposing.Itinvolvesthedisplacementofaconstituent,typicallyanadjectivephrase,frominsideathough-clausetotheleft.

Theversionsoftheseexampleswithoutdisplacementareshownin(14)and(15).

14Thoughtheybothareexcellent,theymaynotbeenough.

15Thoughitistemptingtolinkrisingcrimeandtheeconomicdownturn,factorssuchasinequalityplayafargreaterrole.

Displacementfromclauseswithasisalsopossible.

However,hereaversionwithoutdisplacementisnotpossible.

17*Myretailjob,asitiscrazy,keepsmesane.

Aswiththeearlierexamplesofpreposing,thedisplacedphrasesrepresentgiveninformation,andoftenestablishalinkwiththeprecedingcontext.Thefollowingpassagemakesthisclear.

18Atthestart,theauthorappearstobegoingthroughthesameagoniesasthereader.Whyspendtimethinkingaboutpeoplewhospendtheirlivesregularlyeatingagainsttheclock?‘Competitiveeating’,writesFagone,‘wasasymbolichairballcoughedupbytheAmericanid.Itwasmeaningfullikeatumourwasmeaningful.’Inotherwords,horriblethoughitis,competitiveeatingisworthwritingabout,asasignoftheworstaspectsofhumannature.

Inthispassagetheadjectivehorriblecanberegardedasgiveninformation,becauseitislinkedintheprecedingtextwithsomethingthatisunpleasant,namelycompetitiveeating.

Finally,inthefollowingexamplethepreposingofthenounphrasesetsupa

contrast.ConsideragainJim’sresponsein(2),repeatedin(19).

Aswehaveseen,JimiscorrectingawrongassumptiononthepartofMegthatPetemarriedthewrongwoman.

11.3.1.2Leftdislocation

Considertheexamplesshownin(20)and(21).

20ThecolleagueImentionedtoyou,Imarriedher.

21Yourmother,shewasjustmisunderstood.

Inbothcasesanounphrasehasbeenpreposed,buta‘copy’isleftintheregularpositionoftheNPsintheshapeofapronoun.Inthefirstexample,aDirectObjectiscopied;inthesecondexample,aSubject.Thisprocessiscalledleftdislocation.Inspeechthereisoftenashortpauseaftertheleft-dislocatedphrase,whichusuallyrepresentsgiveninformation.Thepragmaticeffectofleftdislocationisthatitcreatesdiscoursecohesionortextualcohesion.Noticethatin(20)thedislocatedNPconveysgiveninformation,witnessthepresenceofthedefinitearticlethe,whichsignalsthatthecolleagueinquestionisidentifiablefromtheprecedingdiscourseorrepresentssharedknowledge.Aswehaveseen,giveninformationtendstoprecedenewinformation.Example(21)isfromanovel.Thephraseyourmotherisusedintheimmediatelyprecedingtext(notshownhere),andhencerepresentsgiveninformation.Byplacingitinclause-initialpositionatextuallinkbetweenthetwoinstancesofthephraseiscreated.

11.3.2Rightwardmovements

DisplacementstotherightarecharacteristicallyregulatedbythePrincipleofEndWeight,introducedinsection11.2.

11.3.2.1Postposing

Asanexampleofpostposing,consider(22).

22Shecalls[NPwritingpaper][NPnotepaper].

RecallthatwefunctionallyanalysedanexamplelikethisasinvolvingaSubject(she),aPredicator(calls),aDirectObject(writingpaper),andanObject-relatedPredicativeComplement(notepaper)inacomplextransitivecomplementationpattern(seesection4.1.3.3.2).ConsidernextthesameexamplewithalengthenedDO.

23Shecalls[NPanykindofpaperthatcanbeusedforcorrespondence][NPnotepaper].

BecausetheaddresseewillhavetowaitalongtimebeforetheObject-relatedPredicativeComplementcomesalong,(23)ishardtoprocess,andforthisreasontheDOwilltendtobepostposedrightwards,asin(24).

Thisdisplacement,calledHeavyNounPhraseShift,isinaccordancewiththePrincipleofEndWeight:becausetheDirectObjectNPisheavyitismovedtotheendoftheclauseresultingintheorderSubject–Predicator–Object-relatedPredicativeComplement–DirectObject.ThelengthieranunmovedDirectObjectis,theharderitistoprocessthecontainingclause,andthemorelikelyitisthatitwillbemoved‘across’theObject-relatedPredicativeComplement.Thefollowingexamplemakesthisparticularlyclear.

HeretheconstituentorderisPredicator(lays)+gap+Object-relatedPredicativeComplement(bare)+DirectObject(themechanisms…versa).ThebracketedDOisaverylongandcomplexnounphrase,andhasbeenpostposedtotherightfromthepositionindicatedby‘_’inconformitywiththePrincipleofEndWeight.HadtheDOstayedinitsregularposition,theclausewouldhavebeenvirtuallyimpossibletoprocess.

11.3.2.2Extraposition

Aswesawinsections3.2.2.1.2,7.3.1.1,and7.3.1.2,whenaclauseismovedandanticipatoryitissubstitutedforthedisplacedclauseasaplace-holder,wespeakofextraposition.Herearesomefurtherexamples.

In(26)and(27)theSubjectsoftheclauseshavebeendisplacedtotheright.Bycontrast,in(28)aDirectObjecthasbeenmovedtotheendoftheclause.Inallthesecasesthedisplacedclausesareheavy,andthereforeprefertocomelast,inaccordancewiththePrincipleofEndWeight.Extrapositionisoptionalfor(26),asitscounterpartin(29)shows.

29[Thatfarmersareveryhappy]isquiteclear.

Bycontrast,itisobligatoryfor(27)and(28),ascanbeseenbelow,wherethedisplacedunitshavebeen‘putback’intotheSubjectandDirectObjectpositions,respectively.

30*[Thattheyweren’tgettinganybetter]seemedtome.

31*Rajivfound[thathispoliciesmadelittleimpactonpoverty]frustrating.

However,noticein(32)thatpreposingofthecontentclausetoaclause-initialpositionwithoutinsertingitispossiblefor(28).

Extrapositionisalsoobligatoryin(33),which,like(28),involvesacomplextransitivepatternwithathat-clausefunctioningasDirectObject.Herethedummypronounitispossibleinthepositionindicatedby‘_’,butitsomissionfacilitatesthe‘flow’oftheclause.

11.3.2.3Rightdislocation

Consider(34).

34Imarriedher,thewomanImentionedtoyou.

Thisisthemirrorimageof(20),repeatedhereas(35).

35ThecolleagueImentionedtoyou,Imarriedher.

In(34)theDirectObjectisdisplacedtotheright,witha‘copy’intheshapeofapronouninthe‘regular’DirectObjectposition.Thisprocessiscalled

rightdislocation.Whenutteredthereisnormallyashortpauseafterthepronoun.Thispatterncanbeusedinasituationinwhichthespeakerthinksthatthehearermaynotbesurewhothepronounherrefersto.ForclaritythefullreferentialNPisspelledout.Thispatternisnoteworthybecausetheright-dislocatedconstituentsrepresentgiveninformation,andtheGiven-Before-NewPrincipleisthusoverridden.

11.4Passivization

RecallthatsyntacticallypassiveclausesinvolvethepassiveauxiliaryBEfollowedbyapastparticipleandanoptionalby-phrase.LesscommonlythepassiveconstructioncontainstheverbGET(section3.6.3.4).TheSubjectpositionofpassiveclausesischaracteristicallyfilledbyanounphrasethatcarriesthesemanticroleofPatientorTheme.Hereisanexample.

36Theprocesswasdevisedin1795byamancalledConté.

Theactivecounterpartofthisexampleisshownin(37).

37AmancalledContédevisedtheprocessin1795.

NoticethattheDirectObjectoftheactiveclause(theprocess)istheSubjectofthepassiveclause.Aswehaveseen,EnglishalsohaspassivestructuresinwhichtheSubjectcorrespondstoanIndirectObjectortheComplementofaprepositioninanactiveclause,as(38)and(39)show.

38Parliamentwasgiventhebestestimate.

Cf.ThecommitteegaveParliamentthebestestimate.

39Theproblemwasdealtwith.

Cf.Thepolicedealtwiththeproblem.

Passiveclauseshavethesamepropositionalmeaning(section11.1)astheiractivecounterparts.However,(36)and(37)conveysubtlydifferentnon-propositionalmeanings.Aswehaveseen,byvirtueofbeingpositionedatthebeginningofaclausetheSubjectissaidtobethetopic,andbecausethe

activeandpassiveclausesabovehavedifferentSubjects,wecansaythattheyfocusondifferenttopics.Thus(36)canbesaidtobeabout‘theprocess’,whereas(37)isabout‘amancalledConté’.Theorderoftheconstituentsin(36)isinconformitywiththeGiven-Before-NewPrinciple.The‘process’referredtoin(36)constitutesgiveninformationbecauseitisidentifiabletotheaddresseefromtheprecedingtext,shownin(40),whichmakesreferencetoaprocessof‘firing’.

40Pencil“lead”todayiscomposedoflesspuregraphite–mostlyfromMexico–andBavarianclay,firedlikeporcelaininakiln.

NoticealsothattheNPtheprocessin(36)isdefinite.BecausethepassiveclauseconformstotheGiven-Before-NewPrincipleitismorenaturalthanitsactivecounterpartin(37)whichhasnewinformation(thephraseamancalledConté)placedclause-initially.Havingthenewinformationinclause-finalpositionin(36)makesConté,andhisroleindevisingthefiringprocess,morefocal.

Theby-phrase,whichtypicallyexpressesthesemanticroleofAgentinthepassiveversionsofactiveclausesthatexpressanaction,cangenerallybeleftout.Whenthisisdonewespeakofanagentlesspassive.LeavingouttheAgentcanbedoneforanumberofreasons.OnereasoncouldbethattheAgentisalreadyknown.AnothermightbethatthespeakerdoesnotwanttodrawattentiontotheAgent,ordoesnotknowwhotheAgentis.NoticethatifweleaveouttheAgentin(36)theaddressee’sattentionisfocusedontheactionofdevisingaprocess.OmittingtheAgentisnotalwayspossible.Ifweremovetheby-phrasefrom(41)wederive(42)whichisungrammatical.

41Theguminfectioniscausedbytwogermsthatlivetogether.

42*Theguminfectioniscaused.

11.5TheIndirectObject–PrepositionalPhraseasComplementalternation

Inthefollowingexamplewehaveaditransitivecomplementationpattern(seesection4.1.3.2),involvinganIndirectObjectandaDirectObject.

43InSeptember1921,theBritishnewspapersgaveonestoryprominence–LansburywasinBrixtonprison.

Analternative(attested)constituentorderisshownin(44).

44InSeptember1921,theBritishnewspapersgaveprominencetoonestory–LansburywasinBrixtonprison.

InthisversiontheNPonestory,whichistheIndirectObjectin(43),functionsasComplementoftheprepositionto.ItisnolongeranIO.AtclauselevelthePPtoonestoryfunctionsasaComplementoftheverb(section4.1.3.2.1).Noticethat(43)islessnaturalthan(44),giventhatthePrincipleofEndWeightisnotrespected:aheavierunitconsistingoftwowordsprecedesalightunitconsistingofjustoneword.In(44)theinformationflowisoptimal,becausethePrincipleofEndWeightisrespected,andbecausethecontentofthestory,whichisspecifiedafterthedash,isdirectlyjuxtaposedtothenounphraseonestory.

Considernext(45).

45Theygavemealotionthatwasn’tasgoodasthecream.

NoticethatthisexampleconformstoboththeGiven-Before-NewPrincipleandthePrincipleofEndWeight:theNPalotionthatwasn’tasgoodasthecreamcarriesnewinformation(witnesstheindefinitearticle),comeslast,andisalsoaheavyphrase.TheIOisapersonalpronoun,whichconveysgiveninformationbecausethepersonreferredtoisidentifiablebytheaddressee.Analternativeconstituentorderfor(45)isshownin(46).

46Theygavealotionthatwasn’tasgoodasthecreamtome.

Thisorderislessnaturalthan(45),giventhatbothorderingprinciplesarenotrespected:newinformationprecedesoldinformation,andaheavyunitprecedesalightunit.

ThenextexampleconformstotheGiven-Before-NewPrinciple(therestaurantisknowntotheaddressee),butthePrincipleofEndWeightdoesnotapply,giventhatboththeIOandtheDOhavethesamelength,measuredinnumberofwords.

47Weneedtogivetherestaurantaring.

Example(48)isunusualinhavingdefiniteNPsfunctioningasIOandDO.Bothexpressidentifiableinformation,sotheGiven-Before-NewPrincipleisnotrelevant.AviolationofthePrincipleofEndWeightexplainswhy(49)soundsodd.(Inaddition,noticethatthepronountheyisfollowedbyitsantecedent.)

48Itgives[thepeopleofourcountry][theopportunitiesforemploymentandforearningswhichtheywant].

49?Itgives[theopportunitiesforemploymentandforearningswhichtheywant][tothepeopleofourcountry].

11.6Theexistentialandpresentationalconstructions

Existentialconstructionsinvolveclausesthatareintroducedbyexistentialthere(section3.2.2.1.3)followedbytheverbBEoroneoftheraising-to-Subjectverbs(APPEAR,SEEM,etc.;section8.1.3.4).Wedistinguishbareexistentialsfromextendedexistentials.Inthepresentationalconstructionthenounthereisfollowedbyaverbfromasmallsetofverbsof‘appearance’,suchasAPPEAR,ENTER,andEMERGE.

11.6.1Thebareexistentialconstruction

Bareexistentialsconformtothetemplatebelow.

Bareexistential

There+BE/raisingverb+semanticSubject(+Adjunct(s))

ThereisthegrammaticalSubject,whichfillstheSubjectslotandismeaningless.ThesemanticSubjectistheconstituentintheclausethathasasemanticroletoplayvis-à-vistheverb(section4.2).Herearesomeexamples,inwhichthesemanticSubjectisinboldfacetype.TheunderlinedAdjunctsin(51)can(bydefinition)beomittedwithoutaffectingthegrammaticalityoftheclauses.Bareexistentialsdonothaveanon-existentialcounterpart.

50Thereisacrisis.

Cf.*Acrisisis.

51ThereisashortageofaccommodationhereduetotheimpendingOlympics.

Cf.*AshortageofaccommodationishereduetotheimpendingOlympics.

52Thereseemstohavebeensomesortofinterruption.

Cf.*Somesortofinterruptionseemstohavebeen.

53ThereappearstobeaBarcelonaequivalentofCamdenMarket.

Cf.*ABarcelonaequivalentofCamdenMarketappearstobe.

11.6.2Theextendedexistentialconstruction

Theextendedexistentialconformstothetemplatebelow.

Extendedexistential

There+BE/raisingverb+semanticSubject+extension

Extendedexistentialshaveanon-existentialcounterpart,andinvolvealocative,temporal,predicative,infinitival,orparticipialextensionwhichtypicallycannotbeleftoutwithoutaradicalchangeinmeaning.Asbefore,thesemanticSubjectsintheexamplesthatfollowareinbold;thematerialthatbelongstotheextensionisdoublyunderlined.

54Thereweretwomeninsidethefiveyardarea.

Non-existentialversion:Twomenwereinsidethefiveyardarea.

Cf.‘Thereweretwomen.(Thiscanbeacceptable,butwithadifferentmeaning.)

55Therearebitsmissing.

Non-existentialversion:Bitsaremissing.

Cf.*Therearebits.(Acceptablewithadifferentmeaning.)

56Thereisacasetobemade.

Non-existentialversion:Acaseistobemade.

Cf.*Thereisacase.(Acceptablewithadifferentmeaning.)

57WellthereweresomanyDutchpeoplewantingtocomehere.

Non-existentialversion:SomanyDutchpeoplewerewantingtocomehere.

Cf.*ThereweresomanyDutchpeople.(Acceptablewithadifferentmeaning.)

11.6.3Thepresentationalconstruction

Whenthereisfollowedbyoneofasmallsetofverbsof‘appearance’,‘emergence’,andthelike(e.g.APPEAR,ARISE,ARRIVE,BEGIN,COME,DEVELOP,EMERGE,ENTER,ESCAPE,EXIST,LIVE,LOOM,OCCUR,REMAIN,STAND),wespeakofpresentationalthereintroducingthepresentationalconstruction.

Presentationalconstruction

There+verbof‘appearance’+semanticSubject+(Adjunct(s))/(extension)

Asbefore,inthefollowingexamplesthesemanticSubjectisinbold.ThepresentationalconstructioncanbeofthebaretypewithanoptionalAdjunct(underlined),oroftheextendedtypewithanextension(doublyunderlined)whichistypicallyoptional.ThelattercanbeplacedbeforetheSubject,asin(62).Anadjunctmayalsooccur.

58Inallthatdrearywildernesstherewasnotalighttobeseenuntil,beyondawood,thereappearedatinygoldencubethatseemedmagicallysuspendedinair.

59Therebeganan11-yearstintduringwhichhelethisambitionrun

wild,sometimesagainsttheadviceofhisbosses.

60Inallwalksoflifethereexistpeoplewhofeelitnecessarytotakeontheroleofthetypicalschoolbully,preparedtoisolateandexploitothers.

61ThereremainfivebridgesacrosstheTigrisinthedowntownareaalone,allintact.

62Thisflatwasbynomeansdark;largewindowsinallfourofitsroomsadmittedbothmorningandafternoonlight,andoneachofthewindow-ledgestherestoodawell-tendedboxofbrightlycolouredflowers–pansies,trailingaubretia,raresummer-floweringcrocuses.

TypicallytheexistentialandpresentationalconstructionsinvolveasemanticSubjectthatisnewtotheaddressee,andhenceoccursmorenaturallylaterintheclauseinaccordancewiththeGiven-Before-NewPrinciple.Tomakethisclear,compare(58)with(63).

63Inallthatdrearywildernesstherewasnotalighttobeseenuntil,beyondawood,atinygoldencubethatseemedmagicallysuspendedinairappeared.

ThesemanticSubjectin(58),theNPatinygoldencubethatseemedmagicallysuspendedinair,containsnewinformation(witnesstheindefinitearticle),andforthatreasonismorenaturallyplacedfurthertotheright.Noticealsothat(58)satisfiesthePrincipleofEndWeight.In(63)theheavySubject(initalics)ispositionedawkwardlybeforetheverb.

11.7Inversion

Inversioninvolvesconstituentsexchangingplacesinaclause,sometimesinvolvingminorsyntacticadjustments.Weneedtodistinguishobligatoryinversionfromoptionalinversion.Theformeroccurs,forexample,inclosedinterrogativeclauses(e.g.Didyoucallhim?;seeSection6.2.2),wheretheSubjectandtheauxiliaryverbDOareinverted.Crucially,speakershavenochoiceastowhetherornottoapplyinversion:iftheywishtouseaclosedinterrogativeclausetheymustapplyit.Bycontrast,inversionthatisappliedforinformationstructuringpurposesisoptional,withoneortwoexceptions.

Considerfirsttheexamplesin(64)and(65),andtheiruninvertedcounterpartsin(66)and(67).

64[AdjPImperativetoo]is[NPtheneedtoeconomiseattheHomeOffice].

65[AdjPMostrelevant]was[NPadramatizedversionofhowthenewsoftheBattleofTrafalgarwasbroughttoLondon].

66TheneedtoeconomiseattheHomeOfficeisimperativetoo.

67AdramatizedversionofhowthenewsoftheBattleofTrafalgarwasbroughttoLondonwasmostrelevant.

