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OUTLIERSTheStoryofSuccess

MALCOLMGLADWELL

BACKBAYBOOKSLITTLE,BROWNAND

COMPANYNEWYORK•BOSTON•LONDON

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INTRODUCTION

TheRosetoMystery

“THESEPEOPLEWEREDYINGOFOLDAGE.THAT’SIT.”

out·li·er\-,l ( )r\noun1:somethingthatissituatedawayfromorclasseddifferentlyfromamainor

relatedbody2:astatisticalobservationthatismarkedlydifferentinvaluefromtheothersofthesample

1.RosetoValfortoreliesonehundredmilessoutheastofRomeintheApenninefoothillsoftheItalianprovinceofFoggia.Inthe

styleofmedievalvillages,thetownisorganizedaroundalargecentralsquare.FacingthesquareisthePalazzoMarchesale,thepalaceoftheSaggesefamily,oncethegreatlandownerofthoseparts.Anarchwaytoonesideleadstoachurch,theMadonnadelCarmine—OurLadyofMountCarmine.Narrowstonestepsrunupthehillside,flankedbyclosely

clusteredtwo-storystonehouseswithred-tileroofs.

Forcenturies,thepaesaniofRosetoworkedinthemarblequarriesinthesurroundinghills,orcultivatedthefieldsintheterracedvalleybelow,walkingfourandfivemilesdownthemountaininthemorningandthenmakingthelongjourneybackupthehillatnight.Lifewashard.The

townsfolkwerebarelyliterateanddesperatelypoorandwithoutmuchhopeforeconomicbettermentuntilwordreachedRosetoattheendofthenineteenthcenturyofthelandofopportunityacrosstheocean.

InJanuaryof1882,agroupofelevenRosetans—tenmenandoneboy—setsailforNewYork.TheyspenttheirfirstnightinAmerica

sleepingonthefloorofatavernonMulberryStreet,inManhattan’sLittleItaly.Thentheyventuredwest,eventuallyfindingjobsinaslatequarryninetymileswestofthecitynearthetownofBangor,Pennsylvania.Thefollowingyear,fifteenRosetansleftItalyforAmerica,andseveralmembersofthatgroupendedupinBangoraswell,joining

theircompatriotsintheslatequarry.Thoseimmigrants,inturn,sentwordbacktoRosetoaboutthepromiseoftheNewWorld,andsoononegroupofRosetansafteranotherpackedtheirbagsandheadedforPennsylvania,untiltheinitialstreamofimmigrantsbecameaflood.In1894alone,sometwelvehundredRosetansappliedforpassportstoAmerica,leaving

entirestreetsoftheiroldvillageabandoned.

TheRosetansbeganbuyinglandonarockyhillsideconnectedtoBangorbyasteep,ruttedwagonpath.Theybuiltcloselyclusteredtwo-storystonehouseswithslateroofsonnarrowstreetsrunningupanddownthehillside.TheybuiltachurchandcalleditOurLadyofMountCarmelandnamedthe

mainstreet,onwhichitstood,GaribaldiAvenue,afterthegreatheroofItalianunification.Inthebeginning,theycalledtheirtownNewItaly.ButtheysoonchangedittoRoseto,whichseemedonlyappropriategiventhatalmostallofthemhadcomefromthesamevillageinItaly.

In1896,adynamicyoungpriestbythenameofFatherPasqualedeNiscotookover

atOurLadyofMountCarmel.DeNiscosetupspiritualsocietiesandorganizedfestivals.Heencouragedthetownsfolktoclearthelandandplantonions,beans,potatoes,melons,andfruittreesinthelongbackyardsbehindtheirhouses.Hegaveoutseedsandbulbs.Thetowncametolife.TheRosetansbeganraisingpigsintheirbackyards

andgrowinggrapesforhomemadewine.Schools,apark,aconvent,andacemeterywerebuilt.SmallshopsandbakeriesandrestaurantsandbarsopenedalongGaribaldiAvenue.Morethanadozenfactoriessprangupmakingblousesforthegarmenttrade.NeighboringBangorwaslargelyWelshandEnglish,andthenexttownoverwas

overwhelminglyGerman,whichmeant—giventhefractiousrelationshipsbetweentheEnglishandGermansandItaliansinthoseyears—thatRosetostayedstrictlyforRosetans.IfyouhadwanderedupanddownthestreetsofRosetoinPennsylvaniainthefirstfewdecadesafter1900,youwouldhaveheardonlyItalian,andnotjustany

ItalianbuttheprecisesouthernFoggiandialectspokenbackintheItalianRoseto.Roseto,Pennsylvania,wasitsowntiny,self-sufficientworld—allbutunknownbythesocietyaroundit—anditmightwellhaveremainedsobutforamannamedStewartWolf.

Wolfwasaphysician.Hestudieddigestionandthe

stomachandtaughtinthemedicalschoolattheUniversityofOklahoma.HespenthissummersonafarminPennsylvania,notfarfromRoseto—althoughthat,ofcourse,didn’tmeanmuch,sinceRosetowassomuchinitsownworldthatitwaspossibletoliveinthenexttownandneverknowmuchaboutit.“Oneofthetimeswhenwewereuptherefor

thesummer—thiswouldhavebeeninthelatenineteenfifties—Iwasinvitedtogiveatalkatthelocalmedicalsociety,”Wolfsaidyearslaterinaninterview.“Afterthetalkwasover,oneofthelocaldoctorsinvitedmetohaveabeer.Andwhilewewerehavingadrink,hesaid,‘Youknow,I’vebeenpracticingforseventeenyears.Igetpatientsfromallover,andI

rarelyfindanyonefromRosetoundertheageofsixty-fivewithheartdisease.’”

Wolfwastakenaback.Thiswasthe1950s,yearsbeforetheadventofcholesterol-loweringdrugsandaggressivemeasurestopreventheartdisease.HeartattackswereanepidemicintheUnitedStates.Theyweretheleadingcauseofdeathinmenundertheageofsixty-

five.Itwasimpossibletobeadoctor,commonsensesaid,andnotseeheartdisease.

Wolfdecidedtoinvestigate.HeenlistedthesupportofsomeofhisstudentsandcolleaguesfromOklahoma.Theygatheredtogetherthedeathcertificatesfromresidentsofthetown,goingbackasmanyyearsastheycould.Theyanalyzedphysicians’records.They

tookmedicalhistoriesandconstructedfamilygenealogies.“Wegotbusy,”Wolfsaid.“Wedecidedtodoapreliminarystudy.Westartedinnineteensixty-one.Themayorsaid,‘Allmysistersaregoingtohelpyou.’Hehadfoursisters.Hesaid,‘Youcanhavethetowncouncilroom.’Isaid,‘Whereareyougoingtohavecouncilmeetings?’Hesaid,‘Well,

we’llpostponethemforawhile.’Theladieswouldbringuslunch.Wehadlittleboothswherewecouldtakeblood,doEKGs.Wewerethereforfourweeks.ThenItalkedwiththeauthorities.Theygaveustheschoolforthesummer.WeinvitedtheentirepopulationofRosetotobetested.”

Theresultswereastonishing.InRoseto,

virtuallynooneunderfifty-fivehaddiedofaheartattackorshowedanysignsofheartdisease.Formenoversixty-five,thedeathratefromheartdiseaseinRosetowasroughlyhalfthatoftheUnitedStatesasawhole.ThedeathratefromallcausesinRoseto,infact,was30to35percentlowerthanexpected.

Wolfbroughtinafriendofhis,asociologistfrom

OklahomanamedJohnBruhn,tohelphim.“Ihiredmedicalstudentsandsociologygradstudentsasinterviewers,andinRosetowewenthousetohouseandtalkedtoeverypersonagedtwenty-oneandover,”Bruhnremembers.Thishappenedmorethanfiftyyearsago,butBruhnstillhadasenseofamazementinhisvoiceashedescribedwhattheyfound.

“Therewasnosuicide,noalcoholism,nodrugaddiction,andverylittlecrime.Theydidn’thaveanyoneonwelfare.Thenwelookedatpepticulcers.Theydidn’thaveanyofthoseeither.Thesepeopleweredyingofoldage.That’sit.”

Wolf’sprofessionhadanameforaplacelikeRoseto—aplacethatlayoutsideeverydayexperience,where

thenormalrulesdidnotapply.Rosetowasanoutlier.

2.Wolf’sfirstthoughtwasthattheRosetansmusthaveheldontosomedietarypracticesfromtheOldWorldthatleftthemhealthierthanotherAmericans.Buthequicklyrealizedthatwasn’ttrue.TheRosetanswerecookingwith

lardinsteadofwiththemuchhealthieroliveoiltheyhadusedbackinItaly.PizzainItalywasathincrustwithsalt,oil,andperhapssometomatoes,anchovies,oronions.PizzainPennsylvaniawasbreaddoughplussausage,pepperoni,salami,ham,andsometimeseggs.SweetssuchasbiscottiandtaralliusedtobereservedforChristmasandEaster;in

Rosetotheywereeatenyear-round.WhenWolfhaddieticiansanalyzethetypicalRosetan’seatinghabits,theyfoundthatawhopping41percentoftheircaloriescamefromfat.Norwasthisatownwherepeoplegotupatdawntodoyogaandrunabrisksixmiles.ThePennsylvanianRosetanssmokedheavilyandmanywerestrugglingwithobesity.

Ifdietandexercisedidn’texplainthefindings,thenwhataboutgenetics?TheRosetanswereaclose-knitgroupfromthesameregionofItaly,andWolf’snextthoughtwastowonderwhethertheywereofaparticularlyhardystockthatprotectedthemfromdisease.SohetrackeddownrelativesoftheRosetanswhowerelivinginotherpartsofthe

UnitedStatestoseeiftheysharedthesameremarkablegoodhealthastheircousinsinPennsylvania.Theydidn’t.

HethenlookedattheregionwheretheRosetanslived.WasitpossiblethattherewassomethingaboutlivinginthefoothillsofeasternPennsylvaniathatwasgoodfortheirhealth?ThetwoclosesttownstoRosetowereBangor,whichwasjust

downthehill,andNazareth,afewmilesaway.ThesewerebothaboutthesamesizeasRoseto,andbothwerepopulatedwiththesamekindofhardworkingEuropeanimmigrants.Wolfcombedthroughbothtowns’medicalrecords.Formenoversixty-five,thedeathratesfromheartdiseaseinNazarethandBangorwerethreetimesthatofRoseto.Anotherdeadend.

WhatWolfbegantorealizewasthatthesecretofRosetowasn’tdietorexerciseorgenesorlocation.IthadtobeRosetoitself.AsBruhnandWolfwalkedaroundthetown,theyfiguredoutwhy.TheylookedathowtheRosetansvisitedoneanother,stoppingtochatinItalianonthestreet,say,orcookingforoneanotherintheirbackyards.Theylearned

abouttheextendedfamilyclansthatunderlaythetown’ssocialstructure.Theysawhowmanyhomeshadthreegenerationslivingunderoneroof,andhowmuchrespectgrandparentscommanded.TheywenttomassatOurLadyofMountCarmelandsawtheunifyingandcalmingeffectofthechurch.Theycountedtwenty-twoseparatecivicorganizationsinatown

ofjustundertwothousandpeople.Theypickedupontheparticularegalitarianethosofthecommunity,whichdiscouragedthewealthyfromflauntingtheirsuccessandhelpedtheunsuccessfulobscuretheirfailures.

IntransplantingthepaesanicultureofsouthernItalytothehillsofeasternPennsylvania,theRosetans

hadcreatedapowerful,protectivesocialstructurecapableofinsulatingthemfromthepressuresofthemodernworld.TheRosetanswerehealthybecauseofwheretheywerefrom,becauseoftheworldtheyhadcreatedforthemselvesintheirtinylittletowninthehills.

“IremembergoingtoRosetoforthefirsttime,and

you’dseethree-generationalfamilymeals,allthebakeries,thepeoplewalkingupanddownthestreet,sittingontheirporchestalkingtoeachother,theblousemillswherethewomenworkedduringtheday,whilethemenworkedintheslatequarries,”Bruhnsaid.“Itwasmagical.”

WhenBruhnandWolffirstpresentedtheirfindingstothemedicalcommunity,

youcanimaginethekindofskepticismtheyfaced.Theywenttoconferenceswheretheirpeerswerepresentinglongrowsofdataarrayedincomplexchartsandreferringtothiskindofgeneorthatkindofphysiologicalprocess,andtheythemselvesweretalkinginsteadaboutthemysteriousandmagicalbenefitsofpeoplestoppingtotalktooneanotheronthe

streetandofhavingthreegenerationsunderoneroof.Livingalonglife,theconventionalwisdomatthetimesaid,dependedtoagreatextentonwhowewere—thatis,ourgenes.Itdependedonthedecisionswemade—onwhatwechosetoeat,andhowmuchwechosetoexercise,andhoweffectivelyweweretreatedbythemedicalsystem.Noonewas

usedtothinkingabouthealthintermsofcommunity.

WolfandBruhnhadtoconvincethemedicalestablishmenttothinkabouthealthandheartattacksinanentirelynewway:theyhadtogetthemtorealizethattheywouldn’tbeabletounderstandwhysomeonewashealthyifalltheydidwasthinkaboutanindividual’spersonalchoicesoractionsin

isolation.Theyhadtolookbeyondtheindividual.Theyhadtounderstandthecultureheorshewasapartof,andwhotheirfriendsandfamilieswere,andwhattowntheirfamiliescamefrom.Theyhadtoappreciatetheideathatthevaluesoftheworldweinhabitandthepeoplewesurroundourselveswithhaveaprofoundeffectonwhoweare.

InOutliers,IwanttodoforourunderstandingofsuccesswhatStewartWolfdidforourunderstandingofhealth.

PARTONE

OPPORTUNITY

CHAPTERONE

TheMatthewEffect

“FORUNTOEVERYONETHATHATHSHALLBEGIVEN,ANDHESHALLHAVEABUNDANCE.BUTFROMHIMTHATHATHNOTSHALLBETAKENAWAYEVENTHATWHICHHEHATH.”—MATTHEW25:29

1.Onewarm,springdayinMayof2007,theMedicineHatTigersandtheVancouverGiantsmetfortheMemorialCuphockeychampionshipsinVancouver,BritishColumbia.TheTigersandtheGiantswerethetwofinestteamsintheCanadianHockeyLeague,whichinturnisthefinestjuniorhockeyleagueinthe

world.Thesewerethefuturestarsofthesport—seventeen-,eighteen-,andnineteen-year-oldswhohadbeenskatingandshootingpuckssincetheywerebarelymorethantoddlers.

ThegamewasbroadcastonCanadiannationaltelevision.UpanddownthestreetsofdowntownVancouver,MemorialCupbannershungfromthe

lampposts.Thearenawaspacked.Alongredcarpetwasrolledoutontheice,andtheannouncerintroducedthegame’sdignitaries.FirstcamethepremierofBritishColumbia,GordonCampbell.Then,amidtumultuousapplause,outwalkedGordieHowe,oneofthelegendsofthegame.“Ladiesandgentlemen,”theannouncerboomed.“Mr.Hockey!”

Forthenextsixtyminutes,thetwoteamsplayedspirited,aggressivehockey.Vancouverscoredfirst,earlyinthesecondperiod,onareboundbyMarioBliznak.Lateinthesecondperiod,itwasMedicineHat’sturn,astheteam’sscoringleader,DarrenHelm,firedaquickshotpastVancouver’sgoalie,TysonSexsmith.Vancouveransweredinthethirdperiod,

scoringthegame’sdecidinggoal,andthen,whenMedicineHatpulleditsgoalieindesperation,Vancouverscoredathirdtime.

Intheaftermathofthegame,theplayersandtheirfamiliesandsportsreportersfromacrossthecountrycrammedintothewinningteam’slockerroom.Theairwasfilledwithcigarsmoke

andthesmellofchampagneandsweat-soakedhockeygear.Onthewallwasahand-paintedbanner:“EmbracetheStruggle.”InthecenteroftheroomtheGiants’coach,DonHay,stoodmisty-eyed.“I’mjustsoproudoftheseguys,”hesaid.“Justlookaroundthelockerroom.Thereisn’toneguywhodidn’tbuyinwholeheartedly.”

Canadianhockeyisa

meritocracy.ThousandsofCanadianboysbegintoplaythesportatthe“novice”level,beforetheyareeveninkindergarten.Fromthatpointon,thereareleaguesforeveryageclass,andateachofthoselevels,theplayersaresiftedandsortedandevaluated,withthemosttalentedseparatedoutandgroomedforthenextlevel.Bythetimeplayersreach

theirmidteens,theverybestofthebesthavebeenchanneledintoaneliteleagueknownasMajorJuniorA,whichisthetopofthepyramid.AndifyourMajorJuniorAteamplaysfortheMemorialCup,thatmeansyouareattheverytopofthetopofthepyramid.

Thisisthewaymostsportspicktheirfuturestars.It’sthewaysocceris

organizedinEuropeandSouthAmerica,andit’sthewayOlympicathletesarechosen.Forthatmatter,itisnotallthatdifferentfromthewaytheworldofclassicalmusicpicksitsfuturevirtuosos,orthewaytheworldofballetpicksitsfutureballerinas,orthewayoureliteeducationalsystempicksitsfuturescientistsandintellectuals.

Youcan’tbuyyourwayintoMajorJuniorAhockey.Itdoesn’tmatterwhoyourfatherormotheris,orwhoyourgrandfatherwas,orwhatbusinessyourfamilyisin.NordoesitmatterifyouliveinthemostremotecornerofthemostnortherlyprovinceinCanada.Ifyouhaveability,thevastnetworkofhockeyscoutsandtalentspotterswillfindyou,andif

youarewillingtoworktodevelopthatability,thesystemwillrewardyou.Successinhockeyisbasedonindividualmerit—andbothofthosewordsareimportant.Playersarejudgedontheirownperformance,notonanyoneelse’s,andonthebasisoftheirability,notonsomeotherarbitraryfact.

Orarethey?

2.Thisisabookaboutoutliers,aboutmenandwomenwhodothingsthatareoutoftheordinary.Overthecourseofthechaptersahead,I’mgoingtointroduceyoutoonekindofoutlierafteranother:togeniuses,businesstycoons,rockstars,andsoftwareprogrammers.We’regoingtouncoverthesecretsofa

remarkablelawyer,lookatwhatseparatestheverybestpilotsfrompilotswhohavecrashedplanes,andtrytofigureoutwhyAsiansaresogoodatmath.Andinexaminingthelivesoftheremarkableamongus—theskilled,thetalented,andthedriven—Iwillarguethatthereissomethingprofoundlywrongwiththewaywemakesenseofsuccess.

Whatisthequestionwealwaysaskaboutthesuccessful?Wewanttoknowwhatthey’relike—whatkindofpersonalitiestheyhave,orhowintelligenttheyare,orwhatkindoflifestylestheyhave,orwhatspecialtalentstheymighthavebeenbornwith.Andweassumethatitisthosepersonalqualitiesthatexplainhowthatindividualreachedthetop.

Intheautobiographiespublishedeveryyearbythebillionaire/entrepreneur/rockstar/celebrity,thestorylineisalwaysthesame:ourheroisborninmodestcircumstancesandbyvirtueofhisowngritandtalentfightshiswaytogreatness.IntheBible,Josephiscastoutbyhisbrothersandsoldintoslaveryandthenrisestobecomethepharaoh’sright-handmanon

thestrengthofhisownbrillianceandinsight.Inthefamousnineteenth-centurynovelsofHoratioAlger,youngboysbornintopovertyrisetorichesthroughacombinationofpluckandinitiative.“Ithinkoverallit’sadisadvantage,”JebBushoncesaidofwhatitmeantforhisbusinesscareerthathewasthesonofanAmericanpresidentandthebrotherof

anAmericanpresidentandthegrandsonofawealthyWallStreetbankerandUSsenator.WhenheranforgovernorofFlorida,herepeatedlyreferredtohimselfasa“self-mademan,”anditisameasureofhowdeeplyweassociatesuccesswiththeeffortsoftheindividualthatfewbattedaneyeatthatdescription.

“Liftupyourheads,”

RobertWinthroptoldthecrowdmanyyearsagoattheunveilingofastatueofthatgreatheroofAmericanindependenceBenjaminFranklin,“andlookattheimageofamanwhorosefromnothing,whoowednothingtoparentageorpatronage,whoenjoyednoadvantagesofearlyeducationwhicharenotopen—ahundredfoldopen—to

yourselves,whoperformedthemostmenialservicesinthebusinessesinwhichhisearlylifewasemployed,butwholivedtostandbeforeKings,anddiedtoleaveanamewhichtheworldwillneverforget.”

InOutliers,Iwanttoconvinceyouthatthesekindsofpersonalexplanationsofsuccessdon’twork.Peopledon’trisefromnothing.We

doowesomethingtoparentageandpatronage.Thepeoplewhostandbeforekingsmaylookliketheydiditallbythemselves.Butinfacttheyareinvariablythebeneficiariesofhiddenadvantagesandextraordinaryopportunitiesandculturallegaciesthatallowthemtolearnandworkhardandmakesenseoftheworldinwaysotherscannot.Itmakes

adifferencewhereandwhenwegrewup.Theculturewebelongtoandthelegaciespasseddownbyourforebearsshapethepatternsofourachievementinwayswecannotbegintoimagine.It’snotenoughtoaskwhatsuccessfulpeoplearelike,inotherwords.Itisonlybyaskingwheretheyarefromthatwecanunravelthelogicbehindwhosucceedsand

whodoesn’t.Biologistsoftentalkabout

the“ecology”ofanorganism:thetallestoakintheforestisthetallestnotjustbecauseitgrewfromthehardiestacorn;itisthetallestalsobecausenoothertreesblockeditssunlight,thesoilarounditwasdeepandrich,norabbitchewedthroughitsbarkasasapling,andnolumberjackcutitdownbeforeitmatured.

Weallknowthatsuccessfulpeoplecomefromhardyseeds.Butdoweknowenoughaboutthesunlightthatwarmedthem,thesoilinwhichtheyputdowntheroots,andtherabbitsandlumberjackstheywereluckyenoughtoavoid?Thisisnotabookabouttalltrees.It’sabookaboutforests—andhockeyisagoodplacetostartbecausetheexplanation

forwhogetstothetopofthehockeyworldisalotmoreinterestingandcomplicatedthanitlooks.Infact,it’sdownrightpeculiar.

3.Hereistheplayerrosterofthe2007MedicineHatTigers.Takeacloselookandseeifyoucanspotanythingstrangeaboutit.

No. Name Pos. L/R Height

9 BrennanBosch C R 5’8”

11 ScottWasden C R 6’1”

12 ColtonGrant LW L 5’9”

14 DarrenHelm LW L 6’

15 DerekDorsett RW L 5’11”

16 DaineTodd C R 5’10”

17 TylerSwystun RW R 5’11”

19 MattLowry C R 6’

20 KevinUndershute LW L 6’

21 JerridSauer RW R 5’10”

22 TylerEnnis C L 5’9”

23JordanHickmott C R 6’

25 JakubRumpel RW R 5’8”

28 BrettonCameron C R 5’11”

36 ChrisStevens LW L 5’10”

3 GordBaldwin D L 6’5”

4 David D L 6’1”

Schlemko

5TreverGlass D L 6’

10 KrisRussell D L 5’10”

18 MichaelSauer D R 6’3”

24 MarkIsherwood D R 6’

27 ShayneBrown D L 6’1”

29 JordanBendfeld

D R 6’3”

31RyanHolfeld G L 5’11”

33 MattKeetley G R 6’2”

Doyouseeit?Don’tfeelbadifyoudon’t,becauseformanyyearsinthehockeyworldnoonedid.Itwasn’tuntilthemid-1980s,infact,

thataCanadianpsychologistnamedRogerBarnsleyfirstdrewattentiontothephenomenonofrelativeage.

BarnsleywasataLethbridgeBroncoshockeygameinsouthernAlberta,ateamthatplayedinthesameMajorJuniorAleagueastheVancouverGiantsandtheMedicineHatTigers.Hewastherewithhiswife,Paula,andtheirtwoboys,andhis

wifewasreadingtheprogram,whensheranacrossarosterlistjustliketheoneabovethatyoujustlookedat.

“Roger,”shesaid,“doyouknowwhentheseyoungmenwereborn?”

Barnsleysaidyes.“They’reallbetweensixteenandtwenty,sothey’dbeborninthelatesixties.”

“No,no,”Paulawenton.“Whatmonth.”

“Ithoughtshewascrazy,”Barnsleyremembers.“ButIlookedthroughit,andwhatshewassayingjustjumpedoutatme.Forsomereason,therewereanincrediblenumberofJanuary,February,andMarchbirthdates.”

Barnsleywenthomethatnightandlookedupthebirthdatesofasmanyprofessionalhockeyplayersashecouldfind.Hesawthesame

pattern.Barnsley,hiswife,andacolleague,A.H.Thompson,thengatheredstatisticsoneveryplayerintheOntarioJuniorHockeyLeague.Thestorywasthesame.MoreplayerswereborninJanuarythaninanyothermonth,andbyanoverwhelmingmargin.Thesecondmostfrequentbirthmonth?February.Thethird?March.Barnsleyfoundthat

therewerenearlyfiveandahalftimesasmanyOntarioJuniorHockeyLeagueplayersborninJanuaryaswereborninNovember.Helookedattheall-starteamsofeleven-year-oldsandthirteen-year-olds—theyoungplayersselectedforelitetravelingsquads.Samestory.HelookedatthecompositionoftheNationalHockeyLeague.Samestory.Themorehe

looked,themoreBarnsleycametobelievethatwhathewasseeingwasnotachanceoccurrencebutanironlawofCanadianhockey:inanyelitegroupofhockeyplayers—theverybestofthebest—40percentoftheplayerswillhavebeenbornbetweenJanuaryandMarch,30percentbetweenAprilandJune,20percentbetweenJulyandSeptember,and10

percentbetweenOctoberandDecember.

“Inallmyyearsinpsychology,Ihaveneverrunintoaneffectthislarge,”Barnsleysays.“Youdon’tevenneedtodoanystatisticalanalysis.Youjustlookatit.”

LookbackattheMedicineHatroster.Doyouseeitnow?Seventeenoutofthetwenty-fiveplayersontheteamwereborninJanuary,

February,March,orApril.Hereistheplay-by-play

forthefirsttwogoalsintheMemorialCupfinal,onlythistimeI’vesubstitutedtheplayers’birthdaysfortheirnames.ItnolongersoundslikethechampionshipofCanadianjuniorhockey.ItnowsoundslikeastrangesportingritualforteenageboysbornundertheastrologicalsignsCapricorn,

Aquarius,andPisces.

March11startsaroundonesideoftheTigers’net,leavingthepuckforhisteammateJanuary4,whopassesittoJanuary22,whoflipsitbacktoMarch12,whoshootspoint-blankattheTigers’goalie,April27.April

27blockstheshot,butit’sreboundedbyVancouver’sMarch6.Heshoots!MedicineHatdefensemenFebruary9andFebruary14divetoblockthepuckwhileJanuary10looksonhelplessly.March6scores!

Let’sgotothesecondperiodnow.

MedicineHat’sturn.TheTigers’scoringleader,January21,chargesdowntherightsideoftheice.Hestopsandcircles,eludingtheVancouverdefensemanFebruary15.January21then

deftlypassesthepucktohisteammateDecember20—wow!what’shedoingoutthere?!—whoshrugsofftheonrushingdefenderMay17andslidesacross-creasepassbacktoJanuary21.Heshoots!VancouverdefensemanMarch12dives,tryingtoblocktheshot.

Vancouver’sgoalie,March19,lungeshelplessly.January21scores!Heraiseshishandsintriumph.HisteammateMay2jumpsonhisbackwithjoy.

4.Theexplanationforthisisquitesimple.Ithasnothingtodowithastrology,noristhere

anythingmagicalaboutthefirstthreemonthsoftheyear.It’ssimplythatinCanadatheeligibilitycutoffforage-classhockeyisJanuary1.AboywhoturnstenonJanuary2,then,couldbeplayingalongsidesomeonewhodoesn’tturntenuntiltheendoftheyear—andatthatage,inpreadolescence,atwelve-monthgapinagerepresentsanenormousdifferencein

physicalmaturity.ThisbeingCanada,the

mosthockey-crazedcountryonearth,coachesstarttoselectplayersforthetraveling“rep”squad—theall-starteams—attheageofnineorten,andofcoursetheyaremorelikelytoviewastalentedthebiggerandmorecoordinatedplayers,whohavehadthebenefitofcriticalextramonthsof

maturity.Andwhathappenswhena

playergetschosenforarepsquad?Hegetsbettercoaching,andhisteammatesarebetter,andheplaysfiftyorseventy-fivegamesaseasoninsteadoftwentygamesaseasonlikethoseleftbehindinthe“house”league,andhepracticestwiceasmuchas,oreventhreetimesmorethan,hewouldhave

otherwise.Inthebeginning,hisadvantageisn’tsomuchthatheisinherentlybetterbutonlythatheisalittleolder.Butbytheageofthirteenorfourteen,withthebenefitofbettercoachingandallthatextrapracticeunderhisbelt,hereallyisbetter,sohe’stheonemorelikelytomakeittotheMajorJuniorAleague,andfromthereintothebigleagues.*

Barnsleyarguesthatthesekindsofskewedagedistributionsexistwheneverthreethingshappen:selection,streaming,anddifferentiatedexperience.Ifyoumakeadecisionaboutwhoisgoodandwhoisnotgoodatanearlyage;ifyouseparatethe“talented”fromthe“untalented”;andifyouprovidethe“talented”withasuperiorexperience,then

you’regoingtoendupgivingahugeadvantagetothatsmallgroupofpeoplebornclosesttothecutoffdate.

IntheUnitedStates,footballandbasketballdon’tselect,stream,anddifferentiatequiteasdramatically.Asaresult,achildcanbeabitbehindphysicallyinthosesportsandstillplayasmuchashisorhermorematurepeers.*But

baseballdoes.ThecutoffdateforalmostallnonschoolbaseballleaguesintheUnitedStatesisJuly31,withtheresultthatmoremajorleagueplayersareborninAugustthaninanyothermonth.(Thenumbersarestriking:in2005,amongAmericansplayingmajorleaguebaseball505wereborninAugustversus313borninJuly.)

Europeansoccer,

similarly,isorganizedlikehockeyandbaseball—andthebirth-datedistributionsinthatsportareheavilyskewedaswell.InEngland,theeligibilitydateisSeptember1,andinthefootballassociation’spremierleagueatonepointinthe1990s,therewere288playersbornbetweenSeptemberandNovemberandonly136playersbornbetweenJune

andAugust.Ininternationalsoccer,thecutoffdateusedtobeAugust1,andinonerecentjuniorworldchampionshiptournament,135playerswereborninthethreemonthsafterAugust1,andjust22wereborninMay,June,andJuly.TodaythecutoffdateforinternationaljuniorsoccerisJanuary1.Takealookattherosterofthe2007CzechNational

Juniorsoccerteam,whichmadetheJuniorWorldCupfinals.

Herewegoagain:

No. Player BirthDate Position

1 MarcelGecov

Jan.1,1988

2 LudekFrydrych

Jan.3,1987

3 PetrJanda

Jan.5,1987

4 JakubDohnalek

Jan.12,1988

5 JakubMares

Jan.26,1987

6 MichalHeld

Jan.27,1987

7 MarekStrestik

Feb.1,1987

8 JiriValenta

Feb.14,1988

9 JanSimunek

Feb.20,1987

10 TomasOklestek

Feb.21,1987

11 LubosKalouda

Feb.21,1987

12 RadekPetr

Feb.24,1987

13 OndrejMazuch

Mar.15,1989

14 OndrejKudela

Mar.26,1987

15 MarekSuchy

Mar.29, DF

16 MartinFenin

Apr.16,1987

17 TomasPekhart

May26,1989

18 LukasKuban

Jun.22,1987

19 TomasCihlar

Jun.24,1987

20 TomasFrystak

Aug.18,1987

Tomas Sep.

21 Micola 26,1988

Atthenationalteamtryouts,theCzechsoccercoachesmightaswellhavetoldeveryonebornaftermidsummerthattheyshouldpacktheirbagsandgohome.

Hockeyandsoccerarejustgames,ofcourse,involvingaselectfew.Buttheseexactsamebiasesalsoshowupinareasofmuch

moreconsequence,likeeducation.Parentswithachildbornattheendofthecalendaryearoftenthinkaboutholdingtheirchildbackbeforethestartofkindergarten:it’shardforafive-year-oldtokeepupwithachildbornmanymonthsearlier.Butmostparents,onesuspects,thinkthatwhateverdisadvantageayoungerchildfacesinkindergarten

eventuallygoesaway.Butitdoesn’t.It’sjustlikehockey.Thesmallinitialadvantagethatthechildbornintheearlypartoftheyearhasoverthechildbornattheendoftheyearpersists.Itlockschildrenintopatternsofachievementandunderachievement,encouragementanddiscouragement,thatstretchonandonforyears.

Recently,twoeconomists

—KellyBedardandElizabethDhuey—lookedattherelationshipbetweenscoresonwhatiscalledtheTrendsinInternationalMathematicsandScienceStudy,orTIMSS(mathandsciencetestsgiveneveryfouryearstochildreninmanycountriesaroundtheworld),andmonthofbirth.Theyfoundthatamongfourthgraders,theoldestchildrenscoredsomewherebetween

fourandtwelvepercentilepointsbetterthantheyoungestchildren.That,asDhueyexplains,isa“hugeeffect.”Itmeansthatifyoutaketwointellectuallyequivalentfourthgraderswithbirthdaysatoppositeendsofthecutoffdate,theolderstudentcouldscoreintheeightiethpercentile,whiletheyoungeronecouldscoreinthesixty-eighthpercentile.

That’sthedifferencebetweenqualifyingforagiftedprogramandnot.

“It’sjustlikesports,”Dhueysaid.“Wedoabilitygroupingearlyoninchildhood.Wehaveadvancedreadinggroupsandadvancedmathgroups.So,earlyon,ifwelookatyoungkids,inkindergartenandfirstgrade,theteachersareconfusingmaturitywithability.And

theyputtheolderkidsintheadvancedstream,wheretheylearnbetterskills;andthenextyear,becausetheyareinthehighergroups,theydoevenbetter;andthenextyear,thesamethinghappens,andtheydoevenbetteragain.Theonlycountrywedon’tseethisgoingonisDenmark.Theyhaveanationalpolicywheretheyhavenoabilitygroupinguntiltheageoften.”

Denmarkwaitstomakeselectiondecisionsuntilmaturitydifferencesbyagehaveevenedout.

DhueyandBedardsubsequentlydidthesameanalysis,onlythistimelookingatcollege.Whatdidtheyfind?Atfour-yearcollegesintheUnitedStates—thehigheststreamofpostsecondaryeducation—studentsbelongingtothe

relativelyyoungestgroupintheirclassareunderrepresentedbyabout11.6percent.Thatinitialdifferenceinmaturitydoesn’tgoawaywithtime.Itpersists.Andforthousandsofstudents,thatinitialdisadvantageisthedifferencebetweengoingtocollege—andhavingarealshotatthemiddleclass—andnot.*

“Imean,it’sridiculous,”

Dhueysays.“It’soutlandishthatourarbitrarychoiceofcutoffdatesiscausingtheselong-lastingeffects,andnooneseemstocareaboutthem.”

5.Thinkforamomentaboutwhatthestoryofhockeyandearlybirthdayssaysaboutsuccess.

Ittellsusthatournotionthatitisthebestandthebrightestwhoeffortlesslyrisetothetopismuchtoosimplistic.Yes,thehockeyplayerswhomakeittotheprofessionallevelaremoretalentedthanyouorme.Buttheyalsogotabigheadstart,anopportunitythattheyneitherdeservednorearned.Andthatopportunityplayedacriticalroleintheirsuccess.

ThesociologistRobertMertonfamouslycalledthisphenomenonthe“MatthewEffect”aftertheNewTestamentverseintheGospelofMatthew:“Foruntoeveryonethathathshallbegiven,andheshallhaveabundance.Butfromhimthathathnotshallbetakenawayeventhatwhichhehath.”Itisthosewhoaresuccessful,inotherwords,whoaremost

likelytobegiventhekindsofspecialopportunitiesthatleadtofurthersuccess.It’stherichwhogetthebiggesttaxbreaks.It’sthebeststudentswhogetthebestteachingandmostattention.Andit’sthebiggestnine-andten-year-oldswhogetthemostcoachingandpractice.Successistheresultofwhatsociologistsliketocall“accumulativeadvantage.”

Theprofessionalhockeyplayerstartsoutalittlebitbetterthanhispeers.Andthatlittledifferenceleadstoanopportunitythatmakesthatdifferenceabitbigger,andthatedgeinturnleadstoanotheropportunity,whichmakestheinitiallysmalldifferencebiggerstill—andonandonuntilthehockeyplayerisagenuineoutlier.Buthedidn’tstartoutan

outlier.Hestartedoutjustalittlebitbetter.

Thesecondimplicationofthehockeyexampleisthatthesystemswesetuptodeterminewhogetsaheadaren’tparticularlyefficient.Wethinkthatstartingall-starleaguesandgiftedprogramsasearlyaspossibleisthebestwayofensuringthatnotalentslipsthroughthecracks.Buttakealookagainatthatroster

fortheCzechRepublicsoccerteam.TherearenoplayersborninJuly,October,November,orDecember,andonlyoneeachinAugustandSeptember.Thoseborninthelasthalfoftheyearhaveallbeendiscouraged,oroverlooked,orpushedoutofthesport.ThetalentofessentiallyhalfoftheCzechathleticpopulationhasbeensquandered.