In(64)and(65)theitalicizedSubjectnounphraseshavebeeninvertedwiththeadjectivephrases,whichfunctionasSubject-relatedPredicativeComplements.(66)and(67)displaytheunmarked(i.e.expected)constituentorder.NoticethatthemotivationfortheinversionisthelengthoftheSubjectsin(66)and(67):movingthemtotheendoftheclausesatisfiesthePrincipleofEndWeight.Inaddition,inbothcasestheadjectivephrasessupplyoldinformation,witnessthepresenceofthewordstooandmost,andhenceplacingtheminclause-initialpositionsatisfiestheGiven-Before-NewPrinciple.Intheexamplebelow,theheavinessoftheSubject(italicized)isparticularlyclear.

68Besidesfavouritebooks,[AdjPessential]seemedtobe[NPaliterarylandscape(Leeds?),aknowledgeofmetreandscansionand(thiswastheclincher)apassionfortheIcelandicsagas].

Theexamplesin(69)–(72)areslightlydifferentbecauseinthesecasestheinversioninvolvesapreposedlocativeortemporalexpression.

69And[here]comes[theNorthernLine].

70[Then]came[AllanSmith’sequaliser].

71Andthensuddenly[fromthebottom]appears[amotorcar].

72[Below]issuggested[amoresophisticatedapproachtothisproblem].

Considernext(73)–(75).

73[Backingit]was[amassive6-speedZFgearbox].

74[Runningalongastripjustabovethekeyboard]are[somefamiliarfeaturesofdigitalparameteraccess:anExitbutton,adataentrysliderandincrement/decrementbuttons,atwo-digitLEDdisplayforthecurrently-selectedprogramnumber,twobacklitLCDwindows,Pageup/downandCursorleft/rightbuttons,anInt/Cardselectorbutton,eightBankandeightNumberbuttonsforPatchselection,andbuttonsprovidingdirectaccesstoCompare,Copy,Manual,WriteandDataTransferfunctions].

75[Tuckedawayintheupperleft-handcornerofthemaineditingpanel]are[foursliderscollectivelyknownasthePalette].

IntheseexamplestheComplementsofBE(backingit,runningalongastripjustabovethekeyboard,andtuckedawayintheupperleft-handcornerofthemaineditingpanel)havebeenpreposed,andthisisaccompaniedbypostponementoftheSubject.In(73)anNPcarryingnewinformationoccursinclause-finalpositioninaccordancewiththeGiven-Before-NewPrinciple.Example(74)isespeciallynoteworthy:haditsextremelylongSubjectappearedintheregularSubjectposition,theclausewouldhavebeenveryhardtocomprehend.In(75)itmightappearatfirstsightthattheconstituentorderisunexpected,sincethesequencetuckedawayintheupperleft-handcornerofthemaineditingpanelis‘heavier’thantheitalicizedSubject,andthereisthusaviolationofthePrincipleofEndWeight.Toexplainthisweneedtolookatwhatprecedes(75)inthetextinwhichitappears,namely(76).

76Incidentally,allyourfront-panelsynthesiseditscanoptionallybetransmittedviaMIDIasSysExdata,andsorecordedintoaMIDIsequencerforsubsequentplayback.

Thetechnicalcontentofthisexampleneednotconcernushere.Whatisimportantisthatmentionismadeofsomesortof‘panelforediting’.Sincesuchapanelhasnowbeenintroducedintothediscourse,itisnolongernewinformation,andthewordorderin(75)isthereforeinharmonywiththeGiven-Before-NewPrinciple.Wethusseethat,ininformationprocessingterms,theinversionservestomakethetextflowbetter,andaidstextualcohesion.WealsoseethataprinciplelikethePrincipleofEndWeightcanbeoverriddenbythedynamicsofotherinformationprocessingconcerns.

11.8Clefting

Cleftingisaprocedurewhichdividesaclauseintotwopartsforinformationhighlightingpurposes.Wedistinguishit-cleftsfromwh-clefts.Thelatterarealsocalledpseudoclefts.

11.8.1It-clefts

Considertheexamplesbelow.

77Simionihasgonedown.

78Ancienthistoryattractedme.

79Youneedexercise.

80TheyoungDutchmanfirstfellinlovehere.

81I’dwantedtoworkinthetheatreforsometime.

82IconsultedwiththechairmanoftheSelectCommitteeonthismatter.

Theseclauseshaveanunmarked(i.e.regular)clausestructurewherenoneoftheitemsoccursinaninformationallyprivilegedposition.Wecanformit-cleftversionsoftheseclausesusingthetemplatebelow,asin(83)–(88).

It-cleft

It+BE+{focus}+relativeclause(who(m)/that/Ø/which…)

83Itis{Simioni}who’sgonedown.

84Itwas{ancienthistory}thatattractedme.

85Itis{exercise}youneed.

86Itwas{here}thattheyoungDutchmanfirstfellinlove.

87Itwas{thetheatre}thatI’dwantedtoworkinforsometime.

88Itwas{thismatter}onwhichIconsultedwiththechairmanoftheSelectCommittee.

Itisimportanttostressthatparticularclausescanhavemorethanonecleftversion.Forexample,(78)alsohas(89)asapossiblecleft,and(80)has(90)asanalternativecleft.

89Itwas{me}whowasattractedtoancienthistory.

90Itwas{theyoungDutchman}whofirstfellinlovehere.

TheSubjectpositionoftheit-clefttemplateisfilledbythepronounit(calledcleftit,section3.2.2.1.2),whichisfollowedbyaformoftheverbBE,Thisinturnisfollowedbythefocuspositionwhichallowsspeakerstohighlightaconstituent.Therelativeclause,introducedbywho(m),that,Ø,orwhich,providesfurtherinformationabouttheelementinthefocusposition.UnliketherelativeclausesthatwerediscussedinSection7.3.3,relativeclausesincleftconstructionsdonotformaconstituentwithanantecedent.Thus,in(83)Simioniandwho’sgonedowndonotformanNP.

Differentitemsareinthefocuspositionin(83)–(88)above:theSubjectsof(77)and(78),theDirectObjectof(79),anAdjunctin(80),andtheComplementofaprepositionin(81)and(82).Almostanytypeofconstituentcanoccurinthefocusposition,thoughnotverbsandverbphrases,as(91)shows.

91*Itwasattractmethatancienthistorydid.

Thefocuspositionisusuallyoccupiedbyunitsthatprovideforegroundedinformation:ithighlightsaconstituentwhichmeritsspecialattention.Thusin(83),whichisfromacommentaryonanincidentinafootballmatchinwhichitwasnotimmediatelycleartothecommentatorwhofelltotheground,Simioniisfinallyidentifiedasthepersonwhowentdown.In(84),fromaninterviewwithanovelist,ancienthistoryiscontrastedwithothertopicsthatarementionedintheprecedingdiscussion.Therelativeclausecanspecifyeitheroldornewinformation,butinanycaseprovidesinformationthatisnotunderprimaryconsideration:itisbackgrounded.

11.8.2Wh-clefts(orpseudoclefts)

Considerthefollowingexamples.

92Isawoneofthemostimpressivegovernmentpoliciesinyears.

93Youwearitlikethat.

94Theyactuallysent6hugeC.I.D.mentosaythatI’daccusedherofstealingthevideoandthatIwasnofriendofhers.

95IsentacomplainttoRadio2.

96You’llfindthatpeoplewhoarenearerthecamerawillbebleachedout.

97Ididn’tlikeleavingmymum.

Thewh-cleftversionsoftheseclauseshaveastructureinvolvingaclause-initialwh-item,usuallywhat(thoughwhereandwhenarealsopossible),followedbyaSubject,aPredicator,andotherpossibleelementsofclausestructure.Togethertheseformafreerelativeclause(section7.3.3.5)whichisfollowedbyaformoftheverbBEandthefocusposition,asshowninthetemplatebelow.

Wh-cleft

[freerelativeclausewh-word+SUBJ+PCR+(…)]+BE+{focus}

Noticethatinwh-cleftsthefocuspositionisattheendoftheclause.Astheexamplesbelowshow,awiderangeofconstituentscanoccurhere,forexamplenounphrases,asin(98),verbphrases,asin(99)–(101),andclauses,asin(102)–(103).Theconstituentthatfillsthefocuspositionidentifieswhateveritisthatthefreerelativeclausespecifiesasrequiringidentification.Thusin(98)theNPinfocuspositionidentifieswhatthespeakersaw.

98[freerelativeclauseWhatIsaw]was{oneofthemostimpressivegovernmentpoliciesinyears}.

99[freerelativeclauseWhatyoudo]is{wearitlikethat}.

100[freerelativeclauseWhattheyactuallydid]was{send6hugeC.I.D.mento

saythatI’daccusedherofstealingthevideoandthatIwasnofriendofhers}.

101[freerelativeclauseWhatIdid]was{sendacomplainttoRadio2}.

102[freerelativeclauseWhatyou’llfind]is{thatpeoplewhoarenearerthecamerawillbebleachedout}.

103[freerelativeclauseWhatIdidn’tlike]was{leavingmymum}.

Aswiththeit-clefts,morethanonewh-cleftversionisusuallypossible.Forexample,(95)alsohas(104)asapossiblecleft.

104[freerelativeclauseWhatIsenttoRadio2]was{acomplaint}.

Whenthefreerelativeclauseandthefocusarereversedwespeakofareversedwh-cleft.

105{Oneofthemostimpressivegovernmentpoliciesinyears}is[whatIsaw].

106{SendacomplainttoRadio2}is[whatIdid].

Notallwh-cleftshaveanuncleftedcounterpart.Thus(107)doesnothave(108)asitsnon-cleftversion.

107[WhatIfoundhappeningovertheperiodofstudy]was{thatIbegantobringthosetwoareastogether}.

108*IfoundthatIbegantobringthosetwoareastogetherhappeningovertheperiodofstudy.

Thefactthatnotallwh-cleftshaveanon-cleftcounterpartisoneofthemainreasonswhysomegrammarsspeakofpseudoclefts,ratherthanrealclefts.

Thefreerelativeclauseinwh-cleftsprovidesbackgroundedinformation:itisinformationthatissomehowknownbytheinterlocutors,orinformationwhichsomehowplayedaroleintheprecedingdiscourse.Aswithit-clefts,thefocuspositionisoccupiedbyconstituentsthatprovideforegrounded

information.

Appendix1:EnglishirregularverbsFormsprecededbythesuperscriptsymbol‘‡’arealternativeformswhicharerestrictedinuse(e.g.toparticularsenses).Theabbreviation‘arch.’indicatesanarchaicform,andtheannotations‘GB’and‘US’indicateBritishandAmericanusages,respectively.

plainform pasttenseform pastparticiple

abide abode,abided abode,abided

arise arose arisen

awake awoke awoken

be was/were been

bear bore borne

beat beat beaten

become became become

befall befell befallen

beget begot,arch.begat begotten

begin began begun

behold beheld beheld

bend bent bent

beseech beseeched,besought beseeched,besought

beset beset beset

bespeak bespoke bespoke,bespoken

bet bet,betted bet,betted

bid bade,bid bidden,bid

bind bound bound

bite bit bitten

bleed bled bled

blow blew blown

break broke broken

breed bred bred

bring brought brought

broadcast broadcast broadcast

browbeat browbeat browbeaten

build built built

burn burned,GBburnt burned,burnt

bust bust,GBbusted bust,GBbusted

buy bought bought

cast cast cast

catch caught caught

choose chose chosen

cleave cleft,cleaved,clove cleft,cleaved,cloven

cling clung clung

come came come

cost cost,‡costed cost,‡costed

creep crept crept

crow crowed,arch.crew crowed

cut cut cut

deal dealt dealt

dig dug dug

dive GBdived,USdove dived

do did done

draw drew drawn

dream dreamed,GBdreamt dreamed,GBdreamt

drink drank drunk

drive drove driven

dwell dwelt dwelt

eat ate eaten

fall fell fallen

feed fed fed

feel felt felt

fight fought fought

find found found

flee fled fled

fling flung flung

floodlight floodlit floodlit

fly flew flown

forbear forbore forborne

forbid forbade,forbad forbidden

forecast forecast,forecasted forecast,forecasted

foresee foresaw foreseen

foretell foretold foretold

forget forgot forgotten

forgive forgave forgiven

forsake forsook forsaken

forswear forswore forsworn

freeze froze frozen

gainsay gainsaid gainsaid

get got got,USgotten

give gave given

go went gone

grind ground ground

grow grew grown

hamstring hamstrung hamstrung

hang hung,‡hanged hung,‡hanged

have had had

hear heard heard

heave heaved,‡hove heaved,‡hove

hew hewed hewn,hewed

hide hid hidden

hit hit hit

hold held held

hurt hurt hurt

inlay inlaid inlaid

inset inset inset

interweave interwove interwoven

keep kept kept

kneel knelt,USkneeled knelt,USkneeled

knit knitted,knit knitted,knit

know knew known

lay laid laid

lead led led

lean leaned,GBleant leaned,GBleant

leap leaped,GBleapt leaped,GBleapt

learn learned,GBlearnt learned,GBlearnt

leave left left

lend lent lent

let let let

lie lay lain

light lit,‡lighted lit,‡lighted

lose lost lost

make made made

mean meant meant

meet met met

miscast miscast miscast

misdeal misdealt misdealt

mishear misheard misheard

mislay mislaid mislaid

mislead misled misled

misread/-ri:d/ misread/-red/ misread/-red/

misspell misspelled,GBmisspelt misspelled,GBmisspelt

misspend misspent misspent

mistake mistook mistaken

misunderstand misunderstood misunderstood

mow mowed mowed,mown

outbid outbid outbid,USoutbidden

outdo outdid outdone

outgrow outgrew outgrown

output output,outputted output,outputted

outrun outran outrun

outsell outsold outsold

outshine outshone outshone

overbid overbid overbid

overcome overcame overcome

overdo overdid overdone

overdraw overdrew overdrawn

overeat overate overeaten

overfly overflew overflown

overhang overhung overhung

overhear overheard overheard

overlay overlaid overlaid

overlie overlay overlain

overpay overpaid overpaid

override overrode overridden

overrun overran overrun

oversee oversaw overseen

overshoot overshot overshot

oversleep overslept overslept

overtake overtook overtaken

overthrow overthrew overthrown

partake partook partaken

pay paid paid

plead pleaded,USpled pleaded,USpled

prove proved proved,proven

put put put

quit quit,quitted quit,quitted

read/ri:d/ read/red/ read/red/

rebuild rebuilt rebuilt

recast recast recast

redo redid redone

rehear reheard reheard

remake remade remade

rend rent rent

repay repaid repaid

reread/-ri:d/ reread/-red/ reread/-red/

rerun reran rerun

resell resold resold

reset reset reset

resit resat resat

retake retook retaken

retell retold retold

rewrite rewrote rewritten

rid rid rid

ride rode ridden

ring rang rung

rise rose risen

run ran run

saw sawed sawed,GBsawn

say said said

see saw seen

seek sought sought

sell sold sold

send sent sent

set set set

sew sewed sewn,sewed

shake shook shaken

shear sheared shorn,‡sheared

shed shed shed

shine shone,‡shined shone,‡shined

shit shat shat

shoe shod shod

shoot shot shot

show showed shown,showed

shrink shrank shrunk,shrunken

shrive shrived,shrove shrived,shriven

shut shut shut

sing sang sung

sink sank sunk

sit sat sat

slay slew slain

sleep slept slept

slide slid slid

sling slung slung

slink slunk slunk

slit slit slit

smell smelled,GBsmelt smelled,GBsmelt

smite smote smitten

sow sowed sowed,sown

speak spoke spoken

speed sped,‡speeded sped,‡speeded

spell spelled,GBspelt spelled,GBspelt

spend spent spent

spill spilled,GBspilt spilled,GBspilt

spin spun,arch.span spun

spit spat spat

split split split

spoil spoiled,GBspoilt spoiled,GBspoilt

spotlight spotlit,spotlighted spotlit,spotlighted

spread spread spread

spring sprang sprung

stand stood stood

stave staved,stove staved,stove

steal stole stolen

stick stuck stuck

sting stung stung

stink stank,stunk stunk

strew strewed strewed,strewn

stride strode stridden

strike struck struck

string strung strung

strive strove striven

sublet sublet sublet

swear swore sworn

sweep swept swept

swell swelled swollen,swelled

swim swam swum

swing swung swung

take took taken

teach taught taught

tear tore torn

tell told told

think thought thought

thrive thrived,throve thrived,arch.thriven

throw threw thrown

thrust thrust thrust

tread trod trodden

underbid underbid underbid

undercut undercut undercut

undergo underwent undergone

underlie underlay underlain

underpay underpaid underpaid

undersell undersold undersold

understand understood understood

undertake undertook undertaken

underwrite underwrote underwritten

undo undid undone

unfreeze unfroze unfrozen

unlearn unlearned,GBunlearnt unlearned,GBunlearnt

unstick unstuck unstuck

unwind unwound unwound

uphold upheld upheld

upset upset upset

wake woke woken

waylay waylaid waylaid

wear wore worn

weave wove,weaved woven,weaved

wed wedded,wed wedded,wed

weep wept wept

wet wet,wetted wet,wetted

win won won

wind wound wound

withdraw withdrew withdrawn

withhold withheld withheld

withstand withstood withstood

wring wrung wrung

write wrote written

Appendix2:ThestructureoftheICE-GBcorpusICE-GBistheBritishcomponentoftheInternationalCorpusofEnglish.Itcontainsonemillionwordsoffullygrammaticallyanalysedtexts,almosttwothirdsofwhichisspoken.ThematerialissearchablewiththeinnovativeICECUPsoftware(InternationalCorpusofEnglishCorpusUtilityProgram).

Thestructureofthecorpusisshownbelow.Eachtextinthecorpuscontains2,000words.

TextCategories

Spoken(300texts)

Dialogue(180)

Private(100)

directconversations(90)

telephonecalls(10)

Public(80)

classroomlessons(20)

broadcastdiscussions(20)

broadcastinterviews(10)

parliamentarydebates(10)

legalcross-examinations(10)

businesstransactions(10)

Monologue(120)

Unscripted(70)

spontaneouscommentaries(20)

unscriptedspeeches(30)

demonstrations(10)

legalpresentations(10)

Scripted(50)

broadcastnews(20)

broadcasttalks(20)

non-broadcasttalks(10)

Written(200texts)

Non-printed(50)

students’untimedessays(10)

students’examinationscripts(10)

socialletters(15)

businessletters(15)

Printed(150)

Informationalwriting(100)

academic(40)

popular(40)

pressreports(20)

Instructionalwriting(20)

administrative/regulatory(10)

skillsandhobbies(10)

Persuasivewriting(10)

presseditorials(10)

Creativewriting(20)

novelsandstories(20)

Formoreinformation,seewww.ucl.ac.uk/english-usageandwww.ucl.ac.uk/englishusage/projects/ice-gb/index.htm.

NotesandfurtherreadingChapter1:AnoverviewofEnglishgrammar

ForgeneralintroductionstoEnglishlinguistics,seeCrystal(2003),andthechaptersinAartsandMcMahon(2006).Ongrammarandgrammarwriting,seeLeitner(1986),Michael(1970),andLinn(2006).Onthehistoryofprescriptivism,seeCrystal(2006).ApartfromQuirketal.(1985)andHuddlestonandPullumetal.(2002),somewell-knownmoderngrammarsofEnglishareJespersen(1909–1949),Poutsma(1914–1929),H.E.Palmer(1924),Kruisinga(1932),Zandvoort(1945),Curme(1947),Fries(1952),Long(1961),Stockwell,Schachter,andPartee(1973),Huddleston(1984),Givón(1993),McCawley(1998),andBiberetal.(1999).

OnEnglishusage,seePeters(2004,2006).

FormoreinformationontheBritishcomponentofTheInternationalCorpusofEnglish,seeAppendix2andNelson,Wallis,andAarts(2002).