Sowhatdoyoudoifyou’reanathleticyoungCzechwiththemisfortunetohavebeenborninthelastpartoftheyear?Youcan’tplaysoccer.Thedeckisstackedagainstyou.SomaybeyoucouldplaytheothersportthatCzechsareobsessedwith—hockey.Butwait.(Ithinkyouknowwhat’scoming.)Here’stherosterofthe2007Czechjuniorhockeyteamthat

finishedfifthattheworldchampionships.

No. Player BirthDate Position

1 DavidKveton

Jan.3,1988

Forward

2 JiriSuchy

Jan.3,1988

Defense

3 MichaelKolarz

Jan.12,1987

Defense

4 JakubVojta

Feb.8,1987

Defense

5 JakubKindl

Feb.10,1987

Defense

6 MichaelFrolik

Feb.17,1989

Forward

7 MartinHanzal

Feb.20,1987

Forward

8 TomasSvoboda

Feb.24,1987

Forward

9 JakubCerny

Mar.5,1987

Forward

10 TomasKudelka

Mar.10,1987

Defense

11 JaroslavBarton

Mar.26,1987

Defense

12 H.O.Pozivil

Apr.22,1987

Defense

13 DanielRakos

May25,1987

Forward

14 DavidKuchejda

Jun.12,1987

Forward

15 VladimirSobotka

Jul.2,1987

Forward

16 JakubJul.19, Goalie

Kovar 1988

17 LukasVantuch

Jul.20,1987

Forward

18 JakubVoracek

Aug.15,1989

Forward

19 TomasPospisil

Aug.25,1987

Forward

20 OndrejPavelec

Aug.31,1987

Goalie

21 TomasKana

Nov.29,1987

Forward

22 MichalRepik

Dec.31,1988

Forward

Thoseborninthelastquarteroftheyearmightaswellgiveuponhockeytoo.

Doyouseetheconsequencesofthewaywehavechosentothinkaboutsuccess?Becausewesoprofoundlypersonalizesuccess,wemissopportunitiestoliftothers

ontothetoprung.Wemakerulesthatfrustrateachievement.Weprematurelywriteoffpeopleasfailures.Wearetoomuchinaweofthosewhosucceedandfartoodismissiveofthosewhofail.And,mostofall,webecomemuchtoopassive.Weoverlookjusthowlargearoleweallplay—andby“we”Imeansociety—indeterminingwhomakesit

andwhodoesn’t.Ifwechoseto,wecould

acknowledgethatcutoffdatesmatter.Wecouldsetuptwooreventhreehockeyleagues,dividedupbymonthofbirth.Lettheplayersdeveloponseparatetracksandthenpickall-starteams.IfalltheCzechandCanadianathletesbornattheendoftheyearhadafairchance,thentheCzechandtheCanadiannationalteams

suddenlywouldhavetwiceasmanyathletestochoosefrom.

Schoolscoulddothesamething.ElementaryandmiddleschoolscouldputtheJanuarythroughApril–bornstudentsinoneclass,theMaythroughAugustinanotherclass,andthoseborninSeptemberthroughDecemberinthethirdclass.Theycouldletstudentslearnwithandcompeteagainstother

studentsofthesamematuritylevel.Itwouldbealittlebitmorecomplicatedadministratively.Butitwouldn’tnecessarilycostthatmuchmoremoney,anditwouldleveltheplayingfieldforthosewho—throughnofaultoftheirown—havebeendealtabigdisadvantagebytheeducationalsystem.Wecouldeasilytakecontrolofthemachineryof

achievement,inotherwords—notjustinsportsbut,aswewillsee,inothermoreconsequentialareasaswell.Butwedon’t.Andwhy?Becauseweclingtotheideathatsuccessisasimplefunctionofindividualmeritandthattheworldinwhichweallgrowupandtheruleswechoosetowriteasasocietydon’tmatteratall.

6.BeforetheMemorialCupfinal,GordWasden—thefatherofoneoftheMedicineHatTigers—stoodbythesideoftheice,talkingabouthissonScott.HewaswearingaMedicineHatbaseballcapandablackMedicineHatT-shirt.“Whenhewasfourandfiveyearsold,”Wasdenremembered,“hislittle

brotherwasinawalker,andhewouldshoveahockeystickinhishandandtheywouldplayhockeyonthefloorinthekitchen,morningtillnight.Scottalwayshadapassionforit.Heplayedrephockeythroughouthisminor-leaguehockeycareer.HealwaysmadetheTripleAteams.Asafirst-yearpeeweeorafirst-yearbantam,healwaysplayedonthe[top]

repteam.”Wasdenwasclearlynervous:hissonwasabouttoplayinthebiggestgameofhislife.“He’shadtoworkveryhardforwhateverhe’sgot.I’mveryproudofhim.”

Thoseweretheingredientsofsuccessatthehighestlevel:passion,talent,andhardwork.Buttherewasanotherelement.WhendidWasdenfirstgetthesense

thathissonwassomethingspecial?“Youknow,hewasalwaysabiggerkidforhisage.Hewasstrong,andhehadaknackforscoringgoalsatanearlyage.Andhewasalwayskindofastandoutforhisage,acaptainofhisteam….”

Biggerkidforhisage?Ofcoursehewas.ScottWasdenwasbornonJanuary4,withinthreedaysoftheabsolute

perfectbirthdayforanelitehockeyplayer.Hewasoneoftheluckyones.IftheeligibilitydateforCanadianhockeywerelaterintheyear,hemighthavebeenwatchingtheMemorialCupchampionshipfromthestandsinsteadofplayingontheice.

CHAPTERTWO

The10,000-HourRule

“INHAMBURG,WEHADTOPLAYFOREIGHT

HOURS.”

1.TheUniversityofMichigan

openeditsnewComputerCenterin1971,inabrand-newbuildingonBealAvenueinAnnArbor,withbeige-brickexteriorwallsandadark-glassfront.Theuniversity’senormousmainframecomputersstoodinthemiddleofavastwhiteroom,looking,asonefacultymemberremembers,“likeoneofthelastscenesinthemovie2001:ASpace

Odyssey.”Offtothesideweredozensofkeypunchmachines—whatpassedinthosedaysforcomputerterminals.In1971,thiswasstateoftheart.TheUniversityofMichiganhadoneofthemostadvancedcomputerscienceprogramsintheworld,andoverthecourseoftheComputerCenter’slife,thousandsofstudentspassedthroughthat

whiteroom,themostfamousofwhomwasagawkyteenagernamedBillJoy.

JoycametotheUniversityofMichigantheyeartheComputerCenteropened.Hewassixteen.Hewastallandverythin,withamopofunrulyhair.Hehadbeenvoted“MostStudiousStudent”byhisgraduatingclassatNorthFarmingtonHighSchool,outsideDetroit,

which,asheputsit,meantthathewasa“no-datenerd.”Hehadthoughthemightendupasbiologistoramathematician.Butlateinhisfreshmanyear,hestumbledacrosstheComputerCenter—andhewashooked.

Fromthatpointon,theComputerCenterwashislife.Heprogrammedwheneverhecould.Joygotajobwithacomputerscienceprofessorso

hecouldprogramoverthesummer.In1975,heenrolledingraduateschoolattheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.There,heburiedhimselfevendeeperintheworldofcomputersoftware.DuringtheoralexamsforhisPhD,hemadeupaparticularlycomplicatedalgorithmontheflythat,asoneofhismanyadmirershaswritten,“sostunnedhis

examiners[that]oneofthemlatercomparedtheexperienceto‘Jesusconfoundinghiselders.’”

Workingincollaborationwithasmallgroupofprogrammers,JoytookonthetaskofrewritingUNIX,whichwasasoftwaresystemdevelopedbyAT&Tformainframecomputers.Joy’sversionwasverygood.Itwassogood,infact,thatit

became—andremains—theoperatingsystemonwhichliterallymillionsofcomputersaroundtheworldrun.“IfyouputyourMacinthatfunnymodewhereyoucanseethecode,”Joysays,“IseethingsthatIremembertypingintwenty-fiveyearsago.”AnddoyouknowwhowrotemuchofthesoftwarethatallowsyoutoaccesstheInternet?BillJoy.

AftergraduatingfromBerkeley,JoycofoundedtheSiliconValleyfirmSunMicrosystems,whichwasoneofthemostcriticalplayersinthecomputerrevolution.Thereherewroteanothercomputerlanguage—Java—andhislegendgrewstillfurther.AmongSiliconValleyinsiders,JoyisspokenofwithasmuchaweassomeonelikeBillGatesof

Microsoft.HeissometimescalledtheEdisonoftheInternet.AstheYalecomputerscientistDavidGelerntersays,“BillJoyisoneofthemostinfluentialpeopleinthemodernhistoryofcomputing.”

ThestoryofBillJoy’sgeniushasbeentoldmanytimes,andthelessonisalwaysthesame.Herewasaworldthatwasthepurestof

meritocracies.Computerprogrammingdidn’toperateasanold-boynetwork,whereyougotaheadbecauseofmoneyorconnections.Itwasawide-openfieldinwhichallparticipantswerejudgedsolelyontheirtalentandtheiraccomplishments.Itwasaworldwherethebestmenwon,andJoywasclearlyoneofthosebestmen.

Itwouldbeeasierto

acceptthatversionofevents,however,ifwehadn’tjustlookedathockeyandsoccerplayers.Theirswassupposedtobeapuremeritocracyaswell.Onlyitwasn’t.Itwasastoryofhowtheoutliersinaparticularfieldreachedtheirloftystatusthroughacombinationofability,opportunity,andutterlyarbitraryadvantage.

Isitpossiblethesame

patternofspecialopportunitiesoperateintherealworldaswell?Let’sgobackoverthestoryofBillJoyandfindout.

2.Foralmostageneration,psychologistsaroundtheworldhavebeenengagedinaspiriteddebateoveraquestionthatmostofus

wouldconsidertohavebeensettledyearsago.Thequestionisthis:istheresuchathingasinnatetalent?Theobviousanswerisyes.NoteveryhockeyplayerborninJanuaryendsupplayingattheprofessionallevel.Onlysomedo—theinnatelytalentedones.Achievementistalentpluspreparation.Theproblemwiththisviewisthatthecloserpsychologistslook

atthecareersofthegifted,thesmallertheroleinnatetalentseemstoplayandthebiggertherolepreparationseemstoplay.

ExhibitAinthetalentargumentisastudydoneintheearly1990sbythepsychologistK.AndersEricssonandtwocolleaguesatBerlin’seliteAcademyofMusic.WiththehelpoftheAcademy’sprofessors,they

dividedtheschool’sviolinistsintothreegroups.Inthefirstgroupwerethestars,thestudentswiththepotentialtobecomeworld-classsoloists.Inthesecondwerethosejudgedtobemerely“good.”Inthethirdwerestudentswhowereunlikelytoeverplayprofessionallyandwhointendedtobemusicteachersinthepublicschoolsystem.Alloftheviolinistswerethen

askedthesamequestion:overthecourseofyourentirecareer,eversinceyoufirstpickeduptheviolin,howmanyhourshaveyoupracticed?

Everyonefromallthreegroupsstartedplayingatroughlythesameage,aroundfiveyearsold.Inthosefirstfewyears,everyonepracticedroughlythesameamount,abouttwoorthreehoursa

week.Butwhenthestudentswerearoundtheageofeight,realdifferencesstartedtoemerge.Thestudentswhowouldendupthebestintheirclassbegantopracticemorethaneveryoneelse:sixhoursaweekbyagenine,eighthoursaweekbyagetwelve,sixteenhoursaweekbyagefourteen,andupandup,untilbytheageoftwentytheywerepracticing—thatis,

purposefullyandsingle-mindedlyplayingtheirinstrumentswiththeintenttogetbetter—welloverthirtyhoursaweek.Infact,bytheageoftwenty,theeliteperformershadeachtotaledtenthousandhoursofpractice.Bycontrast,themerelygoodstudentshadtotaledeightthousandhours,andthefuturemusicteachershadtotaledjustoverfour

thousandhours.Ericssonandhis

colleaguesthencomparedamateurpianistswithprofessionalpianists.Thesamepatternemerged.Theamateursneverpracticedmorethanaboutthreehoursaweekoverthecourseoftheirchildhood,andbytheageoftwentytheyhadtotaledtwothousandhoursofpractice.Theprofessionals,onthe

otherhand,steadilyincreasedtheirpracticetimeeveryyear,untilbytheageoftwentythey,liketheviolinists,hadreachedtenthousandhours.

ThestrikingthingaboutEricsson’sstudyisthatheandhiscolleaguescouldn’tfindany“naturals,”musicianswhofloatedeffortlesslytothetopwhilepracticingafractionofthetimetheirpeersdid.Nor

couldtheyfindany“grinds,”peoplewhoworkedharderthaneveryoneelse,yetjustdidn’thavewhatittakestobreakthetopranks.Theirresearchsuggeststhatonceamusicianhasenoughabilitytogetintoatopmusicschool,thethingthatdistinguishesoneperformerfromanotherishowhardheorsheworks.That’sit.Andwhat’smore,thepeopleattheverytop

don’tworkjustharderorevenmuchharderthaneveryoneelse.Theyworkmuch,muchharder.

Theideathatexcellenceatperformingacomplextaskrequiresacriticalminimumlevelofpracticesurfacesagainandagaininstudiesofexpertise.Infact,researchershavesettledonwhattheybelieveisthemagicnumberfortrueexpertise:ten

thousandhours.“Theemergingpicture

fromsuchstudiesisthattenthousandhoursofpracticeisrequiredtoachievethelevelofmasteryassociatedwithbeingaworld-classexpert—inanything,”writestheneurologistDanielLevitin.“Instudyafterstudy,ofcomposers,basketballplayers,fictionwriters,iceskaters,concertpianists,

chessplayers,mastercriminals,andwhathaveyou,thisnumbercomesupagainandagain.Ofcourse,thisdoesn’taddresswhysomepeoplegetmoreoutoftheirpracticesessionsthanothersdo.Butnoonehasyetfoundacaseinwhichtrueworld-classexpertisewasaccomplishedinlesstime.Itseemsthatittakesthebrainthislongtoassimilateallthat

itneedstoknowtoachievetruemastery.”

Thisistrueevenofpeoplewethinkofasprodigies.Mozart,forexample,famouslystartedwritingmusicatsix.But,writesthepsychologistMichaelHoweinhisbookGeniusExplained,

bythestandardsofmaturecomposers,

Mozart’searlyworksarenotoutstanding.Theearliestpieceswereallprobablywrittendownbyhisfather,andperhapsimprovedintheprocess.ManyofWolfgang’schildhoodcompositions,suchasthefirstsevenofhisconcertosforpianoandorchestra,arelargely

arrangementsofworksbyothercomposers.OfthoseconcertosthatonlycontainmusicoriginaltoMozart,theearliestthatisnowregardedasamasterwork(No.9,K.271)wasnotcomposeduntilhewastwenty-one:bythattimeMozarthadalreadybeen

composingconcertosfortenyears.

ThemusiccriticHaroldSchonberggoesfurther:Mozart,heargues,actually“developedlate,”sincehedidn’tproducehisgreatestworkuntilhehadbeencomposingformorethantwentyyears.

Tobecomeachess

grandmasteralsoseemstotakeabouttenyears.(OnlythelegendaryBobbyFischergottothatelitelevelinlessthanthatamountoftime:ittookhimnineyears.)Andwhat’stenyears?Well,it’sroughlyhowlongittakestoputintenthousandhoursofhardpractice.Tenthousandhoursisthemagicnumberofgreatness.

Hereistheexplanationfor

whatwassopuzzlingabouttherostersoftheCzechandCanadiannationalsportsteams.TherewaspracticallynooneonthoseteamsbornafterSeptember1,whichdoesn’tseemtomakeanysense.You’dthinkthatthereshouldbeafairnumberofCzechhockeyorsoccerprodigiesbornlateintheyearwhoaresotalentedthattheyeventuallymaketheirway

intothetoptierasyoungadults,despitetheirbirthdates.

ButtoEricssonandthosewhoargueagainsttheprimacyoftalent,thatisn’tsurprisingatall.Thatlate-bornprodigydoesn’tgetchosenfortheall-starteamasaneight-year-oldbecausehe’stoosmall.Sohedoesn’tgettheextrapractice.Andwithoutthatextrapractice,he

hasnochanceathittingtenthousandhoursbythetimetheprofessionalhockeyteamsstartlookingforplayers.Andwithouttenthousandhoursunderhisbelt,thereisnowayhecanevermastertheskillsnecessarytoplayatthetoplevel.EvenMozart—thegreatestmusicalprodigyofalltime—couldn’thithisstrideuntilhehadhistenthousandhoursin.Practice

isn’tthethingyoudoonceyou’regood.It’sthethingyoudothatmakesyougood.

Theotherinterestingthingaboutthattenthousandhours,ofcourse,isthattenthousandhoursisanenormousamountoftime.It’sallbutimpossibletoreachthatnumberallbyyourselfbythetimeyou’reayoungadult.Youhavetohaveparentswhoencourageandsupportyou.Youcan’t

bepoor,becauseifyouhavetoholddownapart-timejobonthesidetohelpmakeendsmeet,therewon’tbetimeleftinthedaytopracticeenough.Infact,mostpeoplecanreachthatnumberonlyiftheygetintosomekindofspecialprogram—likeahockeyall-starsquad—oriftheygetsomekindofextraordinaryopportunitythatgivesthemachancetoputinthosehours.

3.So,backtoBillJoy.It’s1971.He’stallandgawkyandsixteenyearsold.He’sthemathwhiz,thekindofstudentthatschoolslikeMITandCaltechandtheUniversityofWaterlooattractbythehundreds.“WhenBillwasalittlekid,hewantedtoknoweverythingabouteverythingwaybeforehe

should’veevenknownhewantedtoknow,”hisfather,William,says.“Weansweredhimwhenwecould.Andwhenwecouldn’t,wewouldjustgivehimabook.”Whenitcametimetoapplytocollege,JoygotaperfectscoreonthemathportionoftheScholasticAptitudeTest.“Itwasn’tparticularlyhard,”hesaysmatter-of-factly.“Therewasplentyoftimeto

checkittwice.”Hehastalentbythe

truckload.Butthat’snottheonlyconsideration.Itneveris.ThekeytohisdevelopmentisthathestumbledacrossthatnondescriptbuildingonBealAvenue.

Intheearly1970s,whenJoywaslearningaboutprogramming,computerswerethesizeofrooms.A

singlemachine(whichmighthavelesspowerandmemorythanyourmicrowavenowhas)couldcostupwardsofamilliondollars—andthat’sin1970sdollars.Computerswererare.Ifyoufoundone,itwashardtogetaccesstoit;ifyoumanagedtogetaccess,rentingtimeonitcostafortune.

What’smore,programmingitselfwas

extraordinarilytedious.Thiswastheerawhencomputerprogramswerecreatedusingcardboardpunchcards.Eachlineofcodewasimprintedonthecardusingakeypunchmachine.Acomplexprogrammightincludehundreds,ifnotthousands,ofthesecardsintallstacks.Onceaprogramwasready,youwalkedovertowhatevermainframecomputeryouhadaccessto

andgavethestackofcardstoanoperator.Sincecomputerscouldhandleonlyonetaskatatime,theoperatormadeanappointmentforyourprogram,anddependingonhowmanypeoplewereaheadofyouinline,youmightnotgetyourcardsbackforafewhoursorevenaday.Andifyoumadeevenasingleerror—evenatypographicalerror—inyourprogram,youhad

totakethecardsback,trackdowntheerror,andbeginthewholeprocessagain.

Underthosecircumstances,itwasexceedinglydifficultforanyonetobecomeaprogrammingexpert.Certainlybecominganexpertbyyourearlytwentieswasallbutimpossible.Whenyoucan“program”foronlyafewminutesoutofeveryhouryou

spendinthecomputerroom,howcanyouevergetintenthousandhoursofpractice?“Programmingwithcards,”onecomputerscientistfromthateraremembers,“didnotteachyouprogramming.Ittaughtyoupatienceandproofreading.”

Itwasn’tuntilthemid-1960sthatasolutiontotheprogrammingproblememerged.Computerswere

finallypowerfulenoughthattheycouldhandlemorethanone“appointment”atonce.Ifthecomputer’soperatingsystemwasrewritten,computerscientistsrealized,themachine’stimecouldbeshared;thecomputercouldbetrainedtohandlehundredsoftasksatthesametime.That,inturn,meantthatprogrammersdidn’thavetophysicallyhandtheirstacks

ofcomputercardstotheoperatoranymore.Dozensofterminalscouldbebuilt,alllinkedtothemainframebyatelephoneline,andeveryonecouldbeworking—online—allatonce.

Hereishowonehistoryoftheperioddescribestheadventoftime-sharing:

Thiswasnotjusta

revolution.Itwasarevelation.Forgettheoperator,thecarddecks,thewait.Withtime-sharing,youcouldsitatyourTeletype,banginacoupleofcommands,andgetananswerthenandthere.Time-sharingwasinteractive:Aprogramcouldaskfora

response,waitforyoutotypeitin,actonitwhileyouwaited,andshowyoutheresult,allin“realtime.”

ThisiswhereMichigancamein,becauseMichiganwasoneofthefirstuniversitiesintheworldtoswitchovertotime-sharing.By1967,aprototypeofthe

systemwasupandrunning.Bytheearly1970s,MichiganhadenoughcomputingpowerthatahundredpeoplecouldbeprogrammingsimultaneouslyintheComputerCenter.“Inthelatesixties,earlyseventies,Idon’tthinktherewasanyplaceelsethatwasexactlylikeMichigan,”MikeAlexander,oneofthepioneersofMichigan’s

computingsystem,said.“MaybeMIT.MaybeCarnegieMellon.MaybeDartmouth.Idon’tthinktherewereanyothers.”

ThiswastheopportunitythatgreetedBillJoywhenhearrivedontheAnnArborcampusinthefallof1971.Hehadn’tchosenMichiganbecauseofitscomputers.Hehadneverdoneanythingwithcomputersinhighschool.He

wasinterestedinmathandengineering.Butwhentheprogrammingbughithiminhisfreshmanyear,hefoundhimself—bythehappiestofaccidents—inoneofthefewplacesintheworldwhereaseventeen-year-oldcouldprogramallhewanted.

“Doyouknowwhatthedifferenceisbetweenthecomputingcardsandtime-sharing?”Joysays.“It’sthe

differencebetweenplayingchessbymailandspeedchess.”Programmingwasn’tanexerciseinfrustrationanymore.Itwasfun.

“Ilivedinthenorthcampus,andtheComputerCenterwasinthenorthcampus,”Joywenton.“HowmuchtimedidIspendthere?Oh,aphenomenalamountoftime.Itwasopentwenty-fourhours.Iwouldstaythereall

night,andjustwalkhomeinthemorning.Inanaverageweekinthoseyears,IwasspendingmoretimeintheComputerCenterthanonmyclasses.Allofusdowntherehadthisrecurringnightmareofforgettingtoshowupforclassatall,ofnotevenrealizingwewereenrolled.

“Thechallengewasthattheygaveallthestudentsanaccountwithafixedamount

ofmoney,soyourtimewouldrunout.Whenyousignedon,youwouldputinhowlongyouwantedtospendonthecomputer.Theygaveyou,like,anhouroftime.That’sallyou’dget.Butsomeonefiguredoutthatifyouputin‘timeequals’andthenaletter,liketequalsk,theywouldn’tchargeyou,”hesaid,laughingatthememory.“Itwasabuginthesoftware.

Youcouldputintequalskandsitthereforever.”

JustlookatthestreamofopportunitiesthatcameBillJoy’sway.BecausehehappenedtogotoafarsightedschoolliketheUniversityofMichigan,hewasabletopracticeonatime-sharingsysteminsteadofwithpunchcards;becausetheMichigansystemhappenedtohaveabuginit,hecouldprogram

allhewanted;becausetheuniversitywaswillingtospendthemoneytokeeptheComputerCenteropentwenty-fourhours,hecouldstayupallnight;andbecausehewasabletoputinsomanyhours,bythetimehehappenedtobepresentedwiththeopportunitytorewriteUNIX,hewasuptothetask.BillJoywasbrilliant.Hewantedtolearn.

Thatwasabigpartofit.Butbeforehecouldbecomeanexpert,someonehadtogivehimtheopportunitytolearnhowtobeanexpert.

“AtMichigan,Iwasprobablyprogrammingeightortenhoursaday,”hewenton.“BythetimeIwasatBerkeleyIwasdoingitdayandnight.Ihadaterminalathome.I’dstayupuntiltwoorthreeo’clockinthemorning,

watchingoldmoviesandprogramming.SometimesI’dfallasleepatthekeyboard”—hemimedhisheadfallingonthekeyboard—“andyouknowhowthekeyrepeatsuntiltheend,anditstartstogobeep,beep,beep?Afterthathappensthreetimes,youhavetogotobed.IwasstillrelativelyincompetentevenwhenIgottoBerkeley.Iwasproficientbymysecondyear

there.That’swhenIwroteprogramsthatarestillinusetoday,thirtyyearslater.”Hepausedforamomenttodothemathinhishead—whichforsomeonelikeBillJoydoesn’ttakeverylong.Michiganin1971.Programminginearnestbysophomoreyear.Addinthesummers,thenthedaysandnightsinhisfirstyearatBerkeley.“So,somaybe…

tenthousandhours?”hesaid,finally.“That’saboutright.”

4.Istheten-thousand-hourruleageneralruleofsuccess?Ifwescratchbelowthesurfaceofeverygreatachiever,dowealwaysfindtheequivalentoftheMichiganComputerCenterorthehockeyall-starteam—somesortofspecial

opportunityforpractice?Let’stesttheideawith

twoexamples,andforthesakeofsimplicity,let’smakethemasfamiliaraspossible:theBeatles,oneofthemostfamousrockbandsever;andBillGates,oneoftheworld’srichestmen.

TheBeatles—JohnLennon,PaulMcCartney,GeorgeHarrison,andRingoStarr—cametotheUnited

StatesinFebruaryof1964,startingtheso-calledBritishInvasionoftheAmericanmusicsceneandputtingoutastringofhitrecordsthattransformedthefaceofpopularmusic.

ThefirstinterestingthingabouttheBeatlesforourpurposesishowlongtheyhadalreadybeentogetherbythetimetheyreachedtheUnitedStates.Lennonand

McCartneyfirststartedplayingtogetherin1957,sevenyearspriortolandinginAmerica.(Incidentally,thetimethatelapsedbetweentheirfoundingandtheirarguablygreatestartisticachievements—Sgt.Pepper’sLonelyHeartsClubBandandTheBeatles[WhiteAlbum]—istenyears.)Andifyoulookevenmorecloselyatthoselongyearsofpreparation,

you’llfindanexperiencethat,inthecontextofhockeyplayersandBillJoyandworld-classviolinists,soundsawfullyfamiliar.In1960,whiletheywerestilljustastrugglinghighschoolrockband,theywereinvitedtoplayinHamburg,Germany.

“Hamburginthosedaysdidnothaverock-and-rollmusicclubs.Ithadstripclubs,”saysPhilipNorman,

whowrotetheBeatlesbiographyShout!“TherewasoneparticularclubownercalledBruno,whowasoriginallyafairgroundshowman.Hehadtheideaofbringinginrockgroupstoplayinvariousclubs.Theyhadthisformula.Itwasahugenonstopshow,hourafterhour,withalotofpeoplelurchinginandtheotherlotlurchingout.And

thebandswouldplayallthetimetocatchthepassingtraffic.InanAmericanred-lightdistrict,theywouldcallitnonstopstriptease.

“ManyofthebandsthatplayedinHamburgwerefromLiverpool,”Normanwenton.“Itwasanaccident.BrunowenttoLondontolookforbands.ButhehappenedtomeetanentrepreneurfromLiverpool

inSohowhowasdowninLondonbypurechance.Andhearrangedtosendsomebandsover.That’showtheconnectionwasestablished.AndeventuallytheBeatlesmadeaconnectionnotjustwithBrunobutwithotherclubownersaswell.Theykeptgoingbackbecausetheygotalotofalcoholandalotofsex.”

Andwhatwassospecial

aboutHamburg?Itwasn’tthatitpaidwell.Itdidn’t.Orthattheacousticswerefantastic.Theyweren’t.Orthattheaudiencesweresavvyandappreciative.Theywereanythingbut.Itwasthesheeramountoftimethebandwasforcedtoplay.

HereisJohnLennon,inaninterviewaftertheBeatlesdisbanded,talkingabouttheband’sperformancesata

HamburgstripclubcalledtheIndra:

Wegotbetterandgotmoreconfidence.Wecouldn’thelpitwithalltheexperienceplayingallnightlong.Itwashandythembeingforeign.Wehadtotryevenharder,putourheartandsoulintoit,

togetourselvesover.InLiverpool,we’d

onlyeverdoneone-hoursessions,andwejustusedtodoourbestnumbers,thesameones,ateveryone.InHamburg,wehadtoplayforeighthours,sowereallyhadtofindanewwayofplaying.

Eighthours?HereisPeteBest,the

Beatles’drummeratthetime:“Oncethenewsgotoutaboutthatweweremakingashow,theclubstartedpackingthemin.Weplayedsevennightsaweek.Atfirstweplayedalmostnonstoptilltwelve-thirty,whenitclosed,butaswegotbetterthecrowdsstayedtilltwomostmornings.”

Sevendaysaweek?TheBeatlesendedup

travelingtoHamburgfivetimesbetween1960andtheendof1962.Onthefirsttrip,theyplayed106nights,fiveormorehoursanight.Ontheirsecondtrip,theyplayed92times.Ontheirthirdtrip,theyplayed48times,foratotalof172hoursonstage.ThelasttwoHamburggigs,inNovemberandDecember

of1962,involvedanother90hoursofperforming.Alltold,theyperformedfor270nightsinjustoverayearandahalf.Bythetimetheyhadtheirfirstburstofsuccessin1964,infact,theyhadperformedliveanestimatedtwelvehundredtimes.Doyouknowhowextraordinarythatis?Mostbandstodaydon’tperformtwelvehundredtimesintheirentirecareers.The

HamburgcrucibleisoneofthethingsthatsettheBeatlesapart.

“Theywerenogoodonstagewhentheywentthereandtheywereverygoodwhentheycameback,”Normanwenton.“Theylearnednotonlystamina.Theyhadtolearnanenormousamountofnumbers—coverversionsofeverythingyoucanthinkof,

notjustrockandroll,abitofjazztoo.Theyweren’tdisciplinedonstageatallbeforethat.Butwhentheycameback,theysoundedlikenooneelse.Itwasthemakingofthem.”

5.Let’snowturntothehistoryofBillGates.Hisstoryisalmostaswellknownasthe

Beatles’.Brilliant,youngmathwhizdiscoverscomputerprogramming.DropsoutofHarvard.StartsalittlecomputercompanycalledMicrosoftwithhisfriends.Throughsheerbrillianceandambitionandgutsbuildsitintothegiantofthesoftwareworld.That’sthebroadoutline.Let’sdigalittlebitdeeper.

Gates’sfatherwasa

wealthylawyerinSeattle,andhismotherwasthedaughterofawell-to-dobanker.AsachildBillwasprecociousandeasilyboredbyhisstudies.Sohisparentstookhimoutofpublicschooland,atthebeginningofseventhgrade,senthimtoLakeside,aprivateschoolthatcateredtoSeattle’selitefamilies.MidwaythroughGates’ssecondyearatLakeside,the

schoolstartedacomputerclub.

“TheMothers’Clubatschooldidarummagesaleeveryyear,andtherewasalwaysthequestionofwhatthemoneywouldgoto,”Gatesremembers.“Somewenttothesummerprogram,whereinner-citykidswouldcomeuptothecampus.Someofitwouldgoforteachers.Thatyear,theyputthree

thousanddollarsintoacomputerterminaldowninthisfunnylittleroomthatwesubsequentlytookcontrolof.Itwaskindofanamazingthing.”

Itwasan“amazingthing,”ofcourse,becausethiswas1968.Mostcollegesdidn’thavecomputerclubsinthe1960s.EvenmoreremarkablewasthekindofcomputerLakesidebought.Theschool

didn’thaveitsstudentslearnprogrammingbythelaboriouscomputer-cardsystem,likevirtuallyeveryoneelsewasdoinginthe1960s.Instead,LakesideinstalledwhatwascalledanASR-33Teletype,whichwasatime-sharingterminalwithadirectlinktoamainframecomputerindowntownSeattle.“Thewholeideaoftime-sharingonlygot

inventedinnineteensixty-five,”Gatescontinued.“Someonewasprettyforward-looking.”BillJoygotanextraordinary,earlyopportunitytolearnprogrammingonatime-sharesystemasafreshmanincollege,in1971.BillGatesgottodoreal-timeprogrammingasaneighthgraderin1968.

Fromthatmoment

forward,Gateslivedinthecomputerroom.Heandanumberofothersbegantoteachthemselveshowtousethisstrangenewdevice.BuyingtimeonthemainframecomputertheASRwashookeduptowas,ofcourse,expensive—evenforawealthyinstitutionlikeLakeside—anditwasn’tlongbeforethe$3,000putupbytheMothers’Clubranout.

Theparentsraisedmoremoney.Thestudentsspentit.ThenagroupofprogrammersattheUniversityofWashingtonformedanoutfitcalledComputerCenterCorporation(orC-Cubed),whichleasedcomputertimetolocalcompanies.Asluckwouldhaveit,oneofthefoundersofthefirm—MoniqueRona—hadasonatLakeside,ayearaheadof

Gates.WouldtheLakesidecomputerclub,Ronawondered,liketotestoutthecompany’ssoftwareprogramsontheweekendsinexchangeforfreeprogrammingtime?Absolutely!Afterschool,GatestookthebustotheC-Cubedofficesandprogrammedlongintotheevening.

C-Cubedeventuallywent

bankrupt,soGatesandhisfriendsbeganhangingaroundthecomputercenterattheUniversityofWashington.Beforelong,theylatchedontoanoutfitcalledISI(InformationSciencesInc.),whichagreedtoletthemhavefreecomputertimeinexchangeforworkingonapieceofsoftwarethatcouldbeusedtoautomatecompanypayrolls.Inoneseven-month

periodin1971,Gatesandhiscohortsranup1,575hoursofcomputertimeontheISImainframe,whichaveragesouttoeighthoursaday,sevendaysaweek.

“Itwasmyobsession,”Gatessaysofhisearlyhighschoolyears.“Iskippedathletics.Iwentupthereatnight.Wewereprogrammingonweekends.Itwouldbearareweekthatwewouldn’t

gettwentyorthirtyhoursin.TherewasaperiodwherePaulAllenandIgotintroubleforstealingabunchofpasswordsandcrashingthesystem.Wegotkickedout.Ididn’tgettousethecomputerthewholesummer.ThisiswhenIwasfifteenandsixteen.ThenIfoundoutPaulhadfoundacomputerthatwasfreeattheUniversityofWashington.Theyhad

thesemachinesinthemedicalcenterandthephysicsdepartment.Theywereonatwenty-four-hourschedule,butwiththisbigslackperiod,sothatbetweenthreeandsixinthemorningtheyneverscheduledanything.”Gateslaughed.“I’dleaveatnight,aftermybedtime.IcouldwalkuptotheUniversityofWashingtonfrommyhouse.OrI’dtakethebus.That’s

whyI’malwayssogeneroustotheUniversityofWashington,becausetheyletmestealsomuchcomputertime.”(Yearslater,Gates’smothersaid,“Wealwayswonderedwhyitwassohardforhimtogetupinthemorning.”)

OneofthefoundersofISI,BudPembroke,thengotacallfromthetechnologycompanyTRW,whichhad

justsignedacontracttosetupacomputersystematthehugeBonnevillePowerstationinsouthernWashingtonState.TRWdesperatelyneededprogrammersfamiliarwiththeparticularsoftwarethepowerstationused.Intheseearlydaysofthecomputerrevolution,programmerswiththatkindofspecializedexperiencewerehardtofind.

ButPembrokeknewexactlywhomtocall:thosehighschoolkidsfromLakesidewhohadbeenrunningupthousandsofhoursofcomputertimeontheISImainframe.Gateswasnowinhissenioryear,andsomehowhemanagedtoconvincehisteacherstolethimdecampforBonnevilleundertheguiseofanindependentstudyproject.Therehespentthe

springwritingcode,supervisedbyamannamedJohnNorton,whoGatessaystaughthimasmuchaboutprogrammingasalmostanyonehe’devermet.

Thosefiveyears,fromeighthgradethroughtheendofhighschool,wereBillGates’sHamburg,andbyanymeasure,hewaspresentedwithanevenmoreextraordinaryseriesof

opportunitiesthanBillJoy.Opportunitynumberone

wasthatGatesgotsenttoLakeside.Howmanyhighschoolsintheworldhadaccesstoatime-sharingterminalin1968?OpportunitynumbertwowasthatthemothersofLakesidehadenoughmoneytopayfortheschool’scomputerfees.Numberthreewasthat,whenthatmoneyranout,oneofthe

parentshappenedtoworkatC-Cubed,whichhappenedtoneedsomeonetocheckitscodeontheweekends,andwhichalsohappenednottocareifweekendsturnedintoweeknights.NumberfourwasthatGatesjusthappenedtofindoutaboutISI,andISIjusthappenedtoneedsomeonetoworkonitspayrollsoftware.NumberfivewasthatGateshappened

tolivewithinwalkingdistanceoftheUniversityofWashington.Numbersixwasthattheuniversityhappenedtohavefreecomputertimebetweenthreeandsixinthemorning.NumbersevenwasthatTRWhappenedtocallBudPembroke.NumbereightwasthatthebestprogrammersPembrokeknewforthatparticularproblemhappenedtobetwohigh

schoolkids.AndnumberninewasthatLakesidewaswillingtoletthosekidsspendtheirspringtermmilesaway,writingcode.

Andwhatdidvirtuallyallofthoseopportunitieshaveincommon?TheygaveBillGatesextratimetopractice.BythetimeGatesdroppedoutofHarvardafterhissophomoreyeartotryhishandathisownsoftware

company,he’dbeenprogrammingpracticallynonstopforsevenconsecutiveyears.Hewaswaypasttenthousandhours.HowmanyteenagersintheworldhadthekindofexperienceGateshad?“Iftherewerefiftyintheworld,I’dbestunned,”hesays.“TherewasC-Cubedandthepayrollstuffwedid,thenTRW—allthosethingscametogether.Ihadabetter

exposuretosoftwaredevelopmentatayoungagethanIthinkanyonedidinthatperiodoftime,andallbecauseofanincrediblyluckyseriesofevents.”

6.IfweputthestoriesofhockeyplayersandtheBeatlesandBillJoyandBillGatestogether,Ithinkweget

amorecompletepictureofthepathtosuccess.JoyandGatesandtheBeatlesareallundeniablytalented.LennonandMcCartneyhadamusicalgiftofthesortthatcomesalongonceinageneration,andBillJoy,letusnotforget,hadamindsoquickthathewasabletomakeupacomplicatedalgorithmontheflythatlefthisprofessorsinawe.Thatmuchisobvious.

Butwhattrulydistinguishestheirhistoriesisnottheirextraordinarytalentbuttheirextraordinaryopportunities.TheBeatles,forthemostrandomofreasons,gotinvitedtogotoHamburg.WithoutHamburg,theBeatlesmightwellhavetakenadifferentpath.“Iwasverylucky,”BillGatessaidatthebeginningofourinterview.Thatdoesn’tmean

heisn’tbrilliantoranextraordinaryentrepreneur.ItjustmeansthatheunderstandswhatincrediblegoodfortuneitwastobeatLakesidein1968.

Alltheoutlierswe’velookedatsofarwerethebeneficiariesofsomekindofunusualopportunity.Luckybreaksdon’tseemliketheexceptionwithsoftwarebillionairesandrockbands

andstarathletes.Theyseemliketherule.

Letmegiveyouonefinalexampleofthehiddenopportunitiesthatoutliersbenefitfrom.Supposewedoanotherversionofthecalendaranalysiswedidinthepreviouschapterwithhockeyplayers,onlythistimelookingatbirthyears,notbirthmonths.Tostartwith,takeacloselookatthe

followinglistoftheseventy-fiverichestpeopleinhumanhistory.ThenetworthofeachpersoniscalculatedincurrentUSdollars.Asyoucansee,itincludesqueensandkingsandpharaohsfromcenturiespast,aswellascontemporarybillionaires,suchasWarrenBuffettandCarlosSlim.

No. Name

WealthinBillions Origin

1 JohnD.Rockefeller 318.3 United

States

2 AndrewCarnegie 298.3 Scotland

3 NicholasIIofRussia 253.5 Russia

4WilliamHenryVanderbilt

231.6 UnitedStates

5OsmanAliKhan,AsafJahVII

210.8 Hyderabad

6 AndrewW.Mellon 188.8 United

States

7 HenryFord 188.1 UnitedStates

8MarcusLiciniusCrassus

169.8RomanRepublic

9 BasilII 169.4 ByzantineEmpire

10 CorneliusVanderbilt 167.4 United

States11 AlanusRufus 166.9 England

12 AmenophisIII 155.2 Ancient

13WilliamdeWarenne,1stEarlofSurrey

153.6 England

14 WilliamIIofEngland 151.7 England

15 ElizabethI 142.9 EnglandJohnD.

16 RockefellerJr.

141.4 UnitedStates

17 SamWalton 128.0 UnitedStates

18 JohnJacobAstor 115.0 Germany

19 OdoofBayeux 110.2 England

20 StephenGirard 99.5 France

21 Cleopatra 95.8 AncientEgypt

22 StephenVanRensselaerIII 88.8 United

States

23 RichardB.Mellon 86.3 United

States

24 AlexanderTurneyStewart

84.7 Ireland

25WilliamBackhouseAstorJr.

84.7 UnitedStates

26 DonSimonIturbiPatiño 81.2 Bolivia

27SultanHassanalBolkiah

80.7 Brunei

28 FrederickWeyerhaeuser 80.4 Germany

29 MosesTaylor 79.3 UnitedStates

30 VincentAstor 73.9 UnitedStates

31 CarlosSlimHelú

72.4 Mexico

32 T.V.Soong 67.8 China

33 JayGould 67.1 UnitedStates

34 MarshallField 66.3 United

States

35 GeorgeF.Baker 63.6 United

States

36 HettyGreen 58.8 UnitedStates

37 BillGates 58.0 UnitedStates

38LawrenceJoseph 58.0 United

States

Ellison

39 RichardArkwright 56.2 England

40 MukeshAmbani 55.8 India

41WarrenBuffett 52.4

UnitedStates

42 LakshmiMittal 51.0 India

43 J.PaulGetty 50.1 UnitedStates

44 JamesG.Fair 47.2 UnitedStates

45 WilliamWeightman 46.1 United

StatesUnited

46 RussellSage 45.1 States

47 JohnBlair 45.1 UnitedStates

48 AnilAmbani 45.0 India

49LelandStanford 44.9

UnitedStates

50 HowardHughesJr. 43.4 United

States

51 CyrusCurtis 43.2 UnitedStates

52 JohnInsleyBlair 42.4 United

States

53EdwardHenryHarriman

40.9 UnitedStates

54 HenryH.Rogers 40.9 United

States

55 PaulAllen 40.0 UnitedStates

56 JohnKluge 40.0 Germany

57 J.P.Morgan 39.8 UnitedStates

58 OliverH.Payne

38.8 UnitedStates

59 YoshiakiTsutsumi 38.1 Japan

60 HenryClayFrick 37.7 United

States

61 JohnJacobAstorIV 37.0 United

States

62GeorgePullman 35.6

UnitedStates

63 CollisPotterHuntington 34.6 United

States

64PeterArrellBrownWidener

33.4 UnitedStates

65PhilipDanforth 33.4 United

Armour States

66 WilliamS.O’Brien 33.3 United

States

67 IngvarKamprad 33.0 Sweden

68 K.P.Singh 32.9 India

69JamesC.Flood 32.5

UnitedStates

70 LiKa-shing 32.0 China

71 AnthonyN.Brady 31.7 United

States

72 EliasHasketDerby

31.4 UnitedStates

73 MarkHopkins 30.9 United

States

74 EdwardClark 30.2 UnitedStates

75PrinceAl-WaleedbinTalal

29.5 SaudiArabia

Doyouknowwhat’sinterestingaboutthatlist?Oftheseventy-fivenames,anastonishingfourteenareAmericansbornwithinnineyearsofoneanotherinthe

mid-nineteenthcentury.Thinkaboutthatforamoment.HistoriansstartwithCleopatraandthepharaohsandcombthrougheveryyearinhumanhistoryeversince,lookingineverycorneroftheworldforevidenceofextraordinarywealth,andalmost20percentofthenamestheyendupwithcomefromasinglegenerationinasinglecountry.

Here’sthelistofthoseAmericansandtheirbirthyears:

1.JohnD.Rockefeller,18392.AndrewCarnegie,183528.FrederickWeyerhaeuser,183433.JayGould,183634.MarshallField,1834

35.GeorgeF.Baker,184036.HettyGreen,183444.JamesG.Fair,183154.HenryH.Rogers,184057.J.P.Morgan,183758.OliverH.Payne,183962.GeorgePullman,183164.PeterArrellBrownWidener,1834

65.PhilipDanforthArmour,1832

What’sgoingonhere?Theanswerbecomesobviousifyouthinkaboutit.Inthe1860sand1870s,theAmericaneconomywentthroughperhapsthegreatesttransformationinitshistory.Thiswaswhentherailroadswerebeingbuiltandwhen

WallStreetemerged.Itwaswhenindustrialmanufacturingstartedinearnest.Itwaswhenalltherulesbywhichthetraditionaleconomyhadfunctionedwerebrokenandremade.Whatthislistsaysisthatitreallymattershowoldyouwerewhenthattransformationhappened.

Ifyouwereborninthelate1840syoumissedit.You

weretooyoungtotakeadvantageofthatmoment.Ifyouwereborninthe1820syouweretooold:yourmind-setwasshapedbythepre–CivilWarparadigm.Buttherewasaparticular,narrownine-yearwindowthatwasjustperfectforseeingthepotentialthatthefutureheld.Allofthefourteenmenandwomenonthelistabovehadvisionandtalent.Butthey

alsoweregivenanextraordinaryopportunity,inthesamewaythathockeyandsoccerplayersborninJanuary,February,andMarcharegivenanextraordinaryopportunity.*

Nowlet’sdothesamekindofanalysisforpeoplelikeBillJoyandBillGates.

IfyoutalktoveteransofSiliconValley,they’lltellyouthatthemostimportant

dateinthehistoryofthepersonalcomputerrevolutionwasJanuary1975.ThatwaswhenthemagazinePopularElectronicsranacoverstoryonanextraordinarymachinecalledtheAltair8800.TheAltaircost$397.Itwasado-it-yourselfcontraptionthatyoucouldassembleathome.Theheadlineonthestoryread:“PROJECTBREAKTHROUGH!

World’sFirstMinicomputerKittoRivalCommercialModels.”

TothereadersofPopularElectronics,inthosedaysthebibleofthefledglingsoftwareandcomputerworld,thatheadlinewasarevelation.Computersuptothatpointhadbeenthemassive,expensivemainframesofthesortsittinginthewhiteexpanseofthe

MichiganComputerCenter.Foryears,everyhackerandelectronicswhizhaddreamtofthedaywhenacomputerwouldcomealongthatwassmallandinexpensiveenoughforanordinarypersontouseandown.Thatdayhadfinallyarrived.

IfJanuary1975wasthedawnofthepersonalcomputerage,thenwhowouldbeinthebestposition

totakeadvantageofit?ThesameprinciplesapplyherethatappliedtotheeraofJohnRockefellerandAndrewCarnegie.

“Ifyou’retoooldinnineteenseventy-five,thenyou’dalreadyhaveajobatIBMoutofcollege,andoncepeoplestartedatIBM,theyhadarealhardtimemakingthetransitiontothenewworld,”saysNathan

Myhrvold,whowasatopexecutiveatMicrosoftformanyyears.“Youhadthismultibillion-dollarcompanymakingmainframes,andifyouwerepartofthat,you’dthink,Whyscrewaroundwiththeselittlepatheticcomputers?Thatwasthecomputerindustrytothosepeople,andithadnothingtodowiththisnewrevolution.Theywereblindedbythat

beingtheonlyvisionofcomputing.Theymadeaniceliving.It’sjustthattherewasnoopportunitytobecomeazillionaireandmakeanimpactontheworld.”

Ifyouweremorethanafewyearsoutofcollegein1975,thenyoubelongedtotheoldparadigm.Youhadjustboughtahouse.You’remarried.Ababyisontheway.You’reinnopositionto

giveupagoodjobandpensionforsomepie-in-the-sky$397computerkit.Solet’sruleoutallthosebornbefore,say,1952.

Atthesametime,though,youdon’twanttobetooyoung.Youreallywanttogetinonthegroundfloor,rightin1975,andyoucan’tdothatifyou’restillinhighschool.Solet’salsoruleoutanyonebornafter,say,1958.The

perfectagetobein1975,inotherwords,isoldenoughtobeapartofthecomingrevolutionbutnotsooldthatyoumissedit.Ideally,youwanttobetwentyortwenty-one,whichistosay,bornin1954or1955.

Thereisaneasywaytotestthistheory.WhenwasBillGatesborn?

BillGates:October28,1955

That’stheperfectbirthdate!GatesisthehockeyplayerbornonJanuary1.Gates’sbestfriendatLakesidewasPaulAllen.HealsohungoutinthecomputerroomwithGatesandsharedthoselongeveningsatISIandC-Cubed.Allenwentontofound

MicrosoftwithBillGates.WhenwasPaulAllenborn?

PaulAllen:January21,1953

Thethird-richestmanatMicrosoftistheonewhohasbeenrunningthecompanyonaday-to-daybasissince2000,oneofthemostrespectedexecutivesinthesoftware

world,SteveBallmer.Ballmer’sbirthdate?

SteveBallmer:March24,1956

Let’snotforgetamaneverybitasfamousasGates:SteveJobs,thecofounderofAppleComputer.UnlikeGates,Jobswasn’tfromarichfamilyandhedidn’tgotoMichigan,like

Joy.Butitdoesn’ttakemuchinvestigationofhisupbringingtorealizethathehadhisHamburgtoo.HegrewupinMountainView,California,justsouthofSanFrancisco,whichistheabsoluteepicenterofSiliconValley.HisneighborhoodwasfilledwithengineersfromHewlett-Packard,thenasnowoneofthemostimportantelectronicsfirmsin

theworld.AsateenagerheprowledthefleamarketsofMountainView,whereelectronicshobbyistsandtinkererssoldspareparts.Jobscameofagebreathingtheairoftheverybusinesshewouldlaterdominate.

ThisparagraphfromAccidentalMillionaire,oneofthemanyJobsbiographies,givesusasenseofhowextraordinaryhischildhood

experienceswere.Jobs

attendedeveningtalksbyHewlett-Packardscientists.ThetalkswereaboutthelatestadvancesinelectronicsandJobs,exercisingastylethatwasatrademarkofhispersonality,collaredHewlett-Packard

engineersanddrewadditionalinformationfromthem.OnceheevencalledBillHewlett,oneofthecompany’sfounders,torequestparts.Jobsnotonlyreceivedthepartsheaskedfor,hemanagedtowrangleasummerjob.Jobsworkedonanassemblylinetobuildcomputers

andwassofascinatedthathetriedtodesignhisown…

Wait.BillHewlettgavehimspareparts?That’sonaparwithBillGatesgettingunlimitedaccesstoatime-shareterminalatagethirteen.It’sasifyouwereinterestedinfashionandyourneighborwhenyouweregrowingup

happenedtobeGiorgioArmani.AndwhenwasJobsborn?

SteveJobs:February24,1955

AnotherofthepioneersofthesoftwarerevolutionwasEricSchmidt.HeranNovell,oneofSiliconValley’smostimportantsoftwarefirms,and

in2001,hebecamethechiefexecutiveofficerofGoogle.Birthdate?

EricSchmidt:April27,1955

Idon’tmeantosuggest,ofcourse,thateverysoftwaretycooninSiliconValleywasbornin1955.Someweren’t,justasnoteverybusiness

titanintheUnitedStateswasborninthemid-1830s.Butthereareveryclearlypatternshere,andwhat’sstrikingishowlittleweseemtowanttoacknowledgethem.Wepretendthatsuccessisexclusivelyamatterofindividualmerit.Butthere’snothinginanyofthehistorieswe’velookedatsofartosuggestthingsarethatsimple.Thesearestories,instead,

aboutpeoplewhoweregivenaspecialopportunitytoworkreallyhardandseizedit,andwhohappenedtocomeofageatatimewhenthatextraordinaryeffortwasrewardedbytherestofsociety.Theirsuccesswasnotjustoftheirownmaking.Itwasaproductoftheworldinwhichtheygrewup.

Bytheway,let’snotforgetBillJoy.Hadhebeen

justalittlebitolderandhadhehadtofacethedrudgeryofprogrammingwithcomputercards,hesays,hewouldhavestudiedscience.BillJoythecomputerlegendwouldhavebeenBillJoythebiologist.Andhadhecomealongafewyearslater,thelittlewindowthatgavehimthechancetowritethesupportingcodefortheInternetwouldhaveclosed.Again,BillJoythe

computerlegendmightwellhavebeenBillJoythebiologist.WhenwasBillJoyborn?

BillJoy:November8,1954

Joywouldgoon,afterhisstintatBerkeley,tobecomeoneofthefourfoundersofSunMicrosystems,oneofthe

oldestandmostimportantofSiliconValley’ssoftwarecompanies.Andifyoustillthinkthataccidentsoftimeandplaceandbirthdon’tmatterallthatmuch,herearethebirthdaysofthethreeotherfoundersofSunMicrosystems:

ScottMcNealy:November13,1954

VinodKhosla:January28,1955AndyBechtolsheim:September30,1955

CHAPTERTHREE

TheTroublewithGeniuses,Part1

“KNOWLEDGEOFABOY’SIQISOFLITTLE

HELPIFYOUAREFACEDWITHAFORMFULOF

CLEVERBOYS.”

1.Inthefifthepisodeofthe

2008season,theAmericantelevisionquizshow1vs.100hadasitsspecialguestamannamedChristopherLangan.

Thetelevisionshow1vs.100isoneofmanythatsprangupinthewakeofthephenomenalsuccessofWhoWantstoBeaMillionaire.Itfeaturesapermanentgalleryofonehundredordinarypeoplewhoserveaswhatiscalledthe“mob.”Eachweek

theymatchwitswithaspecialinvitedguest.Atstakeisamilliondollars.Theguesthastobesmartenoughtoanswermorequestionscorrectlythanhisorheronehundredadversaries—andbythatstandard,fewhaveeverseemedassuperblyqualifiedasChristopherLangan.

“Tonightthemobtakesontheirfiercestcompetitionyet,”thevoice-overbegan.

“MeetChrisLangan,whomanycallthesmartestmaninAmerica.”Thecameradidaslowpanofastocky,muscularmaninhisfifties.“TheaveragepersonhasanIQofonehundred,”thevoice-overcontinued.“Einsteinonefifty.ChrishasanIQofoneninety-five.He’scurrentlywrappinghisbigbrainaroundatheoryoftheuniverse.Butwillhisking-

sizecraniumbeenoughtotakedownthemobforonemilliondollars?FindoutrightnowonOneversusOneHundred.”

OutstrodeLanganontothestageamidwildapplause.

“Youdon’tthinkyouneedtohaveahighintellecttodowellonOneversusOneHundred,doyou?”theshow’shost,BobSaget,askedhim.Sagetlookedat

Langanoddly,asifheweresomekindoflaboratoryspecimen.

“Actually,Ithinkitcouldbeahindrance,”Langanreplied.Hehadadeep,certainvoice.“TohaveahighIQ,youtendtospecialize,thinkdeepthoughts.Youavoidtrivia.ButnowthatIseethesepeople”—heglancedatthemob,theamusementinhiseyes

betrayingjusthowridiculoushefoundtheproceedings—“IthinkI’lldookay.”

Overthepastdecade,ChrisLanganhasachievedastrangekindoffame.HehasbecomethepublicfaceofgeniusinAmericanlife,acelebrityoutlier.Hegetsinvitedonnewsshowsandprofiledinmagazines,andhehasbeenthesubjectofadocumentarybythe

filmmakerErrolMorris,allbecauseofabrainthatappearstodefydescription.

Thetelevisionnewsshow20/20oncehiredaneuropsychologisttogiveLangananIQtest,andLangan’sscorewasliterallyoffthecharts—toohightobeaccuratelymeasured.Anothertime,LangantookanIQtestspeciallydesignedforpeopletoosmartforordinaryIQ

tests.Hegotallthequestionsrightexceptone.*Hewasspeakingatsixmonthsofage.Whenhewasthree,hewouldlistentotheradioonSundaysastheannouncerreadthecomicsaloud,andhewouldfollowalongonhisownuntilhehadtaughthimselftoread.Atfive,hebeganquestioninghisgrandfatherabouttheexistenceofGod—and

remembersbeingdisappointedintheanswershegot.

Inschool,Langancouldwalkintoatestinaforeign-languageclass,nothavingstudiedatall,andifthereweretwoorthreeminutesbeforetheinstructorarrived,hecouldskimthroughthetextbookandacethetest.Inhisearlyteenageyears,whileworkingasafarmhand,he

startedtoreadwidelyintheareaoftheoreticalphysics.Atsixteen,hemadehiswaythroughBertrandRussellandAlfredNorthWhitehead’sfamouslyabstrusemasterpiecePrincipiaMathematica.HegotaperfectscoreonhisSAT,eventhoughhefellasleepatonepointduringthetest.

“Hedidmathforanhour,”hisbrotherMarksays

ofLangan’ssummerroutineinhighschool.“ThenhedidFrenchforanhour.ThenhestudiedRussian.Thenhewouldreadphilosophy.Hedidthatreligiously,everyday.”

Anotherofhisbrothers,Jeff,says,“Youknow,whenChristopherwasfourteenorfifteen,hewoulddrawthingsjustasajoke,anditwouldbelikeaphotograph.Whenhe

wasfifteen,hecouldmatchJimiHendrixlickforlickonaguitar.Boom.Boom.Boom.Halfthetime,Christopherdidn’tattendschoolatall.Hewouldjustshowupfortestsandtherewasnothingtheycoulddoaboutit.Tous,itwashilarious.Hecouldbriefasemester’sworthoftextbooksintwodays,andtakecareofwhateverhehadtotakecare

of,andthengetbacktowhateverhewasdoinginthefirstplace.”*

Onthesetof1vs.100,Langanwaspoisedandconfident.Hisvoicewasdeep.Hiseyesweresmallandfiercelybright.Hedidnotcircleabouttopics,searchingfortherightphrase,ordoublebacktorestateaprevioussentence.Forthatmatter,hedidnotsayum,or

ah,oruseanyformofconversationalmitigation:hissentencescamemarchingout,oneafteranother,polishedandcrisp,likesoldiersonaparadeground.EveryquestionSagetthrewathim,hetossedaside,asifitwereatriviality.Whenhiswinningsreached$250,000,heappearedtomakeamentalcalculationthattherisksoflosingeverythingwereatthat

pointgreaterthanthepotentialbenefitsofstayingin.Abruptly,hestopped.“I’lltakethecash,”hesaid.HeshookSaget’shandfirmlyandwasfinished—exitingontopas,weliketothink,geniusesinvariablydo.

2.JustaftertheFirstWorldWar,LewisTerman,ayoung

professorofpsychologyatStanfordUniversity,metaremarkableboynamedHenryCowell.Cowellhadbeenraisedinpovertyandchaos.Becausehedidnotgetalongwithotherchildren,hehadbeenunschooledsincetheageofseven.Heworkedasajanitorataone-roomschoolhousenotfarfromtheStanfordcampus,andthroughouttheday,Cowell

wouldsneakawayfromhisjobandplaytheschoolpiano.Andthemusichemadewasbeautiful.

Terman’sspecialtywasintelligencetesting;thestandardIQtestthatmillionsofpeoplearoundtheworldwouldtakeduringthefollowingfiftyyears,theStanford-Binet,washiscreation.SohedecidedtotestCowell’sIQ.Theboymustbe

intelligent,hereasoned,andsureenough,hewas.HehadanIQofabove140,whichisneargeniuslevel.Termanwasfascinated.Howmanyotherdiamondsintheroughwerethere?hewondered.

Hebegantolookforothers.Hefoundagirlwhoknewthealphabetatnineteenmonths,andanotherwhowasreadingDickensandShakespearebythetimeshe

wasfour.Hefoundayoungmanwhohadbeenkickedoutoflawschoolbecausehisprofessorsdidnotbelievethatitwaspossibleforahumanbeingtopreciselyreproducelongpassagesoflegalopinionsfrommemory.

In1921,Termandecidedtomakethestudyofthegiftedhislifework.ArmedwithalargegrantfromtheCommonwealthFoundation,

heputtogetherateamoffieldworkersandsentthemoutintoCalifornia’selementaryschools.Teacherswereaskedtonominatethebrighteststudentsintheirclasses.Thosechildrenweregivenanintelligencetest.Thestudentswhoscoredinthetop10percentwerethengivenasecondIQtest,andthosewhoscoredabove130onthattestweregivenathird

IQtest,andfromthatsetofresultsTermanselectedthebestandthebrightest.BythetimeTermanwasfinished,hehadsortedthroughtherecordsofsome250,000elementaryandhighschoolstudents,andidentified1,470childrenwhoseIQsaveragedover140andrangedashighas200.Thatgroupofyounggeniusescametobeknownasthe“Termites,”andtheywere

thesubjectsofwhatwouldbecomeoneofthemostfamouspsychologicalstudiesinhistory.

Fortherestofhislife,Termanwatchedoverhischargeslikeamotherhen.Theyweretrackedandtested,measuredandanalyzed.Theireducationalattainmentswerenoted,marriagesfollowed,illnessestabulated,psychologicalhealthcharted,

andeverypromotionandjobchangedutifullyrecorded.Termanwrotehisrecruitslettersofrecommen-dationforjobsandgraduateschoolapplications.Hedoledoutaconstantstreamofadviceandcounsel,allthetimerecordinghisfindingsinthickredvolumesentitledGeneticStudiesofGenius.

“Thereisnothingaboutanindividualasimportantashis

IQ,exceptpossiblyhismorals,”Termanoncesaid.AnditwastothosewithaveryhighIQ,hebelieved,that“wemustlookforproductionofleaderswhoadvancescience,art,government,educationandsocialwelfaregenerally.”Ashissubjectsgrewolder,Termanissuedupdatesontheirprogress,chroniclingtheirextraordinary

achievements.“Itisalmostimpossible,”Termanwrotegiddily,whenhischargeswereinhighschool,“toreadanewspaperaccountofanysortofcompetitionoractivityinwhichCaliforniaboysandgirlsparticipatewithoutfindingamongthewinnersthenamesofoneormore…membersofourgiftedgroup.”Hetookwritingsamplesfromsomeofhis

mostartisticallymindedsubjectsandhadliterarycriticscomparethemtotheearlywritingsoffamousauthors.Theycouldfindnodifference.Allthesignspointed,hesaid,toagroupwiththepotentialfor“heroicstature.”TermanbelievedthathisTermitesweredestinedtobethefutureeliteoftheUnitedStates.

Today,manyofTerman’s

ideasremaincentraltothewaywethinkaboutsuccess.Schoolshaveprogramsforthe“gifted.”Eliteuniversitiesoftenrequirethatstudentstakeanintelligencetest(suchastheAmericanScholasticAptitudeTest)foradmission.High-techcompanieslikeGoogleorMicrosoftcarefullymeasurethecognitiveabilitiesofprospectiveemployeesoutofthesame

belief:theyareconvincedthatthoseattheverytopoftheIQscalehavethegreatestpotential.(AtMicrosoft,famously,jobapplicantsareaskedabatteryofquestionsdesignedtotesttheirsmarts,includingtheclassic“Whyaremanholecoversround?”Ifyoudon’tknowtheanswertothatquestion,you’renotsmartenoughtoworkatMicrosoft.*)

IfIhadmagicalpowersandofferedtoraiseyourIQby30points,you’dsayyes—right?You’dassumethatwouldhelpyougetfurtheraheadintheworld.AndwhenwehearaboutsomeonelikeChrisLangan,ourinstinctiveresponseisthesameasTerman’sinstinctiveresponsewhenhemetHenryCowellalmostacenturyago.Wefeelawe.Geniusesarethe

ultimateoutliers.Surelythereisnothingthatcanholdsomeonelikethatback.

Butisthattrue?SofarinOutliers,we’ve

seenthatextraordinaryachievementislessabouttalentthanitisaboutopportunity.Inthischapter,Iwanttotrytodigdeeperintowhythat’sthecasebylookingattheoutlierinitspurestandmostdistilledform

—thegenius.Foryears,we’vetakenourcuesfrompeoplelikeTermanwhenitcomestounderstandingthesignificanceofhighintelligence.But,asweshallsee,Termanmadeanerror.HewaswrongabouthisTermites,andhadhehappenedontheyoungChrisLanganworkinghiswaythroughPrincipiaMathematicaattheageof

sixteen,hewouldhavebeenwrongabouthimforthesamereason.Termandidn’tunderstandwhatarealoutlierwas,andthat’samistakewecontinuetomaketothisday.

3.OneofthemostwidelyusedintelligencetestsissomethingcalledRaven’sProgressiveMatrices.Itrequiresno

languageskillsorspecificbodyofacquiredknowledge.It’sameasureofabstractreasoningskills.AtypicalRaven’stestconsistsofforty-eightitems,eachoneharderthantheonebeforeit,andIQiscalculatedbasedonhowmanyitemsareansweredcorrectly.

Here’saquestion,typicalofthesortthatisaskedontheRaven’s.

Didyougetthat?I’m

guessingmostofyoudid.ThecorrectanswerisC.Butnowtrythisone.It’sthekindofreallyhardquestionthatcomesattheendoftheRaven’s.

ThecorrectanswerisA.I

havetoconfessIcouldn’tfigurethisoneout,andI’mguessingmostofyoucouldn’teither.ChrisLanganalmostcertainlycould,however.WhenwesaythatpeoplelikeLanganarereallybrilliant,whatwemeanisthattheyhavethekindofmindthatcanfigureoutpuzzleslikethatlastquestion.

Overtheyears,anenormousamountofresearch

hasbeendoneinanattempttodeterminehowaperson’sperformanceonanIQtestliketheRaven’stranslatestoreal-lifesuccess.Peopleatthebottomofthescale—withanIQbelow70—areconsideredmentallydisabled.Ascoreof100isaverage;youprobablyneedtobejustabovethatmarktobeabletohandlecollege.Togetintoandsucceedinareasonably

competitivegraduateprogram,meanwhile,youprobablyneedanIQofatleast115.Ingeneral,thehigheryourscore,themoreeducationyou’llget,themoremoneyyou’relikelytomake,and—believeitornot—thelongeryou’lllive.

Butthere’sacatch.TherelationshipbetweensuccessandIQworksonlyuptoapoint.Oncesomeonehas

reachedanIQofsomewherearound120,havingadditionalIQpointsdoesn’tseemtotranslateintoanymeasurablereal-worldadvantage.*

“ItisamplyprovedthatsomeonewithanIQof170ismorelikelytothinkwellthansomeonewhoseIQis70,”theBritishpsychologistLiamHudsonhaswritten,“andthisholdstruewherethecomparisonismuchcloser—

betweenIQsof,say,100and130.ButtherelationseemstobreakdownwhenoneismakingcomparisonsbetweentwopeoplebothofwhomhaveIQswhicharerelativelyhigh….AmaturescientistwithanadultIQof130isaslikelytowinaNobelPrizeasisonewhoseIQis180.”

WhatHudsonissayingisthatIQisalotlikeheightinbasketball.Doessomeone

whoisfivefootsixhavearealisticchanceofplayingprofessionalbasketball?Notreally.Youneedtobeatleastsixfootorsixonetoplayatthatlevel,and,allthingsbeingequal,it’sprobablybettertobesixtwothansixone,andbettertobesixthreethansixtwo.Butpastacertainpoint,heightstopsmatteringsomuch.Aplayerwhoissixfooteightisnot

automaticallybetterthansomeonetwoinchesshorter.(MichaelJordan,thegreatestplayerever,wassixsixafterall.)Abasketballplayeronlyhastobetallenough—andthesameistrueofintelligence.Intelligencehasathreshold.

Theintroductiontothe1vs.100episodepointedoutthatEinsteinhadanIQof150andLanganhasanIQof195.

Langan’sIQis30percenthigherthanEinstein’s.Butthatdoesn’tmeanLanganis30percentsmarterthanEinstein.That’sridiculous.Allwecansayisthatwhenitcomestothinkingaboutreallyhardthingslikephysics,theyarebothclearlysmartenough.

TheideathatIQhasathreshold,Irealize,goesagainstourintuition.We

thinkthat,say,NobelPrizewinnersinsciencemusthavethehighestIQscoresimaginable;thattheymustbethekindsofpeoplewhogotperfectscoresontheirentranceexaminationstocollege,woneveryscholarshipavailable,andhadsuchstellaracademicrecordsinhighschoolthattheywerescoopedupbythetopuniversitiesinthecountry.

Buttakealookatthefollowinglistofwherethelasttwenty-fiveAmericanstowintheNobelPrizeinMedicinegottheirundergraduatedegrees,startingin2007.

AntiochCollegeBrownUniversityUCBerkeleyUniversityof

WashingtonColumbiaUniversityCaseInstituteofTechnologyMITCaltechHarvardUniversityHamiltonCollegeColumbiaUniversityUniversityofNorthCarolinaDePauwUniversityUniversityof

PennsylvaniaUniversityofMinnesotaUniversityofNotreDameJohnsHopkinsUniversityYaleUniversityUnionCollege,KentuckyUniversityofIllinoisUniversityofTexasHolyCrossAmherstCollege

GettysburgCollegeHunterCollege

NoonewouldsaythatthislistrepresentsthecollegechoicesoftheabsolutebesthighschoolstudentsinAmerica.YaleandColumbiaandMITareonthelist,butsoareDePauw,HolyCross,andGettysburgCollege.It’salistofgoodschools.

Alongthesamelines,herearethecollegesofthelasttwenty-fiveAmericanNobellaureatesinChemistry:

CityCollegeofNewYorkCityCollegeofNewYorkStanfordUniversityUniversityofDayton,Ohio

RollinsCollege,FloridaMITGrinnellCollegeMITMcGillUniversityGeorgiaInstituteofTechnologyOhioWesleyanUniversityRiceUniversityHopeCollegeBrighamYoungUniversity

UniversityofTorontoUniversityofNebraskaDartmouthCollegeHarvardUniversityBereaCollegeAugsburgCollegeUniversityofMassachusettsWashingtonStateUniversityUniversityofFloridaUniversityofCalifornia,Riverside

HarvardUniversity

TobeaNobelPrizewinner,apparently,youhavetobesmartenoughtogetintoacollegeatleastasgoodasNotreDameortheUniversityofIllinois.That’sall.*

Thisisaradicalidea,isn’tit?Supposethatyourteenagedaughterfoundoutthatshehadbeenacceptedattwo

universities—HarvardUniversityandGeorgetownUniversity,inWashington,DC.Wherewouldyouwanthertogo?I’mguessingHarvard,becauseHarvardisa“better”school.Itsstudentsscoreagood10to15percenthigherontheirentranceexams.

Butgivenwhatwearelearningaboutintelligence,theideathatschoolscanbe

ranked,likerunnersinarace,makesnosense.Georgetown’sstudentsmaynotbeassmartonanabsolutescaleasthestudentsofHarvard.Buttheyareall,clearly,smartenough,andfutureNobelPrizewinnerscomefromschoolslikeGeorgetownaswellasfromschoolslikeHarvard.

ThepsychologistBarrySchwartzrecentlyproposed

thateliteschoolsgiveuptheircomplexadmissionsprocessandsimplyholdalotteryforeveryoneabovethethreshold.“Putpeopleintotwocategories,”Schwartzsays.“Goodenoughandnotgoodenough.Theoneswhoaregoodenoughgetputintoahat.Andthosewhoarenotgoodenoughgetrejected.”Schwartzconcedesthathisideahasvirtuallynochance

ofbeingaccepted.Buthe’sabsolutelyright.AsHudsonwrites(andkeepinmindthathedidhisresearchateliteall-maleEnglishboardingschoolsinthe1950sand1960s),“Knowledgeofaboy’sIQisoflittlehelpifyouarefacedwithaformfulofcleverboys.”*

Letmegiveyouanexampleofthethresholdeffectinaction.The

UniversityofMichiganlawschool,likemanyeliteUSeducationalinstitutions,usesapolicyofaffirmativeactionwhenitcomestoapplicantsfromdisadvantagedbackgrounds.Around10percentofthestudentsMichiganenrollseachfallaremembersofracialminorities,andifthelawschooldidnotsignificantlyrelaxitsentryrequirementsforthose

students—admittingthemwithlowerundergraduategradesandlowerstandardized-testscoresthaneveryoneelse—itestimatesthatpercentagewouldbelessthan3percent.Furthermore,ifwecomparethegradesthattheminorityandnonminoritystudentsgetinlawschool,weseethatthewhitestudentsdobetter.That’snotsurprising:ifonegrouphashigher

undergraduategradesandtestscoresthantheother,it’salmostcertainlygoingtohavehighergradesinlawschoolaswell.Thisisonereasonthataffirmativeactionprogramsaresocontroversial.Infact,anattackontheUniversityofMichigan’saffirmativeactionprogramrecentlywentallthewaytotheUSSupremeCourt.Formanypeopleitis

troublingthataneliteeducationalinstitutionletsinstudentswhoarelessqualifiedthantheirpeers.

Afewyearsago,however,theUniversityofMichigandecidedtolookcloselyathowthelawschool’sminoritystudentshadfaredaftertheygraduated.Howmuchmoneydidtheymake?Howfarupintheprofessiondidtheygo?Howsatisfied

weretheywiththeircareers?Whatkindofsocialandcommunitycontributionsdidtheymake?Whatkindofhonorshadtheywon?Theylookedateverythingthatcouldconceivablybeanindicationofreal-worldsuccess.Andwhattheyfoundsurprisedthem.

“Weknewthatourminoritystudents,alotofthem,weredoingwell,”says

RichardLempert,oneoftheauthorsoftheMichiganstudy.“Ithinkourexpectationwasthatwewouldfindahalf-ortwo-thirds-fullglass,thattheyhadnotdoneaswellasthewhitestudentsbutnonethelessalotwerequitesuccessful.Butwewerecompletelysurprised.Wefoundthattheyweredoingeverybitaswell.Therewasnoplacewesawany

seriousdiscrepancy.”WhatLempertissayingis

thatbytheonlymeasurethatalawschoolreallyoughttocareabout—howwellitsgraduatesdointherealworld—minoritystudentsaren’tlessqualified.They’rejustassuccessfulaswhitestudents.Andwhy?BecauseeventhoughtheacademiccredentialsofminoritystudentsatMichiganaren’tas

goodasthoseofwhitestudents,thequalityofstudentsatthelawschoolishighenoughthatthey’restillabovethethreshold.Theyaresmartenough.Knowledgeofalawstudent’stestscoresisoflittlehelpifyouarefacedwithaclassroomofcleverlawstudents.