Chapter2:Wordstructureandword-formation

Onmorphology,seeSpencer(1991),Carstairs-McCarthy(2002),Bauer(2003,2004),KatambaandStonham(2006),andBooij(2007).Onword-formation,seeMarchand(1969),Bauer(1983),Adams(2001),andPlag(2003).Oncompounding,seeBauer(1998,2006).Oninflectionandderivation,seeBlevins(2006).

InmanyaccountsofEnglishgrammarthenotion‘finite’isequatedwith‘tensed’.Thisisnotentirelyunproblematic,especiallyregardingthesubjunctiveandimperativeinEnglishwhichmostgrammarsclaiminvolvefiniteverbs.Ifwerecognizea‘presentsubjunctive’and‘pastsubjunctive’thereisnoproblem,butifwesay,asdoHuddlestonandPullumetal.(2002:88),that‘subjunctiveverbs’involvetheplainformoftheverbinthecaseofthe‘presentsubjunctive’,andthatwehavea‘subjunctiveconstruction’,ratherthanasubjunctiveverbform,thenitishardtoseewhya‘subjunctiveverb’shouldberegardedastensedorfinite.Itisforthisreasonthat‘subjunctiveverbs’arenottensedorfiniteforHuddlestonandPullumetal.(ibid.:85,87).Thesameappliesto‘imperative

verbs’.Theseauthorsalsoarguethatthereisno‘pastsubjunctive’verbforminEnglish,becauseitwouldbeindistinguishablefromthepasttenseform.(Theyregardwere,asinIfIwereyou,whichtheycallirrealiswere,asbeingexceptional.)Nevertheless,HuddlestonandPullumetal.(ibid.:90)saythatsubjunctiveconstructions,asopposedtoverbforms,arefinitebecausetheirsyntaxresemblesthatoftensedclausesforthreereasons:theyhaveanobligatorysubject,theytakethesamesubordinatorsasdotenseddeclarativeclauses,andtheycanalternatewithtensedconstructions.

Chapter3:Wordclassesandsimplephrases

OnwordclassesingeneralseeAartsandHaegeman(2006).OnEnglishverbsseePalmer(1987)andLeech(2004),andonauxiliariesinparticular,seeWarner(1993).Onpersonalpronouns,seeWales(1996).Ongradiencebetweenwordclasses,seeTaylor(2003),Aartsetal.(2004),andAarts(2007).

Therearemanydisagreementsabouttheassignmentofagreatnumberofelementstothevariouswordclasses.Itwouldtakeuptoomuchspacetolistthemallhere.Whatfollowsbelowisabriefoverviewofthemajordifferencesbetweengrammaticalframeworks,especiallyQuirketal.(1985)andHuddlestonandPullumetal.(2002).

InQuirketal.(1985:335f.)pronounsaretreatedasaseparatewordclass.ForHuddlestonandPullumetal.(2002:425f.)theyareasubclassofnouns.Thelatterrecognizefiveclassesofpronouns:personal,reciprocal,interrogative,relative,andtemporal.Reflexivepronounsareincludedwithintheclassofpersonalpronouns.Temporalpronounsarewordsliketoday(analysedasnounsinthepresentbook).HuddlestonandPullumetal.(2002:1461)recognizeacategoryofpro-formswhichoverlapswiththepronouns.

Inmanyframeworks,ifaparticularwordhasadependentandanindependentuse,itisassignedtodifferentwordclasses,ashasbeendoneinthisgrammarfortheseinIlikethesebooksandIlikethese,whereintheformerexampletheseisadeterminative,whileinthelatteritisapronoun.InHuddlestonandPullumetal.(2002)bothinstancesofthesearedeterminatives,butwithdifferentfunctions(DeterminerandFusedDeterminer-Head,respectively).InHuddlestonandPullum’sgrammartheindefinitepronounslistedhereinTable3.10wouldbetreatedasfusedDeterminer-Headconstructions.Forthesegrammarians‘thereisnointerrogativepronounwhich’(2002:422).Insteadwhichine.g.Whichdid

youbuy?isadeterminative,functioningasfusedDeterminer-Head(ibid.:398,410f.).

Table3.11isbasedonHuddlestonandPullumetal.(2002:356,373f.).Onmanyasanadjective,seeSpinillo(2004).

Chapter4:Grammaticalfunctions,semanticroles,andtreediagrams

OngrammaticalfunctionsandtheirrealizationseeF.AartsandJ.Aarts(1982).OnsemanticrolesseeSaeed(2009).

Chapter5:Complexphrasesandcoordination

Onphrasestructure,seeAarts(2008).Oncoordination,seeHuddlestonandPullum(2006).

IlargelyfollowHuddlestonandPullumetal.’s(2002)accountofnounphrasestructure,thoughtherearesomedifferencesbetweenthetwoanalyses.Forexample,IprefertousethefunctionallabelAdjunctinsidephrases,ratherthanModifier.AnotherdifferenceisthatforHuddlestonandPullumetal.therearetwotypesofexternalmodifiersfornounphrases:predeterminermodifiers(predeterminersforshort)andperipheralmodifiers.InthisgrammarIalsousethefunctionlabelPredeterminer,butIusethelabelExternalAdjunctinsteadofperipheralmodifier.

InthisbookIamassumingtwolevelswithinphrases:thephraselevelandthelexicallevel.TheX-barsyntaxframeworkrecognizesso-calledbar-levelcategorieswhichareintermediatebetweenthephraseandword.Someevidenceforthisintermediatelevelinsidenounphrasescomesfromone-substitutiondata.Thus,inthesentenceIlikethebigbrowndog,butnotthesmallonethewordonerefersbacktobrowndogwhichisclearlynotafullnounphrase,butalsonotjustanoun.Similarly,intheNPtherealedge-of-your-seatactionthestringedge-of-your-seatissomethinglessthanafullNP,butmorethanabarenoun.ThelabelN-barisusedforsuchstrings,orsometimesNom(inal),asine.g.HuddlestonandPullumetal.(2002).SeeAarts(2008)forfurtherdiscussion.

InmanygrammarssequenceslikecomeinandcutbackNP/cutNPbackin

constructions1and2inTable5.10arecalledintransitivephrasalverbsandtransitivephrasalverbs,respectively,i.e.theyareregardedasverbsconsistingofmorethanoneword.Theverbsinconstruction3(Type1,e.g.relyonNP,accountforNP)arereferredtointheliteratureasintransitiveprepositionalverbs,whilethoseinconstruction4(Type2,e.g.blameNPonNP,dojusticetoNP)arecalledtransitiveprepositionalverbs.Finally,inconstructions5(Type1)and6(Type1)sequenceslikeputupwithNPandfobNPoffwithNPareoftencalledintransitivephrasal-prepositionalverbsandtransitivephrasal-prepositionalverbs,respectively.Inthisgrammartheselabelshavenotbeenadopted.Instead,theverbsintheseconstructionslicenseparticularPPs/NPsasComplements.

Chapter6:Clausetypesandnegation

Onclausetypes,seeCollins(2006).TheclassicalreferencesforspeechactsareAustin(1962/1975)andSearle(1969).OtherbooksthatdiscussspeechactsincludeLevinson(1983)andLeech(1983).

Chapter7:Finitesubordinateclauses

Inmanygrammars(e.g.Quirketal.1985)contentclausesarecallednominalclauses,thoughthesealsocomprisenon-finitestructures.SuchclausesaresaidtobelikeNPs.SeeHuddlestonandPullumetal.(2002:1014ff.)forargumentsagainstthisanalysis.

InHuddlestonandPullumetal.(2002:1018–1019)reasonsareputforwardfornotanalysingpostverbalcontentclausesasDirectObjects,thoughnotethattheymakeoneexceptiontothis,namelywhenacontentclauseinacomplextransitiveclauseispre-posed,asinThathelosthistemperIfindodd(HuddlestonandPullumetal.2002:1022).

InQuirketal.(1985)thewordthatinrelativeclausesisanalysedasaSubjectine.g.Thebookthatfellonthefloorwasalreadysoiled,andasDirectObjectine.g.ThebookthatIbought–wasexpensive.

Freerelativeclausesarecallednominal-relativeclausesinQuirketal.(1985),whereasinHuddlestonandPullumetal.(2002)theyarecalledfusedrelativeconstructions,andareanalysedasnounphrases.

Chapter8:Non-finiteandverblesssubordinateclauses

Someofmynon-finiteComplementClausesarecalledCatenativeComplementsinHuddlestonandPullumetal.(2002).Aswithcontentclauses,inHuddlestonandPullumetal.(2002:1206ff.)argumentsareputforwardfornotanalysingpostverbalnon-finiteclausesasDirectObjects,thoughtheyrecognizethat-ing-participleclausesdobehavelikeDOsifthereisafollowingObjectivePredicativeComplement,asintheexampleIwouldcalleatingrawmeatinadvisable.

Theanalysisofmanyofthepatternsdiscussedinthischapteriscontroversial.Totakejustoneexample,theraisingtoObjectpattern‘INTENDNPi[clauseØito-infinitive…]’isanalysedintheChomskyantraditionasinvolvingasingleclausalComplement:‘INTEND[clauseNPto-infinitive…]’.InthispatternthepostverbalNPisregardedastheSubjectofthesubordinateclause,principallybecausethereisnothematicrelationshipbetweenthematrixclauseandtheNP.Foradetaileddiscussionofthisanalysis,seeAarts(2008).

Thetreatmentofauxiliaryverbsasmain(catenative)verbsisadoptedbyHuddlestonandPullumetal.(2002:1214ff.),butnotbyQuirketal.(1985)whofollowthetraditionalanalysisofauxiliaryverbsas‘helping’verbs,i.e.verbsthataredependentonthelexicalverbthattheyaccompany.Insomeframeworkseachoftheverbsintreediagramslike(150)and(151)takesaVPComplement.Ihavenotadoptedthisanalysis.Fordiscussion,seeAartsandMeyer(1995).

InsomeframeworksthepostverbalNPinasentencelikeIfinditfascinating,wherethereisnosemanticrelationshipbetweentheverbandtheNPinquestion,isregardedastheSubjectofaverblessclause,oftencalledasmallclause:Ifind[SCitfascinating].SeeAarts(1992).

Chapter9:Tenseandaspect

Ontense,seeComrie(1985)andMichaelis(2006).Onaspect,seeComrie(1976)andBinnick(2006).

Manygrammars,especiallyschooltextbooks,regardtheprogressiveandperfectconstructionsastenses,andthusrecognizeapresent/pastprogressivetense(alsocalledthepresent/pastcontinuoustense)andapresent/pastperfecttense.As

noted,inthisgrammartheseconstructionsarenotregardedasseparatetenses.

Somegrammars,e.g.HuddlestonandPullumetal.(2002),regardtheperfectasa(secondary)tenseratherthanasanaspectualconstruction.Onereasonfordoingsoisthatarguablyonlythepresentperfectconstructionisaspectualduetoits‘currentrelevance’meaning.Otherusesoftheperfect(thepastperfectandthenon-finiteperfect)areprincipallyusedtorefertopasttime.Inthisgrammarwetakethepresentperfectconstructiontobethemostfrequent,andhencebasicuseoftheperfectconstruction,andforthatreasonregardtheperfectconstructioningeneralasbeingaspectual.

Theterm‘currentorientation’asappliedtoBEgoing[to]isduetoPalmer(1990:144).HediscussestheinterestingideathatBEgoing+to-infinitivemirrorsthepresentperfectconstructionwhichhas‘currentrelevance’.

Thefootballer’sperfectisdiscussedinWalker(2008).

OnissuesofmeaningwithrespecttoEnglishverbsandverbalconstructions,seeLeech(2004).

Onshort-termchangesinthesyntaxofEnglishverbalconstructions,seeMairandLeech(2006),Leechetal.(2009),andAartsetal.(forthcoming).

Chapter10:Mood

InTable10.1allnumbershavebeenroundedup.Analyticnegations(e.g.willnot,couldnot)havenotbeencountedseparately,becausetheywereincludedinthecountsfortheunnegatedverbsinquestion.Itshouldbeborneinmindthatitisimpossibletoreliablydistinguishthespokeninstancesofcannot.Theinstancesofcan,might,andwillashomonymousnounsorverbswereexcluded.Althoughsomescholarsclaimthat’llcanrepresentWILLorSHALLitwascountedasWILL,Thecontraction’dwascountedaswould,exceptwhereitwasacontractionofhad(asine.g.I’dbeenthereanhour;S1A-082119).Iexcluded’dbetterandthefollowing‘mention’useofmust:Thisisanother‘must’foryou(W1B-005008).

Thereisalotofconfusingterminologyinthedomainofmodalitywhichisoftentheresultofauthorsnotkeepingthesyntaxandsemanticsofthevariousverbsandverbalpatternsapart.Onmoodandmodalityingeneral,seeCoates(1983),

Palmer(1990),DepraetereandReed(2006),andCollins(2009).ThetermanalyticmoodisduetoHuddleston(1984).

The‘dynamicpossibility’meaningforthemodalverbCANcanbefoundinPalmer(1990:83f.),andinHuddlestonandPullumetal.(2002:184–185).

ThedifferencebetweenMAYandCANexpressing‘possibility’ischaracterizedinLeech(2004:82–83)asbeingoneof‘factualpossibility’vs‘theoreticalpossibility’.

Somelinguists(e.g.Coates1983)distinguishbetweenepistemicmodalityandrootmodality,wherethelattercategorysubsumesalltypesofmodalitythatarenotepistemic.

Withregardtothenon-existenceofafuturetenseinEnglish,Palmer(1990:140)writes,‘Ingeneral,however,WILLseemstobeusedwherethereisreferencetoageneralenvisaged,planned,intended,hopedfor,etc.stateofaffairs,asopposedtoastatementthataspecificeventorspecificeventswillinfacttakeplace.Itisinthissensethatitindicatesa“modal”ratherthanareal(“tense”)future.’Bycontrast,Declerck(1991)andSalkie(2010),amongothers,arguethatEnglishdoeshaveafuturetense.

Thetermsemi-auxiliaryverbisusedinQuirketal.(1985:143f.)forsuchcombinationsasBEableto,BEboundto,BEgoingto,BElikelyto,BEobligedtoThesecancarrymodaloraspectualmeanings.Inthisgrammarthesecombinationsarenotviewedasunits.

StrengthanddegreeofmodalityarediscussedinHuddlestonandPullumetal.(2002:175ff.).

MergersarediscussedinCoates(1983).

Chapter11:Informationstructuring

GeneralstudiesoninformationstructuringincludeTaglicht(1984),Lambrecht(1994),andBirnerandWard(1998,2006).Onexistentialconstructions,seeLumsden(1988).OncleftconstructionsseeCollins(1991).

ListofsourcesofexamplesThefollowingisalistofsourcesforallauthenticexamplesgiveninthetextandtables.Itemssuchas‘S1B-036010’areidentifiersforexamplestakenfromtheICE-GBcorpus(describedinAppendix2);thosebeginningwith‘S’and‘W’comefromspokenandwrittentextsrespectively.Thedatesofnewspapersaregiveninabbreviatedformintheorderday,month,year(e.g.4/7/93for4July1993).Examplesforwhichnosourceislistedwereconstructedforillustrativepurposes.