Let’stakethethresholdideaonestepfurther.Ifintelligencemattersonlyuptoapoint,thenpastthatpoint,otherthings—thingsthathavenothingtodowithintelligence—muststarttomattermore.It’slikebasketballagain:oncesomeoneistallenough,thenwestarttocareaboutspeedandcourtsenseandagilityandball-handlingskillsand

shootingtouch.So,whatmightsomeof

thoseotherthingsbe?Well,supposethatinsteadofmeasuringyourIQ,Igaveyouatotallydifferentkindoftest.

Writedownasmanydifferentusesthatyoucanthinkofforthefollowingobjects:

1. abrick2. ablanket

Thisisanexampleofwhat’scalleda“divergencetest”(asopposedtoatestliketheRaven’s,whichasksyoutosortthroughalistofpossibilitiesandconvergeontherightanswer).Itrequiresyoutouseyourimaginationandtakeyourmindinas

manydifferentdirectionsaspossible.Withadivergencetest,obviouslythereisn’tasinglerightanswer.Whatthetestgiverislookingforarethenumberandtheuniquenessofyourresponses.Andwhatthetestismeasuringisn’tanalyticalintelligencebutsomethingprofoundlydifferent—somethingmuchclosertocreativity.Divergencetests

areeverybitaschallengingasconvergencetests,andifyoudon’tbelievethat,Iencourageyoutopauseandtrythebrick-and-blankettestrightnow.

Here,forexample,areanswerstothe“usesofobjects”testcollectedbyLiamHudsonfromastudentnamedPooleatatopBritishhighschool:

(Brick).Touseinsmash-and-grabraids.Tohelpholdahousetogether.TouseinagameofRussianrouletteifyouwanttokeepfitatthesametime(bricksattenpaces,turnandthrow—noevasiveactionallowed).Toholdtheeiderdownonabedtieabrickateachcorner.

AsabreakerofemptyCoca-Colabottles.

(Blanket).Touseonabed.Asacoverforillicitsexinthewoods.Asatent.Tomakesmokesignalswith.Asasailforaboat,cartorsled.Asasubstituteforatowel.Asatargetforshootingpracticeforshort-sightedpeople.

Asathingtocatchpeoplejumpingoutofburningskyscrapers.

It’snothardtoreadPoole’sanswersandgetsomesenseofhowhismindworks.He’sfunny.He’salittlesubversiveandlibidinous.Hehastheflairforthedramatic.Hismindleapsfromviolentimagerytosextopeople

jumpingoutofburningskyscraperstoverypracticalissues,suchashowtogetaduvettostayonabed.Hegivesustheimpressionthatifwegavehimanothertenminutes,he’dcomeupwithanothertwentyuses.*

Now,forthesakeofcomparison,considertheanswersofanotherstudentfromHudson’ssample.HisnameisFlorence.Hudson

tellsusthatFlorenceisaprodigy,withoneofthehighestIQsinhisschool.

(Brick).Buildingthings,throwing.

(Blanket).Keepingwarm,smotheringfire,tyingtotreesandsleepingin(asahammock),improvised

stretcher.

WhereisFlorence’simagination?Heidentifiedthemostcommonandmostfunctionalusesforbricksandblanketsandsimplystopped.Florence’sIQishigherthanPoole’s.Butthatmeanslittle,sincebothstudentsareabovethethreshold.WhatismoreinterestingisthatPoole’s

mindcanleapfromviolentimagerytosextopeoplejumpingoutofbuildingswithoutmissingabeat,andFlorence’smindcan’t.Nowwhichofthesetwostudentsdoyouthinkisbettersuitedtodothekindofbrilliant,imaginativeworkthatwinsNobelPrizes?

That’sthesecondreasonNobelPrizewinnerscomefromHolyCrossaswellas

Harvard,becauseHarvardisn’tselectingitsstudentsonthebasisofhowwelltheydoonthe“usesofabrick”test—andmaybe“usesofabrick”isabetterpredictorofNobelPrizeability.It’salsothesecondreasonMichiganLawSchoolcouldn’tfindadifferencebetweenitsaffirmativeactiongraduatesandtherestofitsalumni.Beingasuccessfullawyeris

aboutalotmorethanIQ.ItinvolveshavingthekindoffertilemindthatPoolehad.AndjustbecauseMichigan’sminoritystudentshavelowerscoresonconvergencetestsdoesn’tmeantheydon’thavethatothercriticaltraitinabundance.

5.ThiswasTerman’serror.He

fellinlovewiththefactthathisTermiteswereattheabsolutepinnacleoftheintellectualscale—attheninety-ninthpercentileoftheninety-ninthpercentile—withoutrealizinghowlittlethatseeminglyextraordinaryfactmeant.

BythetimetheTermitesreachedadulthood,Terman’serrorwasplaintosee.Someofhischildgeniuseshad

grownuptopublishbooksandscholarlyarticlesandthriveinbusiness.Severalranforpublicoffice,andthereweretwosuperiorcourtjustices,onemunicipalcourtjudge,twomembersoftheCaliforniastatelegislature,andoneprominentstateofficial.Butfewofhisgeniuseswerenationallyknownfigures.Theytendedtoearngoodincomes—but

notthatgood.Themajorityhadcareersthatcouldonlybeconsideredordinary,andasurprisingnumberendedupwithcareersthatevenTermanconsideredfailures.NorwerethereanyNobelPrizewinnersinhisexhaustivelyselectedgroupofgeniuses.HisfieldworkersactuallytestedtwoelementarystudentswhowentontobeNobellaureates—William

ShockleyandLuisAlvarez—andrejectedthemboth.TheirIQsweren’thighenough.

Inadevastatingcritique,thesociologistPitirimSorokinonceshowedthatifTermanhadsimplyputtogetherarandomlyselectedgroupofchildrenfromthesamekindsoffamilybackgroundsastheTermites—anddispensedwithIQsaltogether—hewouldhave

endedupwithagroupdoingalmostasmanyimpressivethingsashispainstakinglyselectedgroupofgeniuses.“Bynostretchoftheimaginationorofstandardsofgenius,”Sorokinconcluded,“isthe‘giftedgroup’asawhole‘gifted.’”BythetimeTermancameoutwithhisfourthvolumeofGeneticStudiesofGenius,theword“genius”hadallbutvanished.

“Wehaveseen,”Termanconcluded,withmorethanatouchofdisappointment,“thatintellectandachievementarefarfromperfectlycorrelated.”

WhatItoldyouatthebeginningofthischapterabouttheextraordinaryintelligenceofChrisLangan,inotherwords,isoflittleuseifwewanttounderstandhischancesofbeingasuccessin

theworld.Yes,heisamanwithaone-in-a-millionmindandtheabilitytogetthroughPrincipiaMathematicaatsixteen.Andyes,hissentencescomemarchingoutoneafteranother,polishedandcrisplikesoldiersonaparadeground.Butsowhat?Ifwewanttounderstandthelikelihoodofhisbecomingatrueoutlier,wehavetoknowalotmoreabouthimthan

CHAPTERFOUR

TheTroublewithGeniuses,Part2

“AFTERPROTRACTEDNEGOTIATIONS,ITWASAGREEDTHATROBERTWOULDBEPUTON

PROBATION.”

1.ChrisLangan’smotherwas

fromSanFranciscoandwasestrangedfromherfamily.Shehadfoursons,eachwithadifferentfather.Chriswastheeldest.HisfatherdisappearedbeforeChriswasborn;hewassaidtohavediedinMexico.Hismother’ssecondhusbandwasmurdered.Herthirdcommittedsuicide.HerfourthwasafailedjournalistnamedJackLangan.

“TothisdayIhaven’tmetanybodywhowasaspoorwhentheywerekidsasourfamilywas,”ChrisLangansays.“Wedidn’thaveapairofmatchedsocks.Ourshoeshadholesinthem.Ourpantshadholesinthem.Weonlyhadonesetofclothes.IremembermybrothersandIgoingintothebathroomandusingthebathtubtowashouronlysetofclothesandwe

werebare-assednakedwhenweweredoingthatbecausewedidn’thaveanythingtowear.”

JackLanganwouldgoondrinkingspreesanddisappear.Hewouldlockthekitchencabinetssotheboyscouldn’tgettothefood.Heusedabullwhiptokeeptheboysinline.Hewouldgetjobsandthenlosethem,movingthefamilyontothe

nexttown.OnesummerthefamilylivedonanIndianreservationinateepee,subsistingongovernment-surpluspeanutbutterandcornmeal.Foratime,theylivedinVirginiaCity,Nevada.“Therewasonlyonelawofficerintown,andwhentheHell’sAngelscametotown,hewouldcrouchdowninthebackofhisoffice,”MarkLanganremembers.

“Therewasabarthere,I’llalwaysremember.ItwascalledtheBucketofBloodSaloon.”

Whentheboyswereingradeschool,thefamilymovedtoBozeman,Montana.OneofChris’sbrothersspenttimeinafosterhome.Anotherwassenttoreformschool.

“Idon’tthinktheschooleverunderstoodjusthow

giftedChristopherwas,”hisbrotherJeffsays.“Hesureashelldidn’tplayitup.ThiswasBozeman.Itwasn’tlikeitistoday.Itwasasmallhicktownwhenweweregrowingup.Weweren’ttreatedwellthere.They’djustdecidedthatmyfamilywasabunchofdeadbeats.”Tostickupforhimselfandhisbrothers,Chrisstartedtoliftweights.Oneday,whenChriswas

fourteen,JackLangangotroughwiththeboys,ashesometimesdid,andChrisknockedhimoutcold.Jackleft,nevertoreturn.Upongraduationfromhighschool,Chriswasofferedtwofullscholarships,onetoReedCollegeinOregonandtheothertotheUniversityofChicago.HechoseReed.

“Itwasahugemistake,”Chrisrecalls.“Ihadareal

caseofcultureshock.Iwasacrew-cutkidwhohadbeenworkingasaranchhandinthesummersinMontana,andthereIwas,withawholebunchoflong-hairedcitykids,mostofthemfromNewYork.AndthesekidshadawholedifferentstylethanIwasusedto.Icouldn’tgetawordinedgewiseatclass.Theywereveryinquisitive.Askingquestionsallthetime.

Iwascrammedintoadormroom.Therewerefourofus,andtheotherthreeguyshadawholedifferentotherlifestyle.Theyweresmokingpot.Theywouldbringtheirgirlfriendsintotheroom.Ihadneversmokedpotbefore.SobasicallyItooktohidinginthelibrary.”

Hecontinued:“ThenIlostthatscholarship….Mymotherwassupposedtofill

outaparents’financialstatementfortherenewalofthatscholarship.Sheneglectedtodoso.Shewasconfusedbytherequirementsorwhatever.Atsomepoint,itcametomyattentionthatmyscholarshiphadnotbeenrenewed.SoIwenttotheofficetoaskwhy,andtheytoldme,Well,noonesentusthefinancialstatement,andweallocatedallthe

scholarshipmoneyandit’sallgone,soI’mafraidthatyoudon’thaveascholarshiphereanymore.Thatwasthestyleoftheplace.Theysimplydidn’tcare.Theydidn’tgiveashitabouttheirstudents.Therewasnocounseling,nomentoring,nothing.”

ChrisleftReedbeforethefinalsetofexams,leavinghimwitharowofFsonhistranscript.Inthefirst

semester,hehadearnedAs.HewentbacktoBozemanandworkedinconstructionandasaforestservicesfirefighterforayearandahalf.ThenheenrolledatMontanaStateUniversity.

“Iwastakingmathandphilosophyclasses,”herecalled.“Andtheninthewinterquarter,Iwaslivingthirteenmilesoutoftown,outonBeachHillRoad,and

thetransmissionfelloutofmycar.MybrothershaduseditwhenIwasgonethatsummer.Theywereworkingfortherailroadandhaddrivenitontherailroadtracks.Ididn’thavethemoneytorepairit.SoIwenttomyadviserandthedeaninsequenceandsaid,Ihaveaproblem.Thetransmissionfelloutofmycar,andyouhavemeinaseven-thirtya.m.

andeight-thirtya.m.class.Ifyoucouldpleasejusttransfermetotheafternoonsectionsoftheseclasses,Iwouldappreciateitbecauseofthiscarproblem.Therewasaneighborwhowasarancherwhowasgoingtotakemeinateleveno’clock.Myadviserwasthiscowboy-lookingguywithahandlebarmustache,dressedinatweedjacket.Hesaid,‘Well,son,afterlooking

atyourtranscriptatReedCollege,Iseethatyouhaveyettolearnthateveryonehastomakesacrificestogetaneducation.Requestdenied.’SothenIwenttothedean.Sametreatment.”

Hisvoicegrewtight.Hewasdescribingthingsthathadhappenedmorethanthirtyyearsago,butthememorystillmadehimangry.“AtthatpointIrealized,here

Iwas,knockingmyselfouttomakethemoneytomakemywaybacktoschool,andit’sthemiddleoftheMontanawinter.Iamwillingtohitchhikeintotowneveryday,dowhateverIhadtodo,justtogetintoschoolandback,andtheyareunwillingtodoanythingforme.Sobananas.AndthatwasthepointIdecidedIcoulddowithoutthehigher-education

system.EvenifIcouldn’tdowithoutit,itwassufficientlyrepugnanttomethatIwouldn’tdoitanymore.SoIdroppedoutofcollege,simpleasthat.”

ChrisLangan’sexperiencesatReedandMontanaStaterepresentedaturningpointinhislife.Asachild,hehaddreamtofbecominganacademic.HeshouldhavegottenaPhD;

universitiesareinstitutionsstructured,inlargepart,forpeoplewithhiskindofdeepintellectualinterestsandcuriosity.“Oncehegotintotheuniversityenvironment,Ithoughthewouldprosper,Ireallydid,”hisbrotherMarksays.“Ithoughthewouldsomehowfindaniche.Itmadeabsolutelynosensetomewhenheleftthat.”

Withoutadegree,Langan

floundered.Heworkedinconstruction.OnefrigidwinterheworkedonaclamboatonLongIsland.HetookfactoryjobsandminorcivilservicepositionsandeventuallybecameabouncerinabaronLongIsland,whichwashisprincipaloccupationformuchofhisadultyears.Throughitall,hecontinuedtoreaddeeplyinphilosophy,mathematics,and

physicsasheworkedonasprawlingtreatisehecallsthe“CTMU”—the“CognitiveTheoreticModeloftheUniverse.”Butwithoutacademiccredentials,hedespairsofevergettingpublishedinascholarlyjournal.

“Iamaguywhohasayearandahalfofcollege,”hesays,withashrug.“Andatsomepointthiswillcometo

theattentionoftheeditor,asheisgoingtotakethepaperandsenditofftothereferees,andtheserefereesaregoingtotryandlookmeup,andtheyarenotgoingtofindme.Andtheyaregoingtosay,Thisguyhasayearandahalfofcollege.Howcanheknowwhathe’stalkingabout?”

Itisaheartbreakingstory.AtonepointIaskedLangan—hypothetically—whether

hewouldtakeajobatHarvardUniversitywereitofferedtohim.“Well,that’sadifficultquestion,”hereplied.“Obviously,asafullprofessoratHarvardIwouldcount.MyideaswouldhaveweightandIcouldusemyposition,myaffiliationatHarvard,topromotemyideas.Aninstitutionlikethatisagreatsourceofintellectualenergy,andifI

wereataplacelikethat,Icouldabsorbthevibrationintheair.”Itwassuddenlyclearhowlonelyhislifehasbeen.Herehewas,amanwithaninsatiableappetiteforlearning,forcedformostofhisadultlifetoliveinintellectualisolation.“IevennoticedthatkindofintellectualenergyintheyearandahalfIwasincollege,”hesaid,almostwistfully.

“Ideasareintheairconstantly.It’ssuchastimulatingplacetobe.

“Ontheotherhand,”hewenton,“Harvardisbasicallyaglorifiedcorporation,operatingwithaprofitincentive.That’swhatmakesittick.Ithasanendowmentinthebillionsofdollars.Thepeoplerunningitarenotnecessarilysearchingfortruthandknowledge.

Theywanttobebigshots,andwhenyouacceptapaycheckfromthesepeople,itisgoingtocomedowntowhatyouwanttodoandwhatyoufeelisrightversuswhatthemansaysyoucandotoreceiveanotherpaycheck.Whenyou’rethere,theygotathumbrightonyou.Theyareouttomakesureyoudon’tstepoutofline.”

2.WhatdoesthestoryofChrisLangantellus?Hisexplanations,asheartbreakingastheyare,arealsoalittlestrange.Hismotherforgetstosignhisfinancialaidformand—justlikethat—noscholarship.Hetriestomovefromamorningtoanafternoonclass,somethingstudentsdoevery

day,andgetsstoppedcold.AndwhywereLangan’steachersatReedandMontanaStatesoindifferenttohisplight?Teacherstypicallydelightinmindsasbrilliantashis.LangantalksaboutdealingwithReedandMontanaStateasiftheyweresomekindofvastandunyieldinggovernmentbureaucracy.Butcolleges,particularlysmallliberalarts

collegeslikeReed,tendnottoberigidbureaucracies.Makingallowancesinthenameofhelpingsomeonestayinschooliswhatprofessorsdoallthetime.

EveninhisdiscussionofHarvard,it’sasifLanganhasnoconceptionofthecultureandparticularsoftheinstitutionhe’stalkingabout.Whenyouacceptapaycheckfromthesepeople,itisgoing

tocomedowntowhatyouwanttodoandwhatyoufeelisrightversuswhatthemansaysyoucandotoreceiveanotherpaycheck.What?Oneofthemainreasonscollegeprofessorsacceptalowerpaycheckthantheycouldgetinprivateindustryisthatuniversitylifegivesthemthefreedomtodowhattheywanttodoandwhattheyfeelisright.Langanhas

Harvardbackwards.WhenLangantoldmehis

lifestory,Icouldn’thelpthinkingofthelifeofRobertOppenheimer,thephysicistwhofamouslyheadedtheAmericanefforttodevelopthenuclearbombduringWorldWarII.Oppenheimer,byallaccounts,wasachildwithamindverymuchlikeChrisLangan’s.Hisparentsconsideredhimagenius.One

ofhisteachersrecalledthat“hereceivedeverynewideaasperfectlybeautiful.”Hewasdoinglabexperimentsbythethirdgradeandstudyingphysicsandchemistrybythefifthgrade.Whenhewasnine,heoncetoldoneofhiscousins,“AskmeaquestioninLatinandIwillansweryouinGreek.”

OppenheimerwenttoHarvardandthenonto

CambridgeUniversitytopursueadoctorateinphysics.There,Oppenheimer,whostruggledwithdepressionhisentirelife,grewdespondent.Hisgiftwasfortheoreticalphysics,andhistutor,amannamedPatrickBlackett(whowouldwinaNobelPrizein1948),wasforcinghimtoattendtotheminutiaeofexperimentalphysics,whichhehated.Hegrewmoreand

moreemotionallyunstable,andthen,inanactsostrangethattothisdaynoonehasproperlymadesenseofit,Oppenheimertooksomechemicalsfromthelaboratoryandtriedtopoisonhistutor.

Blackett,luckily,foundoutthatsomethingwasamiss.Theuniversitywasinformed.Oppenheimerwascalledonthecarpet.Andwhathappenednextiseverybitas

unbelievableasthecrimeitself.HereishowtheincidentisdescribedinAmericanPrometheus,KaiBirdandMartinSherwin’sbiographyofOppenheimer:“Afterprotractednegotiations,itwasagreedthatRobertwouldbeputonprobationandhaveregularsessionswithaprominentHarleyStreetpsychiatristinLondon.”

Onprobation?Herewehavetwovery

brilliantyoungstudents,eachofwhomrunsintoaproblemthatimperilshiscollegecareer.Langan’smotherhasmissedadeadlineforhisfinancialaid.Oppenheimerhastriedtopoisonhistutor.Tocontinueon,theyarerequiredtopleadtheircasestoauthority.Andwhathappens?Langangetshis

scholarshiptakenaway,andOppenheimergetssenttoapsychiatrist.OppenheimerandLanganmightbothbegeniuses,butinotherways,theycouldnotbemoredifferent.

ThestoryofOppenheimer’sappointmenttobescientificdirectoroftheManhattanProjecttwentyyearslaterisperhapsanevenbetterexampleofthis

difference.ThegeneralinchargeoftheManhattanProjectwasLeslieGroves,andhescouredthecountry,tryingtofindtherightpersontoleadtheatomic-bombeffort.Oppenheimer,byrights,wasalongshot.Hewasjustthirty-eight,andjuniortomanyofthepeoplewhomhewouldhavetomanage.Hewasatheorist,andthiswasajobthatcalled

forexperimentersandengineers.Hispoliticalaffiliationsweredodgy:hehadallkindsoffriendswhowereCommunists.Perhapsmorestriking,hehadneverhadanyadministrativeexperience.“Hewasaveryimpracticalfellow,”oneofOppenheimer’sfriendslatersaid.“Hewalkedaboutwithscuffedshoesandafunnyhat,and,moreimportant,he

didn’tknowanythingaboutequipment.”AsoneBerkeleyscientistputit,moresuccinctly:“Hecouldn’trunahamburgerstand.”

Oh,andbytheway,ingraduateschoolhetriedtokillhistutor.Thiswastherésuméofthemanwhowastryingoutforwhatmightbesaidtobe—withoutexaggeration—oneofthemostimportantjobsofthe

twentiethcentury.Andwhathappened?ThesamethingthathappenedtwentyyearsearlieratCambridge:hegottherestoftheworldtoseethingshisway.

HereareBirdandSherwinagain:“OppenheimerunderstoodthatGrovesguardedtheentrancetotheManhattanProject,andhethereforeturnedonallhischarmandbrilliance.Itwas

anirresistibleperformance.”Groveswassmitten.“‘He’sagenius,’Groveslatertoldareporter.‘Arealgenius.’”GroveswasanengineerbytrainingwithagraduatedegreefromMIT,andOppenheimer’sgreatinsightwastoappealtothatsideofGroves.BirdandSherwingoon:“OppenheimerwasthefirstscientistGroveshadmetonhistour[ofpotential

candidates]whograspedthatbuildinganatomicbombrequiredfindingpracticalsolutionstoavarietyofcross-disciplinaryproblems….[Groves]foundhimselfnoddinginagreementwhenOppenheimerpitchedthenotionofacentrallaboratorydevotedtothispurpose,where,ashelatertestified,‘wecouldbegintocometogripswithchemical,

metallurgical,engineeringandordnanceproblemsthathadsofarreceivednoconsideration.’”

WouldOppenheimerhavelosthisscholarshipatReed?Wouldhehavebeenunabletoconvincehisprofessorstomovehisclassestotheafternoon?Ofcoursenot.Andthat’snotbecausehewassmarterthanChrisLangan.It’sbecausehe

possessedthekindofsavvythatallowedhimtogetwhathewantedfromtheworld.

“Theyrequiredthateveryonetakeintroductorycalculus,”LangansaidofhisbriefstayatMontanaState.“AndIhappenedtogetaguywhotaughtitinaverydry,verytrivialway.Ididn’tunderstandwhyhewasteachingitthisway.SoIaskedhimquestions.I

actuallyhadtochasehimdowntohisoffice.Iaskedhim,‘Whyareyouteachingthisway?Whydoyouconsiderthispracticetoberelevanttocalculus?’Andthisguy,thistall,lankyguy,alwayshadsweatstainsunderhisarms,heturnedandlookedatmeandsaid,‘Youknow,thereissomethingyoushouldprobablygetstraight.Somepeoplejustdon’thave

theintellectualfirepowertobemathematicians.’”

Theretheyare,theprofessorandtheprodigy,andwhattheprodigyclearlywantsistobeengaged,atlonglast,withamindthatlovesmathematicsasmuchashedoes.Buthefails.Infact—andthisisthemostheartbreakingpartofall—hemanagestohaveanentireconversationwithhiscalculus

professorwithoutevercommunicatingtheonefactmostlikelytoappealtoacalculusprofessor.TheprofessorneverrealizesthatChrisLanganisgoodatcalculus.

3.Theparticularskillthatallowsyoutotalkyourwayoutofamurderrap,or

convinceyourprofessortomoveyoufromthemorningtotheafternoonsection,iswhatthepsychologistRobertSternbergcalls“practicalintelligence.”ToSternberg,practicalintelligenceincludesthingslike“knowingwhattosaytowhom,knowingwhentosayit,andknowinghowtosayitformaximumeffect.”Itisprocedural:itisaboutknowinghowtodo

somethingwithoutnecessarilyknowingwhyyouknowitorbeingabletoexplainit.It’spracticalinnature:thatis,it’snotknowledgeforitsownsake.It’sknowledgethathelpsyoureadsituationscorrectlyandgetwhatyouwant.And,critically,itisakindofintelligenceseparatefromthesortofanalyticalabilitymeasuredbyIQ.Tousethe

technicalterm,generalintelligenceandpracticalintelligenceare“orthogonal”:thepresenceofonedoesn’timplythepresenceoftheother.Youcanhavelotsofanalyticalintelligenceandverylittlepracticalintelligence,orlotsofpracticalintelligenceandnotmuchanalyticalintelligence,or—asintheluckycaseofsomeonelikeRobert

Oppenheimer—youcanhavelotsofboth.

Sowheredoessomethinglikepracticalintelligencecomefrom?Weknowwhereanalyticalintelligencecomesfrom.It’ssomething,atleastinpart,that’sinyourgenes.ChrisLanganstartedtalkingatsixmonths.Hetaughthimselftoreadatthreeyearsofage.Hewasbornsmart.IQisameasure,tosome

degree,ofinnateability.*Butsocialsavvyisknowledge.It’sasetofskillsthathavetobelearned.Ithastocomefromsomewhere,andtheplacewhereweseemtogetthesekindsofattitudesandskillsisfromourfamilies.

PerhapsthebestexplanationwehaveofthisprocesscomesfromthesociologistAnnetteLareau,whoafewyearsago

conductedafascinatingstudyofagroupofthirdgraders.Shepickedbothblacksandwhitesandchildrenfrombothwealthyhomesandpoorhomes,zeroingin,ultimately,ontwelvefamilies.Lareauandherteamvisitedeachfamilyatleasttwentytimes,forhoursatastretch.Sheandherassistantstoldtheirsubjectstotreatthemlike“thefamilydog,”andthey

followedthemtochurchandtosoccergamesandtodoctor’sappointments,withataperecorderinonehandandanotebookintheother.

Youmightexpectthatifyouspentsuchanextendedperiodintwelvedifferenthouseholds,whatyouwouldgatheristwelvedifferentideasabouthowtoraisechildren:therewouldbethestrictparentsandthelax

parentsandthehyperinvolvedparentsandthemellowparentsandonandon.WhatLareaufound,however,issomethingmuchdifferent.Therewereonlytwoparenting“philosophies,”andtheydividedalmostperfectlyalongclasslines.Thewealthierparentsraisedtheirkidsoneway,andthepoorerparentsraisedtheirkidsanotherway.

Thewealthierparentswereheavilyinvolvedintheirchildren’sfreetime,shuttlingthemfromoneactivitytothenext,quizzingthemabouttheirteachersandcoachesandteammates.Oneofthewell-offchildrenLareaufollowedplayedonabaseballteam,twosoccerteams,aswimteam,andabasketballteaminthesummer,aswellasplayinginanorchestraand

takingpianolessons.Thatkindofintensive

schedulingwasalmostentirelyabsentfromthelivesofthepoorchildren.Playforthemwasn’tsoccerpracticetwiceaweek.Itwasmakingupgamesoutsidewiththeirsiblingsandotherkidsintheneighborhood.Whatachilddidwasconsideredbyhisorherparentsassomethingseparatefromtheadultworld

andnotparticularlyconsequential.Onegirlfromaworking-classfamily—KatieBrindle—sanginachoirafterschool.Butshesignedupforitherselfandwalkedtochoirpracticeonherown.Lareauwrites:

WhatMrs.Brindledoesn’tdothatisroutineformiddle-

classmothersisviewherdaughter’sinterestinsingingasasignaltolookforotherwaystohelpherdevelopthatinterestintoaformaltalent.SimilarlyMrs.BrindledoesnotdiscussKatie’sinterestindramaorexpressregretthatshecannotaffordtocultivateherdaughter’stalent.

InsteadsheframesKatie’sskillsandinterestsascharactertraits—singingandactingarepartofwhatmakesKatie“Katie.”Sheseestheshowsherdaughterputsonas“cute”andasawayforKatieto“getattention.”

Themiddle-classparentstalkedthingsthroughwiththeirchildren,reasoningwiththem.Theydidn’tjustissuecommands.Theyexpectedtheirchildrentotalkbacktothem,tonegotiate,toquestionadultsinpositionsofauthority.Iftheirchildrenweredoingpoorlyatschool,thewealthierparentschallengedtheirteachers.Theyintervenedonbehalfof

theirkids.OnechildLareaufollowsjustmissesqualifyingforagiftedprogram.Hermotherarrangesforhertoberetestedprivately,petitionstheschool,andgetsherdaughteradmitted.Thepoorparents,bycontrast,areintimidatedbyauthority.Theyreactpassivelyandstayinthebackground.Lareauwritesofonelow-incomeparent:

Ataparent-teacherconference,forexample,Ms.McAllister(whoisahighschoolgraduate)seemssubdued.Thegregariousandoutgoingnatureshedisplaysathomeishiddeninthissetting.Shesitshunchedoverinthechairandshekeepsherjacketzipped

up.Sheisveryquiet.WhentheteacherreportsthatHaroldhasnotbeenturninginhishomework,Ms.McAllisterclearlyisflabbergasted,butallshesaysis,“Hediditathome.”ShedoesnotfollowupwiththeteacherorattempttointerveneonHarold’sbehalf.Inherview,it

isuptotheteacherstomanageherson’seducation.Thatistheirjob,nothers.

Lareaucallsthemiddle-classparentingstyle“concertedcultivation.”It’sanattempttoactively“fosterandassessachild’stalents,opinionsandskills.”Poorparentstendtofollow,by

contrast,astrategyof“accomplishmentofnaturalgrowth.”Theyseeastheirresponsibilitytocarefortheirchildrenbuttoletthemgrowanddevelopontheirown.

Lareaustressesthatonestyleisn’tmorallybetterthantheother.Thepoorerchildrenwere,tohermind,oftenbetterbehaved,lesswhiny,morecreativeinmakinguseoftheirowntime,andhada

well-developedsenseofindependence.Butinpracticalterms,concertedcultivationhasenormousadvantages.Theheavilyscheduledmiddle-classchildisexposedtoaconstantlyshiftingsetofexperiences.Shelearnsteamworkandhowtocopeinhighlystructuredsettings.Sheistaughthowtointeractcomfortablywithadults,andtospeakupwhen

sheneedsto.InLareau’swords,themiddle-classchildrenlearnasenseof“entitlement.”

Thatword,ofcourse,hasnegativeconnotationsthesedays.ButLareaumeansitinthebestsenseoftheterm:“Theyactedasthoughtheyhadarighttopursuetheirownindividualpreferencesandtoactivelymanageinteractionsininstitutional

settings.Theyappearedcomfortableinthosesettings;theywereopentosharinginformationandaskingforattention….Itwascommonpracticeamongmiddle-classchildrentoshiftinteractionstosuittheirpreferences.”Theyknewtherules.“Eveninfourthgrade,middle-classchildrenappearedtobeactingontheirownbehalftogainadvantages.Theymade

specialrequestsofteachersanddoctorstoadjustprocedurestoaccommodatetheirdesires.”

Bycontrast,theworking-classandpoorchildrenwerecharacterizedby“anemergingsenseofdistance,distrust,andconstraint.”Theydidn’tknowhowtogettheirway,orhowto“customize”—usingLareau’swonderfulterm—whatever

environmenttheywerein,fortheirbestpurposes.

Inonetellingscene,LareaudescribesavisittothedoctorbyAlexWilliams,anine-year-oldboy,andhismother,Christina.TheWilliamsesarewealthyprofessionals.

“Alex,youshouldbethinkingofquestionsyoumightwanttoaskthedoctor,”Christinasaysinthe

caronthewaytothedoctor’soffice.“Youcanaskhimanythingyouwant.Don’tbeshy.Youcanaskanything.”

Alexthinksforaminute,thensays,“Ihavesomebumpsundermyarmsfrommydeodorant.”Christina:“Really?Youmeanfromyournewdeodorant?”Alex:“Yes.”Christina:“Well,youshouldaskthedoctor.”

Alex’smother,Lareau

writes,“isteachingthathehastherighttospeakup”—thateventhoughhe’sgoingtobeinaroomwithanolderpersonandauthorityfigure,it’sperfectlyallrightforhimtoasserthimself.Theymeetthedoctor,agenialmaninhisearlyforties.HetellsAlexthatheisintheninety-fifthpercentileinheight.Alextheninterrupts:

ALEX:I’minthewhat?DOCTOR:Itmeansthat

you’retallerthanmorethanninety-fiveoutofahundredyoungmenwhenthey’re,uh,tenyearsold.

ALEX:I’mnotten.DOCTOR:Well,they

graphedyouatten.You’re—nineyearsandtenmonths.They—theyusuallytakethe

closestyeartothatgraph.

LookathoweasilyAlexinterruptsthedoctor—“I’mnotten.”That’sentitlement:hismotherpermitsthatcasualincivilitybecauseshewantshimtolearntoasserthimselfwithpeopleinpositionsofauthority.

THEDOCTORTURNSTOALEX:Well,nowthemostimportantquestion.DoyouhaveanyquestionsyouwanttoaskmebeforeIdoyourphysical?

ALEX:Um…onlyone.I’vebeengettingsomebumpsonmyarms,rightaroundhere(indicatesunderarm).

DOCTOR:Underneath?

ALEX:Yeah.DOCTOR:Okay.I’llhave

totakealookatthosewhenIcomeinclosertodothecheckup.AndI’llseewhattheyareandwhatIcando.Dotheyhurtoritch?

ALEX:No,they’rejustthere.

DOCTOR:Okay,I’lltakealookatthosebumpsforyou.

Thiskindofinteractionsimplydoesn’thappenwithlower-classchildren,Lareausays.Theywouldbequietandsubmissive,witheyesturnedaway.Alextakeschargeofthemoment.“Inrememberingtoraisethequestionhepreparedinadvance,hegainsthedoctor’sfullattentionandfocusesitonanissueofhischoosing,”Lareauwrites.

Insodoing,hesuccessfullyshiftsthebalanceofpowerawayfromtheadultsandtowardhimself.Thetransitiongoessmoothly.Alexisusedtobeingtreatedwithrespect.Heisseenasspecialandasapersonworthyofadultattentionandinterest.Thesearekey

characteristicsofthestrategyofconcertedcultivation.Alexisnotshowingoffduringhischeckup.Heisbehavingmuchashedoeswithhisparents—hereasons,negotiates,andjokeswithequalease.

Itisimportantto

understandwheretheparticularmasteryofthatmomentcomesfrom.It’snotgenetic.AlexWilliamsdidn’tinherittheskillstointeractwithauthorityfiguresfromhisparentsandgrandparentsthewayheinheritedthecolorofhiseyes.Norisitracial:it’snotapracticespecifictoeitherblackorwhitepeople.Asitturnsout,AlexWilliamsisblackandKatieBrindleis

white.It’saculturaladvantage.Alexhasthoseskillsbecauseoverthecourseofhisyounglife,hismotherandfather—inthemannerofeducatedfamilies—havepainstakinglytaughtthemtohim,nudgingandproddingandencouragingandshowinghimtherulesofthegame,rightdowntothatlittlerehearsalinthecaronthewaytothedoctor’soffice.

Whenwetalkabouttheadvantagesofclass,Lareauargues,thisisinlargepartwhatwemean.AlexWilliamsisbetteroffthanKatieBrindlebecausehe’swealthierandbecausehegoestoabetterschool,butalsobecause—andperhapsthisisevenmorecritical—thesenseofentitlementthathehasbeentaughtisanattitudeperfectlysuitedtosucceeding

inthemodernworld.

4.ThisistheadvantagethatOppenheimerhadandthatChrisLanganlacked.OppenheimerwasraisedinoneofthewealthiestneighborhoodsinManhattan,thesonofanartistandasuccessfulgarmentmanufacturer.Hischildhood

wastheembodimentofconcertedcultivation.Onweekends,theOppenheimerswouldgodrivinginthecountrysideinachauffeur-drivenPackard.SummershewouldbetakentoEuropetoseehisgrandfather.HeattendedtheEthicalCultureSchoolonCentralParkWest,perhapsthemostprogressiveschoolinthenation,where,hisbiographerswrite,

studentswere“infusedwiththenotionthattheywerebeinggroomedtoreformtheworld.”Whenhismathteacherrealizedhewasbored,shesenthimofftodoindependentwork.

Asachild,Oppenheimerwaspassionateaboutrockcollecting.Attheageoftwelve,hebegancorrespondingwithlocalgeologistsaboutrock

formationshehadseeninCentralPark,andhesoimpressedthemthattheyinvitedhimtogivealecturebeforetheNewYorkMineralogicalClub.AsSherwinandBirdwrite,Oppenheimer’sparentsrespondedtotheirson’shobbyinanalmosttextbookexampleofconcertedcultivation:

Dreadingthethoughtofhavingtotalktoanaudienceofadults,Robertbeggedhisfathertoexplainthattheyhadinvitedatwelve-year-old.Greatlyamused,Juliusencouragedhissontoacceptthishonor.Onthedesignatedevening,Robertshowedupattheclubwithhis

parents,whoproudlyintroducedtheirsonasJ.RobertOppenheimer.Thestartledaudienceofgeologistsandamateurrockcollectorsburstoutlaughingwhenhesteppeduptothepodium:awoodenboxhadtobefoundforhimtostandonsothattheaudiencecouldsee

morethantheshockofhiswiryblackhairstickingupabovethelectern.Shyandawkward,Robertneverthelessreadhispreparedremarksandwasgivenaheartyroundofapplause.