Chapter1

(2)S1A-032215

(11)S1B-069002

(12)W2F-011088

(13)S2A-031015

(14)S1A-011140

(15)S1B-036010

(17)S1B-049049

(18)S1A-082023

(19)S1B-025078

(20)W1B-009107

Chapter2

(1)TheIndependent,28/2/09

(2)S1A-080160

(3)S2A-042034

(10)TheGuardian,12/6/06

(11)W2F-008076

(12)W2B-010108

Table2.4

(a)TheTimes,30/1/08

(b)S1B-039074

(c)W2C-017042

Table2.6

(a)S1A-046415

(b)W2B-023078

(c)S1B-022052

(d)S1A-011140

(e)S2A-020119

Chapter3

(5)W2B-009032

(7)S1A-076067

(8)S1A-007072

(9)S2A-050137

(10)S1A-017215

(11)S1B-041192

(12)S1B-043058

(13)S1B-037068

(14)S1A-015216

(15)S2A-014196

(16)S1B-048194

(17)S1A-073053

(18)DailyTelegraph,18/10/01

(19)S1A-019017

(20)S2A-021105

(21)S1A-040235/8

(22)S1A-083057/8

(23)S2A-014004

(24)W2A-001096

(25)W1B-006069

(27)W2F-010115

(28)S1A-030242

(29)W2F-011108

(30)NewYorkTimes,14/12/09

(32)S1A-094079

(33)S1A-017265

(34)W2A-024069

(36)W1B-007099

(37)W2F-013047

(39)W2D-001016

(43)S1A-004087

(44)S1A-077012

(46)S1A-069183

(47)W2F-010083

(48)S1A-012096

(49)TheTimes,29/1/2006

(53)S1B-049068

(55)TheTimes,26/5/06

(56)S1A-043098

(57)S1A-007197

(58)S1B-068042

(59)S1A-032133

(60)S1A-008127

(61)S1A-038001

(62)S1A-001042

(63)S1B-047112

(64)S1A-019071

(65)W2F-014053

(66)S1A-011101

(67)S1B-036062

(68)W2C-016022

(69)W2B-004089

(70)S1A-019342

(71)S1A-020001

(72)S2A-059011

(74)S2A-060049

(75)S1B-008039

(77)W1B-008204

(78)W1B-007086

(79)S1B-046096

(80)WashingtonPost,3/6/06

(81)BBCNews,31/5/02

(83)W2C-002007

(84)S1A-096063

(85)S1A-001090

(86)S1A-023164

(87)W1B-028032

(88)S1A-081024

(89)W2B-021005

(90)S1A-021031

(91)W1A-017033

(92)S1A-054118

(93)S1A-008127

(95)S1A-002138

(98)W2F-018134

(125)S1A-001090

(126)S1A-073027

(127)S1B-079060

(129)W1B-014024

(130)S1A-020277

(131)S1A-001056

(132)S1B-015003

(137)S1A-011135

(138)S2A-024013

(139)W1B-025106

(140)S1A-019189

(141)W1B-007142

(142)S1A-001035

(143)W1B-008039

(144)S1A-013101

(145)W1B-014069

(146)S1A-099120

(147)S1A-014220

(148)W1B-020083

(149)S1A-005236

(150)W2D-012005

(151)W1B008-115

(152)S1A-004104

(154)BBCNews,4/11/06

(155)S1B-022003

(156)W1A-007064

(158)W2B-019101

(159)S1A-005212

(160)W1B-001004

(161)S2B-006032

(162)S1A-095159

(163)S1B-029050

(164)S2B-006032

(165)S1A-004091

(166)S1B-016097

(167)S2B-029128

(168)W1A-018119

(169)W1B-015005

(170)S1A-062155

(171)popsonglyric,TheGuardian,17/3/06

(172)S1A-009257

(173)S1A-094006

(174)S1A-007127

(175)S1A-100088

(176)S1A-052148

Table3.10

(a)W1A-009062

(b)S2B-024007

(c)BBCNews,3/6/09

(d)S1B-029030

(e)S1A-019081

(f)W1B-013007

(g)S2A-028117

(h)DailyTelegraph,8/6/08

(i)S2B-006117

Table3.11

(a)S2A-014158

(b)S2B-007087

(c)S1A-004133

(d)S2B-005091

(e)S1A-037073

(f)S1A-013147

(g)S1A-005087

(h)S1B-031042

(i)W2F-007079

(j)S1A-019193

(k)S1A-010042

(l)S1B-008039

(m)S1A-011144

(n)S1A-005239

(o)S1A-099286

(p)TheTimes,18/12/06

(q)S1A-016176

(r)DailyTelegraph,24/2/06

(s)WashingtonPost,3/6/06

(t)BBCNews,31/5/02

(u)TheGuardian,22/11/09

(v)S1A-093273

(w)S2B-025084

Table3.18(‘basic’versionsentence)S1A-045267

Chapter4

(2)S1A-077077

(3)BBCNews,12/09/08

(5)S2A-041091

(6)W2C-010036

(7)S2A-003103

(14)TheTimes,18/12/05

(15)W2B-027055

(19)W1B-009064

(20)S1A-001029

(21)S1A-001003

(22)S1A-083102

(23)S1A-022310

(24)S1B-080232

(25)W1B-014102

(26)S1A-016148

(27)S1B-049176

(28)S1B-064144

(49)S1A-040144

(58)TheMirror,21/12/07

(59)W2D-001075

(60)S1B-040069

(61)S1A-020211

(62)S1A-057025

(63)S2A-022038

(64)BBCNews,24/7/06

(69)S1A-017150-2

(70)W1B-007108

(75)S2B-022012

(76)W2F-009007

(77)S2B-024009

(78)S1A-023363

(79)S1A-060226

(80)S1A-099002

(81)S1B-065050

(82)S1A-014127

(84)BBCNews,1/1/10

(85)S1B-068013

(86)BBCNews,22/1/99

(87)W2D-011064

(90)W2B-021011

(91)S2A-039035

(93)S2B-022030

(94)S1A-069321

(95)S1B-037011

(96)W2F-001012

(97)W2F-007121

(99)S2B-027026

(100)S1A-068152

(101)S1B-062059/060

(102)W1B-020027/028

(103)S1A-035137

(108)S1A-017216

(109)BBCNews,5/02/09

(110)S1B-049171

(111)W2F-002029

(113)S2B-018064

(114)S1A-091346

Table4.13

(a)TheIndependent,13/02/01

(b)BBCNews,14/08/07

(c)W1B-014078

(d)S2A-061051

(e)S1A-022305

(f)TheTimes,20/07/03

(g)DailyTelegraph,23/09/03

(h)S2A-013117

(i)S1A-035185

(j)S1A-013168

(k)S2A-043118

Chapter5

(1)S1B-032088

(3)W2A-029033

(5)S2B-028106

(8)W2B-005091

(13)W2A-019064

(14)W2A-005058

(15)S1A-060124

(16)S1B-049068

(20)headline,BBCNews,13/1/98

(22)S1A-013004

(23)W1B-021053

(25)S1B-058056

(28)W2B-036098

(29)S2B-022075

(31)S1A-007182

(32)S1B-036091

(33)W2B-006022

(34)W2B-035079

(35)W1A-010121

(36)W2A-031032

(37)W1B-026152

(42)S2B-001084

(43)S1A-002144

(44)S1B-035016

(45)W2C-009097

(46)S1B-035095

(47)W2E-005049

(48)W2C-020097

(53)W2B-020013

(54)S2A-023004

(55)W2E-003092

(56)BBCNews,24/11/09

(57)W1B-016075

(58)W2C-006067

(59)W2F-004130

(60)W2C-020057

(61)S2A-067162

(62)S1A-010185

(63)W2A-032046

(68)S1A-001049

(74)S2A-040104

(75)S2B-023012

(76)BBCNews,24/2/09

(77)BBCwebsite,4/11/2008

(78)J.D.Salinger,TheCatcherintheRye,p.1

(79)S1B-064104

(81)LondonLite,16/4/07

(82)LondonPaper,4/4/07

(86)S1B-014132

(87)S1A-002024

(89)TheGuardian.28/12/08

(91)S1B-052082

(92)SundayTimes,14/5/06

(94)S2B-026025

(95)S1A-080062

(96)S1B-054011

(97)S2A-059003

(98)S2B-04532

(99)Cassell’sAtlasofWorldHistory,1997

(105)S1A-001071

(106)S1A-003039

(107)W1B-027008

(108)W1B-026110

(109)S1A-040249

(110)S1B-059084

(112)BBCNews,10/12/03

(114)W2F-007064

(115)S1A-008266

(116)S1A-002149

(117)W2B-009059

(118)TheTimes,18/11/09

(119)S2B-023085

(122)S2B-043054

(124)S2A-022009

(125)BBCNews,20/7/00

(126)S1B-029068

(127)S1A-049025

(128)BBCNews,29/10/09

(129)W2A-016118

(130)S1B-011042

(131)S1A-088019

(132)S2A-048086

(133)W2E-009006

(134)S1A-066238

(135)S1A-034123

(136)S2B-042125

(137)BBCNews,18/11/09

(138)S1A-059086

(139)W2B-037091

(140)S1A-005210

(141)S1A-056286

(142)S1A-001037

(143)W2F-017065

(144)S2B-001037

(145)S1B-045074

(146)S2A-062005

(147)S1A-003114

(148)S1A-052055

(149)S2B-025016

(151)S1A-028135

(153)S1B-071225

(155)S1B-058004

(156)TheTimes,24/5/09

(157)S1B-014066

(158)TheTimes,11/6/08

(159)S1B-021136

(161)S2B-029148

(162)S1A-010251

(163)S1B-034068

(164)S1B-040004

(166)S2B-025054

(167)W2D-019013

(168)W2F-006173

(169)S2B-024009

(171)W2A-011074

(173)S1A-081311

(174)S1A-093024

(175)S1B-011121

(176)S1A-024053

(177)S2A-042075

(178)S1A-0060316

(179)S1A-002035

(180)S1B-051058

(182)W2F-009044

(183)S1A-028238

(184)S2A-008191

(185)S1A-096103

(186)LATimes,23/12/86

(196)W2B-004122

(197)S1A-046100

(198)S1A-056162

(199)S1A-049260

(200)S1A-080055

(202)S1A-022227

(203)S1A-050190

(204)S1A-055033

(205)S1A-009054

(206)S1A-011256

(207)S2B-027026

(208)W1A-003042

(209)S1A-054116

(210)S1A-041181

(211)S1A-001050

(213)S1A-005041

(214)W2B-003039

(215)W2F-020106

(216)S1B-021154

(217)S1A-058056

(218)W2B-002012

(219)S2A-042048

(220)S2B-036026

(221)S2A-007085

(222)W2D-014063

(223)S1A-070238

(224)S2B-030001

(225)W2B-005021

(226)S1A-076069

(227)S1A-050003

(228)S2A-055084

(229)W2C-015091

(230)W2F-004172

(231)S2B-027015

(232)W2B-009042

(233)W2A-009020

(234)S1A-012151

(235)W2F-007132

(236)W2B-035048

(237)W1A-004028

(238)W2B-017005

(239)W2B-007094

(240)S2B-020113

(241)W2F-010069

(242)W2C-009090

(243)S1B-021154

(244)S1A-047079

(245)W2F-008041

(246)S1A-025071

(249)S1A-056284

(250)W2C-020036

(251)S1A-023272

(252)S1A-053013

(253)S2A-050111

(254)S1A-022295

(255)BBCNews,4/1/05

(256)S1A-036148

(257)S1A-047217

(258)S1A-074024

(259)S2A-001072

(260)S2A-002019

(261)S2A-037051

(262)S2A-016049

(263)S1A-032090

(264)BBCNews,9/5/02

(265)S2A-015103

(267)W2A-003055

(268)S1B-049016

(271)W1B-017016

(272)W2B-025058

(273)W2D-020103

(275)S1A-004114

(276)S1A-060073

(278)BBCNews,23/10/03

(279)W2F-017011

(280)S1A-017379

(281)W1A-004074

(283)S1A-005157

(284)S2A-035057

(285)W2B-006106

(287)W1B-009175

(288)W2D-013093

(289)S2B-047035

(290)S1A-081274

(291)S1A-004007

(292)S1B-053072

(293)S2B-033046

(294)W2D-005025

Table5.10

(a)TheGuardian,19/4/08

(b)S1A-088181

(d)S2A-068073

(e)TheGuardian,26/1/09

(f)S1A-008111

(g)TheGuardian,4/6//09

(h)S2B-032045

(i)S2B-026014

(j)TheGuardian,2/10/09

(k)BBCNews,7/11/99

(n)TheGuardian,9/6/09

(o)DailyTelegraph,27/1/09

(p)TheGuardian,4/3/08

(q)TheIndependent,7/3/02

Table5.11

(a)S1A-090231

(b)S2A-034097

(c)BBCNews,22/9/03

(d)S1A-017090

(e)S2A-017157

(f)TheDailyTelegraph,11/5/01

(g)S2A-012100

Chapter6

(1)S1A-007193

(3)S1A-018003

(4)BBCNews,31/05/02

(5)BBCNews,19/9/07

(6)BBCNews,6/08/08

(7)S1A-019307

(8)S1A-008215

(9)S1A-006174

(10)S1A-024032

(11)W2A-016011

(12)S1A-009218

(13)S1A-066100

(16)W1B-013081

(17)S1A-020018

(18)S1A-028167

(19)S1A-070057

(21)S1A-004046

(22)S1B-011033

(23)S1B-072244

(24)W2B-029015

(25)S1A-044104

(26)S1B-004037

(27)S1A-019153

(30)S1A-053064

(31)S1B-048134

(32)S1A-068100

(35)W1B-029098

(36)S1A-010278

(37)S1A-079116

(39)S1A-032130

(40)S1A-008106

(42)S1B-069110

(45)S1A-081184

(46)S1A-014088

(47)W1B-006043

(48)W2F-014003

(49)W2F-006188

(50)W1B-020020

(51)S1A-052044

(52)S2A-062112

(53)www.soap-news.com

(54)S1A-032084

(55)S1A-022243

(56)W2F-004033

(57)S1B-079075

(58)S1B-007060

(60)W1B-006107

(61)W1B-026147

(62)W1B-004004

(63)W1B-021040

(64)S2B-030052

(65)S1A-027038

(66)S1A-007103

(67)S1A-073077

(68)S1A-083067

(69)S1A-038114

(70)S1A-086152

(71)S1B-001007

(72)S1A-007078

(73)S2B-002105

(74)S1A-006323

(75)S1A-006079

Chapter7

(1)W1B-028117

(3)S1A-037178

(4)W1A-018094

(5)W2F-011007

(6)W2F-005015

(7)W1A-012046

(8)TheTimes,20/6/09

(13)S1A-001048

(14)S1A-005196

(17)S1A-015145

(18)S1B-063180

(19)S1A-009003

(20)S1A-027034

(21)W2B-030022

(22)S1A-010117

(23)W1A-018094

(24)W2F002082

(27)W1B-011013

(28)BBCNews,8/9/08

(31)S1A-002005

(33)S1B-053002

(35)S1A-082033

(38)BBCNews,15/1/09

(40)BBCNews,9/9/04

(43)BBCNews,23/2/09

(44)BBCNews,5/9/05

(46)S1B-053035

(47)W2B-017012

(48)BBCNews,19/11/09

(49)TheIrishTimes,7/9/2010

(50)S1B-060052

(51)S1B-028016

(53)W2F-011007

(54)S2A-023036

(55)W1B-016062

(56)S1B-036067

(57)S1A-052052

(58)S1A-085158

(59)S1B-005060

(60)S1A-041179

(61)S1B-026015

(62)S2B-025075

(63)S1A-001030

(64)S1A-084121

(65)S2A-054098

(67)W2D-001016

(68)W1A-004009

(69)S2A-022078

(70)W1B-013007

(71)W2E-003075

(73)W2A-003058

(74)S1A-004123

(75)W2A-003058

(76)S1A-004123

(77)W2C-007070

(79)S1A-008266

(80)W2B-039037

(81)S1B-029172

(83)S1A-068064

(84)W1B-011051

(85)S2A-019029

(86)W2C-002015

(87)TheDailyTelegraph,11/3/09

(88)S1B-007229

(90)W1A-018035

(91)TheTimes,4/9/05

(92)BBCNews,11/10/02

(93)W2F-015118

(95)S1A-058210

(97)TimesHigherEducation,9/7/09

(104)W2C-003105

Table7.11

(a)S1A-017376

(b)S1A-028007

(c)W2D-011019

(d)NewYorkTimes,20/11/07

(e)NewYorkTimes,28/4/10

Chapter8

(1)S2B-029145

(3)S2A-038050

(4)W2E-004064

(5)BBCNews,28/2/08

(6)S1B-069002

(15)W2D-009103

(17)S1A-064077

(18)S1A-001118

(21)S2A-047045

(23)BBCNews,9/2/06

(27)W2E-007050

(38)BBCNews,3/3/00

(40)W1A-018096

(43)S1B-003125

(45)S1A-02453

(46)W2C-003097

(47)S1A-060012

(48)S1B-051013

(49)W2A-032050

(50)W2D-001053

(51)S1A-093202

(52)S1A-014062

(57)TheTimes,6/7/08

(58)S1A-036093

(59)S1B-043126

(60)S1A-043211

(61)S1A-028151

(62)W2C-020096

(64)S1A-022236

(65)S1B-022222

(66)W1A-010128

(67)W2C-002086

(68)S1A-040322

(71)W2C-006041

(76)TheTimes,20/11/07

(79)S1B-046064

(80)BBCNews,22/11/06

(89)BBCNews,18/1/09

(93)TheTimes,29/11/08

(96)W2F-013055

(98)W2C-011018

(100)S2B-015069

(102)W2E-010050

(104)W1A-010039

(105)W2D-017103

(106)BBCNews,30/12/08

(107)S2A-026065

(109)S1A-040407

(110)S1A-051118

(114)TheTimes,18/1/08

(117)LATimes,6/10/07

(120)W1B-028140

(122)W2F-002006

(127)S2B-023073

(128)S1B-035095

(129)W2C-007070

(130)S1A-002028

(131)S1A-028082

(153)W1B-012026

(154)S2A-054219

(156)W1B-017017

(157)W2B-003101

Chapter9

(2)S2A-050104

(4)S1A-042343

(5)W2D-005028

(6)W1B-003187

(7)S1A-038107

(8)S1A-031023

(9)S1A-001074

(10)S1B-053075

(11)W2C-003029

(12)S1A-083237

(13)S1A-042342

(14)S1A-032237

(16)TheTimes,16/07/07

(17)S2A-002006

(18)S2A-017030

(19)S2A-019007

(20)S2A-011127

(21)S1A-092342

(22)W1B-022020

(25)S1A-006107

(26)S1B-077074

(27)W2A-001019

(28)W2C-004003

(29)W2F-019064

(30)W2F-016059

(31)W2A-031075

(32)S2A-022063

(33)HaroldPinter,TheDumbWaiter

(34)W2D-009074

(35)W1B-014090

(37)headline,TheIndependent,19/3/06

(38)S1A-099245

(39)W2E-006015

(41)S1B-075011

(42)W2B-012055

(43)W2B-005022

(44)S1A-057002

(46)S1A-001003

(47)S2A-055098

(48)S1A-048345

(52)S2A-055098

(54)S1A-038261

(55)W2F-003135

(60)W2A-030042

(61)W2F-018148

(62)W2A-030044

(63)S2B-016085

(64)W1B-005022

(66)S1B-053105

(68)S1B-053105

(70)BBCNews,8/5/09

(72)W2C-004007

(73)W2F-009113

(74)W1A-001009

(75)W1B-001155

(76)W2C-019094

(77)S1A-074362

(78)S1A-074197

(79)W1B-014092

(80)W1B-001054

(81)http://ehealthforum.com

(84)S2B-015063

(88)fromWalker2008;seeReferences

(89)S1A-040334

(90)W2E-005012

(91)W2C-007069

(93)W2C-011076

(94)S2B-018101

(95)S2B-015060

(96)W1B-005018

(98)S2B-027161

(99)S1A-013096

(100)W1B-022027

(101)W1A-004071

(102)W1B-021047

(103)W2C-011036

(104)W2C-011091

(105)W2C-013039

(106)S1B-032091

(107)W2E-002052

(108)S1B-044113

(109)S1A-007020

(110)S1A-049278

(111)W1B-005105

(112)S2A-059114

(113)S1A-014078

(114)S1A-041124

(115)W2F-017053

(117)S2B-043055

(118)W2B-002035

(119)W1A-001088

(121)S1B-043048

(123)W1B-014008

(124)S1B-064128

(125)S1B-042067

(126)S2A-06708

(130)S1A-020277

(131)S2B-026095

(132)S1B-077178

(133)S1A-034069

(134)S2B-007109

(135)S2B-008007

(141)W2B-023032

(143)S2A-020120

(144)S1A-001083

(145)S2A-019063

(147)S1A-013228

(148)S1A-011008

(149)S1A-003160

(153)W1A-019090

(155)W1B-011009

(156)W2F-020159

(157)W2F-013114

(159)S1A-032063

(160)W2F-020130

(162)S2B-021020

(163)S2B-035031

(164)W1B-001199

(165)S1A-059059

(166)W1B-009099

(167)W1B-013055

(168)S1A-096161

(169)S1A-092027

(170)S2A-055056

(174)S1A-007224

(175)S1A-039355

(176)W1B-004084

(177)S1B-012195

(198)S2B-020037

(199)S1B-049039

(200)S2A-061110

(201)S1A-019106

(202)S1A-061261

(203)S1A-006230

(205)MrsAlfredGatty,Parablesfromnature.T.Nelson&Sons,nodatehttp://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/gatty/parables/parables.html

(206)W2A-037011

Chapter10

(1)S1A-031116

(2)S1B-056089

(3)S1A-075140

(4)W2D-004075

(5)W2F-002050

(6)S1A-082023

(7)S1B-003092

(8)S1A-035135

(9)W2A-011028

(10)W1B-006098

(13)W2F-010079

(14)W2D-012010

(15)W1B-014047

(16)W2C-004111

(17)S1A-074375

(18)W2D-019035

(19)S1A-057078

(20)S2A-059045

(21)S2A-039038

(27)W1B-009074

(28)S2B-024053

(29)S1A-087234

(31)W1B-016053

(32)S1A-083131

(33)S2A-011082

(34)S1B-054071

(35)S1B-003185

(37)W2D-010060

(38)S1A-041207

(39)S1A-038058

(40)S1A-081326

(41)S2B-005056

(45)S2A-054097

(46)S1B-052096

(47)W2A-018082

(48)W1B-028046

(49)W1B-015024

(50)W1B-027122

(51)S2A-031052

(52)W2D-008049

(53)W2D-008079

(54)W2D-008040

(55)S1A-022157

(57)S1A-008208

(58)S1B-053105

(59)S1A-006316

(60)S2A-054204

(61)S1B-013138

(62)W2E-006095

(63)W1B-004122

(64)S1A-070073

(65)S1B-020203

(66)S1A-007262

(67)W2B-034045

(68)S2A-011091

(69)S2A-033029

(70)W2A-005075

(71)S1B-041150

(72)W2A-006017

(76)W1B-016063

(77)W1B-021136

(78)S1B-031098

(79)S1B-021123

(80)S1B-027036

(81)W2A-016022

(82)S1A-021075

(83)W2B-029117

(84)S1A-005189

(85)TheTimes,21/12/07

(86)W2D-020059

(88)S1A-076193

(89)W1B-002140

(90)S1A-070019

(91)S1A-074004

(92)W1B-009123

(93)S1B-079175

(94)S1A-017059

(95)W1B-025048

(96)S1A-032282

(97)S1A-036090

(98)W1B-008093

(99)S1A-047059

(100)S2B-022095

(101)S1B-053065

(102)W1B-025020

(103)W2D-004051

(104)TheTimes,22/11/08

(105)S2A-039027

(106)W2F-008071

(107)W2F-019115

(108)S1B-025078

(109)S1A-046063

(110)S2B-038106

(111)S1A-020169

(112)S1A-052043

(113)W1B-010135

(114)W2A-005108

(115)S2A-065059

(116)S2B-022116

(117)W2A-017004

(118)thomson.co.uk

(119)S1A-065202

(120)W1B-007070

(121)S1A-057064

(123)S1A-025097

(125)TheTimes,3/12/09

(126)S1A-065120

(127)S1A-027113

(128)S1A-098277

(129)S1A-053010

(130)S2A-008012

(131)S1B-060018

(132)W1B-013122

(133)S1A-048114

(134)S1B-079187

(138)ChicagoSunTimes,nodate

(140)S1B-036009

(141)S1A-030020

(142)S1A-078245

(145)S1A-067009

(146)S1A-044325

(147)S1A-026329

(148)S1A-019318

(149)BBCNews,30/1/99

(150)BBCNews,15/2/08

(151)BBCNews,1/6/09

(153)S1B-078131

(154)S2A-043043

(155)W2C-018046

(156)W1B-009105

(157)TheTimes,22/2/09

(158)TheTimes,18/3/07

(159)W2D-009152

(160)S1A-030282

(161)S1A-080078

(162)S1A-017035

(165)BBCNews,29/07/05

(167)W2F-011067

(168)BBCNews,24/8/05

(169)S1A-073328

(171)S2B-012010

(172)W2C-007051

(173)W2E-001029

(174)S2B-045110

(176)S2A-064015

(177)W2B-014009

(179)S2A-034069

(180)W2F-015121

(181)W2A-016037

(182)S1B-034113

(183)W2B-033082

(184)S2B-007027

(185)W2A-033051

(186)W2A-017045

(187)S1B-054054

(188)W2D-018036

(189)W1A-007020

(190)S1A-030050

(191)S1A-038211

(194)S1A-006295

(195)S2A-018048

(196)S1A-036124

(197)S2B-011036

(200)S1A-068035

(201)S1A-042036

(204)S1A-020268

(205)S1A-042181

(206)W2F-009113

(207)S1A-064062

(208)W2D-010060

(209)S2A-039044

(210)S1B-030086

(211)S1A-008123

(212)W2A-017025

(213)W2F-008155

(214)W1A-009056

(215)S1A-001110

(216)W2B-033094

(217)S1B-020053

(218)S1A-003073

(219)S1A-003155

(220)S1A-052026

(221)S1B-062092

(222)S1A-007154

(223)http://www.trfanatic.com

(224)W1B-004048

(225)S2A-054052

(226)W2D-020017

(227)S2A-015026

Chapter11

(1)S1B-041174

(3)S1A-043098

(4)S1A-013086/7

(6)W2F-005025-027

(7)W2F-005027

(8)S1A-057131

(9)S1A-019203

(10)S1B-005125

(12)W2E-005010

(16)headline,NewYorkTimes,14/2/09

(21)W2F-010024

(22)S1A-023024

(25)W2A-002066

(26)S1B-037068

(27)S1A-057114

(28)W2B-011001

(33)W2C-005035

(36)W2D-016016

(38)W2C-001034

(39)W1B-020049

(40)W2D-016015

(41)S1A-087169

(44)W2B-019003/4

(45)S1A-089214

(47)S1A-071342

(48)S1B-055048

(50)S1B-056089

(51)W1B-009081

(52)S2A-059128

(53)W1B-009053

(54)S2A-004063

(55)S2A-030136

(56)S1B-077169

(57)S2A-021217

(60)W1A-010026

(61)S2B-005070

(64)W2C-007072

(65)W2B-001017

(69)S1A-092342

(70)S2A-001190

(71)S1B-038086

(72)W2A-016042

(73)W2B-037170

(74)W2B-031059

(75)W2B-031040

(76)W2B-031039

(83)S2A-014196

(84)S1B-048194

(85)W2F-013045

(86)W2B-002011

(87)S1B-050005

(88)S1B-054033

(99)S1A-022236

(100)W1B-007006

(102)S1A-009024

(103)S1A-076098

(107)S1A-004004

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SubjectIndexLocatorsrenderedinboldrefertotables.

Aarts,Bas,349,350,351,352,353

Aarts,Flor,xv,350

Aarts,Jan,350

abbreviations,39

ability,252,275,292–3,313

ablaut,22

accusativecase,29–30,46,75

pronounsand,45,51,92,96

acronyms,39

actionwords,verbsas,65

active

clauses,93

constructions,72–3

voice,93

Adams,Valerie,349

adjectivalelements,asPredeterminersinnounphrases,120–1

adjectivalwh-words,186

adjectives,7,63–4

attributive,63

comparativeform,30

compound,33,35

definition,8

anddeterminativescompared,64–5

distributionalproperties,64

inflectionalforms,30–1,31

andnouns,43

plainform,30

stacked,63,65,125–6

superlativeform,30

adjectivephrases(AdjPs),8,9,63–4

Adjunctsin,135–6

Complementsin,134–5

asComplementsinprepositionalphrases,153–4

complex,134–8

asDirectObjects,139–40

Headsof,63

asObject-relatedPredicativeComplements,143,190

aspost-HeadAdjunctsinnounphrases,130–1

aspre-HeadAdjunctsinnounphrases,125–6

asSubject-relatedPredicativeComplements,141

AdjP-coordinations,164

AdjPsseeadjectivephrases(AdjPs)

Adjuncts,10,11,66,102–5,172

inadjectivephrases,135–6

asadverbphrases,103–4

inadverbphrases,161–3

andcircumstantialinformation,103

Clause,104,134

contentclausesas,193

andHeads,116–17

-ingparticipleclausesas,230–1

integrationintoclausestructures,104

licensing,91

mobility,105

non-finitesubordinateclausesas,203

innounphrases,124–34

pastparticipleclausesas,234

inphrases,114–15

asprepositionalphrases,103–4,107–8

inprepositionalphrases,158–60

stackable,105

oftime,257,258

to-infinitiveclausesas,218,274

inverbphrases,150–2

seealsoExternalAdjuncts;post-HeadAdjuncts;pre-HeadAdjuncts;VP-Adjuncts

adverbs,7,80–1

clause,80

compound,36

definition,8

inflectionalforms,30–1,31

linking,80

meaningsexpressedby,81

modal,310–11

adverbphrases(AdvPs),8,80–1,160–3

Adjunctsas,103–4

Adjunctsin,161–3

asComplementsinprepositionalphrases,154

Headsof,80

aspost-HeadAdjunctsinadjectivephrases,138

aspost-HeadAdjunctsinadverbphrases,163

aspost-HeadAdjunctsinverbphrases,151

asPredeterminersinnounphrases,120

aspre-HeadAdjunctsinadjectivephrases,136

aspre-HeadAdjunctsinadverbphrases,161–2

aspre-HeadAdjunctsinnounphrases,129

aspre-HeadAdjunctsinprepositionalphrases,158–9

aspre-HeadAdjunctsinverbphrases,151

asSubjects,87

AdvPsseeadverbphrases(AdvPs)

affixes,20

derivational,20

verbalinflectional,21

agentiveSubjects,73

agentlesspassives,324

Agent(semanticrole),73,106,324

Aktionsart,useofterm,273

alternativeinterrogatives,170

AmericanEnglish,6,32,82,278–9,291,300,308

analyticmood,275–6

antecedents,46,51,195

ofpronouns,88–9

apologies

declarativesas,175

imperativesas,176

apostrophe,silent,30

appositiveclauses,123

arguments,106

articles,3,60–1

definite,8,60–1

indefinite,8,60

aspect,13,243–74

lexical,273

andlexicalmeaning,272–4

notes,353

perfect,13,255–65

progressive,13,255,265–70

situation,273

aspectual

auxiliaries,67,70–2,235

lexicalverbs,273

aspectualizers,273

asyndeticcoordination,164–5

attributiveposition,63

Austin,J.L.,351

auxiliaryverbs,67–74,88,352

aspectual,67,70–2,235

andclausestructure,235–9

pasttenseformsof,252–3

syntacticproperties,68–9

typesof,235

seealsoaspectualauxiliaries,modalauxiliaries

back-formation,39

bareexistentialconstructionsseeexistentialconstructions

bareinfinitive,23,70

bareinfinitiveclauses,12,218–21

asComplementClauses,219–20

modalverbsin,219–20

bar-levelcategories,351

Bauer,Laurie,349

BBCNews,6

Benefactive(semanticrole),94,95,106

Biber,Douglas,349

Binnick,Robert,353

Birner,BettyJ.,354

blending,39–40

Blevins,JamesP.,349

Booij,Geert,349

BritishEnglish,6,25,32,279,287,291,302

Bullokar,William,PamphletforGrammar(1586),3

cardinalnumerals,58

Carstairs-McCarthy,Andrew,349

case,28,29–30

forms,46–7

seealsoaccusativecase;genitivecase;nominativecase

CatenativeComplements,352

CCsseeComplementClauses(CCs)

Chomsky,Noam,4,352

class-changingprocesses,32

classicallanguages,grammar,3

class-maintainingsuffixes,31–2

clausal

DirectObjects,82

negation,177

clause-initialposition,52,87,168,316,320,322,330

clauseintegration,degreesof,203,234–5

clause-likestructures,aspre-HeadAdjunctsinnounphrases,129

clauses

active,93

Adjuncts,104,134

adverbs,80

analysis,107–8

appositive,123

comparative,181,193–5

asComplementsinadjectivephrases,135

asComplementsinadverbphrases,161

asComplementsinnounphrases,122–3

asComplementsinprepositionalphrases,154–8

declarative,11,25,166–7

definition,84

asDirectObjects,140

finite,12,27,135,140,157

infinitive,23

main,179

modalized,275

negative,177

nominal,352

non-finite,27–8,135,140,157

asObject-relatedPredicativeComplements,144

optional,235

passive,93

pastsubjunctive,26

positive,177

aspost-HeadAdjunctsinnounphrases,132

purposive,291

structure,108–10

Adjunctsin,104

withoneormoreauxiliaryverbs,235–9

seealsosyntax

Subjectsas,87

subjunctive,23,25,26

superordinate,248–9

seealsoComplementClauses(CCs);contentclauses;declarativeclauses;exclamativeclauses;imperativeclauses;infinitiveclauses;interrogativeclauses;matrixclauses;non-finiteclauses;passiveclauses;pastparticipleclauses;relativeclauses;subjunctiveclauses;subordinateclauses

clausetypes,11,166–78

applications,173–6

definition,11

imperative,27

notes,351

overview,173–6

subjunctive,27

syntax,173–4

cleftconstructions,48,331–5

clippings,40

closedinterrogativeclauses,167,169–70,182–3,185,188

properties,170

Coates,Jennifer,354

Collins,Peter,xv,351,354

combiningforms,36–7

commonnouns,42

comparativeclauses,181,193–5

comparativeform,adjectives,30

comparisons

ofinferiority,194,195

non-scalar,194

scalar,193–4

ofsuperiority,194

Complements,90–105

inadjectivephrases,134–5

Catenative,352

andHeads,116–17

interrogativepronounsas,54–5

non-finitesubordinateclausesas,203

Object-relatedPredicative,99,100

inphrases,114

ofpostpositions,78–9

pre-Head,123–4

prepositionalphrasesas,95,100–2,144–50

ofprepositions,29,75

dummyitas,47

pronounsas,44

relativepronounsas,52

to-infinitiveclausesas,273–4,298–9,307,309

Subject-relatedPredicative,97–8,100

typesof,91

useofterm,90

verbal,75

inverbphrases,138–50

seealsoPredicativeComplements

Complementalternation,Indirect

Object–PrepositionalPhraseas,324–6

ComplementClauses(CCs),102

bareinfinitiveclausesas,219–20

contentclausesas,190–2

interrogativeclausesas,190–1

non-finite,352

pastparticipleclausesas,233–4

that-clausesas,190,191

to-infinitiveclausesas,211–17,228–9

complementationpatterns,139,182,320

ditransitive,324

complex

adjectivephrases,134–8

nounphrases,117–34

phrases,10–11,42,113–65

prepositions,74–5,77–8

conjunctive,77

relativephrases,196

transitiveverbs,99

verbphrases,138–52

wh-phrases,52

compound,7,20,33–7

adjectives,33,35

adverbs,36

classificationissues,33

definition,33

neoclassical,36–7

nouns,33,34

prepositions,35

stressin,36,127

Comrie,Bernard,353

concession,155

conditionalclauses,shouldin,291

conditions,155

open,250

remote,250

conjunctions,7,81–3

coordinating,8,10,81

definition,8

subordinating,8,81,82–3,180

conjunctivecomplexprepositions,77,157–8

conjunctiveprepositions,75

freerelative,202

meanings,154–8

constituents,8,84,90,108,326,332–3,334,335

bracketed,12,186

coordinated,164

definition,10,110

displacement,318

functionlabels,97

heavy,316

internalstructure,237

inversion,329

negation,177,178

orderof,15,166,167–8,180,181,314,321,324,325

reordering,315

right-dislocated,323

constructions,276

active,72–3

cleft,48,331–5

Determiner-Head,350

passive,23

presentational,326–9

seealsoexistentialconstructions;perfectconstructions;progressiveconstructions

contentclauses,181–93

asAdjuncts,193

closedinterrogative,182–3

declarative,184,187,189

definition,181

exclamative,188

functions,182

openinterrogative,183

asSubjects,182–3

continuativepresentperfect,258–9

contrast,155

conversions,7,20,37–8

adjective>noun,38

adjective>verb,38

noun>verb,38

preposition>verb,38

verb>adjective,38

verb>noun,38

coordinatedstructures,11,163–4

coordinates,164

coordinatingconjunctions,8,10,81

coordination,10–11,163–5

asyndetic,164–5

correlative,165

notes,351

polysyndetic,164–5

syndetic,164–5

coremodalauxiliaryverbsseemodalauxiliaries

‘correct’grammar,4–5

correlativecoordination,165

Crystal,David,349

Curme,GeorgeO.,349

currentorientation,353

currentrelevance,71,256,257–8,264,272

useofterm,255

declarativeclauses,11,25,166–7,184,187,189,314

applications,175

DirectObjectsof,93–4

properties,167

Subjectsin,87

subordinate,166–7

Declerck,Renaat,354

definitearticle,8,60–1,320

degreedeterminatives,61

demonstrative

determinatives,61

pronouns,55–6

deonticmodality,276–7

necessity,288–9

obligation,276,285

self-imposed,287–8

rules,287–8

deonticnecessity,304

obligation,296–7

deonticpossibility,permission,293,295–6

depictivemeanings,Subject-relatedPredicativeComplements,97–8

Depraetere,Ilse,354

derivation,7,20,31–3

derivational

affixes,20

suffixes,32

descriptivereferencegrammars,4

determinatives,3,43,58–63,350

andadjectivescompared,64–5

degree,61

demonstrative,61

distal,61

interrogative,62

limitsonnumbersof,65

proximal,61

seealsorelativedeterminatives

determinativephrases(DPs)

asDeterminersinnounphrases,117–18

Headsof,58,60

asPredeterminersinnounphrases,119–20

aspre-HeadAdjunctsinadverbphrases,162

Determiner-Headconstructions,350

Determiners,11,58,60,62,108,109

interrogativedeterminativesas,169

innounphrases,115,117–19,126

pronounsas,52–3

deverbalprepositions,75,79–80

dictionarywords,19

directives,170

declarativesas,175

interrogativesas,176

DirectObjects(DOs),29–30,172,320–1,352

adjectivephrasesas,139–40

bareinfinitiveclausesas,218–19

clausal,82

clausesas,140

closedbondswithlexicalverbs,91–2

Complements,91–4

control,into-infinitiveclauses,211–13

ofdeclarativeclauses,93–4

declarativecontentclausesas,184,187,189

definition,9

dummyitas,47

freerelativeclausesas,62–3

interrogativepronounsas,54–5

modallexicalverbstaking,307

asnounphrases,43,49,92

nounphrasesas,139–40,184

pastparticipleclausesas,231–2

postverbalnounphrasesas,211,213–15

vs.PredicativeComplements,100

prepositionalphrasesas,139–40

pronounsas,44,45–6

properties,94

relativepronounsas,52

to-infinitiveclausesas,204–10

verbsas,65–6

directreportedspeech,251

directspeechacts,174

displacements,315,316,317,318–19,320–1

distal

determinatives,61

entities,55

distributionalanalysis,42

ditransitivecomplementationpatterns,324

ditransitiveverbs,95,148

DOsseeDirectObjects(DOs)

DPsseedeterminativephrases(DPs)

dynamicmodality,276,277

necessity,296,297–8,308

possibility,292–3

predisposition,284

volition,277,284,288

emphasis,prosodic,69

endocentricphrases,114

EndWeight,Principleof,315–16,320–1,322,325–6,329,331

English

continualchangein,xv

irregularverbs,337–45

typesof,6

seealsoAmericanEnglish;BritishEnglish

Englishgrammar

notes,349

overview,3–15

epistemicmodality,276–7,282,289,291,294–5,297,302,308,310,354

equality,andinequalitycompared,194

events,presenttenseand,245–6

evidence-basedsupposition,epistemicmodality,289

exclamativeclauses,11,166,172–3,186,188

properties,172–3

subordinate,185

existentialconstructions,326–9

bare,326–7

extended,326–7

existentialmeaning,292–3

existentialsseeexistentialconstructions

Experiencer(semanticrole),106

experientialpresentperfect,260

extendedexistentialconstructionsseeexistentialconstructions

extendedexistentialsseeexistentialconstructions

ExternalAdjuncts,11,351

andPredeterminerscompared,133–4

externalmodifiers,351

extraposition,47,48,183,184,189,216,263,321–2

finalcombiningforms,36–7

finite,conceptof,27–8

finiteclauses,12,27,135,140,157

finitesubordinateclauses,11–12,179–202

classification,181–202

notes,352

firstperson,21

focusposition,332–3

formlabels,7

relativeclauses,62–3,200–2,352

relativeconjunctiveprepositions,202

relativedeterminatives,54,62–3,201

relativepronouns,53–4,200–1

Fries,C.C.,349

fusedrelativeconstructions,352

future

tense,244,354

time,254

futurity,287

gender,pronounsand,45

genitivecase,29–30,46

pronounsand,45,51,118

suffixes,43–4

genitiveforms

dependent,30,47–8

independent,30

Given-Before-NewPrinciple,315–16,323,324,325–6,328–9,330–1

Givón,Talmy,349

Goal(semanticrole),94,95,106

Goethe,JohannWolfgangvon,19

gradability,64

grammar

classicallanguages,3

components,6

‘correct’,4–5

fieldofstudy,3

theoreticalapproaches,4

typesof,3–4

grammars

comprehensive,xv

descriptivereference,4

pedagogical,4

school,3–4

theoretical,4

traditional,4,6

grammarwriting,3–6

historicalbackground,3–4

grammaticalfunctions,9–10,84–105

notes,350

phraselevel,113–17

grammaticalSubjects,326

grammaticalwordsseeinflectionalforms

Greeks,ancient,3

Greenbaum,SidneyseeQuirk,Randolphetal.

Haegeman,Liliane,350

Heads,11

ofadjectivephrases,63

andAdjuncts,116–17

ofadverbphrases,80

andComplements,116–17

ofdeterminativephrases,58,60

ofnounphrases,42–3,45

inphrases,114

ofprepositionalphrases,75,101

pronounsas,45–6

ofpropernames,57

verbsas,66

ofwh-phrases,53

constituents,316

HeavyNounPhraseShift,320–1

heavystress,69,288

heavySubjects,329

hedges,311–12

historicpresent,246–7

hope,expressionsof,imperativesas,176

Huddleston,Rodney,andPullum,

GeoffreyK.etal.