IsitanywonderOppenheimerhandledthe

challengesofhislifesobrilliantly?Ifyouaresomeonewhosefatherhasmadehiswayupinthebusinessworld,thenyou’veseen,firsthand,whatitmeanstonegotiateyourwayoutofatightspot.Ifyou’resomeonewhowassenttotheEthicalCultureSchool,thenyouaren’tgoingtobeintimidatedbyarowofCambridgedonsarrayedinjudgmentagainst

you.IfyoustudiedphysicsatHarvard,thenyouknowhowtotalktoanarmygeneralwhodidengineeringjustdowntheroadatMIT.

ChrisLangan,bycontrast,hadonlythebleaknessofBozeman,andahomedominatedbyanangry,drunkenstepfather.“[Jack]Langandidthistoallofus,”saidMark.“Weallhaveatrueresentmentofauthority.”

ThatwasthelessonLanganlearnedfromhischildhood:distrustauthorityandbeindependent.Heneverhadaparentteachhimonthewaytothedoctorhowtospeakupforhimself,orhowtoreasonandnegotiatewiththoseinpositionsofauthority.Hedidn’tlearnentitlement.Helearnedconstraint.Itmayseemlikeasmallthing,butitwasacripplinghandicapin

navigatingtheworldbeyondBozeman.

“Icouldn’tgetanyfinancialaideither,”Markwenton.“Wejusthadzeroknowledge,lessthanzeroknowledge,oftheprocess.Howtoapply.Theforms.Checkbooks.Itwasnotourenvironment.”

“IfChristopherhadbeenbornintoawealthyfamily,ifhewasthesonofadoctor

whowaswellconnectedinsomemajormarket,Iguaranteeyouhewouldhavebeenoneofthoseguysyoureadabout,knockingbackPhDsatseventeen,”hisbrotherJeffsays.“It’sthecultureyoufindyourselfinthatdeterminesthat.TheissuewithChrisisthathewasalwaystooboredtoactuallysitthereandlistentohisteachers.Ifsomeonehad

recognizedhisintelligenceandifhewasfromafamilywheretherewassomekindofvalueoneducation,theywouldhavemadesurehewasn’tbored.”

5.WhentheTermiteswereintotheiradulthood,Termanlookedattherecordsof730ofthemenanddividedthem

intothreegroups.Onehundredandfifty—thetop20percent—fellintowhatTermancalledtheAgroup.Theywerethetruesuccessstories,thestars—thelawyersandphysiciansandengineersandacademics.NinetypercentoftheAsgraduatedfromcollegeandamongthemhadearned98graduatedegrees.Themiddle60percentweretheBgroup,

thosewhoweredoing“satisfactorily.”Thebottom150weretheCs,theoneswhoTermanjudgedtohavedonetheleastwiththeirsuperiormentalability.Theywerethepostalworkersandthestrugglingbookkeepersandthemenlyingontheircouchesathomewithoutanyjobatall.

OnethirdoftheCswerecollegedropouts.Aquarter

onlyhadahighschooldiploma,andall150oftheCs—eachoneofwhom,atonepointinhislife,hadbeendubbedagenius—hadtogetherearnedagrandtotalofeightgraduatedegrees.

WhatwasthedifferencebetweentheAsandtheCs?Termanranthrougheveryconceivableexplanation.Helookedattheirphysicalandmentalhealth,their

“masculinity-femininityscores,”andtheirhobbiesandvocationalinterests.HecomparedtheageswhentheystartedwalkingandtalkingandwhattheirpreciseIQscoreswereinelementaryandhighschool.Intheend,onlyonethingmattered:familybackground.

TheAsoverwhelminglycamefromthemiddleandtheupperclass.Theirhomes

werefilledwithbooks.HalfthefathersoftheAgrouphadacollegedegreeorbeyond,andthisatatimewhenauniversityeducationwasararity.TheCs,ontheotherhand,werefromtheothersideofthetracks.Almostathirdofthemhadaparentwhohaddroppedoutofschoolbeforetheeighthgrade.

Atonepoint,Termanhad

hisfieldworkersgoandvisiteveryonefromtheAandCgroupsandratetheirpersonalitiesandmanner.Whattheyfoundiseverythingyouwouldexpecttofindifyouwerecomparingchildrenraisedinanatmosphereofconcertedcultivationwithchildrenraisedinanatmosphereofnaturalgrowth.TheAswerejudgedtobemuchmorealert,

poised,attractive,andwelldressed.Infact,thescoresonthosefourdimensionsaresodifferentastomakeyouthinkyouarelookingattwodifferentspeciesofhumans.Youaren’t,ofcourse.You’resimplyseeingthedifferencebetweenthoseschooledbytheirfamiliestopresenttheirbestfacetotheworld,andthosedeniedthatexperience.

TheTermanresultsare

deeplydistressing.Let’snotforgethowhighlygiftedtheCgroupwas.Ifyouhadmetthematfiveorsixyearsofage,youwouldhavebeenoverwhelmedbytheircuriosityandmentalagilityandsparkle.Theyweretrueoutliers.TheplaintruthoftheTermanstudy,however,isthatintheendalmostnoneofthegeniuschildrenfromthelowestsocialandeconomic

classendedupmakinganameforthemselves.

WhatdidtheCslack,though?Notsomethingexpensiveorimpossibletofind;notsomethingencodedinDNAorhardwiredintothecircuitsoftheirbrains.Theylackedsomethingthatcouldhavebeengiventothemifwe’donlyknowntheyneededit:acommunityaroundthemthatpreparedthemproperly

fortheworld.TheCsweresquanderedtalent.Buttheydidn’tneedtobe.

6.Today,ChrisLanganlivesinruralMissourionahorsefarm.Hemovedthereafewyearsago,afterhegotmarried.Heisinhisfiftiesbutlooksmanyyearsyounger.Hehasthebuildofa

linebacker,thickthroughthechest,withenormousbiceps.Hishairiscombedstraightbackfromhisforehead.Hehasaneat,grayingmoustacheandaviator-styleglasses.Ifyoulookintohiseyes,youcanseetheintelligenceburningbehindthem.

“Atypicaldayis,Igetupandmakecoffee.Igoinandsitinfrontofthecomputerandbeginworkingon

whateverIwasworkingonthenightbefore,”hetoldmenotlongago.“IfoundifIgotobedwithaquestiononmymind,allIhavetodoisconcentrateonthequestionbeforeIgotosleepandIvirtuallyalwayshavetheanswerinthemorning.SometimesIrealizewhattheanswerisbecauseIdreamttheanswerandIcanrememberit.OthertimesI

justfeeltheanswer,andIstarttypingandtheansweremergesontothepage.”

HehadjustbeenreadingtheworkofthelinguistNoamChomsky.Therewerepilesofbooksinhisstudy.Heorderedbooksfromthelibraryallthetime.“Ialwaysfeelthatthecloseryougettotheoriginalsources,thebetteroffyouare,”hesaid.

Langanseemedcontent.

Hehadfarmanimalstotakecareof,andbookstoread,andawifeheloved.Itwasamuchbetterlifethanbeingabouncer.

“Idon’tthinkthereisanyonesmarterthanmeoutthere,”hewenton.“Ihavenevermetanybodylikemeorneverseenevenanindicationthatthereissomebodywhoactuallyhasbetterpowersofcomprehension.Neverseenit

andIdon’tthinkIamgoingto.Icould—mymindisopentothepossibility.Ifanyoneshouldchallengeme—‘Oh,IthinkthatIamsmarterthanyouare’—IthinkIcouldhavethem.”

Whathesaidsoundedboastful,butitwasn’treally.Itwastheopposite—atouchdefensive.He’dbeenworkingfordecadesnowonaprojectofenormoussophistication—

butalmostnoneofwhathehaddonehadeverbeenpublishedmuchlessreadbythephysicistsandphilosophersandmathematicianswhomightbeabletojudgeitsvalue.Herehewas,amanwithaone-in-a-millionmind,andhehadyettohaveanyimpactontheworld.Hewasn’tholdingforthatacademicconferences.Hewasn’t

leadingagraduateseminaratsomeprestigiousuniversity.HewaslivingonaslightlytumbledownhorsefarminnorthernMissouri,sittingonthebackporchinjeansandacutoffT-shirt.Heknewhowitlooked:itwasthegreatparadoxofChrisLangan’sgenius.

“IhavenotpursuedmainstreampublishersashardasIshouldhave,”he

conceded.“Goingaround,queryingpublishers,tryingtofindanagent.Ihaven’tdoneit,andIamnotinterestedindoingit.”

Itwasanadmissionofdefeat.Everyexperiencehehadhadoutsideofhisownmindhadendedinfrustration.Heknewheneededtodoabetterjobofnavigatingtheworld,buthedidn’tknowhow.Hecouldn’teventalkto

hiscalculusteacher,forgoodness’sake.Thesewerethingsthatothers,withlesserminds,couldmastereasily.Butthat’sbecausethoseothershadhadhelpalongtheway,andChrisLanganneverhad.Itwasn’tanexcuse.Itwasafact.He’dhadtomakehiswayalone,andnoone—notrockstars,notprofessionalathletes,notsoftwarebillionaires,andnot

evengeniuses—evermakesitalone.

CHAPTERFIVE

TheThreeLessonsofJoeFlom

“MARYGOTAQUARTER.”

JoeFlomisthelastliving“named”partnerofthelawfirmSkadden,Arps,Slate,MeagherandFlom.HehasacornerofficehighatoptheCondéNasttowerinManhattan.Heisshortandslightlyhunched.Hisheadislarge,framedbylongprominentears,andhisnarrowblueeyesarehiddenbyoversizeaviator-styleglasses.Heisslendernow,

butduringhisheyday,Flomwasextremelyoverweight.Hewaddleswhenhewalks.Hedoodleswhenhethinks.Hemumbleswhenhetalks,andwhenhemakeshiswaydownthehallsofSkadden,Arps,conversationsdroptoahush.

FlomgrewupintheDepressioninBrooklyn’sBoroughParkneighborhood.HisparentswereJewish

immigrantsfromEasternEurope.Hisfather,Isadore,wasaunionorganizerinthegarmentindustrywholaterwenttoworksewingshoulderpadsforladies’dresses.Hismotherworkedatwhatwascalledpiecework—doingappliquéathome.Theyweredesperatelypoor.Hisfamilymovednearlyeveryyearwhenhewasgrowingupbecausethecustominthose

dayswasforlandlordstogivenewtenantsamonth’sfreerent,andwithoutthat,hisfamilycouldnotgetby.

Injuniorhighschool,FlomtooktheentranceexamfortheeliteTownsendHarrispublichighschoolonLexingtonAvenueinManhattan,aschoolthatinjustfortyyearsofexistenceproducedthreeNobelPrizewinners,sixPulitzerPrize

winners,andoneSupremeCourtJustice,nottomentionGeorgeGershwinandJonasSalk,theinventorofthepoliovaccine.Hegotin.Hismotherwouldgivehimadimeinthemorningforbreakfast—threedonuts,orangejuice,andcoffeeatNedick’s.Afterschool,hepushedahandtruckinthegarmentdistrict.HedidtwoyearsofnightschoolatCity

CollegeinupperManhattan—workingduringthedaystomakeendsmeet—signedupforthearmy,servedhistime,andappliedtoHarvardLawSchool.

“IwantedtogetintothelawsinceIwassixyearsold,”Flomsays.Hedidn’thaveadegreefromcollege.Harvardtookhimanyway.“Why?IwrotethemaletteronwhyIwastheanswerto

slicedbread,”ishowFlomexplainsit,withcharacteristicbrevity.AtHarvard,inthelate1940s,henevertooknotes.“Allofusweregoingthroughthisfirstyearidiocyofwritingnotescarefullyintheclassroomanddoinganoutlineofthat,thenacondensationofthat,andthendoingitagainononionskinpaper,ontopofotherpaper,”remembersCharlesHaar,

whowasaclassmateofFlom’s.“Itwasaroutinizedwayoftryingtolearnthecases.NotJoe.Hewouldn’thaveanyofthat.Buthehadthatqualitywhichwealwaysvaguelysubsumedunder‘thinkinglikealawyer.’Hehadthegreatcapacityforjudgment.”

FlomwasnamedtotheLawReview—anhonorreservedfortheverytop

studentsintheclass.During“hiringseason,”theChristmasbreakofhissecondyear,hewentdowntoNewYorktointerviewwiththebigcorporatelawfirmsoftheday.“Iwasungainly,awkward,afatkid.Ididn’tfeelcomfortable,”Flomremembers.“Iwasoneoftwokidsinmyclassattheendofhiringseasonwhodidn’thaveajob.Thenoneday,oneof

myprofessorssaidthattherearetheseguysstartingafirm.Ihadavisitwiththem,andtheentiretimeImetwiththem,theyweretellingmewhattheriskswereofgoingwithafirmthatdidn’thaveaclient.Themoretheytalked,themoreIlikedthem.SoIsaid,Whatthehell,I’lltakeachance.Theyhadtoscrapetogetherthethirty-sixhundredayear,whichwas

thestartingsalary.”Inthebeginning,itwasjustMarshallSkadden,LeslieArps—bothofwhomhadjustbeenturneddownforpartneratamajorWallStreetlawfirm—andJohnSlate,whohadworkedforPanAmairlines.Flomwastheirassociate.TheyhadatinysuiteofofficesonthetopflooroftheLehmanBrothersBuildingonWallStreet.

“Whatkindoflawdidwedo?”Flomsays,laughing.“Whatevercameinthedoor!”

In1954,FlomtookoverasSkadden’smanagingpartner,andthefirmbegantogrowbyleapsandbounds.Soonithadonehundredlawyers.Thentwohundred.Whenithitthreehundred,oneofFlom’spartners—MorrisKramer—cametohimandsaidthathefeltguilty

aboutbringinginyounglawschoolgraduates.Skaddenwassobig,Kramersaid,thatitwashardtoimaginethefirmgrowingbeyondthatandbeingabletopromoteanyofthosehires.Flomtoldhim,“Ahhh,we’llgotoonethousand.”Flomneverlackedforambition.

TodaySkadden,Arpshasnearlytwothousandattorneysintwenty-threeofficesaround

theworldandearnswellover$1billionayear,makingitoneofthelargestandmostpowerfullawfirmsintheworld.Inhisoffice,FlomhaspicturesofhimselfwithGeorgeBushSr.andBillClinton.HelivesinasprawlingapartmentinaluxuriousbuildingonManhattan’sUpperEastSide.Foraperiodofalmostthirtyyears,ifyouwereaFortune

500companyabouttobetakenoverortryingtotakeoversomeoneelse,ormerelyabigshotinsomekindoffix,JosephFlomhasbeenyourattorneyandSkadden,Arpshasbeenyourlawfirm—andiftheyweren’t,youprobablywishedtheywere.

2.Ihopebynowthatyouare

skepticalofthiskindofstory.BrilliantimmigrantkidovercomespovertyandtheDepression,can’tgetajobatthestuffydowntownlawfirms,makesitonhisownthroughsheerhustleandability.It’sarags-to-richesstory,andeverythingwe’velearnedsofarfromhockeyplayersandsoftwarebillionairesandtheTermitessuggeststhatsuccessdoesn’t

happenthatway.Successfulpeopledon’tdoitalone.Wheretheycomefrommatters.They’reproductsofparticularplacesandenvironments.

Justaswedid,then,withBillJoyandChrisLangan,let’sstartoverwithJosephFlom,thistimeputtingtouseeverythingwe’velearnedfromthefirstfourchaptersofthisbook.Nomoretalkof

JoeFlom’sintelligence,orpersonality,orambition,thoughheobviouslyhasthesethreethingsinabundance.Noglowingquotationsfromhisclients,testifyingtohisgenius.NomorecolorfultalesfromthemeteoricriseofSkadden,Arps,Slate,MeagherandFlom.

Instead,I’mgoingtotellaseriesofstoriesfromtheNewYorkimmigrantworldthat

JoeFlomgrewupin—ofafellowlawstudent,afatherandsonnamedMauriceandMortJanklow,andanextraordinarycouplebythenameofLouisandReginaBorgenicht—inthehopesofansweringacriticalquestion.WhatwereJoeFlom’sopportunities?Sinceweknowthatoutliersalwayshavehelpalongtheway,canwesortthroughtheecologyofJoe

Flomandidentifytheconditionsthathelpedcreatehim?

Wetellrags-to-richesstoriesbecausewefindsomethingcaptivatingintheideaofaloneherobattlingoverwhelmingodds.ButthetruestoryofJoeFlom’slifeturnsouttobemuchmoreintriguingthanthemythologicalversionbecauseallthethingsinhislifethat

seemtohavebeendisadvantages—thathewasapoorchildofgarmentworkers;thathewasJewishatatimewhenJewswereheavilydiscriminatedagainst;thathegrewupintheDepression—turnout,unexpectedly,tohavebeenadvantages.JoeFlomisanoutlier.Buthe’snotanoutlierforthereasonsyoumightthink,andthestoryofhisrise

providesablueprintforunderstandingsuccessinhisprofession.Bytheendofthechapter,infact,we’llseethatitispossibletotakethelessonsofJoeFlom,applythemtothelegalworldofNewYorkCity,andpredictthefamilybackground,age,andoriginofthecity’smostpowerfulattorneys,withoutknowingasingleadditionalfactaboutthem.Butwe’re

gettingaheadofourselves.

LessonNumberOne:TheImportanceofBeingJewish

3.OneofJoeFlom’sclassmatesatHarvardLawSchoolwasamannamedAlexanderBickel.LikeFlom,BickelwasthesonofEasternEuropeanJewishimmigrants

wholivedintheBronx.LikeFlom,BickelhadgonetopublicschoolinNewYorkandthentoCityCollege.LikeFlom,Bickelwasastarinhislawschoolclass.Infact,beforehiscareerwascutshortbycancer,Bickelwouldbecomeperhapsthefinestconstitutionalscholarofhisgeneration.AndlikeFlomandtherestoftheirlawschoolclassmates,Bickel

wenttoManhattanduring“hiringseason”overChristmasof1947tofindhimselfajob.

HisfirststopwasatMudgeRose,downonWallStreet,astraditionalandstuffyasanyfirmofthatera.MudgeRosewasfoundedin1869.ItwaswhereRichardNixonpracticedintheyearsbeforehewonthepresidencyin1968.“We’relikethelady

whoonlywantshernameinthenewspapertwice—whenshe’sbornandwhenshedies,”oneoftheseniorpartnersfamouslysaid.Bickelwastakenaroundthefirmandinterviewedbyonepartnerafteranother,untilhewasledintothelibrarytomeetwiththefirm’sseniorpartner.Youcanimaginethescene:adark-paneledroom,anartfullyfrayedPersian

carpet,rowuponrowofleather-boundlegalvolumes,oilpaintingsofMr.MudgeandMr.Roseonthewall.

“Aftertheyputmethroughthewholeinterviewandeverything,”Bickelsaidmanyyearslater,“Iwasbroughtto[theseniorpartner],whotookituponhimselftotellmethatforaboyofmyantecedents”—andyoucanimaginehowBickel

musthavepausedbeforerepeatingthateuphemismforhisimmigrantbackground—“Icertainlyhadcomefar.ButIoughttounderstandhowlimitedthepossibilitiesofafirmlikehisweretohireaboyofmyantecedents.Andwhilehecongratulatedmeonmyprogress,Ishouldunderstandhecertainlycouldn’toffermeajob.Buttheyallenjoyedseeingme

andallthat.”Itisclearfromthe

transcriptofBickel’sreminiscencesthathisinterviewerdoesnotquiteknowwhattodowiththatinformation.Bickelwasbythetimeoftheinterviewattheheightofhisreputation.HehadarguedacasebeforetheSupremeCourt.Hehadwrittenbrilliantbooks.MudgeRosesayingnoto

Bickelbecauseofhis“antecedents”wasliketheChicagoBullsturningdownMichaelJordanbecausetheywereuncomfortablewithblackkidsfromNorthCarolina.Itdidn’tmakeanysense.

“Butforstars?”theinterviewerasked,meaning,Wouldn’ttheyhavemadeanexceptionforyou?

Bickel:“Stars,

schmars…”Inthe1940sand1950s,

theold-linelawfirmsofNewYorkoperatedlikeaprivateclub.TheywereallheadquarteredindowntownManhattan,inandaroundWallStreet,insomber,granite-facedbuildings.ThepartnersatthetopfirmsgraduatedfromthesameIvyLeagueschools,attendedthesamechurches,and

summeredinthesameoceansidetownsonLongIsland.Theyworeconservativegraysuits.Theirpartnershipswereknownas“white-shoe”firms—inapparentreferencetothewhitebucksfavoredatthecountrycluboracocktailparty,andtheywereveryparticularinwhomtheyhired.AsErwinSmigelwroteinTheWallStreetLawyer,

hisstudyoftheNewYorklegalestablishmentofthatera,theywerelookingfor:

lawyerswhoareNordic,havepleasingpersonalitiesand“clean-cut”appearances,aregraduatesofthe“rightschools,”havethe“right”social

backgroundandexperienceintheaffairsoftheworld,andareendowedwithtremendousstamina.Aformerlawschooldean,indiscussingthequalitiesstudentsneedtoobtainajob,offersasomewhatmorerealisticpicture:“Togetajob[students]shouldbelongenough

onfamilyconnections,longenoughonabilityorlongenoughonpersonality,oracombinationofthese.Somethingcalledacceptabilityismadeupofthesumofitsparts.Ifamanhasanyofthesethings,hecouldgetajob.Ifhehastwoofthem,hecanhaveachoiceof

jobs;ifhehasthree,hecouldgoanywhere.”

Bickel’shairwasnotfair.Hiseyeswerenotblue.Hespokewithanaccent,andhisfamilyconnectionsconsisted,principally,ofbeingthesonofSolomonandYettaBickelofBucharest,Romania,byway,mostrecently,ofBrooklyn.Flom’scredentials

werenobetter.Hesayshefelt“uncomfortable”whenhewentforhisinterviewsdowntown,andofcoursehedid:hewasshortandungainlyandJewishandtalkedwiththeflat,nasaltonesofhisnativeBrooklyn,andyoucanimaginehowhewouldhavebeenperceivedbysomesilver-hairedpatricianinthelibrary.Ifyouwerenotoftheright

backgroundandreligionandsocialclassandyoucameoutoflawschoolinthatera,youjoinedsomesmaller,second-rate,upstartlawfirmonarungbelowthebignamesdowntown,oryousimplywentintobusinessforyourselfandtook“whatevercameinthedoor”—thatis,whateverlegalworkthebigdowntownfirmsdidnotwantforthemselves.Thatseems

horriblyunfair,anditwas.Butasissooftenthecasewithoutliers,buriedinthatsetbackwasagoldenopportunity.

4.Theold-lineWallStreetlawfirmshadaveryspecificideaaboutwhatitwasthattheydid.Theywerecorporatelawyers.Theyrepresentedthe

country’slargestandmostprestigiouscompanies,and“represented”meanttheyhandledthetaxesandthelegalworkbehindtheissuingofstocksandbondsandmadesuretheirclientsdidnotrunafouloffederalregulators.Theydidnotdolitigation;thatis,veryfewofthemhadadivisiondedicatedtodefendingandfilinglawsuits.AsPaulCravath,oneofthe

foundersofCravath,SwaineandMoore,theverywhitestofthewhite-shoefirms,onceputit,thelawyer’sjobwastosettledisputesintheconferenceroom,notinthecourtroom.“AmongmyclassmatesatHarvard,thethingthatbrightyoungguysdidwassecuritiesworkortax,”anotherwhite-shoepartnerremembers.“Thosewerethedistinguishedfields.

Litigationwasforhams,notforseriouspeople.Corporationsjustdidn’tsueeachotherinthosedays.”

Whattheold-linefirmsalsodidnotdowasinvolvethemselvesinhostilecorporatetakeovers.It’shardtoimaginetoday,whencorporateraidersandprivate-equityfirmsareconstantlyswallowinguponecompanyafteranother,butuntilthe

1970s,itwasconsideredscandalousforonecompanytobuyanothercompanywithoutthetargetagreeingtobebought.PlaceslikeMudgeRoseandtheotherestablishmentfirmsonWallStreetwouldnottouchthosekindsofdeals.

“Theproblemwithhostiletakeoversisthattheywerehostile,”saysStevenBrill,whofoundedthetrade

magazineAmericanLawyer.“Itwasn’tgentlemanly.IfyourbestbuddyfromPrincetonistheCEOofCompanyX,andhe’sbeencoastingforalongtime,andsomecorporateraidershowsupandsaysthiscompanysucks,itmakesyouuncomfortable.Youthink,Ifhegoes,thenmaybeIgotoo.It’sthiswholenotionofnotupsettingthebasiccalmand

stableorderofthings.”*Theworkthat“camein

thedoor”tothegenerationofJewishlawyersfromtheBronxandBrooklyninthe1950sand1960s,then,wastheworkthewhite-shoefirmsdisdained:litigationand,moreimportant,“proxyfights,”whichwerethelegalmaneuversatthecenterofanyhostile-takeoverbid.Aninvestorwouldtakean

interestinacompany;hewoulddenouncethemanagementasincompetentandsendletterstoshareholders,tryingtogetthemtogivehimtheir“proxy”sohecouldvoteoutthefirm’sexecutives.Andtoruntheproxyfight,theonlylawyertheinvestorcouldgetwassomeonelikeJoeFlom.

InSkadden,thelegalhistorianLincolnCaplan

describesthatearlyworldoftakeovers:

Thewinnerofaproxycontestwasdeterminedinthesnakepit.(Officially,itwascalledthecountingroom.)Lawyersforeachsidemetwithinspectorsofelections,whosejobitwasto

approveoreliminatequestionableproxies.Theeventwasofteninformal,contentiousandunruly.AdversariesweresometimesinT-shirts,eatingwatermelonorsharingabottleofscotch.Inrarecases,theresultsofthesnakepitcouldswingtheoutcomeofacontest

andturnonasingleballot.

Lawyersoccasionallytriedtofixanelectionbyengineeringtheappointmentofinspectorswhowerebeholdentothem;inspectorscommonlysmokedcigarsprovidedbyeachside.Management’slawyer

wouldcontesttheproxiesoftheinsurgents(“Ichallengethis!”)andviceversa….Lawyerswhoprevailedinthesnakepitexcelledatwingingit.Therewerelawyerswhoknewmoreabouttherulesofproxycontests,butnoonewasbetterinafightthanJoeFlom…

Flomwasfat(ahundredpoundsoverweightthen,onelawyersaid…),physicallyunattractive(toapartner,heresembledafrog),andindifferenttosocialniceties(hewouldfartinpublicorjabacigarclosetothefaceofsomeonehewastalkingto,without

apology).Butinthejudgmentofcolleaguesandofsomeadversaries,hiswilltowinwasunsurpassedandhewasoftenmasterful.

Thewhite-shoelawfirmswouldcallinFlomaswellwheneversomecorporateraidermadearunatoneof

theirestablishmentclients.Theywouldn’ttouchthecase.ButtheywerehappytooutsourceittoSkadden,Arps.“Flom’searlyspecialtywasproxyfights,andthatwasnotwhatwedid,justlikewedon’tdomatrimonialwork,”saidRobertRifkind,alongtimepartneratCravath,SwaineandMoore.“Andthereforewepurportednottoknowaboutit.Iremember

oncewehadanissueinvolvingaproxyfight,andoneofmyseniorcorporatepartnerssaid,Well,let’sgetJoein.Andhecametoaconferenceroom,andweallsataroundanddescribedtheproblemandhetolduswhattodoandheleft.AndIsaid,‘Wecandothattoo,youknow.’Andthepartnersaid,‘No,no,no,youcan’t.We’renotgoingtodothat.’Itwas

justthatwedidn’tdoit.”Thencamethe1970s.The

oldaversiontolawsuitsfellbythewayside.Itbecameeasiertoborrowmoney.Federalregulationswererelaxed.Marketsbecameinternationalized.Investorsbecamemoreaggressive,andtheresultwasaboominthenumberandsizeofcorporatetakeovers.“Innineteeneighty,ifyouwenttothe

BusinessRoundtable[theassociationofmajorAmericancorporateexecutives]andtooksurveysaboutwhetherhostiletakeoversshouldbeallowed,two-thirdswouldhavesaidno,”Flomsaid.“Now,thevotewouldbealmostunanimouslyyes.”Companiesneededtobedefendedagainstlawsuitsfromrivals.Hostilesuitors

neededtobebeatenback.Investorswhowantedtodevourunwillingtargetsneededhelpwiththeirlegalstrategy,andshareholdersneededformalrepresentation.Thedollarfiguresinvolvedwereenormous.Fromthemid-1970stotheendofthe1980s,theamountofmoneyinvolvedinmergersandacquisitionseveryyearonWallStreetincreased2,000

percent,peakingatalmostaquarterofatrilliondollars.

Allofasuddenthethingsthattheold-linelawfirmsdidn’twanttodo—hostiletakeoversandlitigation—werethethingsthateverylawfirmwantedtodo.Andwhowastheexpertinthesetwosuddenlycriticalareasoflaw?Theoncemarginal,second-tierlawfirmsstartedbythepeoplewhocouldn’t

getjobsatthedowntownfirmstenandfifteenyearsearlier.

“[Thewhite-shoefirms]thoughthostiletakeoverswerebeneathcontemptuntilrelativelylateinthegame,anduntiltheydecidedthat,hey,maybeweoughttobeinthatbusiness,theyleftmealone,”Flomsaid.“Andonceyougetthereputationfordoingthatkindofwork,the

businesscomestoyoufirst.”Thinkofhowsimilarthis

istothestoriesofBillJoyandBillGates.Bothofthemtoiledawayinarelativelyobscurefieldwithoutanygreathopesforworldlysuccess.Butthen—boom!—thepersonalcomputerrevolutionhappened,andtheyhadtheirtenthousandhoursin.Theywereready.Flomhadthesame

experience.FortwentyyearsheperfectedhiscraftatSkadden,Arps.Thentheworldchangedandhewasready.Hedidn’ttriumphoveradversity.Instead,whatstartedoutasadversityendedupbeinganopportunity.

“It’snotthatthoseguysweresmarterlawyersthananyoneelse,”Rifkindsays.“It’sthattheyhadaskillthattheyhadbeenworkingonfor

yearsthatwassuddenlyveryvaluable.”*

LessonNumberTwo:DemographicLuck

5.MauriceJanklowenrolledinBrooklynLawSchoolin1919.HewastheeldestsonofJewishimmigrantsfromRomania.Hehadseven

brothersandsisters.OneendeduprunningasmalldepartmentstoreinBrooklyn.Twootherswereinthehaberdasherybusiness,onehadagraphicdesignstudio,anothermadefeatherhats,andanotherworkedinthefinancedepartmentatTishmanRealty.

Maurice,however,wasthefamilyintellectual,theonlyonetogotocollege.He

gothislawdegreeandsetupapracticeonCourtStreetindowntownBrooklyn.HewasanelegantmanwhodressedinahomburgandBrooksBrotherssuits.Inthesummer,heworeastrawboater.HemarriedtheverybeautifulLillianLevantin,whowasthedaughterofaprominentTalmudist.Hedroveabigcar.HemovedtoQueens.Heandapartnerthentookovera

writing-paperbusinessthatgaveeveryindicationofmakingafortune.

Herewasamanwholooked,foralltheworld,likethekindofpersonwhoshouldthriveasalawyerinNewYorkCity.Hewasintelligentandeducated.Hecamefromafamilywellschooledintherulesofthesystem.Hewaslivinginthemosteconomicallyvibrant

cityintheworld.Buthereisthestrangething:itneverhappened.MauriceJanklow’scareerdidnottakeoffthewaythathe’dhoped.Inhismind,heneverreallymadeitbeyondCourtStreetinBrooklyn.Hestruggledandfloundered.

MauriceJanklowhadasonnamedMort,however,whobecamealawyeraswell,andtheson’sstoryisvery

differentfromthatofthefather.MortJanklowbuiltalawfirmfromscratchinthe1960s,thenputtogetheroneoftheveryearliestcabletelevisionfranchisesandsolditforafortunetoCoxBroadcasting.Hestartedaliteraryagencyinthe1970s,anditistodayoneofthemostprestigiousintheworld.*Hehashisownplane.Everydreamthateludedthefather

wasfulfilledbytheson.WhydidMortJanklow

succeedwhereMauriceJanklowdidnot?Thereare,ofcourse,ahundredpotentialanswerstothatquestion.Butlet’stakeapagefromtheanalysisofthebusinesstycoonsborninthe1830sandthesoftwareprogrammersbornin1955andlookatthedifferencesbetweenthetwoJanklowsintermsoftheir

generation.IsthereaperfecttimeforaNewYorkJewishlawyertobeborn?Itturnsoutthereis,andthissamefactthathelpsexplainMortJanklow’ssuccessisthesecondkeytoJoeFlom’ssuccessaswell.

6.LewisTerman’sgeniusstudy,asyouwillrecallfromthe

chapteraboutChrisLangan,wasaninvestigationintohowsomechildrenwithreallyhighIQswhowerebornbetween1903and1917turnedoutasadults.Andthestudyfoundthattherewasagroupofrealsuccessesandtherewasagroupofrealfailures,andthatthesuccesseswerefarmorelikelytohavecomefromwealthierfamilies.Inthat

sense,theTermanstudyunderscorestheargumentAnnetteLareaumakes,thatwhatyourparentsdoforaliving,andtheassumptionsthataccompanytheclassyourparentsbelongto,matter.

There’sanotherwaytobreakdowntheTermanresults,though,andthat’sbywhentheTermiteswereborn.IfyoudividetheTermitesintotwogroups,withthose

bornbetween1903and1911ononeside,andthosebetween1912and1917ontheother,itturnsoutthattheTermanfailuresarefarmorelikelytohavebeenbornintheearliergroup.

Theexplanationhastodowithtwoofthegreatcataclysmiceventsofthetwentiethcentury:theGreatDepressionandWorldWarII.Ifyouwerebornafter

1912—say,in1915—yougotoutofcollegeaftertheworstoftheDepressionwasover,andyouweredraftedatayoungenoughagethatgoingawaytowarforthreeorfouryearswasasmuchanopportunityasitwasadisruption(providedyouweren’tkilled,ofcourse).

TheTermitesbornbefore1911,though,graduatedfromcollegeattheheightofthe

Depression,whenjobopportunitieswerescarce,andtheywerealreadyintheirlatethirtieswhentheSecondWorldWarhit,meaningthatwhentheyweredrafted,theyhadtodisruptcareersandfamiliesandadultlivesthatwerealreadywellunderway.Tohavebeenbornbefore1911istohavebeendemographicallyunlucky.Themostdevastatingevents

ofthetwentiethcenturyhityouatexactlythewrongtime.

ThissamedemographiclogicappliestoJewishlawyersinNewYorklikeMauriceJanklow.Thedoorswereclosedtothematthebigdowntownlawfirms.Sotheywereoverwhelminglysolopractitioners,handlingwillsanddivorcesandcontractsandminordisputes,andinthe

Depressiontheworkofthesolopractitionerallbutdisappeared.“NearlyhalfofthemembersofthemetropolitanbarearnedlessthantheminimumsubsistencelevelforAmericanfamilies,”JeroldAuerbachwritesoftheDepressionyearsinNewYork.“Oneyearlater1,500lawyerswerepreparedtotakethepauper’soathtoqualify

forworkrelief.Jewishlawyers(approximatelyone-halfofthemetropolitanbar)discoveredthattheirpracticehadbecomea‘dignifiedroadtostarvation.’”Regardlessofthenumberofyearstheyhadspentinpractice,theirincomewas“strikinglyless”thanthatoftheirChristiancolleagues.MauriceJanklowwasbornin1902.WhentheDepressionstarted,hewasnewlymarried

andhadjustboughthisbigcar,movedtoQueens,andmadehisgreatgambleonthewriting-paperbusiness.Histimingcouldnothavebeenworse.

“Hewasgoingtomakeafortune,”MortJanklowsaysofhisfather.“ButtheDepressionkilledhimeconomically.Hedidn’thaveanyreserves,andhehadnofamilytofallbackon.And

fromthenon,hebecameverymuchascrivener-typelawyer.Hedidn’thavethecouragetotakerisksafterthat.Itwastoomuchforhim.Myfatherusedtoclosetitlesfortwenty-fivedollars.HehadafriendwhoworkedattheJamaicaSavingsBankwhowouldthrowhimsomebusiness.Hewouldkillhimselffortwenty-fivebucks,doingthewhole

closing,titlereports.Fortwenty-fivebucks!

“Icanremembermyfatherandmotherinthemorning,”Janklowcontinued.“Hewouldsaytoher,‘Igotadollarseventy-five.Ineedtencentsforthebus,tencentsforthesubway,aquarterforasandwich,’andhewouldgivehertherest.Theywerethatclosetotheedge.”

7.Nowcontrastthatexperiencewiththeexperienceofsomeonewho,likeMortJanklow,wasborninthe1930s.

Takealookatthefollowingchart,whichshowsthebirthratesintheUnitedStatesfrom1910to1950.In1915,therearealmostthreemillionbabies.In1935,that

numberdropsbyalmostsixhundredthousand,andthen,withinadecadeandahalf,thenumberisbackoverthreemillionagain.Toputitinmorepreciseterms,foreverythousandAmericans,therewere29.5babiesbornin1915;18.7babiesbornin1935;and24.1babiesbornin1950.Thedecadeofthe1930siswhatiscalleda“demographictrough.”In

responsetotheeconomichardshipoftheDepression,familiessimplystoppedhavingchildren,andasaresult,thegenerationbornduringthatdecadewasmarkedlysmallerthanboththegenerationthatprecededitandthegenerationthatimmediatelyfollowedit.

Year TotalBirths

1910 2,777,000

1915 2,965,0001920 2,950,0001925 2,909,0001930 2,618,0001935 2,377,0001940 2,559,0001945 2,858,0001950 3,632,000

HereiswhattheeconomistH.ScottGordononcewroteabouttheparticularbenefitsofbeingoneofthosepeopleborninasmallgeneration:

Whenheopenshiseyesforthefirsttime,itisinaspacioushospital,well-appointedtoservethewavethatprecededhim.Thestaffisgenerouswiththeirtime,sincetheyhavelittletodowhiletheyrideoutthebriefperiodofcalmuntilthenextwavehits.When

hecomestoschoolage,themagnificentbuildingsarealreadytheretoreceivehim;theamplestaffofteacherswelcomeshimwithopenarms.Inhighschool,thebasketballteamisnotasgoodasitwasbutthereisnoproblemgettingtimeonthegymnasiumfloor.The

universityisadelightfulplace;lotsofroomintheclassesandresidences,nocrowdinginthecafeteria,andtheprofessorsaresolicitous.Thenhehitsthejobmarket.Thesupplyofnewentrantsislow,andthedemandishigh,becausethereisalargewavecoming

behindhimprovidingastrongdemandforthegoodsandservicesofhispotentialemployers.

InNewYorkCity,theearly1930scohortwassosmallthatclasssizeswereatleasthalfofwhattheyhadbeentwenty-fiveyearsearlier.Theschoolswere

new,builtforthebiggenerationthathadcomebefore,andtheteachershadwhatintheDepressionwasconsideredahigh-statusjob.

“TheNewYorkCitypublicschoolsofthe1940swereconsideredthebestschoolsinthecountry,”saysDianeRavitch,aprofessoratNewYorkUniversitywhohaswrittenwidelyonthecity’seducationalhistory.

“Therewasthisgenerationofeducatorsinthethirtiesandfortieswhowouldhavebeeninanothertimeandplacecollegeprofessors.Theywerebrilliant,buttheycouldn’tgetthejobstheywanted,andpublicteachingwaswhattheydidbecauseitwassecurityandithadapensionandyoudidn’tgetlaidoff.”

Thesamedynamicbenefitedthemembersofthat

generationwhentheywentofftocollege.HereisTedFriedman,oneofthetoplitigatorsinNewYorkinthe1970sand1980s.LikeFlom,hegrewuppoor,thechildofstrugglingJewishimmigrants.

“MyoptionswereCityCollegeandtheUniversityofMichigan,”Friedmansaid.CityCollegewasfree,andMichigan—then,asnow,oneofthetopuniversitiesinthe

UnitedStates—was$450ayear.“Andthethingwas,afterthefirstyear,youcouldgetascholarshipifyourgradeswerehigh,”Friedmansaid.“SoitwasonlythefirstyearIhadtopaythat,ifIdidwell.”Friedman’sfirstinclinationwastostayinNewYork.“Well,IwenttoCityCollegeforoneday,Ididn’tlikeit.Ithought,Thisisgoingtobefourmoreyears

ofBronxScience[thehighschoolhehadattended],andcamehome,packedmybags,andhitchhikedtoAnnArbor.”Hewenton:

Ihadacoupleofhundreddollarsinmypocketfromthesummer.IwasworkingtheCatskillstomakeenoughmoney

topaythefour-hundred-fifty-dollartuition,andIhadsomeleftover.ThentherewasthisfancyrestaurantinAnnArborwhereIgotajobwaitingtables.IalsoworkedthenightshiftatRiverRouge,thebigFordplant.Thatwasrealmoney.Itwasn’tsohardtogetthatjob.

Thefactorieswerelookingforpeople.Ihadanotherjobtoo,whichpaidmethebestpayIeverhadbeforeIbecamealawyer,whichwasworkinginconstruction.Duringthesummer,inAnnArbor,webuilttheChryslerprovinggrounds.Iworkedthereafewsummers

duringlawschool.Thosejobswerereallyhighpaying,probablybecauseyouworkedsomuchovertime.

Thinkaboutthisstoryforamoment.ThefirstlessonisthatFriedmanwaswillingtoworkhard,takeresponsibilityforhimself,andputhimselfthroughschool.Butthe

second,perhapsmoreimportantlessonisthathehappenedtocomealongatatimeinAmericawhenifyouwerewillingtoworkhard,youcouldtakeresponsibilityforyourselfandputyourselfthroughschool.Friedmanwas,atthetime,whatwewouldtodaycall“economicallydisadvantaged.”Hewasaninner-citykidfromtheBronx,

neitherofwhoseparentswenttocollege.Butlookathoweasyitwasforhimtogetagoodeducation.HegraduatedfromhispublichighschoolinNewYorkatatimewhenNewYorkCitypublicschoolsweretheenvyoftheworld.Hisfirstoption,CityCollege,wasfree,andhissecondoption,theUniversityofMichigan,costjust$450—andtheadmissionsprocess

wascasualenough,apparently,thathecouldtryoneschoolonedayandtheotherthenext.

Andhowdidhegetthere?Hehitchhiked,withthemoneythathemadeinthesummerinhispocket,andwhenhearrived,heimmediatelygotaseriesofreallygoodjobstohelppayhisway,becausethefactorieswere“lookingforpeople.”

Andofcoursetheywere:theyhadtofeedtheneedsofthebiggenerationjustaheadofthoseborninthedemographictroughofthe1930s,andthebiggenerationofbabyboomerscomingupbehindthem.Thesenseofpossibilitysonecessaryforsuccesscomesnotjustfrominsideusorfromourparents.Itcomesfromourtime:fromtheparticularopportunities

thatourparticularplaceinhistorypresentsuswith.Forayoungwould-belawyer,beingbornintheearly1930swasamagictime,justasbeingbornin1955wasforasoftwareprogrammer,orbeingbornin1835wasforanentrepreneur.

Today,MortJanklowhasanofficehighaboveParkAvenuefilledwithgorgeousworksofmodernart—a

Dubuffet,anAnselmKiefer.Hetellshilariousstories.(“Mymotherhadtwosisters.Onelivedtobeninety-nineandtheotherdiedatninety.Theninety-nine-year-oldwasasmartwoman.ShemarriedmyUncleAl,whowasthechiefofsalesforMaidenform.OnceIsaidtohim,‘What’stherestofthecountrylike,UncleAl?’Andhesaid,‘Kiddo.Whenyou

leaveNewYork,everyplaceisBridgeport.’”)Hegivesthesensethattheworldishisforthetaking.“I’vealwaysbeenabigrisktaker,”hesays.“WhenIbuiltthecablecompany,intheearlystages,IwasmakingdealswhereIwouldhavebeenbankruptifIhadn’tpulleditoff.IhadconfidencethatIcouldmakeitwork.”

MortJanklowwentto

NewYorkCitypublicschoolswhentheywereattheirbest.MauriceJanklowwenttoNewYorkCitypublicschoolswhentheywereattheirmostovercrowded.MortJanklowwenttoColumbiaUniversityLawSchool,becausedemographictroughbabieshavetheirpickofselectiveschools.MauriceJanklowwenttoBrooklynLaw

School,whichwasasgoodasanimmigrantchildcoulddoin1919.MortJanklowsoldhiscablebusinessfortensofmillionsofdollars.MauriceJanklowclosedtitlesfortwenty-fivedollars.ThestoryoftheJanklowstellsusthatthemeteoricriseofJoeFlomcouldnothavehappenedatjustanytime.Eventhemostgiftedoflawyers,equippedwiththebestoffamily

lessons,cannotescapethelimitationsoftheirgeneration.

“Mymotherwascoherentuntilthelastfiveorsixmonthsofherlife,”MortJanklowsaid.“Andinherdeliriumshetalkedaboutthingsthatshe’dnevertalkedaboutbefore.Sheshedtearsoverherfriendsdyinginthe1918fluepidemic.Thatgeneration—myparents’

generation—livedthroughalot.Theylivedthroughthatepidemic,whichtook,what?tenpercentoftheworld’spopulation.Panicinthestreets.Friendsdying.AndthentheFirstWorldWar,thentheDepression,thentheSecondWorldWar.Theydidn’thavemuchofachance.Thatwasaverytoughperiod.Myfatherwouldhavebeenmuchmoresuccessfulina

differentkindofworld.”

LessonNumberThree:TheGarmentIndustryandMeaningfulWork

8.In1889,LouisandReginaBorgenichtboardedanoceanlinerinHamburgboundforAmerica.LouiswasfromGalacia,inwhatwasthen

Poland.ReginawasfromasmalltowninHungary.Theyhadbeenmarriedonlyafewyearsandhadonesmallchildandasecondontheway.Forthethirteen-dayjourney,theysleptonstrawmattressesonadeckabovetheengineroom,hangingtighttotheirbunkbedsastheshippitchedandrolled.TheyknewonepersoninNewYork:Borgenicht’ssister,Sallie,whohad

immigratedtenyearsbefore.Theyhadenoughmoneytolastafewweeks,atbest.LikesomanyotherimmigrantstoAmericainthoseyears,theirswasaleapoffaith.

LouisandReginafoundatinyapartmentonEldridgeStreet,onManhattan’sLowerEastSide,for$8amonth.Louisthentooktothestreets,lookingforwork.Hesawpeddlersandfruitsellersand

sidewalkscrammedwithpushcarts.ThenoiseandactivityandenergydwarfedwhathehadknownintheOldWorld.Hewasfirstoverwhelmed,theninvigorated.Hewenttohissister’sfishstoreonLudlowStreetandpersuadedhertogivehimaconsignmentofherringoncredit.Hesetupshoponthesidewalkwithtwobarrelsoffish,hopping

backandforthbetweenthemandchantinginGerman:

ForfryingForbakingForcookingGoodalsoforeatingHerringwilldoforeverymeal,Andforeveryclass!

Bytheendoftheweek,he

hadcleared$8.Bythesecondweek,$13.Thosewereconsiderablesums.ButLouisandReginacouldnotseehowsellingherringonthestreetwouldleadtoaconstructivebusiness.Louisthendecidedtotrybeingapushcartpeddler.Hesoldtowelsandtablecloths,withoutmuchluck.Heswitchedtonotebooks,thenbananas,thensocksandstockings.Was

therereallyafutureinpushcarts?Reginagavebirthtoasecondchild,adaughter,andLouis’surgencygrew.Henowhadfourmouthstofeed.

TheanswercametohimafterfivelongdaysofwalkingupanddownthestreetsoftheLowerEastSide,justashewasabouttogiveuphope.Hewassittingonanoverturnedbox,eatingalatelunchofthesandwiches

Reginahadmadeforhim.Itwasclothes.Everywherearoundhimstoreswereopening—suits,dresses,overalls,shirts,skirts,blouses,trousers,allmadeandreadytobeworn.Comingfromaworldwhereclothingwassewnathomebyhandormadetoorderbytailors,thiswasarevelation.

“Tomethegreatestwonderinthiswasnotthe

merequantityofgarments—althoughthatwasamiracleinitself—”Borgenichtwouldwriteyearslater,afterhebecameaprosperousmanufacturerofwomen’sandchildren’sclothing,“butthefactthatinAmericaevenpoorpeoplecouldsaveallthedreary,time-consuminglaborofmakingtheirownclothessimplybygoingintoastoreandwalkingoutwithwhat

theyneeded.Therewasafieldtogointo,afieldtothrillto.”

Borgenichttookoutasmallnotebook.Everywherehewent,hewrotedownwhatpeoplewerewearingandwhatwasforsale—menswear,women’swear,children’swear.Hewantedtofinda“novel”item,somethingthatpeoplewouldwearthatwasnotbeingsold

inthestores.Forfourmoredayshewalkedthestreets.Ontheeveningofthefinaldayashewalkedtowardhome,hesawahalfdozengirlsplayinghopscotch.Oneofthegirlswaswearingatinyembroideredapronoverherdress,cutlowinthefrontwithatieintheback,anditstruckhim,suddenly,thatinhispreviousdaysofrelentlesslyinventoryingthe

clothingshopsoftheLowerEastSide,hehadneverseenoneofthoseapronsforsale.

HecamehomeandtoldRegina.ShehadanancientsewingmachinethattheyhadboughtupontheirarrivalinAmerica.Thenextmorning,hewenttoadry-goodsstoreonHesterStreetandboughtahundredyardsofginghamandfiftyyardsofwhitecrossbar.Hecamebackto

theirtinyapartmentandlaidthegoodsoutonthediningroomtable.Reginabegantocutthegingham—smallsizesfortoddlers,largerforsmallchildren—untilshehadfortyaprons.Shebegantosew.Atmidnight,shewenttobedandLouistookupwhereshehadleftoff.Atdawn,sheroseandbegancuttingbuttonholesandaddingbuttons.Byteninthemorning,theapronswere

finished.LouisgatheredthemupoverhisarmandventuredoutontoHesterStreet.

“Children’saprons!Littlegirls’aprons!Coloredones,tencents.Whiteones,fifteencents!Littlegirls’aprons!”

Byoneo’clock,allfortyweregone.

“Ma,we’vegotourbusiness,”heshoutedouttoRegina,afterrunningallthewayhomefromHesterStreet.

Hegrabbedherbythewaistandbeganswingingheraroundandaround.

“You’vegottohelpme,”hecriedout.“We’llworktogether!Ma,thisisourbusiness.”

9.JewishimmigrantsliketheFlomsandtheBorgenichtsandtheJanklowswerenot

liketheotherimmigrantswhocametoAmericainthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies.TheIrishandtheItalianswerepeasants,tenantfarmersfromtheimpoverishedcountrysideofEurope.NotsotheJews.ForcenturiesinEurope,theyhadbeenforbiddentoownland,sotheyhadclusteredincitiesandtowns,takingupurbantradesandprofessions.

SeventypercentoftheEasternEuropeanJewswhocamethroughEllisIslandinthethirtyyearsorsobeforetheFirstWorldWarhadsomekindofoccupationalskill.Theyhadownedsmallgroceriesorjewelrystores.Theyhadbeenbookbindersorwatchmakers.Overwhelmingly,though,theirexperiencelayintheclothingtrade.Theywere

tailorsanddressmakers,hatandcapmakers,andfurriersandtanners.

LouisBorgenicht,forexample,lefttheimpoverishedhomeofhisparentsatagetwelvetoworkasasalesclerkinageneralstoreinthePolishtownofBrzesko.WhentheopportunitycametoworkinSchnittwarenHandlung(literally,thehandlingof

clothandfabricsor“piecegoods,”astheywereknown),hejumpedatit.“Inthosedays,thepiece-goodsmanwasclothiertotheworld,”hewrites,“andofthethreefundamentalsrequiredforlifeinthatsimplesociety,foodandshelterwerehumble.Clothingwasthearistocrat.Practitionersoftheclothingart,dealersinwonderfulclothsfromeverycornerof

Europe,traderswhovisitedthecentersofindustryontheirannualbuyingtours—thesewerethemerchantprincesofmyyouth.Theirvoiceswereheard,theirweightfelt.”

BorgenichtworkedinpiecegoodsforamannamedEpstein,thenmovedontoastoreinneighboringJaslowcalledBrandstatter’s.Itwastherethattheyoung

Borgenichtlearnedtheinsandoutsofallthedozensofdifferentvarietiesofcloth,tothepointwherehecouldrunhishandoverafabricandtellyouthethreadcount,thenameofthemanufacturer,anditsplaceoforigin.Afewyearslater,BorgenichtmovedtoHungaryandmetRegina.Shehadbeenrunningadressmakingbusinesssincetheageofsixteen.Together

theyopenedaseriesofsmallpiece-goodsstores,painstakinglylearningthedetailsofsmall-businessentrepreneurship.

Borgenicht’sgreatbrainstormthatdayontheupturnedbox,then,didnotcomefromnowhere.HewasaveteranofSchnittwarenHandlung,andhiswifewasaseasoneddressmaker.Thiswastheirfield.Andatthe

sametimeastheBorgenichtssetupshopinsidetheirtinyapartment,thousandsofotherJewishimmigrantsweredoingthesamething,puttingtheirsewinganddressmakingandtailoringskillstouse,tothepointwhereby1900,controlofthegarmentindustryhadpassedalmostentirelyintothehandsoftheEasternEuropeannewcomers.AsBorgenicht

putsit,theJews“bitdeepintothewelcominglandandworkedlikemadmenatwhattheyknew.”

Today,atatimewhenNewYorkisatthecenterofanenormousanddiversifiedmetropolitanarea,itiseasytoforgetthesignificanceofthesetofskillsthatimmigrantsliketheBorgenichtsbroughttotheNewWorld.Fromthelatenineteenthcentury

throughthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury,thegarmenttradewasthelargestandmosteconomicallyvibrantindustryinthecity.MorepeopleworkedmakingclothesinNewYorkthanatanythingelse,andmoreclothesweremanufacturedinNewYorkthaninanyothercityintheworld.Thedistinctivebuildingsthatstillstandonthelowerhalfof

BroadwayinManhattan—fromthebigten-andfifteen-storyindustrialwarehousesinthetwentyblocksbelowTimesSquaretothecast-ironloftsofSoHoandTribeca—werealmostallbuilttohousecoatmakersandhatmakersandlingeriemanufacturersandhugeroomsofmenandwomenhunchedoversewingmachines.TocometoNewYorkCityinthe1890switha

backgroundindressmakingorsewingorSchnittwarenHandlungwasastrokeofextraordinarygoodfortune.ItwaslikeshowingupinSiliconValleyin1986withtenthousandhoursofcomputerprogrammingalreadyunderyourbelt.

“ThereisnodoubtthatthoseJewishimmigrantsarrivedattheperfecttime,withtheperfectskills,”says

thesociologistStephenSteinberg.“Toexploitthatopportunity,youhadtohavecertainvirtues,andthoseimmigrantsworkedhard.Theysacrificed.Theyscrimpedandsavedandinvestedwisely.Butstill,youhavetorememberthatthegarmentindustryinthoseyearswasgrowingbyleapsandbounds.Theeconomywasdesperatefortheskills

thattheypossessed.”LouisandRegina

Borgenichtandthethousandsofotherswhocameoverontheboatswiththemweregivenagoldenopportunity.Andsoweretheirchildrenandgrandchildren,becausethelessonsthosegarmentworkersbroughthomewiththemintheeveningsturnedouttobecriticalforgettingaheadintheworld.

10.ThedayafterLouisandReginaBorgenichtsoldouttheirfirstlotoffortyaprons,LouismadehiswaytoH.B.ClaflinandCompany.Claflinwasadry-goods“commission”house,theequivalentofBrandstatter’sbackinPoland.There,BorgenichtaskedforasalesmanwhospokeGerman,

sincehisEnglishwasalmostnonexistent.HehadinhishandhisandRegina’slifesavings—$12—andwiththatmoney,heboughtenoughclothtomaketendozenaprons.Dayandnight,heandReginacutandsewed.Hesoldalltendozenintwodays.BackhewenttoClaflinforanotherround.Theysoldthosetoo.Beforelong,heandReginahiredanother

immigrantjustofftheboattohelpwiththechildrensoReginacouldsewfull-time,andthenanothertoserveasanapprentice.LouisventureduptownasfarasHarlem,sellingtothemothersinthetenements.HerentedastorefrontonSheriffStreet,withlivingquartersintheback.Hehiredthreemoregirls,andboughtsewingmachinesforallofthem.He

becameknownas“theapronman.”HeandReginaweresellingapronsasfastastheycouldmakethem.

Beforelong,theBorgenichtsdecidedtobranchout.Theystartedmakingadultaprons,thenpetticoats,thenwomen’sdresses.ByJanuaryof1892,theBorgenichtshadtwentypeopleworkingforthem,mostlyimmigrantJewslike

themselves.TheyhadtheirownfactoryontheLowerEastSideofManhattanandagrowinglistofcustomers,includingastoreuptownownedbyanotherJewishimmigrantfamily,theBloomingdalebrothers.KeepinmindtheBorgenichtshadbeeninthecountryforonlythreeyearsatthispoint.TheybarelyspokeEnglish.Andtheyweren’trichyetbyany

stretchoftheimagination.Whateverprofittheymadegotplowedbackintotheirbusiness,andBorgenichtsayshehadonly$200inthebank.Butalreadyhewasinchargeofhisowndestiny.

Thiswasthesecondgreatadvantageofthegarmentindustry.Itwasn’tjustthatitwasgrowingbyleapsandbounds.Itwasalsoexplicitlyentrepreneurial.Clothes

weren’tmadeinasinglebigfactory.Instead,anumberofestablishedfirmsdesignedpatternsandpreparedthefabric,andthenthecomplicatedstitchingandpressingandbuttonattachingwereallsentouttosmallcontractors.Andifacontractorgotbigenough,orambitiousenough,hestarteddesigninghisownpatternsandpreparinghisownfabric.

By1913,therewereapproximatelysixteenthousandseparatecompaniesinNewYorkCity’sgarmentbusiness,manyjustliketheBorgenichts’shoponSheriffStreet.

“Thethresholdforgettinginvolvedinthebusinesswasverylow.It’sbasicallyabusinessbuiltonthesewingmachine,andsewingmachinesdon’tcostthat

much,”saysDanielSoyer,ahistorianwhohaswrittenwidelyonthegarmentindustry.“Soyoudidn’tneedalotofcapital.Attheturnofthetwentiethcentury,itwasprobablyfiftydollarstobuyamachineortwo.Allyouhadtodotobeacontractorwastohaveacouplesewingmachines,someirons,andacoupleofworkers.Theprofitmarginswereverylowbut

youcouldmakesomemoney.”

ListentohowBorgenichtdescribeshisdecisiontoexpandbeyondaprons:

FrommystudyofthemarketIknewthatonlythreemenweremakingchildren’sdressesin1890.OnewasanEastSidetailor

nearme,whomadeonlytoorder,whiletheothertwoturnedoutanexpensiveproductwithwhichIhadnodesireatalltocompete.Iwantedtomake“popularprice”stuff—washdresses,silks,andwoolens.Itwasmygoaltoproducedressesthatthegreatmassofthepeople

couldafford,dressesthatwould—fromthebusinessangle—sellequallywelltobothlargeandsmall,cityandcountrystores.WithRegina’shelp—shealwayshadexcellenttaste,andjudgment—Imadeupalineofsamples.Displayingthemtoallmy“old”customers

andfriends,Ihammeredhomeeverypoint—mydresseswouldsavemothersendlesswork,thematerialsandsewingwereasgoodandprobablybetterthananythingthatcouldbedoneathome,thepricewasrightforquickdisposal.

Ononeoccasion,Borgenichtrealizedthathisonlychancetoundercutbiggerfirmswastoconvincethewholesalerstosellclothtohimdirectly,eliminatingthemiddleman.HewenttoseeaMr.BinghamatLawrenceandCompany,a“tall,gaunt,white-beardedYankeewithsteel-blueeyes.”Therethetwoofthemwere,theimmigrantfromrural

Poland,hiseyesringedwithfatigue,facingoffinhishaltingEnglishagainsttheimperiousYankee.Borgenichtsaidhewantedtobuyfortycasesofcashmere.Binghamhadneverbeforesoldtoanindividualcompany,letaloneashoestringoperationonSheriffStreet.

“Youhaveahellofacheekcominginhereand

askingmeforfavors!”Binghamthundered.Butheendedupsayingyes.

WhatBorgenichtwasgettinginhiseighteen-hourdayswasalessoninthemoderneconomy.Hewaslearningmarketresearch.Hewaslearningmanufacturing.HewaslearninghowtonegotiatewithimperiousYankees.Hewaslearninghowtoplughimselfinto

popularcultureinordertounderstandnewfashiontrends.

TheIrishandItalianimmigrantswhocametoNewYorkinthesameperioddidn’thavethatadvantage.Theydidn’thaveaskillspecifictotheurbaneconomy.Theywenttoworkasdaylaborersanddomesticsandconstructionworkers—jobswhereyoucouldshow

upforworkeverydayforthirtyyearsandneverlearnmarketresearchandmanufacturingandhowtonavigatethepopularcultureandhowtonegotiatewiththeYankees,whorantheworld.

OrconsiderthefateoftheMexicanswhoimmigratedtoCaliforniabetween1900andtheendofthe1920stoworkinthefieldsofthebigfruitandvegetablegrowers.They

simplyexchangedthelifeofafeudalpeasantinMexicoforthelifeofafeudalpeasantinCalifornia.“Theconditionsinthegarmentindustrywereeverybitasbad,”Soyergoeson.“Butasagarmentworker,youwereclosertothecenteroftheindustry.IfyouareworkinginafieldinCalifornia,youhavenocluewhat’shappeningtotheproducewhenitgetsonthe

truck.Ifyouareworkinginasmallgarmentshop,yourwagesarelow,andyourconditionsareterrible,andyourhoursarelong,butyoucanseeexactlywhatthesuccessfulpeoplearedoing,andyoucanseehowyoucansetupyourownjob.”*

WhenBorgenichtcamehomeatnighttohischildren,hemayhavebeentiredandpoorandoverwhelmed,but

hewasalive.Hewashisownboss.Hewasresponsibleforhisowndecisionsanddirection.Hisworkwascomplex:itengagedhismindandimagination.Andinhiswork,therewasarelationshipbetweeneffortandreward:thelongerheandReginastayedupatnightsewingaprons,themoremoneytheymadethenextdayonthestreets.

Thosethreethings—autonomy,complexity,andaconnectionbetweeneffortandreward—are,mostpeopleagree,thethreequalitiesthatworkhastohaveifitistobesatisfying.Itisnothowmuchmoneywemakethatultimatelymakesushappybetweennineandfive.It’swhetherourworkfulfillsus.IfIofferedyouachoicebetweenbeinganarchitect

for$75,000ayearandworkinginatollbootheverydayfortherestofyourlifefor$100,000ayear,whichwouldyoutake?I’mguessingtheformer,becausethereiscomplexity,autonomy,andarelationshipbetweeneffortandrewardindoingcreativework,andthat’sworthmoretomostofusthanmoney.

Workthatfulfillsthosethreecriteriaismeaningful.

Beingateacherismeaningful.Beingaphysicianismeaningful.Soisbeinganentrepreneur,andthemiracleofthegarmentindustry—ascutthroatandgrimasitwas—wasthatitallowedpeopleliketheBorgenichts,justofftheboat,tofindsomethingmeaningfultodoaswell.*WhenLouisBorgenichtcamehomeafterfirstseeingthatchild’sapron,

hedancedajig.Hehadn’tsoldanythingyet.Hewasstillpennilessanddesperate,andheknewthattomakesomethingofhisideawasgoingtorequireyearsofbackbreakinglabor.Buthewasecstatic,becausetheprospectofthoseendlessyearsofhardlabordidnotseemlikeaburdentohim.BillGateshadthatsamefeelingwhenhefirstsatdown

atthekeyboardatLakeside.AndtheBeatlesdidn’trecoilinhorrorwhentheyweretoldtheyhadtoplayeighthoursanight,sevendaysaweek.Theyjumpedatthechance.Hardworkisaprisonsentenceonlyifitdoesnothavemeaning.Onceitdoes,itbecomesthekindofthingthatmakesyougrabyourwifearoundthewaistanddanceajig.

Themostimportantconsequenceofthemiracleofthegarmentindustry,though,waswhathappenedtothechildrengrowingupinthosehomeswheremeaningfulworkwaspracticed.ImaginewhatitmusthavebeenliketowatchthemeteoricriseofReginaandLouisBorgenichtthroughtheeyesofoneoftheiroffspring.Theylearnedthesamelessonthatlittle

AlexWilliamswouldlearnnearlyacenturylater—alessoncrucialtothosewhowantedtotackletheupperreachesofaprofessionlikelawormedicine:ifyouworkhardenoughandassertyourself,anduseyourmindandimagination,youcanshapetheworldtoyourdesires.

11.In1982,asociologygraduatestudentnamedLouiseFarkaswenttovisitanumberofnursinghomesandresidentialhotelsinNewYorkCityandMiamiBeach.ShewaslookingforpeopleliketheBorgenichts,or,moreprecisely,thechildrenofpeopleliketheBorgenichts,whohadcometoNewYork

inthegreatwaveofJewishimmigrationattheturnofthelastcentury.Andforeachofthepeoplesheinterviewed,sheconstructedafamilytreeshowingwhatalineofparentsandchildrenandgrandchildrenand,insomecases,great-grandchildrendidforaliving.

Hereisheraccountof“subject#18”:

ARussiantailorartisancomestoAmerica,takestotheneedletrade,worksinasweatshopforasmallsalary.Latertakesgarmentstofinishathomewiththehelpofhiswifeandolderchildren.Inordertoincreasehissalaryheworksthroughthenight.Laterhemakesagarmentandsellsiton

NewYorkstreets.Heaccumulatessomecapitalandgoesintoabusinessventurewithhissons.Theyopenashoptocreatemen’sgarments.TheRussiantailorandhissonsbecomemen’ssuitmanufacturerssupplyingseveralmen’sstores….Thesonsandthefather

becomeprosperous….Thesons’childrenbecomeeducatedprofessionals.

Here’sanother.It’satannerwhoemigratedfromPolandinthelatenineteenthcentury.

Farkas’sJewishfamilytreesgoonforpages,eachvirtuallyidenticaltotheonebefore,untiltheconclusionbecomesinescapable:Jewishdoctorsandlawyersdidnotbecomeprofessionalsinspiteoftheirhumbleorigins.Theybecameprofessionalsbecauseoftheirhumbleorigins.

TedFriedman,theprominentlitigatorinthe1970sand1980s,remembersasachildgoingtoconcertswithhismotheratCarnegieHall.TheywerepoorandlivinginthefarthestcornersoftheBronx.Howdidtheyaffordtickets?“Marygotaquarter,”Friedmansays.“TherewasaMarywhowasatickettaker,andifyougaveMaryaquarter,shewouldlet

youstandinthesecondbalcony,withoutaticket.CarnegieHalldidn’tknowaboutit.ItwasjustbetweenyouandMary.Itwasabitofajourney,butwewouldgobackonceortwiceamonth.”*

Friedman’smotherwasaRussianimmigrant.ShebarelyspokeEnglish.Butshehadgonetoworkasaseamstressattheageoffifteenandhadbecomea

prominentgarmentunionorganizer,andwhatyoulearninthatworldisthatthroughyourownpowersofpersuasionandinitiative,youcantakeyourkidstoCarnegieHall.Thereisnobetterlessonforabuddinglawyerthanthat.Thegarmentindustrywasbootcampfortheprofessions.

WhatdidJoeFlom’sfatherdo?Hesewedshoulder

padsforwomen’sdresses.WhatdidRobertOppenheimer’sfatherdo?Hewasagarmentmanufacturer,likeLouisBorgenicht.OneflightupfromFlom’scornerofficeatSkadden,ArpsistheofficeofBarryGarfinkel,whohasbeenatSkadden,ArpsnearlyaslongasFlomandwhoformanyyearsheadedthefirm’slitigationdepartment.Whatdid

Garfinkel’smotherdo?Shewasamilliner.Shemadehatsathome.WhatdidtwoofLouisandReginaBorgenicht’ssonsdo?Theywenttolawschool,andnolessthannineoftheirgrandchildrenendedupasdoctorsandlawyersaswell.

HereisthemostremarkableofFarkas’sfamilytrees.ItbelongstoaJewishfamilyfromRomaniawho

hadasmallgrocerystoreintheOldCountryandthencametoNewYorkandopenedanother,ontheLowerEastSideofManhattan.ItisthemostelegantanswertothequestionofwherealltheJoeFlomscamefrom.

12.TenblocksnorthoftheSkadden,ArpsheadquartersinmidtownManhattanaretheofficesofJoeFlom’sgreatrival,thelawfirmgenerallyregardedasthefinestintheworld.

ItisheadquarteredintheprestigiousofficebuildingknownasBlackRock.Togethiredtheretakesasmall

miracle.UnlikeNewYork’sothermajorlawfirms,allofwhichhavehundredsofattorneysscatteredaroundthemajorcapitalsoftheworld,itoperatesonlyoutofthatsingleManhattanbuilding.Itturnsdownmuchmorebusinessthanitaccepts.Unlikeeveryoneofitscompetitors,itdoesnotbillbythehour.Itsimplynamesafee.Once,whiledefending

Kmartagainstatakeover,thefirmbilled$20millionfortwoweeks’work.Kmartpaid—happily.Ifitsattorneysdonotoutsmartyou,theywilloutworkyou,andiftheycan’toutworkyou,they’llwinthroughsheerintimidation.Thereisnofirmintheworldthathasmademoremoney,lawyerforlawyer,overthepasttwodecades.OnJoeFlom’swall,

nexttopicturesofFlomwithGeorgeBushSr.andBillClinton,thereisapictureofhimwiththerivalfirm’smanagingpartner.

NoonerisestothetopoftheNewYorklegalprofessionunlessheorsheissmartandambitiousandhardworking,andclearlythefourmenwhofoundedtheBlackRockfirmfitthatdescription.Butweknowfar

morethanthat,don’twe?Successisnotarandomact.Itarisesoutofapredictableandpowerfulsetofcircumstancesandopportunities,andatthispoint,afterexaminingthelivesofBillJoyandBillGates,prohockeyplayersandgeniuses,andJoeFlom,theJanklows,andtheBorgenichts,itshouldn’tbehardtofigureoutwherethe

perfectlawyercomesfrom.Thispersonwillhave

beenborninademographictrough,soastohavehadthebestofNewYork’spublicschoolsandtheeasiesttimeinthejobmarket.HewillbeJewish,ofcourse,andso,lockedoutoftheold-linedowntownlawfirmsonaccountofhis“antecedents.”Thisperson’sparentswillhavedonemeaningfulwork

inthegarmentbusiness,passingontotheirchildrenautonomyandcomplexityandtheconnectionbetweeneffortandreward.Agoodschool—althoughitdoesn’thavetobeagreatschool—willhavebeenattended.Heneednothavebeenthesmartestintheclass,onlysmartenough.

Infact,wecanbeevenmoreprecise.Justasthereis

aperfectbirthdateforanineteenth-centurybusinesstycoon,andaperfectbirthdateforasoftwaretycoon,thereisaperfectbirthdateforaNewYorkJewishlawyeraswell.It’s1930,becausethatwouldgivethelawyerthebenefitofablessedlysmallgeneration.Itwouldalsomakehimfortyyearsofagein1970,whentherevolutioninthelegalworldfirstbegan,

whichtranslatestoahealthyfifteen-yearHamburgperiodinthetakeoverbusinesswhilethewhite-shoelawyerslingered,oblivious,overtheirtwo-martinilunches.IfyouwanttobeagreatNewYorklawyer,itisanadvantagetobeanoutsider,anditisanadvantagetohaveparentswhodidmeaningfulwork,and,betterstill,itisanadvantagetohavebeenborn

intheearly1930s.Butifyouhaveallthreeadvantages—ontopofagooddoseofingenuityanddrive—thenthat’sanunstoppablecombination.That’slikebeingahockeyplayerbornonJanuary1.

TheBlackRocklawfirmisWachtell,Lipton,Rosen&Katz.Thefirm’sfirstpartnerwasHerbertWachtell.Hewasbornin1931.Hegrewup

intheAmalgamatedClothingWorkersunionhousingacrossfromVanCortlandtPark,intheBronx.HisparentswereJewishimmigrantsfromtheUkraine.Hisfatherwasintheladies’undergarmentbusinesswithhisbrothers,onthesixthfloorofwhatisnowafancyloftatBroadwayandSpringStreetinSoHo.HewenttoNewYorkCitypublicschoolsin

the1940s,thentoNewYorkUniversity,andthentoNewYorkUniversityLawSchool.

ThesecondpartnerwasMartinLipton.Hewasbornin1931.Hisfatherwasamanageratafactory.HewasadescendantofJewishimmigrants.HeattendedpublicschoolsinJerseyCity,thentheUniversityofPennsylvania,thenNewYorkUniversityLawSchool.

ThethirdpartnerwasLeonardRosen.Hewasbornin1930.HegrewuppoorintheBronx,nearYankeeStadium.HisparentswereJewishimmigrantsfromtheUkraine.HisfatherworkedinthegarmentdistrictinManhattanasapresser.HewenttoNewYorkCitypublicschoolsinthe1940s,thentoCityCollegeinupperManhattan,andthentoNew

YorkUniversityLawSchool.Thefourthpartnerwas

GeorgeKatz.Hewasbornin1931.Hegrewupinaone-bedroomfirst-floorapartmentintheBronx.HisparentswerethechildrenofJewishimmigrantsfromEasternEurope.Hisfathersoldinsurance.Hisgrandfather,wholivedafewblocksaway,wasasewerinthegarmenttrade,doingpieceworkoutof

hishouse.HewenttoNewYorkCitypublicschoolsinthe1940s,thentoCityCollegeinupperManhattan,andthentoNewYorkUniversityLawSchool.

Imaginethatwehadmetanyoneofthesefourfreshoutoflawschool,sittingintheelegantwaitingroomatMudgeRosenexttoablue-eyedNordictypefromthe“right”background.We’dall

havebetontheNordictype.Andwewouldhavebeenwrong,becausetheKatzesandtheRosensandtheLiptonsandtheWachtellsandtheFlomshadsomethingthattheNordictypedidnot.Theirworld—theircultureandgenerationandfamilyhistory—gavethemthegreatestofopportunities.

PARTTWO

LEGACY

CHAPTERSIX

Harlan,Kentucky

“DIELIKEAMAN,LIKEYOURBROTHERDID!”

1.Inthesoutheasterncornerof

Kentucky,inthestretchoftheAppalachianMountainsknownastheCumberlandPlateau,liesasmalltowncalledHarlan.