CambridgeGrammaroftheEnglishLanguage(2002),xv,6,349–50,351,352,353,354

ICEseeInternationalCorpusofEnglish(ICE)

ICECUP(InternationalCorpusofEnglishCorpusUtilityProgram),347

imaginarypresent,247

imperative,26–7

clausetype,27

verbforms,26,349

imperativeclauses,11,23,166,170–1

applications,176

properties,171

implicitrelativizedelements,198

indefinite

article,8,60,325,329

pronouns,56–7,350

indicative,26–7

inflectionalforms,166

verbforms,26

IndirectObject–PrepositionalPhrase,asComplementalternation,324–6

IndirectObjects(IOs),29–30

closedbondswithlexicalverbs,95

Complements,94–100

asnounphrases,43,95–6

vs.PredicativeComplements,100

pronounsas,44

properties,96

asSubjectsofpassiveclauses,96–7

indirectreportedspeech

andpastperfect,262–3

pasttensein,251

indirectspeechacts,174

inequality,andequalitycompared,194

inferiority,comparisonsof,194,195

infinitivalinterrogativeclauses,204,208

infinitiveclauses,23

seealsobareinfinitiveclauses

inflectionalforms,20,23,24,25,26,27,88,308

adjectives,31

adverbs,31

conversions,37–8

definition,19

indicative,166

modification,8

plurals,45

suffixes,20

useofterm,7

verbal,22

seealsoinflections

inflections,20–31,65

adjective,30–1

adverb,30–1

conceptof,20

noun,28–30

pasttense,7

seealsoinflectionalforms,verbinflections

informationstructuring,14–15,314–35

definition,314

notes,354

overview,314–15

principles,315–16

initialcombiningforms,36–7

initialisms,39

Instrument(semanticrole),106

intention,275

interjections,7,83

InternationalCorpusofEnglishCorpusUtilityProgram(ICECUP),347

InternationalCorpusofEnglish(ICE),349

ICE-GBcorpus(ICE-GB),6,86,92,95,98,99,280,347–8

interpretiveprogressive,269

interrogative,176

alternative,170

determinatives,62,169

pronouns,54–5,62,168,350

tags,5,88–9,177,178

seealsointerrogativeclauses

interrogativeclauses,11,54,62,166,167–70,176,180,186,202

applications,176

deonticmeaning,287

infinitival,204,208

Subjectsin,88

subordinate,180,185,208

seealsoclosedinterrogativeclauses;openinterrogativeclauses,questions

intransitive

phrasal-prepositionalverbs,351

phrasalverbs,351

prepositionalverbs,351

prepositions,74,75–7,147

verbs,65–6,101,147,150

inversion,329–31

obligatory,329

optional,329

Subjects,88

seealsoSubject–auxiliaryinversion

invitations,interrogativesas,176

IOsseeIndirectObjects(IOs)

irregularverbs,22,337–45

irritation,progressiveof,269–70

Jespersen,Otto,AModernEnglishGrammaronHistoricalPrinciples(1909–1949),4,349

Johnson,Samuel,DictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage(1755),5

Jonson,Ben,3

Katamba,Francis,349

knowledge-basedconclusions,epistemicnecessity,294,297

knowledge-basedsuppositions,epistemicpossibility,294–5

Kruisinga,Etsko,349

labelledbracketing,8

Lambrecht,Knud,354

languages

classical,3

Slavic,254–5

seealsoEnglish

Latin,andEnglishgrammar,3

Leech,Geoffrey,xv,350,351,353,354

seealsoQuirk,Randolphetal.

leftdislocation,319–20

leftwardmovements,316–20

Leitner,Gerhard,349

Levinson,S.,351

lexemes,7,19,20

conversions,37

lexical

aspect,273

bases,20

level,351

meaning,272–4

modality,305–11

seealsolexicalverbs

lexicalverbs,67–74,88,249,309

agreementwithSubjects,22

aspectual,273

andDirectObjects,91–2

andIndirectObjects,95

seealsomodallexicalverbs

lexicon,90

licensing,107–10

clauses,77,186–8,204–5,235

Complements,91,98–9,114,122,138–9,147,150,157,190,192,193,219–20,237,239,307,351

conceptof,90

DirectObjects,207

prepositionalphrases,103

PrepositionalPhrasesasComplements,100–2

subjunctiveclauses,306,307

andsubordination,179–80

verbs,184,211,215

linguistics,6,19

linking

adverbs,80

verbs,63,65–6,98

Locative(semanticrole),107

Long,R.B.,349

Lumsden,Michael,354

McCawley,James,349

McMahon,April,349

mainclauses,179

Mair,Christian,353

mandativesubjunctive,279

clauses,290

Marchand,Hans,349

marginalmodals,298–301

matrixclauses,154,183,192,194,249,264,267,269

definition,82,179

freerelativeclausesin,201

modalnounsin,305–6

modalverbsin,250

non-finiteclausesin,203

andnounphrases,352

passivization,219

structure,12,195

Subjectsof,89,220–1,222,225,229,230–1,233–4,237,239

to-infinitiveclausesin,204–5,207,208–9,211,212–18

verbsin,290,302

meanings

conjunctiveprepositions,154–8

deontic,276–7

depictive,97–8

dynamic,276–7

epistemic,276–7

existential,292–3

lexical,272–4

non-propositional,314–15,323

propositional,15,314–15,323

resultative,97–8

typesof,314–15

seealsomodalmeanings

Meyer,CharlesF.,352

Michael,Ian,349

Michaelis,LauraA.,353

adjectives,306–7

adverbs,310–11

auxiliaries,seemodalauxiliaries

contexts,279–80,305,306

expressions,275,305,312–3

idioms,301–5

lexicalverbs,307–10

meanings,80,104,275,279,284,295,299,301,304–05,309,311

nouns,305–6

pasttense,250–1,277–8

perfectconstructions,271

perfectprogressiveconstructions,271

perfectprogressivetense,271

perfecttense,271

verbseemodalauxiliaries

modalauxiliaries,23,26,65,67,69–70,166,220,235,236,272,275–77,279,283–6,294,298–9,305,309,311

core,274,280–2,298,307–09

frequencies,280–1

inbareinfinitiveclauses,219–20

inmatrixclauses,250

interpretation,contextualinfluenceson,312–13

morphologicalpasttenseforms,252

properties,281–2

tensedforms,70,281

useofterm,14

WILLas,285

seealsoauxiliaries,modality

modality,26

conceptsof,14

deontic,276–7

dynamic,276–7

epistemic,276–7

expressionof,277–313

issues,312–13

lexical,305–11

andmood,275–6

notes,353–4

root,354

subjunctiveclausesand,278–80

typesof,276–7

seealsodeonticmodality;dynamicmodality;epistemicmodality,modalauxiliaries

modalization,275

modalsseemodalauxiliaries

modalverbsseemodalauxiliaries

modifiers,65,114

external,351

peripheral,351

predeterminer,351

mood,13–14,275–313

analytic,275–6

andmodality,275–6

notes,353–4

traditional,26–7

seealsomodalauxiliaries,modality

morphology,19–20

definition,3

fieldofstudy,19

originofterm,19

seealsowordstructure

morphosyntacticnotions,20

movements,316–23

leftward,316–20

obligatory,316

optional,316

rightward,316,320–3

Murray,Lindley,EnglishGrammar(1795),4

N-bar,351

necessity,275

deonticmodality,288–9

dynamic,296,297–8,308

epistemic,294,297

neutral,297–8

seealsodeonticnecessity,modality,modalauxiliaries

negation,11,166–78

clausal,177

notes,351

subclausal,178

negation,inversion,code,andemphasisseeNICEproperties

negative

clauses,177

interrogativetags,177,178

Nelson,Gerald,349

neoclassicalcompounds,36–7

neutral

necessity,297–8

possibility,292–3

newschannels,6

newspapers,6

NICE(negation,inversion,code,andemphasis),properties,68–9,281,309

nominal

clauses,352

suffixes,43–4

nominal-relativeclauses,352

nominativecase,29–30,46

pronounsand,45,51,87

non-finite

clauses,12,27–8,203,135,140,157,352–3

conceptof,27–8

perfectconstructions,255,263–5

progressiveconstructions,265,268

relativeclauses,199–200

subordinateclauses,203–39

non-propositionalmeaning,314–15,323

non-restrictiverelativeclauses,198–9

non-scalarcomparisons,194

non-tensedverbforms,21–4,65

nouninflections,28–30

nouns,7,42–58

common,42

compound,33,34

definition,8

distributionalproperties,42–4

plural,21

proper,42,57

suffixes,43–4

uncountable,43

seealsopronouns

nounphrases(NPs),8,9,21,42–58

Adjunctsin,124–34

asComplementsinadjectivephrases,135

complex,117–34

determinativesand,65

Determinersin,115,117–19

asDeterminersinnounphrases,118

asDirectObjects,139–40,184

DirectObjectsas,43,49,92

ExternalAdjunctsin,133–4

functions,43

heading,45

Headof,42–3,45,52,57

reflexivepronounsas,49

IndirectObjectsas,43,95–6

andmatrixclauses,352

asObject-relatedPredicativeComplements,142–3,190

oneas,49

Predeterminersin,115,119–21

asPredeterminersinnounphrases,120

aspre-HeadAdjunctsinadverbphrases,162

aspre-HeadAdjunctsinprepositionalphrases,159–60

pronounsin,44–5

structure,351

Subjectsas,43,83–7

withoutDeterminers

aspre-HeadComplementsinnounphrases,123–4

seealsopostverbalnounphrases

NP-coordinations,164

NPsseenounphrases(NPs)

number,28–9

numerals,58

cardinal,58

ordinal,58

ObjectivePredicativeComplements,352

Object-relatedPredicativeComplements,66,99,148,320–1

adjectivephrasesas,143,190

clausesas,144

-ingparticipleclausesas,230

nounphrasesas,142–3,190

Objects

dummyitas,47

postverbalnounphrasesas,224–5

raisingto,213–15,224–7

seealsoDirectObjects(DOs);IndirectObjects(IOs)

obligation,275

deonticmodality,276,285

deonticnecessity,296–7

self-imposed,deonticmodality,287–8

seealsomodality,modalauxilairies

obligatory

inversion,329

movements,316

offers,interrogativesas,176

conditions,250

interrogativeclauses,167–9,185,188

interrogativecontentclauses,182–3

optional

inversion,329

movements,316

ordinalnumerals,58

orthographicwords,7,19

Palmer,Frank,350,353,354

Palmer,H.E.,349

paradigms,22

Partee,BarbaraH.,349

participants,107

participles,12,22,71–2,221–31,231–4

partsofspeechseewordclasses

passiveclauses,15,23,73,93–4,96–7,101–2,147–8,219,323–4

passivizationseepassiveclauses

pastfuturate,251–2,283

pastinthefuture,conceptof,264

pastparticipleclauses,231–4

asAdjuncts,234

seealsoparticiples

pastparticiplesseeparticiples,pastparticipleclauses

pastperfectconstructionsseeperfectconstructions

pastprogressiveconstructions,72,266–8,270

pastsituations,pasttenseand,249

pastsubjunctive

clauses,26

verbs,25–6

pasttense,13,22,244

auxiliaryverbs,252–3

inflection,7

inindirectreportedspeech,251

modal,250–1,277–8

andpastsituations,249

andpoliteness,249–50

andpresentperfectcompared,256

pasttime,254

Patient(semanticrole),9,73,86,106,323

PCRsseePredicators(PCRs)

pedagogicalgrammars,4

perfectaspect,13,255–65

perfectconstructions,23,70–1,255

modal,271

non-finite,255,263–5

past,71,255,260–3

present,13,71,255–60

seealsopresentperfectconstruction

perfectandprogressivecombinations,270–2

perfecttense

modal,271

present/past,353

performativeverbs,246

peripheralmodifiers,351

permission,275,276,313

deonticpossibility,293,295–6

person,pronounsand,45

personalpronouns,46–9

personsystem,20–1

Peters,Pam,349

phrasal-prepositionalverbs

intransitive,351

transitive,351

phrasalverbs

intransitive,351

transitive,351

phraselevel,351

grammaticalfunctions,113–17

phrases,8–9

Adjunctsin,114–15

Complementsin,114

complex,10–11,42,113–65

endocentric,114

functions,11

Headsin,114

passive,101–2

properlyheaded,114

relative,196

structure,108–10,115–17

seealsosyntax

seealsoadjectivephrases(AdjPs);adverbphrases(AdvPs);determinativephrases(DPs);nounphrases(NPs);prepositionalphrases(PPs);simplephrases;verbphrases(VPs);wh-phrases

Plag,Ingo,349

plainform,24

adjectives,30

plainpresentform,22,24

pluperfectseepastperfect

pluraliatantum,29,43

plurals,28–9

inflectional,45

nouns,21

politeness,pasttenseand,249–50

polysyndeticcoordination,164–5

positive

clauses,177

interrogativetags,177

possibility,275,313

deontic,293,295–6

dynamic,292–3

epistemic,294–5

neutral,292–3

seealsomodality,modalauxiliaries

post-HeadAdjuncts

adjectivephrasesas,innounphrases,130–2

adverbphrasesas

inadjectivephrases,138

inadverbphrases,163

inverbphrases,151

clausesas

innounphrases,132

inverbphrases,152

determinativephrasesas

inadverbphrases,163

innounphrases,132

nounphrasesas

inverbphrases,152

prepositionalphrasesas

inadverbphrases,163

innounphrases,131

inprepositionalphrases,160

inverbphrases,152

postposing,320–1

postpositions,75,78–9

Complementsof,78–9

postverbalnounphrases,93,205–6,212,219

asDirectObjects,211,213–15

asObjects,224–5

Poutsma,Hendrik,349

PPsseeprepositionalphrases(PPs)

predeterminermodifiers,351

Predeterminers,11,160

andExternalAdjunctscompared,133–4

innounphrases,115,119–21

Predicate,89–90

asfunctionallabel,105–6

conceptof,105

PredicativeComplements,66,97–100,140–1,148,168,237

vs.DirectObjects,100

vs.IndirectObjects,100

Objective,352

pronounsas,44,46

properties,100

seealsoObject-relatedPredicativeComplements;Subject-relatedPredicativeComplements

predicativeposition,63

PredicatorplusDirectObject(PCR+DO)

pattern(monotransitive),139–40

PredicatorplusDirectObjectplus

Object-relatedPredicativeComplement

pattern(complextransitive),142–4

PredicatorplusDirectObjectplusPrepositional

PhraseasComplementpattern(prepositional),144–50

PredicatorplusIndirectObjectplusDirect

Object(PCR+IO+DO)pattern(ditransitive),140

PredicatorplusSubject-relatedPredicative

Complementpattern(complexintransitive),140–2

Predicators(PCRs),9,89–90,109,166,180,195,314,320–1,333

predictions,70,310

evidence-based,282–3

scientific,283

predisposition,dynamicmodality,284

prefixation,32–3

prefixes,20,33

pre-HeadAdjuncts

adjectivephrasesas,innounphrases,125–6

adverbphrasesas

innounphrases,129

inverbphrases,151

clause-likestructuresas,innounphrases,129

clausesas,innounphrases,129

determinativephrasesas

inadverbphrases,162

innounphrases,126

nounphrasesas

inadverbphrases,162

nounphraseswithoutDeterminersas,innounphrases,126–7

prepositionalphrasesas

inprepositionalphrases,159

verbphrasesas

innounphrases,128

pre-HeadComplements,nounphrases

withoutDeterminersas,innounphrases,123–4

preposing,317–19,322

prepositions,7,74–80

Complementsof,29,75

compound,35

definition,8

deverbal,75,79–80

intransitive,74,75–7,147

regular,75

transitive,74,75

seealsocomplexprepositions;conjunctiveprepositions

prepositionalphrases(PPs),8,74–80,153–60

Adjunctsas,103–4,107–8

Adjunctsin,158–60

asComplements,95,100–2,144–50

asComplementsinadjectivephrases,134–5

asComplementsinadverbphrases,161

asComplementsinnounphrases,121–2

asDeterminersinnounphrases,118–19

Headsof,75,101

non-locative,asPrepositionalPhrasesasComplements,144–50

nounsand,45

asObject-relatedPredicative

Complements,143–4

aspost-HeadAdjunctsinprepositionalphrases,160

aspre-HeadAdjunctsinprepositionalphrases,159

asSubject-relatedPredicativeComplements,141–2

asSubjects,87

PrepositionalPhrasesasComplements(PPCs),100–2,191

non-locativeprepositionalphrasesas,144–50

andpassiveclauses,101–2

prepositionalverbs

intransitive,351

transitive,351

presentationalconstructions,326–9

presentfuturate,248–9

subordinateclausesand,248–9

present/pastperfecttense,353

present/pastprogressivetense,353

presentperfectconstruction,13,71,255–60

continuative,258–9

experiential,260

andpasttensecompared,256

ofrecentpast,259

ofresult,259–60

seealsoperfectconstructions

presentperfectseepresentperfectconstruction

presentprogressive,72,265–6

futurate,270

presentsubjunctive,25,349

presenttense,13,22,24

‘event’useof,245–6

historic,246–7

imaginary,247

‘instantaneous’useof,245–6

‘state’useof,244–5

‘timeless’useof,247–8

presenttime,254

Priestley,Joseph,RudimentsofEnglishGrammar(1761),5

PrincipleofEndWeight,315–16,320–1,322,325–6,329,331

probability,275

progressive

aspect,13,255,265–70

constructionsseeprogressiveconstructions

futurate,254,270,286

interpretive,269

ofirritation,269–70

andperfectcombinations,270–2

andstateverbs,268–9

tense,present/past,353

progressiveconstructions,70,71–2,200,272,285–6

applications,5,265–6,268–70

functions,23

modalperfect,271

non-finite,265,268

past,72,266–7

present,72

structure,5,229

pronouns,4–5,29,30,42,44–57

andaccusativecase,45,51,92,96

antecedentsof,88–9

classificationissues,350

demonstrative,55–6

dependents,45

dependentuseof,46

functions,44–6

andgenitivecase,45,51,118

indefinite,56–7,350

independentuseof,46

interrogative,54–5,62,168,350

andnominativecase,45,51,87

asnounsubclass,45

personal,46–9

reciprocal,49–51

reflexive,49–51

subclasses,46

temporal,350

seealsorelativepronouns

proper

names,Headsof,57

nouns,42,57

propositionalmeaning,15,314–15,323

Proposition(semanticrole),106

prosodicemphasis,69

proximal

determinatives,61

entities,55

pseudoclefts,202,331,333–5seealsocleftconstructions

psychologicalverbs,245

Pullum,GeoffreyK.seeHuddleston,Rodney,andPullum,GeoffreyK.etal.

purpose,156

purposiveclauses,shouldin,291

putativeshould,289–91

questions,167

declarativesas,175

rhetorical,174

seealsointerrogativeclauses

Quirk,Randolphetal.