TheCumberlandPlateauisawildandmountainousregionofflat-toppedridges,mountainwallsfivehundredtoathousandfeethigh,andnarrowvalleys,somewideenoughonlyforaone-laneroadandacreek.Whenthe

areawasfirstsettled,theplateauwascoveredwithadenseprimevalforest.Gianttulippoplarsgrewinthecovesandatthefootofthehills,somewithtrunksaswideassevenoreightfeetindiameter.Alongsidethemwerewhiteoaks,beeches,maples,walnuts,sycamores,birches,willows,cedars,pines,andhemlocks,allenmeshedinalatticeofwild

grapevine,comprisingoneofthegreatestassortmentofforesttreesintheNorthernHemisphere.Onthegroundwerebearsandmountainlionsandrattlesnakes;inthetreetops,anastonishingarrayofsquirrels;andbeneaththesoil,onethickseamafteranotherofcoal.

HarlanCountywasfoundedin1819byeightimmigrantfamiliesfromthe

northernregionsoftheBritishIsles.TheyhadcometoVirginiaintheeighteenthcenturyandthenmovedwestintotheAppalachiansinsearchofland.Thecountywasneverwealthy.Foritsfirstonehundredyears,itwasthinlypopulated,rarelynumberingmorethantenthousandpeople.Thefirstsettlerskeptpigsandherdedsheeponthehillsides,

scratchingoutalivingonsmallfarmsinthevalleys.Theymadewhiskeyinbackyardstillsandfelledtrees,floatingthemdowntheCumberlandRiverinthespring,whenthewaterwashigh.Untilwellintothetwentiethcentury,gettingtothenearesttrainstationwasatwo-daywagontrip.TheonlywayoutoftownwasupPineMountain,whichwasnine

steepmilesonaroadthatturnedonoccasionintonomorethanamuddy,rockytrail.Harlanwasaremoteandstrangeplace,unknownbythelargersocietyaroundit,anditmightwellhaveremainedsobutforthefactthattwoofthetown’sfoundingfamilies—theHowardsandtheTurners—didnotgetalong.

Thepatriarchofthe

HowardclanwasSamuelHoward.Hebuiltthetowncourthouseandthejail.HiscounterpartwasWilliamTurner,whoownedatavernandtwogeneralstores.OnceastormblewdownthefencetotheTurnerproperty,andaneighbor’scowwanderedontotheirland.WilliamTurner’sgrandson,“DevilJim,”shotthecowdead.Theneighborwastooterrifiedto

presschargesandfledthecounty.Anothertime,amantriedtoopenacompetitortotheTurners’generalstore.TheTurnershadawordwithhim.HeclosedthestoreandmovedtoIndiana.Thesewerenotpleasantpeople.

OnenightWixHowardand“LittleBob”Turner—thegrandsonsofSamuelandWilliam,respectively—playedagainsteachotherina

gameofpoker.Eachaccusedtheotherofcheating.Theyfought.Thefollowingdaytheymetinthestreet,andafteraflurryofgunshots,LittleBobTurnerlaydeadwithashotgunblasttothechest.AgroupofTurnerswenttotheHowards’generalstoreandspokeroughlytoMrs.Howard.ShewasinsultedandtoldhersonWilseHoward,andthe

followingweekheexchangedgunfirewithanotherofTurner’sgrandsons,youngWillTurner,ontheroadtoHagan,Virginia.ThatnightoneoftheTurnersandafriendattackedtheHowardhome.ThetwofamiliesthenclashedoutsidetheHarlancourthouse.Inthegunfire,WillTurnerwasshotandkilled.AcontingentofHowardsthenwenttosee

Mrs.Turner,themotherofWillTurnerandLittleBob,toaskforatruce.Shedeclined:“Youcan’twipeoutthatblood,”shesaid,pointingtothedirtwherehersonhaddied.

Thingsquicklywentfrombadtoworse.WilseHowardraninto“LittleGeorge”TurnernearSulphurSpringsandshothimdead.TheHowardsambushedthree

friendsoftheTurners—theCawoods—killingallofthem.ApossewassentoutinsearchoftheHowards.Intheresultinggunfight,sixmorewerekilledorwounded.WilseHowardheardtheTurnerswereafterhim,andheandafriendrodeintoHarlanandattackedtheTurnerhome.Ridingback,theHowardswereambushed.Inthefighting,another

persondied.WilseHowardrodetoGeorgeTurner’shouseandfiredathimbutmissedandkilledanotherman.ApossesurroundedtheHowardhome.Therewasanothergunfight.Moredead.Thecountywasinanuproar.Ithinkyougetthepicture.Therewereplacesinnineteenth-centuryAmericawherepeoplelivedinharmony.Harlan,Kentucky,

wasnotoneofthem.“Stopthat!”WillTurner’s

mothersnappedathimwhenhestaggeredhome,howlinginpainafterbeingshotinthecourthousegunbattlewiththeHowards.“Dielikeaman,likeyourbrotherdid!”Shebelongedtoaworldsowellacquaintedwithfatalgunshotsthatshehadcertainexpectationsabouthowtheyoughttobeendured.Will

shuthismouth,andhedied.

2.SupposeyouweresenttoHarlaninthelatenineteenthcenturytoinvestigatethecausesoftheHoward-Turnerfeud.Youlinedupeverysurvivingparticipantandinterviewedthemascarefullyasyoucould.Yousubpoenaeddocumentsand

tookdepositionsandporedovercourtrecordsuntilyouhadputtogetheradetailedandpreciseaccountingofeachstageinthedeadlyquarrel.

Howmuchwouldyouknow?Theansweris,notmuch.You’dlearnthatthereweretwofamiliesinHarlanwhodidn’tmuchlikeeachother,andyou’dconfirmthatWilseHoward,whowas

responsibleforanawfullotoftheviolence,probablybelongedbehindbars.WhathappenedinHarlanwouldn’tbecomeclearuntilyoulookedattheviolencefromamuchbroaderperspective.

ThefirstcriticalfactaboutHarlanisthatatthesametimethattheHowardsandtheTurnerswerekillingoneanother,therewerealmostidenticalclashesinother

smalltownsupanddowntheAppalachians.InthefamousHatfield-McCoyfeudontheWestVirginia–KentuckybordernotfarfromHarlan,severaldozenpeoplewerekilledinacycleofviolencethatstretchedovertwentyyears.IntheFrench-EversolefeudinPerryCounty,Kentucky,twelvedied,sixofthemkilledby“BadTom”Smith(aman,JohnEdPearce

writesinDaysofDarkness,whowas“justdumbenoughtobefearless,justbrightenoughtobedangerous,andadeadshot”).TheMartin-Tolliverfeud,inRowanCounty,Kentucky,inthemid-1880sfeaturedthreegunfights,threeambushes,andtwohouseattacks,andendedinatwo-hourgunbattleinvolvingonehundredarmedmen.TheBaker-

HowardfeudinClayCounty,Kentucky,beganin1806,withanelk-huntingpartygonebad,anddidn’tenduntilthe1930s,whenacoupleofHowardskilledthreeBakersinanambush.

Andthesewerejustthewell-knownfeuds.TheKentuckylegislatorHarryCaudilloncelookedinacircuitcourtclerk’sofficeinoneCumberlandPlateautown

andfoundonethousandmurderindictmentsstretchingfromtheendoftheCivilWar,inthe1860s,tothebeginningofthetwentiethcentury—andthisforaregionthatnevernumberedmorethanfifteenthousandpeopleandwheremanyviolentactsneverevenmadeittotheindictmentstage.CaudillwritesofamurdertrialinBreathittCounty—or

“BloodyBreathitt,”asitcametobeknown—thatendedabruptlywhenthedefendant’sfather,“amanofaboutfiftywithhugehandlebarwhiskersandtwoimmensepistols,”walkeduptothejudgeandgrabbedhisgavel:

Thefeudistrappedthebenchandannounced,

“Court’soverandever’bodycango.Weain’tagoin’tohaveanycourtherethisterm,folks.”Thered-facedjudgehastilyacquiescedinthisextraordinaryorderandpromptlylefttown.Whencourtconvenedatthenexttermthecourtandsheriffwerebolstered

bysixtymilitiamen,butbythenthedefendantwasnotavailablefortrial.Hehadbeenslainfromambush.

Whenonefamilyfightswithanother,it’safeud.Whenlotsoffamiliesfightwithoneanotherinidenticallittletownsupanddownthe

samemountainrange,it’sapattern.

WhatwasthecauseoftheAppalachianpattern?Overtheyears,manypotentialexplanationshavebeenexaminedanddebated,andtheconsensusappearstobethatthatregionwasplaguedbyaparticularlyvirulentstrainofwhatsociologistscalla“cultureofhonor.”

Culturesofhonortendto

takerootinhighlandsandothermarginallyfertileareas,suchasSicilyorthemountainousBasqueregionsofSpain.Ifyouliveonsomerockymountainside,theexplanationgoes,youcan’tfarm.Youprobablyraisegoatsorsheep,andthekindofculturethatgrowsuparoundbeingaherdsmanisverydifferentfromtheculturethatgrowsuparound

growingcrops.Thesurvivalofafarmerdependsonthecooperationofothersinthecommunity.Butaherdsmanisoffbyhimself.Farmersalsodon’thavetoworrythattheirlivelihoodwillbestoleninthenight,becausecropscan’teasilybestolenunless,ofcourse,athiefwantstogotothetroubleofharvestinganentirefieldonhisown.Butaherdsmandoeshavetoworry.

He’sunderconstantthreatofruinthroughthelossofhisanimals.Sohehastobeaggressive:hehastomakeitclear,throughhiswordsanddeeds,thatheisnotweak.Hehastobewillingtofightinresponsetoeventheslightestchallengetohisreputation—andthat’swhata“cultureofhonor”means.It’saworldwhereaman’sreputationisatthecenterofhislivelihood

andself-worth.“Thecriticalmomentin

thedevelopmentoftheyoungshepherd’sreputationishisfirstquarrel,”theethnographerJ.K.CampbellwritesofoneherdingcultureinGreece.“Quarrelsarenecessarilypublic.Theymayoccurinthecoffeeshop,thevillagesquare,ormostfrequentlyonagrazingboundarywhereacurseora

stoneaimedatoneofhisstrayingsheepbyanothershepherdisaninsultwhichinevitablyrequiresaviolentresponse.”

SowhywasAppalachiathewayitwas?Itwasbecauseofwheretheoriginalinhabitantsoftheregioncamefrom.Theso-calledAmericanbackcountrystates—fromthePennsylvaniabordersouthandwest

throughVirginiaandWestVirginia,KentuckyandTennessee,NorthCarolinaandSouthCarolina,andthenorthernendofAlabamaandGeorgia—weresettledoverwhelminglybyimmigrantsfromoneoftheworld’smostferociousculturesofhonor.Theywere“Scotch-Irish”—thatis,fromthelowlandsofScotland,thenortherncountiesofEngland,

andUlsterinNorthernIreland.

Theborderlands—asthisregionwasknown—wereremoteandlawlessterritoriesthathadbeenfoughtoverforhundredsofyears.Thepeopleoftheregionweresteepedinviolence.Theywereherdsmen,scrapingoutalivingonrockyandinfertileland.Theywereclannish,respondingtotheharshness

andturmoiloftheirenvironmentbyformingtightfamilybondsandplacingloyaltytobloodaboveallelse.AndwhentheyimmigratedtoNorthAmerica,theymovedintotheAmericaninterior,toremote,lawless,rocky,andmarginallyfertileplaceslikeHarlanthatallowedthemtoreproduceintheNewWorldthecultureofhonortheyhad

createdintheOldWorld.“Tothefirstsettlers,the

Americanbackcountrywasadangerousenvironment,justastheBritishborderlandshadbeen,”thehistorianDavidHackettFischerwritesinAlbion’sSeed.

Muchofthesouthernhighlandswere“debatablelands”in

thebordersenseofacontestedterritorywithoutestablishedgovernmentortheruleoflaw.Theborderersweremoreathomethanothersinthisanarchicenvironment,whichwaswellsuitedtotheirfamilysystem,theirwarriorethic,theirfarmingandherdingeconomy,their

attitudestowardlandandwealthandtheirideasofworkandpower.Sowelladaptedwastheborderculturetothisenvironmentthatotherethnicgroupstendedtocopyit.TheethosoftheNorthBritishborderscametodominatethis“darkandbloodyground,”partlyby

forceofnumbers,butmainlybecauseitwasameansofsurvivalinarawanddangerousworld.*

ThetriumphofacultureofhonorhelpstoexplainwhythepatternofcriminalityintheAmericanSouthhasalwaysbeensodistinctive.Murderratesarehigherthere

thanintherestofthecountry.Butcrimesofpropertyand“stranger”crimes—likemuggings—arelower.AsthesociologistJohnSheltonReedhaswritten,“ThehomicidesinwhichtheSouthseemstospecializearethoseinwhichsomeoneisbeingkilledbysomeonehe(oroftenshe)knows,forreasonsbothkillerandvictimunderstand.”Reedadds:“Thestatisticsshow

thattheSouthernerwhocanavoidargumentsandadulteryisassafeasanyotherAmerican,andprobablysafer.”Inthebackcountry,violencewasn’tforeconomicgain.Itwaspersonal.Youfoughtoveryourhonor.

Manyyearsago,thesouthernnewspapermanHoddingCartertoldthestoryofhowasayoungmanheservedonajury.AsReed

describesit:

Thecasebeforethejuryinvolvedanirasciblegentlemanwholivednextdoortoafillingstation.Forseveralmonthshehadbeenthebuttofvariousjokesplayedbytheattendantsandthemiscellaneous

loaferswhohungaroundthestation,despitehiswarningsandhisnotoriousshorttemper.Onemorning,heemptiedbothbarrelsofhisshotgunathistormenters,killingone,maiminganotherpermanently,andwoundingathird….Whenthejurywaspolledbythe

incredulousjudge,Carterwastheonlyjurorwhorecordedhisvoteasguilty.Asoneoftheothersputit,“Hewouldn’tofbeenmuchofamanifhehadn’tshotthemfellows.”

Onlyinacultureofhonorwouldithaveoccurredtothe

irasciblegentlemanthatshootingsomeonewasanappropriateresponsetoapersonalinsult.Andonlyinacultureofhonorwouldithaveoccurredtoajurythatmurder—underthosecircumstances—wasnotacrime.

Irealizethatweareoftenwaryofmakingthesekindsofbroadgeneralizationsaboutdifferentcultural

groups—andwithgoodreason.Thisistheformthatracialandethnicstereotypestake.Wewanttobelievethatwearenotprisonersofourethnichistories.

ButthesimpletruthisthatifyouwanttounderstandwhathappenedinthosesmalltownsinKentuckyinthenineteenthcentury,youhavetogobackintothepast—andnotjustoneortwo

generations.Youhavetogobacktwoorthreeorfourhundredyears,toacountryontheothersideoftheocean,andlookcloselyatwhatexactlythepeopleinaveryspecificgeographicareaofthatcountrydidforaliving.The“cultureofhonor”hypothesissaysthatitmatterswhereyou’refrom,notjustintermsofwhereyougrewuporwhereyourparentsgrew

up,butintermsofwhereyourgreat-grandparentsandgreat-great-grandparentsgrewupandevenwhereyourgreat-great-great-grandparentsgrewup.Thatisastrangeandpowerfulfact.It’sjustthebeginning,though,becauseuponcloserexamination,culturallegaciesturnouttobeevenstrangerandmorepowerfulthanthat.

3.Intheearly1990s,twopsychologistsattheUniversityofMichigan—DovCohenandRichardNisbett—decidedtoconductanexperimentonthecultureofhonor.TheyknewthatwhathappenedinplaceslikeHarlaninthenineteenthcenturywas,inalllikelihood,aproductofpatternslaid

downintheEnglishborderlandscenturiesbefore.Buttheirinterestwasinthepresentday.Wasitpossibletofindremnantsofthecultureofhonorinthemodernera?Sotheydecidedtogathertogetheragroupofyoungmenandinsultthem.“Wesatdownandtriedtofigureoutwhatistheinsultthatwouldgototheheartofaneighteen-to-twenty-year-

old’sbrain,”Cohensays.“Itdidn’ttaketoolongtocomeupwith‘asshole.’”

Theexperimentwentlikethis.ThesocialsciencesbuildingattheUniversityofMichiganhasalong,narrowhallwayinthebasementlinedwithfilingcabinets.Theyoungmenwerecalledintoaclassroom,onebyone,andaskedtofilloutaquestionnaire.Thenthey

weretoldtodropoffthequestionnaireattheendofthehallwayandreturntotheclassroom—asimple,seeminglyinnocentacademicexercise.

Forhalftheyoungmen,thatwasit.Theywerethecontrolgroup.Fortheotherhalf,therewasacatch.Astheywalkeddownthehallwaywiththeirquestionnaire,aman—a

confederateoftheexperimenters—walkedpastthemandpulledoutadrawerinoneofthefilingcabinets.Thealreadynarrowhallwaynowbecameevennarrower.Astheyoungmentriedtosqueezeby,theconfederatelookedup,annoyed.Heslammedthefilingcabinetdrawershut,jostledtheyoungmenwithhisshoulder,and,inalowbutaudiblevoice,said

thetriggerword:“Asshole.”CohenandNisbettwanted

tomeasure,aspreciselyaspossible,whatbeingcalledthatwordmeant.Theylookedatthefacesoftheirsubjectsandratedhowmuchangertheysaw.Theyshooktheyoungmen’shandstoseeiftheirgripwasfirmerthanusual.Theytooksalivasamplesfromthestudents,bothbeforeandafterthe

insult,toseeifbeingcalledanassholecausedtheirlevelsoftestosteroneandcortisol—thehormonesthatdrivearousalandaggression—togoup.Finallytheyaskedthestudentstoreadthefollowingstoryandsupplyaconclusion:

Ithadonlybeenabouttwentyminutessince

theyhadarrivedatthepartywhenJillpulledSteveaside,obviouslybotheredaboutsomething.

“What’swrong?”askedSteve.

“It’sLarry.Imean,heknowsthatyouandIareengaged,buthe’salreadymadetwopassesatmetonight.”

Jillwalkedback

intothecrowd,andStevedecidedtokeephiseyeonLarry.Sureenough,withinfiveminutes,LarrywasreachingoverandtryingtokissJill.

Ifyou’vebeeninsulted,areyoumorelikelytoimagineStevedoingsomethingviolenttoLarry?

Theresultswereunequivocal.Therewerecleardifferencesinhowtheyoungmenrespondedtobeingcalledabadname.Forsome,theinsultchangedtheirbehavior.Forsomeitdidn’t.Thedecidingfactorinhowtheyreactedwasn’thowemotionallysecuretheywere,orwhethertheywereintellectualsorjocks,orwhethertheywerephysically

imposingornot.Whatmattered—andIthinkyoucanguesswherethisisheaded—waswheretheywerefrom.MostoftheyoungmenfromthenorthernpartoftheUnitedStatestreatedtheincidentwithamusement.Theylaugheditoff.Theirhandshakeswereunchanged.Theirlevelsofcortisolactuallywentdown,asiftheywereunconsciouslytryingto

defusetheirownanger.OnlyafewofthemhadStevegetviolentwithLarry.

Butthesoutherners?Oh,my.Theywereangry.Theircortisolandtestosteronejumped.Theirhandshakesgotfirm.StevewasalloverLarry.

“Weevenplayedthisgameofchicken,”Cohensaid.“Wesentthestudentsbackdownthehallways,and

aroundthecornercomesanotherconfederate.Thehallwayisblocked,sothere’sonlyroomforoneofthemtopass.Theguyweusedwassixthree,twohundredfiftypounds.Heusedtoplaycollegefootball.Hewasnowworkingasabouncerinacollegebar.Hewaswalkingdownthehallinbusinessmode—thewayyouwalkthroughabarwhenyouare

tryingtobreakupafight.Thequestionwas:howclosedotheygettothebouncerbeforetheygetoutoftheway?Andbelieveme,theyalwaysgetoutoftheway.”

Forthenortherners,therewasalmostnoeffect.Theygotoutofthewayfiveorsixfeetbeforehand,whethertheyhadbeeninsultedornot.Thesoutherners,bycontrast,weredownrightdeferentialin

normalcircumstances,steppingasidewithmorethanninefeettogo.Butiftheyhadjustbeeninsulted?Lessthantwofeet.Callasoutherneranasshole,andhe’sitchingforafight.WhatCohenandNisbettwereseeinginthatlonghallwasthecultureofhonorinaction:thesouthernerswerereactinglikeWixHowarddidwhenLittleBobTurneraccused

himofcheatingatpoker.

4.Thatstudyisstrange,isn’tit?It’sonethingtoconcludethatgroupsofpeoplelivingincircumstancesprettysimilartotheirancestors’actalotliketheirancestors.Butthosesouthernersinthehallwaystudyweren’tlivingincircumstancessimilartotheir

Britishancestors.Theydidn’tevennecessarilyhaveBritishancestors.TheyjusthappenedtohavegrownupintheSouth.Noneofthemwereherdsmen.Norweretheirparentsherdsmen.Theywerelivinginthelatetwentiethcentury,notthelatenineteenthcentury.TheywerestudentsattheUniversityofMichigan,inoneofthenorthernmoststates

inAmerica,whichmeanttheyweresufficientlycosmopolitantotravelhundredsofmilesfromthesouthtogotocollege.Andnoneofthatmattered.Theystillactedliketheywerelivinginnineteenth-centuryHarlan,Kentucky.

“Yourmedianstudentinthosestudiescomesfromafamilymakingoverahundredthousanddollars,and

that’sinnineteenninetydollars,”Cohensays.“Thesouthernersweseethiseffectwitharen’tkidswhocomefromthehillsofAppalachia.Theyaremorelikelytobethesonsofupper-middlemanagementCoca-ColaexecutivesinAtlanta.Andthat’sthebigquestion.Whyshouldwegetthiseffectwiththem?Whyshouldonegetithundredsofyearslater?Why

arethesesuburban-Atlantakidsactingouttheethosofthefrontier?”*

Culturallegaciesarepowerfulforces.Theyhavedeeprootsandlonglives.Theypersist,generationaftergeneration,virtuallyintact,evenastheeconomicandsocialanddemographicconditionsthatspawnedthemhavevanished,

andtheyplaysucharoleindirectingattitudesandbehaviorthatwecannotmakesenseofourworldwithoutthem.*

SofarinOutlierswe’veseenthatsuccessarisesoutofthesteadyaccumulationofadvantages:whenandwhereyouareborn,whatyourparentsdidforaliving,andwhatthecircumstancesofyourupbringingwereall

makeasignificantdifferenceinhowwellyoudointheworld.ThequestionforthesecondpartofOutliersiswhetherthetraditionsandattitudesweinheritfromourforebearscanplaythesamerole.Canwelearnsomethingaboutwhypeoplesucceedandhowtomakepeoplebetteratwhattheydobytakingculturallegaciesseriously?Ithinkwecan.

CHAPTERSEVEN

TheEthnicTheoryofPlaneCrashes

“CAPTAIN,THEWEATHERRADARHASHELPEDUSALOT.”

OnthemorningofAugust5,1997,thecaptainofKoreanAirflight801wokeatsix.Hisfamilywouldlatertellinvestigatorsthathewenttothegymforanhour,thencamehomeandstudiedtheflightplanforthatevening’sjourneytoGuam.Henappedandatelunch.Atthreeintheafternoon,heleftforSeoul,departingearlyenough,hiswifesaid,tocontinuehis

preparationsatKimpoInternationalAirport.HehadbeenapilotwithKoreanAirforalmostfouryearsaftercomingoverfromtheKoreanAirForce.Hehadeighty-ninehundredhoursofflighttime,includingthirty-twohundredhoursofexperienceinjumbojets.Afewmonthsearlier,hehadbeengivenaflightsafetyawardbyhisairlineforsuccessfullyhandlinga

jumbo-jetenginefailureatlowaltitude.Hewasforty-twoyearsoldandinexcellenthealth,withtheexceptionofaboutofbronchitisthathadbeendiagnosedtendaysbefore.

Atsevenp.m.,thecaptain,hisfirstofficer,andtheflightengineermetandcollectedthetrip’spaperwork.TheywouldbeflyingaBoeing747—themodelknowninthe

aviationworldasthe“classic.”Theaircraftwasinperfectworkingorder.IthadoncebeentheKoreanpresidentialplane.Flight801departedthegateatten-thirtyintheeveningandwasairbornetwentyminuteslater.Takeoffwaswithoutincident.Justbeforeone-thirtyinthemorning,theplanebrokeoutoftheclouds,andtheflightcrewglimpsedlightsoffin

thedistance.“IsitGuam?”theflight

engineerasked.Then,afterapause,hesaid,“It’sGuam,Guam.”

Thecaptainchuckled.“Good!”

ThefirstofficerreportedtoAirTrafficControl(ATC)thattheairplanewas“clearofCharlieBravo[cumulonimbusclouds]”andrequested“radarvectorsfor

runwaysixleft.”Theplanebeganits

descenttowardGuamairport.Theywouldmakeavisualapproach,thecaptainsaid.HehadflownintoGuamairportfromKimpoeighttimespreviously,mostrecentlyamonthago,andheknewtheairportandthesurroundingterrainwell.Thelandinggearwentdown.Theflapswereextendedtendegrees.At

01:41and48seconds,thecaptainsaid,“Wiperon,”andtheflightengineerturnedthemon.Itwasraining.Thefirstofficerthensaid,“Notinsight?”Hewaslookingfortherunway.Hecouldn’tseeit.Onesecondlater,theGroundProximityWarningSystemcalledoutinitselectronicvoice:“Fivehundred[feet].”Theplanewasfivehundredfeetoffthe

ground.Buthowcouldthatbeiftheycouldn’tseetherunway?Twosecondspassed.Theflightengineersaid,“Eh?”inanastonishedtoneofvoice.

At01:42and19seconds,thefirstofficersaid,“Let’smakeamissedapproach,”meaning,Let’spullupandmakealargecircleandtrythelandingagain.

Onesecondlater,the

flightengineersaid,“Notinsight.”Thefirstofficeradded,“Notinsight,missedapproach.”

At01:42and22seconds,theflightengineersaidagain,“Goaround.”

At01:42and23seconds,thecaptainrepeated,“Goaround,”buthewasslowtopulltheplaneoutofitsdescent.

At01:42and26seconds,

theplanehitthesideofNimitzHill,adenselyvegetatedmountainthreemilessouthwestoftheairport—$60millionand212,000kilogramsofsteelslammingintorockygroundatonehundredmilesperhour.Theplaneskiddedfortwothousandfeet,severinganoilpipelineandsnappingpinetrees,beforefallingintoaravineandburstinginto

flames.Bythetimerescueworkersreachedthecrashsite,228ofthe254peopleonboardweredead.

2.TwentyyearsbeforethecrashofKAL801,aKoreanAirBoeing707wanderedintoRussianairspaceandwasshotdownbyaSovietmilitaryjetovertheBarents

Sea.Itwasanaccident,meaningthekindofrareandcatastrophiceventthat,butforthegraceofGod,couldhappentoanyairline.Itwasinvestigatedandanalyzed.Lessonswerelearned.Reportswerefiled.

Then,twoyearslater,aKoreanAirBoeing747crashedinSeoul.Twoaccidentsintwoyearsisnotagoodsign.Threeyearsafter

that,theairlinelostanother747nearSakhalinIsland,inRussia,followedbyaBoeing707thatwentdownovertheAndamanSeain1987,twomorecrashesin1989inTripoliandSeoul,andthenanotherin1994inCheju,SouthKorea.*

Toputthatrecordinperspective,the“loss”rateforanairlineliketheAmericancarrierUnited

Airlinesintheperiod1988to1998was.27permilliondepartures,whichmeansthattheylostaplaneinanaccidentaboutonceineveryfourmillionflights.ThelossrateforKoreanAir,inthesameperiod,was4.79permilliondepartures—morethanseventeentimeshigher.

KoreanAir’splaneswerecrashingsooftenthatwhentheNationalTransportation

SafetyBoard(NTSB)—theUSagencyresponsibleforinvestigatingplanecrasheswithinAmericanjurisdiction—diditsreportontheGuamcrash,itwasforcedtoincludeanaddendumlistingallthenewKoreanAiraccidentsthathadhappenedjustsinceitsinvestigationbegan:theKoreanAir747thatcrash-landedatKimpoinSeoul,almostayeartothedayafter

Guam;thejetlinerthatoverranarunwayatKorea’sUlsanAirporteightweeksafterthat;theKoreanAirMcDonnellDouglas83thatrammedintoanembankmentatPohangAirportthefollowingMarch;andthen,amonthafterthat,theKoreanAirpassengerjetthatcrashedinaresidentialareaofShanghai.HadtheNTSBwaitedjustafewmore

months,itcouldhaveaddedanother:theKoreanAircargoplanethatcrashedjustaftertakeofffromLondon’sStanstedairport,despitethefactthatawarningbellwentoffinthecockpitnofewerthanfourteentimes.

InApril1999,DeltaAirLinesandAirFrancesuspendedtheirflyingpartnershipwithKoreanAir.Inshortorder,theUSArmy,

whichmaintainsthousandsoftroopsinSouthKorea,forbadeitspersonnelfromflyingwiththeairline.SouthKorea’ssafetyratingwasdowngradedbytheUSFederalAviationAdministration,andCanadianofficialsinformedKoreanAir’smanagementthattheywereconsideringrevokingthecompany’soverflightandlandingprivilegesin

Canadianairspace.Inthemidstofthe

controversy,anoutsideauditofKoreanAir’soperationswasleakedtothepublic.Theforty-pagereportwasquicklydenouncedbyKoreanAirofficialsassensationalizedandunrepresentative,butbythatpoint,itwastoolatetosavethecompany’sreputation.Theauditdetailedinstancesofflightcrews

smokingcigarettesonthetarmacduringrefuelingandinthefreightarea;andwhentheplanewasintheair.“Crewreadnewspapersthroughouttheflight,”theauditstated,“oftenwithnewspapersheldupinsuchawaythatifawarninglightcameon,itwouldnotbenoticed.”Thereportdetailedbadmorale,numerousproceduralviolations,andthe

alarmingconclusionthattrainingstandardsforthe747“classic”weresopoorthat“thereissomeconcernastowhetherFirstOfficersontheClassicfleetcouldlandtheaircraftiftheCaptainbecametotallyincapacitated.”

BythetimeoftheShanghaicrash,theKoreanpresident,KimDae-jung,feltcompelledtospeakup.“TheissueofKoreanAirisnota

matterofanindividualcompanybutamatterofthewholecountry,”hesaid.“Ourcountry’scredibilityisatstake.”KimthenswitchedthepresidentialplanefromKoreanAirtoitsnewerrival,Asiana.

Butthenasmallmiraclehappened.KoreanAirturneditselfaround.Today,theairlineisamemberingoodstandingoftheprestigious

SkyTeamalliance.Itssafetyrecordsince1999isspotless.In2006,KoreanAirwasgiventhePhoenixAwardbyAirTransportWorldinrecognitionofitstransformation.AviationexpertswilltellyouthatKoreanAirisnowassafeasanyairlineintheworld.

Inthischapter,we’regoingtoconductacrashinvestigation:listentothe

“blackbox”cockpitrecorder;examinetheflightrecords;lookattheweatherandtheterrainandtheairportconditions;andcomparetheGuamcrashwithotherverysimilarplanecrashes,allinanattempttounderstandpreciselyhowthecompanytransformeditselffromtheworstkindofoutlierintooneoftheworld’sbestairlines.Itisacomplexandsometimes

strangestory.Butitturnsonaverysimplefact,thesamefactthatrunsthroughthetangledhistoryofHarlanandtheMichiganstudents.KoreanAirdidnotsucceed—itdidnotrightitself—untilitacknowledgedtheimportanceofitsculturallegacy.

3.Planecrashesrarelyhappen

inreallifethesamewaytheyhappeninthemovies.Someenginepartdoesnotexplodeinafierybang.Therudderdoesn’tsuddenlysnapundertheforceoftakeoff.Thecaptaindoesn’tgasp,“DearGod,”ashe’sthrownbackagainsthisseat.Thetypicalcommercialjetliner—atthispointinitsstageofdevelopment—isaboutasdependableasatoaster.Plane

crashesaremuchmorelikelytobetheresultofanaccumulationofminordifficultiesandseeminglytrivialmalfunctions.*

Inatypicalcrash,forexample,theweatherispoor—notterrible,necessarily,butbadenoughthatthepilotfeelsalittlebitmorestressedthanusual.Inanoverwhelmingnumberofcrashes,theplaneisbehind

schedule,sothepilotsarehurrying.In52percentofcrashes,thepilotatthetimeoftheaccidenthasbeenawakefortwelvehoursormore,meaningthatheistiredandnotthinkingsharply.And44percentofthetime,thetwopilotshaveneverflowntogetherbefore,sothey’renotcomfortablewitheachother.Thentheerrorsstart—andit’snotjustoneerror.Thetypical

accidentinvolvessevenconsecutivehumanerrors.Oneofthepilotsdoessomethingwrongthatbyitselfisnotaproblem.Thenoneofthemmakesanothererrorontopofthat,whichcombinedwiththefirsterrorstilldoesnotamounttocatastrophe.Butthentheymakeathirderrorontopofthat,andthenanotherandanotherandanotherand

another,anditisthecombinationofallthoseerrorsthatleadstodisaster.

Thesesevenerrors,furthermore,arerarelyproblemsofknowledgeorflyingskill.It’snotthatthepilothastonegotiatesomecriticaltechnicalmaneuverandfails.Thekindsoferrorsthatcauseplanecrashesareinvariablyerrorsofteamworkandcommunication.One

pilotknowssomethingimportantandsomehowdoesn’ttelltheotherpilot.Onepilotdoessomethingwrong,andtheotherpilotdoesn’tcatchtheerror.Atrickysituationneedstoberesolvedthroughacomplexseriesofsteps—andsomehowthepilotsfailtocoordinateandmissoneofthem.

“Thewholeflight-deck

designisintendedtobeoperatedbytwopeople,andthatoperationworksbestwhenyouhaveonepersoncheckingtheother,orbothpeoplewillingtoparticipate,”saysEarlWeener,whowasformanyyearschiefengineerforsafetyatBoeing.“Airplanesareveryunforgivingifyoudon’tdothingsright.Andforalongtimeit’sbeenclearthatifyou

havetwopeopleoperatingtheairplanecooperatively,youwillhaveasaferoperationthanifyouhaveasinglepilotflyingtheplaneandanotherpersonwhoissimplytheretotakeoverifthepilotisincapacitated.”

Consider,forexample,thefamous(inaviationcircles,anyway)crashoftheColombianairlinerAviancaflight052inJanuaryof1990.

TheAviancaaccidentsoperfectlyillustratesthecharacteristicsofthe“modern”planecrashthatitisstudiedinflightschools.Infact,whathappenedtothatflightissosimilartowhatwouldhappensevenyearslaterinGuamthatit’sagoodplacetostartourinvestigationintothemysteryofKoreanAir’splanecrashproblem.

ThecaptainoftheplanewasLaureanoCaviedes.HisfirstofficerwasMauricioKlotz.TheywereenroutefromMedellin,Colombia,toNewYorkCity’sKennedyAirport.Theweatherthateveningwaspoor.Therewasanor’easterupanddowntheEastCoast,bringingwithitdensefogandhighwinds.Twohundredandthreeflightsweredelayedat

NewarkAirport.TwohundredflightsweredelayedatLaGuardiaAirport,161atPhiladelphia,53atBoston’sLoganAirport,and99atKennedy.Becauseoftheweather,AviancawasheldupbyAirTrafficControlthreetimesonitswaytoNewYork.TheplanecircledoverNorfolk,Virginia,fornineteenminutes,aboveAtlanticCityfortwenty-nine

minutes,andfortymilessouthofKennedyAirportforanothertwenty-nineminutes.

Afteranhourandaquarterofdelay,Aviancawasclearedforlanding.Astheplanecameinonitsfinalapproach,thepilotsencounteredseverewindshear.Onemomenttheywereflyingintoastrongheadwind,forcingthemtoaddextrapowertomaintaintheir

momentumontheglidedown.Thenextmoment,withoutwarning,theheadwinddroppeddramatically,andtheyweretravelingmuchtoofasttomaketherunway.Typically,theplanewouldhavebeenflyingonautopilotinthatsituation,reactingimmediatelyandappropriatelytowindshear.Buttheautopilotontheplane

wasmalfunctioning,andithadbeenswitchedoff.Atthelastmoment,thepilotpulledup,andexecuteda“go-around.”TheplanedidawidecircleoverLongIsland,andreapproachedKennedyAirport.Suddenly,oneoftheplane’senginesfailed.Secondslater,asecondenginefailed.“Showmetherunway!”thepilotcriedout,hopingdesperatelythathe

wascloseenoughtoKennedytosomehowglidehiscrippledplanetoasafelanding.ButKennedywassixteenmilesaway.

The707slammedintotheestateownedbythefatherofthetennischampionJohnMcEnroe,intheposhLongIslandtownofOysterBay.Seventy-threeofthe158passengersaboarddied.Ittooklessthanadayforthe

causeofthecrashtobedetermined:“fuelexhaustion.”Therewasnothingwrongwiththeaircraft.Therewasnothingwrongwiththeairport.Thepilotsweren’tdrunkorhigh.Theplanehadrunoutofgas.

4.“It’saclassiccase,”saidSurenRatwatte,aveteran

pilotwhohasbeeninvolvedforyearsin“humanfactors”research,whichistheanalysisofhowhumanbeingsinteractwithcomplexsystemslikenuclearpowerplantsandairplanes.RatwatteisSriLankan,alivelymaninhisfortieswhohasbeenflyingcommercialjetshisentireadultlife.WeweresittinginthelobbyoftheSheratonHotelinManhattan.

He’djustlandedajumbojetatKennedyAirportafteralongflightfromDubai.RatwatteknewtheAviancacasewell.Hebegantotickoffthetypicalcrashpreconditions.Thenor’easter.Thedelayedflight.Theminortechnicalmalfunctionwiththeautopilot.Thethreelongholdingpatterns—whichmeantnotonlyeightyminutesofextraflyingtime

butextraflyingatlowaltitudes,whereaplaneburnsfarmorefuelthanitdoesinthethinairhighabovetheclouds.