ComprehensiveGrammaroftheEnglishLanguage(1985),xv,6,349,350,352,354

raisedSubjects,217,229,237

raising-to-Objectverbs,215,217

raising-to-Subjectverbs,216–17,326

reason,155

recentpast,presentperfectof,259

Recipient(semanticrole),94,95,106,147–8

reciprocalpronouns,49–51

reduction,195

Reed,Susan,354

referencepoints,261

reflexivepronouns,49–51

regularprepositions,75

regularverbs,22

relativeclauses,51,181,195–202

free,62–3,200–2,352

nominal-,352

non-finite,199–200

non-restrictive,198–9

non-wh,197–8

restrictive,198–9

sentential,197

wh,195–7

relativeconstructions,fused,352

relativedeterminatives,62–3

free,54,62–3,201

relativephrases

complex,196

simple,196

relativepronouns,51–3

free,53–4,200–1

relativizedelements,198

implicit,198

wh-wordsas,196

remoteconditions,250

requests,interrogativesas,176

responses,169

restrictiverelativeclauses,198–9

result,156–7

presentperfectof,259–60

resultativemeanings,Subject-related

PredicativeComplements,97–8

rhetoricalquestions,174

rightdislocation,322–3

rightwardmovements,316,320–3

rootmodality,354

rulesandregulations,287–8

Saeed,John,350

Salkie,Raphael,354

scalarcomparisons,193–4

Schachter,Paul,349

schoolgrammars,3–4

scientificprediction,283

Searle,J.,351

secondperson,21

semantic

merger,313

roles,9–10,84,105–7,106,350

Subjects,326

semantics,12–13

semi-auxiliaryverbs,354

sentences,82–3

sententialrelativeclauses,197

silentapostrophe,30

simple

phrases,7–9,41–83,350

relativephrases,196

situationaspect,273

situations,intime,243–4

Slaviclanguages,254–5

Source(semanticrole),107

Spencer,Andrew,349

Spinillo,Mariangela,350

splitinfinitives,xv,4–5

stackedadjectives,63,65,125–6

statements,166

imperativesas,176

interrogativesas,176

stateverbs,progressiveand,268–9

Stockwell,RobertP.,349

Stonham,JohnT.,349

stress,314,315

incompounds,36,127

heavy,69,288

subclausalnegation,178

Subject–auxiliaryinversion,168,169–70,172–3,180–1,185,193,316

Subject–Predicaterelationships,8,11–12

Subject-referents,297–8

Subject-relatedPredicative

Complements,97–8,148,164,172,329–30

adjectivephrasesas,141

adverbphrasesas,142

bareinfinitiveclausesas,221

clausesas,142

contentclausesas,193

depictivemeanings,97–8

nounphrasesas,141

resultativemeanings,97–8

to-infinitiveclausesas,217–18

Subjects,22,27,85–9,320–1,352

adverbphrasesas,87

agentive,73

agreementwith,22

verbs,88

anticipatoryitas,47

asclauses,87

indeclarativeclauses,87

definitions,9,85–6

dummyitas,47

grammatical,326

heavy,329

ininterrogativeclauses,88

andinterrogativetags,88–9

inversion,88

ofmatrixclauses,89

asnounphrases,43,86–7

obligatory,86

ofpassiveclauses,93–4

prepositionalphrasesas,87

pronouns,29

pronounsas,44,45–6

properties,89

raised,217,229,237

raisingto,216–17,228–9,233–4

semantic,326

semanticallyempty,87–8

to-infinitiveclausesas,204,263

subjunctive,26–7

clausetype,27

clauses,23,25,26

constructions,349–50

mandative,279,290

andmodality,278–80

verbforms,24–6,349

subordinateclauses,8,12

declarative,166–7

embedded,82

exclamative,185

interrogative,180,185,208

layers,180

andpresentfuturate,248–9

useofterm,179

seealsofinitesubordinateclauses;non-finitesubordinateclauses;verblessclauses

subordinatingconjunctions,8,81,82–3,180

subordination

definition,179–80

markersof,180–1

subordinatorsseesubordinatingconjunctions

suffixation,31–2seealsosuffixes

suffixes

class-maintaining,31–2

derivational,32

inflectional,20

nominal,43–4

nouns,43–4

superiority,comparisonsof,194

superlativeform,adjectives,30

superordinateclauses,248–9

suppletion,30

SurveyofEnglishUsage,6

Svartvik,JanseeQuirk,Randolphetal.

Swift,Jonathan,‘AProposalforCorrecting,ImprovingandAscertainingtheEnglishTongue’(1712),5

syncretism,25

syndeticcoordination,164–5

syntax,20

clausetypes,173–4

definition,3

X-bar,351

Taglicht,Josef,354

Taylor,John,350

temporalpronouns,350

tensedverbforms,21–4

tenses,12–13,243–54

definition,243–4

future,244

notes,353

past,13,22

seealsopasttense;presenttense

Theme(semanticrole),106,107–8,323

theoreticalgrammars,4

thirdperson,21

time,154–5

Adjunctsof,257,258

definition,243

future,254

past,254

present,254

situationsin,243–4

topicalization,317

topics,323–4

position,317

traditional

grammars,4,6

mood,26–7

transitive

complex,99

phrasal-prepositionalverbs,351

phrasalverbs,351

prepositionalverbs,351

prepositions,74,75

verbs,65–6,91,94,101,147–8,150

treediagrams,10,84,108–10,116,237–9,352

notes,350

uncountablenouns,43

Undergoers,73

universalgrammar,theory,4

UniversityCollegeLondon,6

unmodalized,278

verbal

inflectionalaffixes,21

inflectionalforms,22

particleto,311

verbcomplementation,139

verbinflections,20–8

non-tensed,21–4

personsystem,20–1

subjunctive,24–6

tensed,21–4

verblessclauses,12,239

notes,352–3

verbs,7,65–74

asactionwords,65

agreementwithsubject,88

compound,34

definition,8

ditransitive,95,148

endings,14

asHeads,66

intransitive,65–6,101,147,150

irregular,22,337–45

linking,63,65–6,98

inmatrixclauses,290,302

pastsubjunctive,25–6

performative,246

presentsubjunctive,25

psychological,245

raising-to-Object,215,217

raising-to-Subject,216–17,326

regular,22

semi-auxiliary,354

state,268–9

subclassification,67

seealsoauxiliaryverbs;lexicalverbs;modalauxiliaries;phrasal-prepositionalverbs;phrasalverbs;prepositionalverbs;transitiveverbs

verbphrases(VPs),8–9,65–74

Adjunctsin,150–2

complex,138–52

active,93

passive,15,23,73,93–4,96–7,101–2,147–8,219,323–4

volition,dynamicmodality,277,284,288

VP-Adjuncts

typesof,150–1

useofterm,104

VPsseeverbphrases(VPs)

Wales,Katie,350

Walker,Jim,353

Wallis,Sean,349

Ward,Gregory,354

Warner,Anthony,350

wh-clefts,333–5

wh-nounphrases,52

wh-phrases,51,52,54,168–9,183,185,190,200,204,208,316

complex,52

Headsof,53

whrelativeclauses,195–7

wh-words,51,54,168–9,172,183,185

adjectival,186

asrelativizedelements,196

wish,expressionsof,imperativesas,176

wordclasses,3,41–83

definitions,7–9,41–2

notes,350

word-formation,7,31–40

minortypesof,39–40

notes,349–50

action,65

dictionary,19

grammatical,7,19

internalstructure,7

orthographic,7,19

seealsoinflectionalforms;wh-words

wordstructure,7,19–40

notes,349–50

seealsomorphology

X-barsyntax,351

Zandvoort,ReinardW.,349

LexicalIndexa-,32

a(n)-,8,33,43,58,59–61

afew,57,59

alittle,57,59

alot,162

ab-,33

able,306

-able,32

able-bodied,128

aboard,76

about,76,159

above,76

abreast,76

abroad,76

abstract,38

academically,134

ACCEPT,94,185,223

ACCEPTNPasNP/AdjP,145

accident-prone,35

according[to],78,80

ACCOUNTforNP,102,145,351

ACHE,206

ACHIEVE,121,168

achievement,121

ACKNOWLEDGE,185,187,222

ACKNOWLEDGENPasNP/AdjP,145

across,76

ad-,33

ADD,185

ADMIT,185,187,222

adrift,76

advisable,290,306

ADVISE,191–2,212–3,307

aer(o)-,36

aeroplane,37

afraid,63

aft,76

after-,33

after,76,154,156–7,254

after-effect,34

after-ski,34

afterward(s),76

against,76

-age,44

ago,78–9

AGREE,185,187

AGREEwithNPaboutNP,146

aground,76

aha,83

ahead,76

aheadof,78,158

aircraft,28

-al,44

alive,63

all,57,59,115,118,119,127,133

ALLEGE,213–5

allowing[for],80

almost,36,118,119,129,133–4

aloft,76

alone,63,133

along,76

alongwith,78

alongside,76

already,36

also,36

although,155–7,180,295

altogether,36

alumnus/alumni,29

always,36,81,270

am,24,70

amazing,290

amid(st),76

among(st),76

AMS,39

Amsterdam,57

-ance,32

and,8,81,163–5

andr(o)-,36

ankle-deep,35

ANNOUNCE,185,187

another,56,59

-ant,44

ante-,33

antennae,29

anthrop(o)-,36

anthropology,37

anti-,33

anxious,306

any,56,59

anybody,34,57

anyhow,36

anyone,34,57

anything,34,57

anyway,36

anywhere,34

apart,76,79

APPEAR,63,66,98,141,192,217,326,328

arch-,33

-archy,44

are,24,72

arguably,310–11

ARGUE,185

ARGUEwithNPaboutNP,146

ARISE,328

around,76

ARRANGE,185,187,206

ARRANGEwithNPforNP,146

ARRIVE,65,273,328

as,76,143,153–155,157,195

as…as,194

asfor,78,158

asfrom,78

asif,158,192,279–80

asitwere,280

aslongas,158

asper,78

assoon,303–4

assoonas,158

asthough,279–80

asto,78,158

aswellas,78,158

ASCERTAIN,186

ashore,76

aside,76,78–9

asidefrom,78,158

ASK,186–9,207–10

ASKforNP,145

ASSERT,185,187

ASSUME,185,215

ASSURE,191

astr(o)-,36

astrophysics,37

at,75–6,153,157,267

attheexpenseof,78

atthehandsof,78

at(the)riskof,78,158

atvariancewith,78

-ation,32,44

ATTEMPT,222

attempt,38

ATTENDtoNP,145

audio-,36

auspices,29

aut(o)-,36

autocrat,37

AVOID,222

AWAIT,94

awake,63

away,76

awayfrom,78

awe-inspiring,35

babysit,34

back,76

BACKdown,102,144

background,34

backward(s),76

bad,31

badger,38

badly,151

bad-mouth,34

bare,38

barely,177

barring,80

BBC,39

BE,5,24,25,26,63,67,70,72–3,88,93,98,149,168,192,217–8,221,229–30,233,235–8,265ff.,271,278,308–10,323–4,326ff.,331–5

BEableto,354

BEboundto,354

BEgoing[to],308–310,353–4

BElikelyto,354

BEobligedto,354

BE[to],301,304–5

beautifully,109–10

because,105,155–7,180

becauseof,78,158

BECOME,63,66,98,141

bedtime,34

been,235–8,271

before,76,154,156–7,180,257,260

beforehand,76

BEG,187,207,212,290

BEGIN,94,217,228–9,273,328

behind,76,154

being,235–8,271

BELIEVE,67,90,94,99,182,185,215,245,266

BELONG,266

below,76,330

beneath,74,76

BESEECH,212

beside(s),76,157

best,31,303–4

BET,185,191

better,31,38,162,194,303–4

between,76,87,157

beyond,74,76,137

bi-,33

bibli(o)-,36

bibliophile,37

big,126

binoculars,29

bio-,36

biodiversity,37

bison,28

bitter-sweet,35

blackboard,34

blacksmith,34

BLAME,100–1

BLAMENPonNP,145,351

blind,38

blindfold,34

blow-dry,34

blowtorch,34

blue-black,35

BLUSH,65

BOAST,187

BOASTtoNPaboutNP,146

body/bodies,28

bone-dry,35

bored,38

boring,38

both,57,59,119,165

(not)BOTHER,222

bottle,38

bound,306

brainwash,34

BRANCH,100

BRANCHout,144

BRAND,99

BRANDNPasNP/AdjP,145

BREAKupwithNP,145

breakfast,34

breakthrough,34

breathalyser,40

brethren,29

bridge,38

BRING,95

BRINGNPinonNP,146

BRINGNPover,144

broad-brush(assessment),35

brown,125

brunch,40

BURY,233

bus/buses,28,40

busy,135

busybody,34

but,81,163–4

butcher,38

by,76,93,157,261–2,264,323

bydintof,78,158

byfar,133

bymeansof,77–8

bynomeans,137

byvirtueof,78,158

bywayof,78

bystander,34

CAD,39

CALL,94,223–4,230

callgirl,34

calm,38

camera-shy,35

can,38

CAN/could,14,67,70,220,252,277,280f.,291–4,295,312–3,353–4

CAN’TAFFORD,206

CAN’TBEAR,206–7,222

CAN’TSTAND,206,222

capital-intensive,35

carbondate,34

cardi(a/o)-,36

CARE,186

carefully,87

CATCHon,102

cattle,28

CAUTION,191

CEASE,217,229,273

-cephaly,36

certain,59

certainly,132

CHALLENGE,212

chance,123

CHANCE,192

cheat,38

CHECK,185–6,208

CHECKuponNP,145

cheerfully,80

child/children,29

CHOOSE,208

chunnel,39

-cide,36

circum-,33

city-dweller,34

CLAIM,122,185,263

CLAMOUR,206

clean,158–9

CLEANNPoff,144,149

clean-shaven,35

clear,81

clearly,162

CLIMBup,144

CLOSEin,144

closeto,78

co-,32,33

coach,38

cold,194

cold-call,34

COLLAPSE,65

colourcode,34

COME,65,220,270,328

COMEABOUT,192

COMEacross/overasNP/AdjP,145,148

COMEapart/in,144

COMEdownwithNP,145

COMEin,351

COMMAND,212

COMMENCE,217,229

comparably,161

COMPEL,212

COMPILE,107

COMPLAIN,185,187

COMPLAINaboutNP,145

COMPLAINtoNPaboutNP,146

completely,64,81

concerned,306

concerning,80

CONCLUDE,187,215

CONDEMNNPasNP/AdjP,145

condition,305

CONFESS,185,187,222

CONFIDE,185

CONFIRM,185–7

CONSIDER,99,185–6,189–90,208,215,222,227

CONSISTofNP,145

CONTAIN,266

continually,270

CONTINUE,217,229,273

control,38

CONVINCE,191

cool,83

cop-out,34

copycat,34

COST,93

cotton,126

COUNT,142

COUNTasNP/AdjP,145,147

counter-,33

counting,80

-crat,36

crazy,153

criterion/criteria,29

CROPup,144

crucial,306

CUTNPback,351

’d,354

daily,38,81

damn,83,270

DANCE,65

DARE,298–99

daresay,34

dark-red,35

datum/data,29

DAWNonNP,145

de-,33

dead,130

deadly,81

deaf-mute,35

DEALwithNP,145

DECEIVE,269

DECIDE,184–6,208

DECIDEonNP,102,145

decision,290

DECLARE,99,185,187,215

DECLINE,207

DECREE,290,307

decree,305

DEEM,99

deep-fry,34

deer,28

definitely,151

deliberately,105

DEMAND,185,187,207,290

demand,290,305

DEMONSTRATE,185,208

DENY,97,222

dependent,135

DESCRIBE,227–8

desirable,290,306

DESIRE,121,206

desire,121

despite,76,155,157

DETEST,222

DEVELOP,328

DEVOUR,90

DIAGNOSE,228

DIAGNOSENPasNP/AdjP,145

DIE,65

DIEdown,144

DIFFERfromNP,145

different,194

DIRECT,212

directly,161

dirt-cheap,35

dirty,38

dis-,178

disappointing,290

DISCLOSE,185–7

DISCONTINUE,273

discount,38

DISCOURAGE,222

DISCOVER,186–7,208

DISCUSS,94,208

DO,67,73–4,219–20,236

DOjusticetoNP,145,351

doc,40

double,120

DOUBLEasNP,145

DOUBT,186

down,76,153,159

down-and-out(tramp),34,35

downhill,35,76

downstage,76

downstairs,35,76

downstream,76

downturn,34

downward(s),76

downwind,76

DRAGon,144

drawback,34

DRINK,67

drink-drive,34

drug-related,35

dry-clean,34

due,135

dueto,78,158

during,75–6

DWELL,149

each,56,59,132

eachother,50–1

early,81,126,137

eastward(s),76

easy-going,35

EAT,67,94

EATNPup,102,144

eco-,33

-ectomy,36

-ed,20,21,22,23,72,79,200,231ff.,255

edge-of-your-seat,127

edgeways,81

edit,39

editor,39

-ee,32,44

either,56,59,165

elect,43

electr(o)-,37

ELICIT,187

-eme,32,44

EMERGE,326,328

-emia,36

-en,23,32,72

en-,33

ENCOURAGE,212

ENDUP,229

ENDupasNP,145

ENJOY,167

enjoyable,125

enough,57,59,132,138,163

ENQUIRE,186,208

ENTER,326,328

entertaining,38

ENTICE,212

entirely,134

ENTREAT,212,290

ENVY,97

ENVYNPforNP,102,145

-er,32,44

-ery,44

-es,22,28

ESCAPE,328

-ess,32

essential,290,306

ESTABLISH,186,208

ESTIMATE,186

ETS,39

even,133,261

evenif,155

eventhough,155

ever,154,260

every,56,58–9

everybit,133

everybody,34,56

everyone,34,56

everything,34,56

everywhere,34,56

ex-,33

EXAGGERATE,269

EXAMINE,223

excellent,126

except,76

excepting,80

excluding,80

EXIST,328

EXPECT,185,215

EXPLAIN,187,208

extremely,80,136

eye,38

eyeball,38

fact,123

failing,80

fail-safe,35

faint,38

FAINT,65

fairly,114–5,136

FALL,65

FALLforNP,145

fallout,34

FAQ,39

farfrom,78,158

fascinating,143

fast,162

fastfood,34

fast-track,34

FEEL,94,98,179,219,232

FEELforNP,145

ferocious,114

few(er),56,59,61,177

FILLNPin,144

finally,80

financially,134

FIND,94,97,99,185,215

finger,38

FINISH,222,273

FINISHupasNP,145

first,58

fitting,306

FIXNPupwithNP,146

fleabite,34

flour,43

flu,40

FOBNPoffwith,145,351

-fold,32

following,80

fond,114,134

foot/feet,28

footstep,34

for,74,76,82–3,100–1,122–3,143–4,154–5,180,199,204,206,218,255

for(all),157

for(the)sakeof,78,158

for/fromwantof,78,158

FORCE,212

fore-,33

forever,270

FOREWARN,191

FORGET,186,207–8

FORGETaboutNP,145

FORGIVE,97

former,63

forth,76

forthwith,36

fortunately,134

forwards,76

France,57

free,81

free-thinker,34

freeze-dry,34

fromwantof,158

from,76,149,154,157,199,224–227

-ful,32

full,130

funnily,163

furthermore,36,80

fussy,268

future,63,254

-gamy,36

-gate,32,44

general,43,131

gently,87

-geny,36

geo-,33

germ-resistant,35

-gerous,36

gesture,38

GET,73,94,95,98,233

GETawaywithNP,145

GETby,144

GETdowntoNP,145

GETup,144,149

giga-,37

ginormous,40

girlfriend,34

GIVE,97,106,140,325

GIVENPback,144

GIVENPuptoNP,146

GIVEwaytoNP,145

given,80

glow-worm,34

GO,270,308–10

godknowshowmany,129

go-go(dancer),35

goldfish,34

gone,80

good,31,291

got,301–2

-grade,36

-gram,37

grandmother,34

GRANT,97

granted,80

-graph(y),37

GROW,98

GROWup,144

GUARANTEE,185

GUESS,186,215

guess,38

guesstimate,40

GUIDENPdown/out/upfromNPtoNP,150

hadbetter/best,301,303–4

HAILNPasNP/AdjP,145

hair-raising,35

half,120

HAND,97

HANDNPover,144

handcuff,34

handshake,34

hand-wash,34

handyman,34

hanger-on,34

HAPPEN,192,217

happily,134,161–2

happy,135

hard,81

hard-working,35

Harry,57

HASTEN,207

HATE,206–7,219,222

HAVE,67,70–1,88,94,168,218–9,231–3,235–8,255ff.,271,301–2

HAVE[to],297,302,307–8

HAVEgot,302

HAVEgot[to],301–02,304,308

HAVEgottodo[with],301–02

he,21,29,42,45

headhunt,39

headhunter,39

headstrong,35

HEAR,94,219,232

heavenward(s),76

HELP,94,219

hence(forth),76

her,29,42,45,46

here,76,330

hereat,35,76

hereby,35,76

herefrom,35,76

herein,35,76

hereof,35,76

hereon,35,76

hereto,35,76

herewith,35,76

hers,46

herself,49–50

HESITATE,207

heter(o)-,37

heterosexual,37

high-rise,35

him,29,45

himself,49–50

HINT,185,187

his,29,42

holiday,38

hom(o)-,37

home,76

home-made,35

homeward(s),76

-hood,44

HOPE,268

HOPEforNP,145

hot,194

hotbed,34

how,51,120,167–8,172–3,186,193

however,80,104

hydr(o)-,37

hyper-,37

I,21,29,45,46

Ithink,311

-ible,32

-ic,32

-ical,32

icy-cold,35

idea,123

IDENTIFY,228

IDENTIFYNPasNP/AdjP,145

idio-,37

-ies,28

if,8,82–3,155–7,183,185–6,188–93,279,291,293,305,310

immediately,161

imperative,306

IMPLORE,212

import,38

important,290,306

imprisoned,130

in-,33,178

in,8,74,75,76,153,160,254

inaccordancewith,78,158

inadditionto,78,158

inbetween,78,158

incase(of),78,158

inchargeof,78

incomparisonwith,78

incompliancewith,78

inconformitywith,78

incontactwith,78

inexchangefor,78

infavourof,78

infrontof,78

inlieuof,78,158

in(the)lightof,78,158

inlinewith,78

innoway,137

inorder[that],156,158

inplaceof,78

inquestof,78

inrelationto,78,158

inrespectto,78,158

inreturnfor,78,158

insearchof,78

inspiteof,78,158

instepwith,78

intermsof,78,158

inthenameof,78

intouchwith,78

inviewof,78,158

INCITE,212

including,80

incredible,291

in-crowd,34

indeed,36,132,138,163

independently,161

index/indices,29

indoors,35,76

in-ear,128

INFER,187

INFORM,191–2,213,233

-ing,5,12,20,21,22,23,28,38,71–2,79,144,149,157,199–200,203,221ff.,263,265ff.,352

innit,5

insecticide,37

inside,35,76

INSIST,185,187,279,290

INSISTonNP,145

insistence,305

INSPECT,94

INSPIRE,212

insteadof,78,158

INSTRUCT,192,212–3

INSULT,7

intellectual,38

INTEND,206–7,222,307,352

intention,290,305

inter-,33

interesting,125,128

INTERPRETNPasNP/AdjP,145

into,35,76,157

intra-,33

INVESTNPinNP,102,145

INVESTIGATE,94

INVITE,212

involved,135

inward(s),76

-ion,32,44

is,24,72

-ise/-isation,32

-ish,32

IslesofScilly,57

-ism,32,44

-ist,31,44

it,21,29,47–8,60,87–8,183,189,205–6,214,321,331–3

its,29

itself,50

-ity,44

-ize/-ization,32

jack-in-the-box,34

James,57

Japan,57

jealous,153

jeans,29

JOG,67

JOKE,65

JPEG,39

JUDGE,99,208,215

just,259

KEEP,99,225–6,229,273

KEEPawayfromNP,145

KEEPNPout,149

Kelvin,57

kibbutz/kibbutzim,29

KID,269

KILL,94,233

kilo-,33

kindof,312

knife/knives,28,38

KNOW,171,185–6,208,215,266

lab,40

LABEL,99

LACK,268

LAN,39

laser,39

last(night/week),152,256–7,264

lately,132,254

later,142,162–3

laugh,38

LAUGHatNP,145

laugh-out-loud,137

laureate,131

LAY(bare),321

LAYNPdownasNP,146

LEARN,187

leather,125

LEAVE,95,97,99,100–1,270

LEAVENPin,149

LEAVENPout,144

leftward(s),76

LEND,97,317

LENDNPtoNP,145

lengthy,125

less,56,132

-less,32,178

lest,157

LET,171,219

LETNPinonNP,146

life/lives,28

LIKE,206–7,232,263

like,76,135,153,157

-like,32

likely,81,306

-lithic,37

little,56,59,61

LIVE,328

LOATHE,222

’ll,353

-logy,37

long,154

LONG,206

long-suffering,35

LOOK,98,216–7

LOOKatNP,145

LOOKforwardtoNP,145

LOOKinonNP,145

LOOKoutforNP,145

LOOKtoNPforNP,146

LOOK(up)onNPasNP/AdjP,146

LOOKuptoNP,145

looker-on,34

LOOM,328

LOVE,67,207,222

Ltd,39

-ly,31,32

macro-,37

maffioso/maffioso,29

mail,38

main,63

MAKE,219

make-believe,34

MAKE(clear),322

makedo,34

man/men,28

-mania,44

manually,91

many,56,58,59,61,118,126,350

maxi-,33

May,57

MAY/might,14,67–8,70,220,252,275–6,280f.,294–6,293,312,353–4

maybe,36,81,310–11

me,29,46

MEAN,207,215

meantime,36

meanwhile,36

MEET,94,270

mega-,37

men’s,126

-ment,44

MENTION,149,185–7

-meric,37

-merous,37

Met,40

microscopically,81

mid-,33

Mike,40

MIND,94,186

mindful,134

mine,29,30

mini-,33

minus,76

mis-,33

MISS,268

missing,38

mmm,83

more,31,56,61,132

moreover,36,80

-morph,37

morph(o)-,37

morphology,37

-morphous,37

most,31,56,61

-most,32

motel,40

MOVEon,144

much,31,56,59,61,134

MUST,14,67,70,220,264–5,275–7,280f.,296–8,302,308,312

must,354

my,29,30,118

myself,49–50

NATO,39

natural,38

NEAR,135

near,74,76

nearto,78

nearer,135

nearly,134

necessarily,81,290,306

necessity,305

NEED,94,206–7,232,298–99

NEGLECT,222

neither,56,59,165

-ness,32,44

n’est-cepas,5

neur(o)-,37

never,151,177

nevertheless,36,104

NewYork,57

newborn,35

next,76

nextto,77–8

-nik,32,44

ninemiles,136

nobody,34,56,177

-nomy,37

non-,33,178

none,56

nonetheless,36

noone,34,56

nor,165

northward(s),76

nosebleed,34

not,25,68,177,303–4

NOTE,208

nothing,34,56,177

NOTICE,186–7,208,219

NOTIFY,191

notwithstanding,76,79

now,76

nowadays,36

nowhere,34

-n’t,68,177,303–4

nutcracker,34

NYPD,39

OBJECT,187

OBJECTtoNP,145

obliged,306

OBSERVE,186–7,208,219,232

occasion,123

occasionally,151

OCCUR,328

of,74,76,157

oflate,259

off,76

off-chance,34

OFFER,97

offer,140

OFFERNPtoNP,145

officially,133–4

offshoot,34

often,81,162

oftentimes,36

oil-rich,35

old,125,194

omn(i)-,37

on,74,76,101,157,261

onaccountof,78,158

onbehalfof,78

onthegroundsof,78

onthepartof,78

ontopof,78

once,157

one,45,48–9,59,351

oneanother,50–1

one-fifth,120

oneself,49

onlooker,34

only,133

onlyif,155

onto,35,76

onward(s),76

-onym,37

ooh,83

OPEN,94,106–7

open,137

-opia,37

opposite,76

-opsy,37

OPT,206

or,81,163–5

-or,32,44

ORDER,97,212,232,290

order,290,305

original,38

-ory,32,44

otherday(the),152

ouch,83

OUGHT[to],217,297,298,300–01,304

our,29,126

ours,29

ourselves,50

-ous,32

out,38,76,100–1,159

out-,33

outof,77–8,153

outdoors,76

outpost,34

outside,76

outsideof,78

outward(s),76

over,76,119,159,257,260

over-,33

overactive,35

overboard,76

overbook,34

overhead,76

overland,35,76

over-qualified,35

overrun,34

overseas,76

OWE,97

owing[to],78,80,158

oxen,29

part-time,81

PASS,94

PASSforNP/AdjP,145,147

PASSNPoffasNP/AdjP,146

passer-by,34

past,76

-pathy,37

PAY,97

PAYforNP,145

PAYNPback,144

PAYNPbackNP,146

people,28

perfectly,135

perhaps,81,133–4,310–11

PERSUADE,102,190,211–12,214

PERSUADENPofNP,145

pertaining[to],80

Pete,40

-phil(e),37

phil(o)-,37

-phobe,37

-phone,37

phot(o)-,37

pickpocket,34

PINE,206

pity(a),291

placename,34

plain-spoken,35

PLAN,207

PLAY,108–10

PLAYNPoffagainstNP,146

PLEAD,187

PLEASE,174

pleased,135

plus,76

POINT[out],187

police,28

PONDER,208

PORTRAY,228

PORTRAYNPasNP/AdjP,145,147

POSEasNP,145

possible,306

possibly,81,134,310–11

post-,33

potato/potatoes,28

practical,126

PRAISE,228

pre-,33

PREDICT,186

PREFER,185,206,222

preferable,290

PRESUME,99,215

PRETEND,185

pretty,81

PREVENT,149,224–226

priorto,78,158

probably,80–1,104,310–11

PROCEED,207,273

PRODUCE,94

PROMISE,97,187–8,207–9

PROMPT,212

PRONOUNCE,99,215

proofread,34

proposal,290

PROPOSE,187,207,222,307

proposition,123

PROTEST,187

PROVE,98–9,187,217

PROVIDENPwithNP,145

prudently,87

pseud(o)-,37

psych(o)-,37

push-button,34

PUT,90

PUTNPdownasNP/AdjP,146

PUTNPup,149

PUTNPupforNP,146

PUTNPuptoNP,146

PUTupwithNP,145,351

quasi-,33

question,123

quick-change,35

quickly,128,151

QUIT,222,273

quite,64,114,134,136,158–9,162

quiz/quizzes,28

QUOTE,228

rad,40

radar,39

RAISEanobjectiontoNP,145

RATE,99

rather,303–4

razor-sharp,35

re-,33

READ,38,94

realisation,234

REALIZE,185–6

really,64,136,151,162,184

reason,290–1

reasonably,136

REASSURE,191

receipt,121

RECEIVE,94,121

recent,254

recently,154,259

RECOGNIZE,228

RECOGNIZENPasNP/AdjP,145

RECOMMEND,187,222–25,290,307

recommendation,290

recommended,130

recycle,39

recycling,39

REFER,100–1

REFERtoNP,145

REFERNPtoNP,145

REFERtoNPasNP/AdjP,146

REFUSE,207

REGARD,224–7

regarding,80

regrettably,134

regular,38

REJECT,94,202

RELAX,65

RELYon,145,147,149,351

REMAIN,98,149,266,328

REMARK,185,187

remarkable,291

REMEMBER,186,208,228

REMIND,190–2,212–3

REMINDNPofNP,145,191

RENDER,99

REPLY,185,187

REPORT,187,222

REPRESENT,228

REQUEST,212

request,290,305

REQUIRE,307

requirement,305

RESENT,222

RESERVE,97

RESIDE,149

RESIGNasNP,145

RESIST,222

resolution,305

RESOLVE,207

RESORTtoNP,145

respecting,80

RESUME,222

RETIREasNP,145

REVEAL,187

REVIEW,121

review,121

rich,137

right,38,158–9

rightward(s),76

roast,38

roll-neck(sweater),35

round,76

royal,131

RULENPoutasNP/AdjP,146

RUNawaywithNP,145

RUNNPoffNP,146

RUNoff,144

runabout,34

-s,20,21,22,25,28,33,43,70,244

-’s,30

sad,291

salt,43

same(the),194

SATISFY,191

-saurus,37

SAVE,97

saving,80

SAY,185–7,208

scarcely,177

scissors,29,43

sculpt,39

sculptor,39

seaward(s),76

Seb,40

second,58

SEE,94,187,219,228,232

seeing[that],155

SEEM,63,66,98,141,192,216–7,326

see-through(shirt),35

seldom,81

self-conscious,35

SELL,94,97

SEND,97

SENDforNP,145

SENDNPback,144

SENDNPdown/out/upfromNPtoNP,150

SENDNPfromNPtoNP,149

SENDNPoverNP,146

SENDNPtoNP,145

SENSE,185

September,57

series,28

seriously,163

SERVE,97

several,57,59

SHALL/should,14,67,70,152,193,220,252–3,279–80f.,285–91,297,304–7,312

shame(a),291

she,21,29,42,45,46

sheep,28

she-wolf,34

-ship,32,44

shoemaker,34

short-change,34

shorter,194

SHOW,97,185,188–9,208,210

SHOWNPupasNP/AdjP,146

sick,143

sideways,81

SIGNAL,187

since,76,154–6,157,180,257–8,264

SING,67

singer-songwriter,34

-sion,32

SITup,144

sixyears,136

sky-high,35

skyward(s),76

slightly,136

slowly,128

SMELL,98

SMILE,66

SMIRK,106

smog,39

smooth,38

so,64,156

soas,156

so[that],78,156,158

socio-,37

some,56,59

-some,32

someday,132

somebody,34,56

somehow,36

someone,34,56

something,34,56

sometimes,36,81

somewhat,36

somewhere,34

son-in-law,34

soon(er),132,142,303–4

sortof,312

SOUND,98

southward(s),76

SPARE,97

spoilsport,34

spoilt,38

SPOT,273

squeaky-clean,35

stagflation,40

STAND,328

STANDoutfromNP,145

STANDupforNP,145

stand-off,34

START,94,217,229,273

-stasia,37

-stat,37

STATE,185,187

step-,33

still,81,138,163

stir-fry,34

stonewall,34

STOP,229,273

straight,158–9

stunning,38

sub-,33

subsequentto,78,158

such,120

suchas,78

sufficient,59

sugar-free,35

SUGGEST,185,187,290,307

SUIT,93

summing-up,34

sunshine,34

super-,33

supposed,306

sur-,33

sure,135,306

surely,81,310

surprising,291

SUSPECT,215

SWEAR,185

swearword,34

tableau/tableaux,29

table-top,34

TAKE,227

TAKENPforNP/AdjP,145

TAKENPuponNP,146

take-off,34

TAKEover,145

TALKtoNP,145

TASTE,98

TEACH,95,97,188–9,208,210

TEARNPup,144

technical,130

tele(o)-,37

TELEPHONE,168

TELEVISE,39

television,39

TELL,95,97,188–9,208–10

TELLNPtoNP,145

TEMPT,212

tenpercent,124

TEND,217

TESTIFY,187

than,76,157,194–5

THANKNPforNP,145

that,8,25,53,55–6,59,61,82–3,89,122–3,137,140,142,149,162,167,179,180,182,184,189,191–3,197–9,201,290,322,331–3,352

thatway,152,159

TheHague,57

the,8,43,58,59–60,108–10,115,137,162,320

their,29

theirs,29

them,29

themselves,49–50,133,143

then,76,330

thence,76

thenceforth,76

the(o)-,37

there,48,76,87–8,102,205–6,214,216,229,326ff.

thereat,35,76

thereby,35,76

therefrom,35,76

therein,35,76

thereof,35,76

thereon,35,76

thereto,35,76

therewith,35,76

these,55–6,58–9,61,126,350

thesis/theses,29

they,5,21,29,46

thick,126

THINK,82,99,180,185,245

THINKofNPasNP/AdjP,146

third,58

this,55–6,59,61,118,137

those,55–6,59,61

though,155,157,295,318

thought-provoking,35

THREATEN,207

three,59

threetimes,120

thrice,120

through,75,77,79,157

throughout,35,77

THROW,97

tightrope,34

till,157

-tion,44

to,12,23,28,77,100–1,122–3,140,142,152,157,203ff.,235,263,298ff.,352

together,77

tomorrow,254

too,64,135–7

tooth/teeth,28

top-of-the-range,35

totally,136

TOUCHdown,144

touching,80

toward(s),77

trade,127

trans-,33

transfer,38

TRANSPORTNPfromNPtoNP,149

TRAVELfromNPtoNP,149

TREAT,227–8

TREATNPasNP/AdjP,145

triple,120

trousers,29,43

trout,28

TRY,207

TURNNPon/off,144,147

TURNOUT,192,217

twice,120

twice-winner(ofaprize),34

two,59,126

twotimes,120

-ty,32,44

UCL,57

ugly,126

uhm,83

un-,20,33,178

under-,33

under,77,87,107,140

underestimate,34

under-fire,128

underfoot,77

underground,77

underlay,34

underneath,77

UNDERSTAND,94,171,185,215,266

UNDERTAKE,207

under-the-weather,35

under-threat,128

UNESCO,39

unfortunately,161

UnitedKingdom,57

UniversityCollegeLondon,57

unless,155,157

unlike,77,135

until,77,154,157,256

-uous,32

up,38,77,159

upagainst,78

upto,78,119

uphill,77

upkeep,34

upon,35,77,157

upstage,34,77

upstairs,77

upstream,35,77

uptight,35

up-to-the-minute,35

upward(s),77

upwind,77

URGE,212,278–9,307

urgent,290

us,29,58–9

USED[to],273–4,298

usually,151

utter,63

vacation,38

valuables,29

various,59

very,61,64,77,80,118,125–6,128,136,158–9,162–3

via,77

VIEWNPasNP/AdjP,145

-ville,32,44

vital,290,306

viz.39

-vore,32

VOTEforNP,145

VOW,207

WAGER,191

WAITforNP,145

WALK,65

WALKoutonNP,145

WANT,94,204–7,232,266,268

wanting,80

-wards,32

-ware,44

WARN,185,191–2,212–3

was,72

WATCH,219,232,273

water,38

waterfall,34

-ways,32

we,21,29,45,59

weary,38

weekly,81

well,31,81,163

well-behaved,35

well-travelled,35

were,26,72,279,303,305–6,349

western,130

westward(s),77

wetnurse,34

what,51,53–5,59,62–3,120,142,167–9,172–4,182–3,186,189,191,200–02,204,210,212–3,333–5

whatever,53,59,201

when,51,77,154,156–7,167–8,197,202,257,267,333

whence,77

whenever,157,202

where,51,77,156–7,167,197,202,333

whereas,155,157

whereat,35,77

whereby,35,77

wherefrom,35,77

wherein,35,77

whereof,35,77

whereon,35,77

whereto,35,77

wherever,202

wherewith,35,77

whether,8,82–3,180,182–4,185,188–93,210,212–3

which,51–5,59,62–3,132,167–9,195–201,331–3,350

whichever,59,63,201

while,154–7,197

whilst,154–5

whisper,38

white-collar(staff),35

whitewash,34

who,42,51–2,54,92,96,132,167,185,195–6,199–200,331–3

whoever,53,201

wholly,81

whom,51–4,167–8,195–7,331–3

whomever,53

whose,51–2,54–5,59,62,118

whosever,59

why,51,167–8,180,186,197

wife/wives,28

WILL/would,14,67,70,220,235–238,248,252,264–5,271,277,280f.,282–6,305,308–10,353–4

willing,306

window-cleaner,34

WIPENPoff,144

-wise,32

WISH,206–7,305,307

wish,305

with,75,77,157,160

withaviewto,78,158

withrespectto,78,158

withtheexceptionof,78

within,35,77

without,35,77,157

WONDER,185–6,202

WORKforNP,145

WORKout,144,149

workman,34

worldwide,81

WORRYaboutNP,145

worse,31,137

worst,31

worth,135

wouldhavethought,311

wouldrather/sooner/as/soon,301,303–4

wow,83

WRITE,185,273

WRITENPdown,102,144

WRITENPoffasNP/AdjP,146,148

WRITENPout,148

writer-in-residence,34

wrong,38,81

WWW,39

WYSIWYG,39

YEARN,206

yesterday,105,152,254

yet,154

yippee,83

you,21,29

your,29

yours,29

yourself,49–50

yourselves,50

yuck,83

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