“Theywereflyingaseven-oh-seven,whichisanolderairplaneandisverychallengingtofly,”Ratwattesaid.“Thatthingisalotofwork.Theflightcontrolsarenothydraulicallypowered.Theyareconnectedbya

seriesofpulleysandpullrodstothephysicalmetalsurfacesoftheairplane.Youhavetobequitestrongtoflythatairplane.Youheaveitaroundthesky.It’sasmuchphysicaleffortasrowingaboat.MycurrentairplaneIflywithmyfingertips.Iuseajoystick.Myinstrumentsarehuge.Theirswerethesizeofcoffeecups.Andhisautopilotwasgone.Sothecaptainhadto

keeplookingaroundthesenineinstruments,eachthesizeofacoffeecup,whilehisrighthandwascontrollingthespeed,andhislefthandwasflyingtheairplane.Hewasmaxedout.Hehadnoresourceslefttodoanythingelse.That’swhathappenswhenyou’retired.Yourdecision-makingskillserode.Youstartmissingthings—thingsthatyouwouldpickup

onanyotherday.”Intheblackboxrecovered

fromthecrashsite,CaptainCaviedesinthefinalhouroftheflightisheardtorepeatedlyaskforthedirectionsfromATCtobetranslatedintoSpanish,asifhenolongerhadtheenergytomakeuseofhisEnglish.Onnineoccasions,healsoaskedfordirectionstoberepeated.“Tellmethings

louder,”hesaidrightneartheend.“I’mnothearingthem.”WhentheplanewascirclingforfortyminutesjustsoutheastofKennedy—wheneveryoneontheflightdeckclearlyknewtheywererunningoutoffuel—thepilotcouldeasilyhaveaskedtolandatPhiladelphia,whichwasjustsixty-fivemilesaway.Buthedidn’t:itwasasifhehadlockedinonNew

York.Ontheabortedlanding,theplane’sGroundProximityWarningSystemwentoffnofewerthanfifteentimes,tellingthecaptainthathewasbringingintheplanetoolow.Heseemedoblivious.Whenheabortedthelanding,heshouldhavecircledbackaroundimmediately,andhedidn’t.Hewasexhausted.

Throughitall,thecockpitwasfilledwithaheavy

silence.SittingnexttoCaviedeswashisfirstofficer,MauricioKlotz,andintheflightrecorder,therearelongstretchesofnothingbutrustlingandenginenoise.ItwasKlotz’sresponsibilitytoconductallcommunicationwithATC,whichmeantthathisrolethatnightwasabsolutelycritical.Buthisbehaviorwasoddlypassive.Itwasn’tuntilthethird

holdingpatternsouthwestofKennedyAirportthatKlotztoldATCthathedidn’tthinktheplanehadenoughfueltoreachanalternativeairport.ThenextthingthecrewheardfromATCwas“Juststandby”and,followingthat,“ClearedtotheKennedyairport.”InvestigatorslatersurmisedthattheAviancapilotsmusthaveassumedthatATCwasjumpingthemto

theheadofthequeue,infrontofthedozensofotherplanescirclingKennedy.Infact,theyweren’t.Theywerejustbeingaddedtotheendoftheline.Itwasacrucialmisunderstanding,uponwhichthefateoftheplanewouldultimatelyrest.Butdidthepilotsraisetheissueagain,lookingforclarification?No.Nordidtheybringuptheissueoffuel

againforanotherthirty-eightminutes.

5.ToRatwatte,thesilenceinthecockpitmadenosense.Andasawayofexplainingwhy,RatwattebegantotalkaboutwhathadhappenedtohimthatmorningonthewayoverfromDubai.“Wehadthisladyintheback,”hesaid.

“Wereckonshewashavingastroke.Seizing.Vomiting.Inbadshape.ShewasanIndianladywhosedaughterlivesintheStates.HerhusbandspokenoEnglish,noHindi,onlyPunjabi.Noonecouldcommunicatewithhim.HelookedlikehehadjustwalkedoffavillageinthePunjab,andtheyhadabsolutelynomoney.IwasactuallyoverMoscowwhen

ithappened,butIknewwecouldn’tgotoMoscow.Ididn’tknowwhatwouldhappentothesepeopleifwedid.Isaidtothefirstofficer,‘Youflytheplane.WehavetogotoHelsinki.’”

TheimmediateproblemRatwattefacedwasthattheywerelessthanhalfwaythroughaverylongflight,whichmeantthattheyhadfarmorefuelintheirtanksthan

theyusuallydowhenitcomestimetoland.“Weweresixtytonsovermaximumlandingweight,”hesaid.“SonowIhadtomakeachoice.Icoulddumpthefuel.Butcountrieshateitwhenyoudumpfuel.It’smessystuffandtheywouldhaveroutedmesomewhereovertheBalticSea,anditwouldhavetakenmefortyminutesandthelady

probablywouldhavedied.SoIdecidedtolandanyway.Mychoice.”

Thatmeanttheplanewas“landingheavy.”Theycouldn’tusetheautomatedlandingsystembecauseitwasn’tsetuptohandleaplanewiththatmuchweight.

“Atthatstage,Itookoverthecontrols,”hewenton.“Ihadtoensurethattheairplanetoucheddownverysoftly;

otherwise,therewouldhavebeentheriskofstructuraldamage.Itcouldhavebeenarealmess.Therearealsoperformanceissueswithbeingheavy.Ifyoucleartherunwayandhavetogoaround,youmaynothaveenoughthrusttoclimbbackup.

“Itwasalotofwork.You’rejugglingalotofballs.You’vegottogetitright.

Becauseitwasalongflight,thereweretwootherpilots.SoIgotthemup,andtheygotinvolvedindoingeverythingaswell.Wehadfourpeopleupthere,whichreallyhelpedincoordinatingeverything.I’dneverbeentoHelsinkibefore.Ihadnoideahowtheairportwas,noideawhethertherunwayswerelongenough.Ihadtofindanapproach,figureoutifwe

couldlandthere,figureouttheperformanceparameters,andtellthecompanywhatweweredoing.AtonepointIwastalkingtothreedifferentpeople—talkingtoDubai,talkingtoMedLink,whichisaserviceinArizonawheretheyputadoctoroncall,andIwastalkingtothetwodoctorswhowereattendingtotheladyintheback.Itwasnonstopforfortyminutes.

“WewereluckytheweatherwasverygoodinHelsinki,”hesaid.“Tryingtodoanapproachinbadweather,plusaheavyplane,plusanunfamiliarairport,that’snotgood.BecauseitwasFinland,afirst-worldcountry,theywerewellsetup,veryflexible.Isaidtothem,‘I’mheavy.Iwouldliketolandintothewind.’Youwanttoslowyourself

downinthatsituation.Theysaid,Noproblem.Theylandedusintheoppositedirectionthantheynormallyuse.Wecameinoverthecity,whichtheyusuallyavoidfornoisereasons.”

ThinkaboutwhatwasrequiredofRatwatte.Hehadtobeagoodpilot.Thatmuchgoeswithoutsaying:hehadtohavethetechnicalskilltolandheavy.Butalmost

everythingelseRatwattedidthatmadethatemergencylandingasuccessfelloutsidethestrictdefinitionofpilotingskills.

Hehadtoweightheriskofdamaginghisplaneagainsttherisktothewoman’slife,andthen,oncethatchoicewasmade,hehadtothinkthroughtheimplicationsofHelsinkiversusMoscowforthesickpassengerinthe

back.Hehadtoeducatehimself,quickly,ontheparametersofanairporthehadneverseenbefore:couldithandleoneofthebiggestjetsinthesky,atsixtytonsoveritsnormallandingweight?Butmostofall,hehadtotalk—tothepassengers,tothedoctors,tohiscopilot,tothesecondcrewhewokeupfromtheirnap,tohissuperiorsback

homeinDubai,toATCatHelsinki.Itissafetosaythatinthefortyminutesthatpassedbetweenthepassenger’sstrokeandthelandinginHelsinki,therewerenomorethanahandfulofsecondsofsilenceinthecockpit.WhatwasrequiredofRatwattewasthathecommunicate,andcommunicatenotjustinthesenseofissuingcommands

butalsointhesenseofencouragingandcajolingandcalmingandnegotiatingandsharinginformationintheclearestandmosttransparentmannerpossible.

6.Here,bycontrast,isthetranscriptfromAvianca052,astheplaneisgoinginforitsabortivefirstlanding.The

issueistheweather.ThefogissothickthatKlotzandCaviedescannotfigureoutwheretheyare.Paycloseattention,though,nottothecontentoftheirconversationbuttotheform.Inparticular,notethelengthofthesilencesbetweenutterancesandtothetoneofKlotz’sremarks.

CAVIEDES:Therunway,whereisit?Idon’tsee

it.Idon’tseeit.

Theytakeupthelandinggear.ThecaptaintellsKlotztoaskforanothertrafficpattern.Tensecondspass.

CAVIEDES[SEEMINGLYTOHIMSELF]:Wedon’thavefuel…

Seventeensecondspassas

thepilotsgivetechnicalinstructionstoeachother.

CAVIEDES:Idon’tknowwhathappenedwiththerunway.Ididn’tseeit.

KLOTZ:Ididn’tseeit.

AirTrafficControlcomesinandtellsthemtomakealeftturn.

CAVIEDES:Tellthemweareinanemergency!

KLOTZ[TOATC]:That’srighttoone-eight-zeroontheheadingand,ah,we’lltryonceagain.We’rerunningoutoffuel.

Imaginethesceneinthecockpit.Theplaneisdangerouslylowonfuel.Theyhavejustblowntheir

firstshotatalanding.Theyhavenoideahowmuchlongertheplaneiscapableofflying.Thecaptainisdesperate:“Tellthemweareinanemergency!”AndwhatdoesKlotzsay?That’srighttoone-eight-zeroontheheadingand,ah,we’lltryonceagain.We’rerunningoutoffuel.

Tobeginwith,thephrase“runningoutoffuel”hasno

meaninginAirTrafficControlterminology.Allplanes,astheyapproachtheirdestination,arebydefinitionrunningoutoffuel.DidKlotzmeanthat052nolongerhadenoughfueltomakeittoanother,alternativeairport?Didhemeanthattheywerebeginningtogetworriedabouttheirfuel?Next,considerthestructureofthecriticalsentence.Klotzbegins

witharoutineacknowledgmentoftheinstructionsfromATCanddoesn’tmentionhisconcernaboutfueluntilthesecondhalfofthesentence.It’sasifheweretosayinarestaurant,“Yes,I’llhavesomemorecoffeeand,ah,I’mchokingonachickenbone.”Howseriouslywouldthewaitertakehim?TheairtrafficcontrollerwithwhomKlotz

wasspeakingtestifiedlaterthathe“justtookitasapassingcomment.”Onstormynights,airtrafficcontrollershearpilotstalkingaboutrunningoutoffuelallthetime.Eventhe“ah”thatKlotzinsertsbetweenthetwohalvesofhissentenceservestoundercuttheimportanceofwhatheissaying.Accordingtoanotherofthecontrollerswhohandled052thatnight,

Klotzspoke“inaverynonchalantmanner….Therewasnourgencyinthevoice.”

7.ThetermusedbylinguiststodescribewhatKlotzwasengagingininthatmomentis“mitigatedspeech,”whichreferstoanyattempttodownplayorsugarcoatthemeaningofwhatisbeing

said.Wemitigatewhenwe’rebeingpolite,orwhenwe’reashamedorembarrassed,orwhenwe’rebeingdeferentialtoauthority.Ifyouwantyourbosstodoyouafavor,youdon’tsay,“I’llneedthisbyMonday.”Youmitigate.Yousay,“Don’tbother,ifit’stoomuchtrouble,butifyouhaveachancetolookatthisovertheweekend,thatwouldbewonderful.”Inasituationlike

that,mitigationisentirelyappropriate.Inothersituations,however—likeacockpitonastormynight—it’saproblem.

ThelinguistsUteFischerandJudithOrasanuoncegavethefollowinghypotheticalscenariotoagroupofcaptainsandfirstofficersandaskedthemhowtheywouldrespond:

Younoticeontheweatherradaranareaofheavyprecipitation25milesahead.[Thepilot]ismaintaininghispresentcourseatMach.73,eventhoughembeddedthunderstormshavebeenreportedinyourareaandyouencountermoderateturbulence.Youwanttoensure

thatyouraircraftwillnotpenetratethisarea.

Question:whatdoyousaytothepilot?

InFischer’sandOrasanu’sminds,therewereatleastsixwaystotrytopersuadethepilottochangecourseandavoidthebadweather,eachwithadifferentlevelofmitigation.

1. Command:“Turnthirtydegreesright.”That’sthemostdirectandexplicitwayofmakingapointimaginable.It’szeromitigation.

2. CrewObligationStatement:“Ithinkweneedtodeviaterightaboutnow.”Noticetheuseof“we”andthefactthattherequestisnowmuchlessspecific.

That’salittlesofter.3. CrewSuggestion:“Let’s

goaroundtheweather.”Implicitinthatstatementis“we’reinthistogether.”

4. Query:“Whichdirectionwouldyouliketodeviate?”That’sevensofterthanacrewsuggestion,becausethespeakerisconcedingthathe’snotincharge.

5. Preference:“Ithinkitwouldbewisetoturnleftorright.”

6. Hint:“Thatreturnattwenty-fivemileslooksmean.”Thisisthemostmitigatedstatementofall.

FischerandOrasanufoundthatcaptainsoverwhelminglysaidthey

wouldissueacommandinthatsituation:“Turnthirtydegreesright.”Theyweretalkingtoasubordinate.Theyhadnofearofbeingblunt.Thefirstofficers,ontheotherhand,weretalkingtotheirboss,andsotheyoverwhelminglychosethemostmitigatedalternative.Theyhinted.

It’shardtoreadFischerandOrasanu’sstudyandnot

bejustalittlebitalarmed,becauseahintisthehardestkindofrequesttodecodeandtheeasiesttorefuse.Inthe1982AirFloridacrashoutsideWashington,DC,thefirstofficertriedthreetimestotellthecaptainthattheplanehadadangerousamountoficeonitswings.Butlistentohowhesaysit.It’sallhints:

FIRSTOFFICER:Lookhowtheiceisjusthangingonhis,ah,back,backthere,seethat?

FIRSTOFFICER:Seeallthoseiciclesonthebackthereandeverything?

Andthen:

FIRSTOFFICER:Boy,thisisa,thisisalosingbattlehereontryingtode-icethosethings,it[gives]youafalsefeelingofsecurity,that’sallthatdoes.

Finally,astheygetclearancefortakeoff,thefirst

officerupgradestwonotchestoacrewsuggestion:

FIRSTOFFICER:Let’scheckthose[wing]topsagain,sincewe’vebeensettinghereawhile.

CAPTAIN:Ithinkwegettogohereinaminute.

Thelastthingthefirst

officersaystothecaptain,justbeforetheplaneplungesintothePotomacRiver,isnotahint,asuggestion,oracommand.It’sasimplestatementoffact—andthistimethecaptainagreeswithhim.

FIRSTOFFICER:Larry,we’regoingdown,Larry.

CAPTAIN:Iknowit.

Mitigationexplainsoneofthegreatanomaliesofplanecrashes.Incommercialairlines,captainsandfirstofficerssplittheflyingdutiesequally.Buthistorically,crasheshavebeenfarmorelikelytohappenwhenthecaptainisinthe“flyingseat.”Atfirstthatseemstomakenosense,sincethecaptainisalmostalwaysthepilotwiththemostexperience.But

thinkabouttheAirFloridacrash.Ifthefirstofficerhadbeenthecaptain,wouldhehavehintedthreetimes?No,hewouldhavecommanded—andtheplanewouldn’thavecrashed.Planesaresaferwhentheleastexperiencedpilotisflying,becauseitmeansthesecondpilotisn’tgoingtobeafraidtospeakup.

Combatingmitigationhas

becomeoneofthegreatcrusadesincommercialaviationinthepastfifteenyears.Everymajorairlinenowhaswhatiscalled“CrewResourceManagement”training,whichisdesignedtoteachjuniorcrewmembershowtocommunicateclearlyandassertively.Forexample,manyairlinesteachastandardizedprocedureforcopilotstochallengethepilot

ifheorshethinkssomethinghasgoneterriblyawry.(“Captain,I’mconcernedabout…”Then,“Captain,I’muncomfortablewith…”Andifthecaptainstilldoesn’trespond,“Captain,Ibelievethesituationisunsafe.”Andifthatfails,thefirstofficerisrequiredtotakeovertheairplane.)Aviationexpertswilltellyouthatitisthesuccessofthiswaron

mitigationasmuchasanythingelsethataccountsfortheextraordinarydeclineinairlineaccidentsinrecentyears.

“Onaverysimplelevel,oneofthethingsweinsistuponatmyairlineisthatthefirstofficerandthecaptaincalleachotherbytheirfirstnames,”Ratwattesaid.“Wethinkthathelps.It’sjusthardertosay,‘Captain,

you’redoingsomethingwrong,’thantouseaname.”Ratwattetookmitigationveryseriously.Youcouldn’tbeastudentoftheAviancacrashandnotfeelthatway.Hewenton:“OnethingIpersonallytrytodois,Itrytoputmyselfalittledown.Isaytomycopilots,‘Idon’tflyveryoften.Threeorfourtimesamonth.Youflyalotmore.Ifyouseemedoing

somethingstupid,it’sbecauseIdon’tflyveryoften.Sotellme.Helpmeout.’Hopefully,thathelpsthemspeakup.”

8.BacktothecockpitofAvianca052.TheplaneisnowturningawayfromKennedy,aftertheabortedfirstattemptatlanding.Klotzhasjustbeenontheradio

withATC,tryingtofigureoutwhentheycantrytolandagain.Caviedesturnstohim.

CAVIEDES:Whatdidhesay?

KLOTZ:Ialreadyadvisehimthatwearegoingtoattemptagainbecausewenowwecan’t…”

Foursecondsofsilencepass.

CAVIEDES:Advisehimweareinemergency.

Fourmoresecondsofsilencepass.Thecaptaintriesagain.

CAVIEDES:Didyoutellhim?

KLOTZ:Yes,sir.Ialreadyadvisehim.

KlotzstartstalkingtoATC—goingoverroutinedetails.

KLOTZ:One-five-zeromaintainingtwothousandAviancazero-five-twoheavy.

Thecaptainisclearlyattheedgeofpanic.

CAVIEDES:Advisehimwedon’thavefuel.

KlotzgetsbackontheradiowithATC.

KLOTZ:Climbandmaintainthreethousandand,ah,

we’rerunningoutoffuel,sir.

Thereitisagain.Nomentionofthemagicword“emergency,”whichiswhatairtrafficcontrollersaretrainedtolistenfor.Just“runningoutoffuel,sir”attheendofasentence,precededbythemitigating“ah.”Ifyou’recountingerrors,theAviancacrewis

nowindoubledigits.

CAVIEDES:Didyoualreadyadvisethatwedon’thavefuel?

KLOTZ:Yes,sir.Ialreadyadvisehim…

CAVIEDES:Bueno.

Ifitwerenotthepreludetoatragedy,theirback-and-forthwouldresembleanAbbott

andCostellocomedyroutine.Alittleoveraminute

passes.

ATC:AndAviancazero-five-twoheavy,ah,I’mgonnabringyouaboutfifteenmilesnortheastandthenturnyoubackontotheapproach.Isthatokaywithyouandyourfuel?

KLOTZ:Iguessso.Thankyouverymuch.

Iguessso.Thankyouverymuch.Theyareabouttocrash!Oneoftheflightattendantsentersthecockpittofindouthowseriousthesituationis.Theflightengineerpointstotheemptyfuelgauge,andmakesathroat-cuttinggesturewithhisfinger.*Buthesaysnothing.

Nordoesanyoneelseforthenextfiveminutes.There’sradiochatterandroutinebusiness,andthentheflightengineercriesout,“Flameoutonenginenumberfour!”

Caviedessays,“Showmetherunway,”buttherunwayissixteenmilesaway.

Thirty-sixsecondsofsilencepass.Theplane’sairtrafficcontrollercallsoutonelasttime.

ATC:Youhave,ah,youhaveenoughfueltomakeittotheairport?

Thetranscriptends.

9.“Thethingyouhavetounderstandaboutthatcrash,”Ratwattesaid,“isthatNewYorkairtrafficcontrollersare

famousforbeingrude,aggressive,andbullying.Theyarealsoverygood.Theyhandleaphenomenalamountoftrafficinaveryconstrainedenvironment.ThereisafamousstoryaboutapilotwhogotlosttraffickingaroundJFK.YouhavenoideahoweasythatistodoatJFKonceyou’reontheground.It’samaze.Anyway,afemalecontroller

gotmadathim,andsaid,‘Stop.Don’tdoanything.DonottalktomeuntilItalktoyou.’Andshejustlefthimthere.Finallythepilotpicksupthemicrophoneandsays,‘Madam.WasImarriedtoyouinaformerlife?’

“Theyareunbelievable.Thewaytheylookatit,it’s‘I’mincontrol.ShutupanddowhatIsay.’Theywillsnapatyou.Andifyoudon’t

likewhattheytellyoutodo,youhavetosnapback.Andthenthey’llsay,‘Allright,then.’Butifyoudon’t,they’llrailroadyou.IrememberaBritishAirwaysflightwasgoingintoNewYork.TheywerebeingstuffedaroundbyNewYorkAirTrafficControl.TheBritishpilotssaid,‘YoupeopleshouldgotoHeathrowandlearnhowtocontrolanairplane.’It’sallin

thespirit.Ifyouarenotusedtothatsortofgive-and-take,NewYorkATCcanbevery,veryintimidating.AndthoseAviancaguyswerejustintimidatedbytherapidfire.”

ItisimpossibletoimagineRatwattenotmakinghiscasetoKennedyATC—notbecauseheisobnoxiousorpushyorhasanenormousego,butbecauseheseestheworlddifferently.Ifhe

neededhelpinthecockpit,hewouldwakeupthesecondcrew.IfhethoughtMoscowwaswrong,well,hewouldjustgotoHelsinki,andifHelsinkiwasgoingtobringhiminwiththewind,well,hewasgoingtotalkthemintobringinghiminagainstthewind.Thatmorning,whentheywereleavingHelsinki,hehadlineduptheplaneonthewrongrunway—andhis

firstofficerhadquicklypointedouttheerror.ThememorymadeRatwattelaugh.“MasaisSwiss.Hewasveryhappytocorrectme.Hewasgivingmeshitthewholewayback.”

Ratwattecontinued:“Alltheguyshadtodowastellthecontroller,‘Wedon’thavethefueltocomplywithwhatyouaretryingtodo.’Alltheyhadtodowassay,‘Wecan’t

dothat.Wehavetolandinthenexttenminutes.’Theyweren’tabletoputthatacrosstothecontroller.”

ItwasatthispointthatRatwattebegantospeakcarefully,becausehewasabouttomakethekindofculturalgeneralizationthatoftenleavesusuncomfortable.ButwhathappenedwithAviancawasjustsostrange—soseemingly

inexplicable—thatitdemandedamorecompleteexplanationthansimplythatKlotzwasincompetentandthecaptainwastired.Therewassomethingmoreprofound—morestructural—goingoninthatcockpit.Whatiftherewassomethingaboutthepilots’beingColombianthatledtothatcrash?“Look,noAmericanpilotwouldputupwiththat.

That’sthething,”Ratwattesaid.“Theywouldsay,‘Listen,buddy.Ihavetoland.’”

10.Inthe1960sand1970s,theDutchpsychologistGeertHofstedewasworkingforthehumanresourcesdepartmentofIBM’sEuropeanheadquarters.Hofstede’sjob

wastotraveltheglobeandinterviewemployees,askingaboutsuchthingsashowpeoplesolvedproblemsandhowtheyworkedtogetherandwhattheirattitudesweretoauthority.Thequestionnaireswerelongandinvolved,andovertimeHofstedewasabletodevelopanenormousdatabaseforanalyzingthewaysinwhichculturesdifferfromone

another.Today“Hofstede’sDimensions”areamongthemostwidelyusedparadigmsincrossculturalpsychology.

Hofstedeargued,forexample,thatculturescanbeusefullydistinguishedaccordingtohowmuchtheyexpectindividualstolookafterthemselves.Hecalledthatmeasurementthe“individualism-collectivismscale.”Thecountrythat

scoreshighestontheindividualismendofthatscaleistheUnitedStates.Notsurprisingly,theUnitedStatesisalsotheonlyindustrializedcountryintheworldthatdoesnotprovideitscitizenswithuniversalhealthcare.AttheoppositeendofthescaleisGuatemala.

AnotherofHofstede’sdimensionsis“uncertaintyavoidance.”Howwelldoesa

culturetolerateambiguity?Herearethetopfive“uncertaintyavoidance”countries,accordingtoHofstede’sdatabase—thatis,thecountriesmostreliantonrulesandplansandmostlikelytosticktoprocedureregardlessofcircumstances:

1. Greece2. Portugal

3. Guatemala4. Uruguay5. Belgium

Thebottomfive—thatis,theculturesbestabletotolerateambiguity—are:

49.HongKong50.Sweden51.Denmark52.Jamaica

53.Singapore

ItisimportanttonotethatHofstedewasn’tsuggestingthattherewasarightplaceorawrongplacetobeonanyoneofthesescales.Norwashesayingthataculture’spositionononeofhisdimensionswasanironcladpredictorofhowsomeonefromthatcountrybehaves:

it’snotimpossible,forexample,forsomeonefromGuatemalatobehighlyindividualistic.

Whathewassaying,instead,wassomethingverysimilartowhatNisbettandCohenarguedaftertheirhallwaystudiesattheUniversityofMichigan.Eachofushashisorherowndistinctpersonality.Butoverlaidontopofthatare

tendenciesandassumptionsandreflexeshandeddowntousbythehistoryofthecommunitywegrewupin,andthosedifferencesareextraordinarilyspecific.

BelgiumandDenmarkareonlyanhourorsoapartbyairplane,forexample.DaneslookalotlikeBelgians,andifyouweredroppedonastreetcornerinCopenhagen,youwouldn’tfinditallthat

differentfromastreetcornerinBrussels.Butwhenitcomestouncertaintyavoidance,thetwonationscouldnotbefurtherapart.Infact,DaneshavemoreincommonwithJamaicanswhenitcomestotoleratingambiguitythantheydowithsomeoftheirEuropeanpeers.DenmarkandBelgiummayshareinakindofbroadEuropeanliberal-democratic

tradition,buttheyhavedifferenthistories,differentpoliticalstructures,differentreligioustraditions,anddifferentlanguagesandfoodandarchitectureandliterature—goingbackhundredsandhundredsofyears.Andthesumtotalofallthosedifferencesisthatincertainkindsofsituationsthatrequiredealingwithriskanduncertainty,Danestendto

reactinaverydifferentwayfromBelgians.

OfallofHofstede’sDimensions,though,perhapsthemostinterestingiswhathecalledthe“PowerDistanceIndex”(PDI).Powerdistanceisconcernedwithattitudestowardhierarchy,specificallywithhowmuchaparticularculturevaluesandrespectsauthority.Tomeasureit,Hofstedeaskedquestionslike

“Howfrequently,inyourexperience,doesthefollowingproblemoccur:employeesbeingafraidtoexpressdisagreementwiththeirmanagers?”Towhatextentdothe“lesspowerfulmembersoforganizationsandinstitutionsacceptandexpectthatpowerisdistributedunequally?”Howmuchareolderpeoplerespectedandfeared?Arepowerholders

entitledtospecialprivileges?“Inlow–powerdistance

indexcountries,”HofstedewroteinhisclassictextCulture’sConsequences:

powerissomethingofwhichpowerholdersarealmostashamedandtheywilltrytounderplay.IonceheardaSwedish(low

PDI)universityofficialstatethatinordertoexercisepowerhetriednottolookpowerful.Leadersmayenhancetheirinformalstatusbyrenouncingformalsymbols.In(lowPDI)Austria,PrimeMinisterBrunoKreiskywasknowntosometimestakethestreetcartowork.In

1974,IactuallysawtheDutch(lowPDI)primeminister,JoopdenUyl,onvacationwithhismotorhomeatacampingsiteinPortugal.Suchbehaviorofthepowerfulwouldbeveryunlikelyinhigh-PDIBelgiumorFrance.*

YoucanimaginetheeffectthatHofstede’sfindingshadonpeopleintheaviationindustry.Whatwastheirgreatbattleovermitigatedspeechandteamworkallabout,afterall?Itwasanattempttoreducepowerdistanceinthecockpit.Hofstede’squestionaboutpowerdistance—“Howfrequently,inyourexperience,doesthe

followingproblemoccur:employeesbeingafraidtoexpressdisagreementwiththeirmanagers?”—wastheveryquestionaviationexpertswereaskingfirstofficersintheirdealingswithcaptains.AndHofstede’sworksuggestedsomethingthathadnotoccurredtoanyoneintheaviationworld:thatthetaskofconvincingfirstofficerstoassertthemselveswasgoing

todependanawfullotontheirculture’spowerdistancerating.

That’swhatRatwattemeantwhenhesaidthatnoAmericanwouldhavebeensofatallyintimidatedbythecontrollersatKennedyAirport.Americaisaclassiclow–powerdistanceculture.Whenpushcomestoshove,AmericansfallbackontheirAmerican-ness,andthat

American-nessmeansthattheairtrafficcontrolleristhoughtofasanequal.Butwhatcountryisattheotherendofthepowerdistancescale?Colombia.

InthewakeoftheAviancacrash,thepsychologistRobertHelmreich,whohasdonemorethananyonetoarguefortheroleofcultureinexplainingpilotbehavior,

wroteabrilliantanalysisoftheaccidentinwhichhearguedthatyoucouldn’tunderstandKlotz’sbehaviorwithouttakingintoaccounthisnationality,thathispredicamentthatdaywasuniquelythepredicamentofsomeonewhohadadeepandabidingrespectforauthority.Helmreichwrote:

Thehigh–powerdistanceofColombianscouldhavecreatedfrustrationonthepartofthefirstofficerbecausethecaptainfailedtoshowthekindofclear(ifnotautocratic)decisionmakingexpectedinhigh–powerdistancecultures.Thefirstand

secondofficersmayhavebeenwaitingforthecaptaintomakedecisions,butstillmayhavebeenunwillingtoposealternatives.

Klotzseeshimselfasasubordinate.It’snothisjobtosolvethecrisis.It’sthecaptain’s—andthecaptainisexhaustedandisn’tsaying

anything.Thenthere’sthedomineeringKennedyAirportairtrafficcontrollersorderingtheplanesaround.Klotzistryingtotellthemhe’sintrouble.Buthe’susinghisownculturallanguage,speakingasasubordinatewouldtoasuperior.Thecontrollers,though,aren’tColombian.They’relow–powerdistanceNewYorkers.Theydon’tseeany

hierarchicalgapbetweenthemselvesandthepilotsintheair,andtothem,mitigatedspeechfromapilotdoesn’tmeanthespeakerisbeingappropriatelydeferentialtoasuperior.Itmeansthepilotdoesn’thaveaproblem.

ThereisapointinthetranscriptwheretheculturalmiscommunicationbetweenthecontrollersandKlotzbecomessoevidentthatitis

almostpainfultoread.It’sthelastexchangebetweenAviancaandthecontroltower,justminutesbeforethecrash.Klotzhasjustsaid,“Iguessso.Thankyouverymuch”inresponsetothecontroller’squestionabouttheirfuelstate.CaptainCaviedesthenturnstoKlotz.

CAVIEDES:Whatdidhesay?

KLOTZ:Theguyisangry.

Angry!Klotz’sfeelingsarehurt!Hisplaneismomentsfromdisaster.Buthecannotescapethedynamicdictatedtohimbyhiscultureinwhichsubordinatesmustrespectthedictatesoftheirsuperiors.Inhismind,hehastriedandfailedtocommunicatehisplight,andhisonlyconclusionisthathemust

havesomehowoffendedhissuperiorsinthecontroltower.

IntheaftermathoftheKennedycrash,themanagementofAviancaairlinesheldapostmortem.Aviancahadjusthadfouraccidentsinquicksuccession—Barranquilla,Cucuta,Madrid,andNewYork—andallfourcases,theairlineconcluded,“hadtodowithairplanesinperfectflight

condition,aircrewwithoutphysicallimitationsandconsideredofaverageorabove-averageflightability,andstilltheaccidentshappened.”(italicsmine)

Inthecompany’sMadridcrash,thereportwenton,thecopilottriedtowarnthecaptainabouthowdangerousthesituationwas:

Thecopilotwasright.Buttheydiedbecause…whenthecopilotaskedquestions,hisimpliedsuggestionswereveryweak.Thecaptain’sreplywastoignorehimtotally.Perhapsthecopilotdidnotwanttoappearrebellious,questioningthejudgmentofthe

captain,orhedidnotwanttoplaythefoolbecauseheknewthatthepilothadagreatdealofexperienceflyinginthatarea.Thecopilotshouldhaveadvocatedforhisownopinionsinastrongerway…

Ourabilitytosucceedat

whatwedoispowerfullyboundupwithwherewe’refrom,andbeingagoodpilotandcomingfromahigh–powerdistancecultureisadifficultmix.ColombiabynomeanshasthehighestPDI,bytheway.Helmreichandacolleague,AshleighMerritt,oncemeasuredthePDIofpilotsfromaroundtheworld.NumberonewasBrazil.NumbertwowasSouth

Korea.*

11.TheNationalTransportationSafetyBoard,theUSagencyresponsibleforinvestigatingplanecrashes,isheadquarteredinasquat,seventies-eraofficebuildingonthebanksofthePotomacRiverinWashington,DC.

Offtheagency’slonghallwaysarelaboratoriesfilledwithairplanewreckage:amangledpieceofanengineturbine,aproblematicpieceofahelicopterrotor.Onashelfinoneofthelaboratoriesisthecockpitvoiceanddatarecorder—theso-calledblackbox—fromthedevastatingValuJetcrashinFloridain1996,inwhich110peoplewerekilled.The

recorderisencasedinashoebox–sizehousingmadeoutofthickhardenedsteel,andononeendoftheboxisajaggedhole,asifsomeone—or,rather,something—haddrivenastakeintoitwithtremendousforce.SomeoftheNTSBinvestigatorsareengineers,whoreconstructcrashesfromthematerialevidence.Othersarepilots.Asurprisingnumberofthem,

however,arepsychologists,whosejobitistolistentothecockpitrecorderandreconstructwhatwassaidanddonebytheflightcrewinthefinalminutesbeforeacrash.OneoftheNTSB’sleadingblack-boxspecialistsisaganglyfiftyishPhDpsychologistnamedMalcolmBrenner,andBrennerwasoneoftheinvestigatorsintotheKoreanAircrashin

Guam.“Normallythatapproach

intoGuamisnotdifficult,”Brennerbegan.Guamairporthaswhatiscalledaglidescope,whichislikeagiantbeamoflightstretchingupintotheskyfromtheairport,andthepilotsimplyfollowsthebeamallthewaydowntotherunway.Butonthisparticularnight,theglideslopewasdown.“Itwasout

ofservice,”Brennersaid.“Ithadbeensenttoanotherislandtoberepaired.Sotherewasanoticetoairmenthattheglideslopewasnotoperating.”

Inthegrandschemeofthings,thisshouldnothavebeenabigproblem.Inthemonththeglidescopehadbeenunderrepair,therehadbeenaboutfifteenhundredsafelandingsatGuamairport.

Itwasjustasmallthing—aninconvenience,really—thatmadethetaskoflandingaplanejustalittlebitmoredifficult.

“Thesecondcomplicationwastheweather,”Brennercontinued.“NormallyintheSouthPacific,you’vegotthesebriefweathersituations.Buttheygobyquickly.Youdon’thavestorms.It’satropicalparadise.Butthat

night,thereweresomelittlecells,anditjusthappensthatthatevening,theyweregoingtobeflyingintooneofthoselittlecells,afewmilesfromtheairport.Sothecaptainhastodecide,Whatexactlyismyprocedureforlanding?Well,theywereclearedforwhat’scalledaVOR/DMEapproach.It’scomplicated.It’sapainintheass.Ittakesalotofcoordinationtosetit

up.Youhavetocomedowninsteps.Butthen,asithappens,frommilesout,thecaptainseesthelightsofGuam.Soherelaxes.Andhesays,‘We’redoingavisualapproach.’”

TheVORisabeaconthatsendsoutasignalthatallowspilotstocalculatetheiraltitudeastheyapproachanairport.It’swhatpilotsreliedonbeforetheinventionofthe

glidescope.Thecaptain’sstrategywastousetheVORtogettheplanecloseandthen,oncehecouldseethelightsoftherunway,tolandtheplanevisually.Itseemedtomakesense.Pilotsdovisuallandingsallthetime.Buteverytimeapilotchoosesaplan,heissupposedtoprepareabackupincasethingsgoawry.Andthiscaptaindidn’t.

“Theyshouldhavebeencoordinating.Heshouldhavebeenbriefingforthe[DME]step-downs,”Brennerwenton.“Buthedoesn’ttalkaboutthat.Thestormcellsareallaroundthem,andwhatthecaptainseemstobedoingisassumingthatatsomepointhe’sgoingtobreakoutofthecloudsandseetheairport,andifhedoesn’tseeitbyfivehundredsixtyfeet,he’lljust

goaround.Now,thatwouldwork,exceptforonemorething.TheVORonwhichhe’sbasingthisstrategyisnotattheairport.It’stwo-point-fivemilesawayonNimitzHill.There’sanumberofairportsintheworldwherethisistrue.SometimesyoucanfollowtheVORdownandittakesyoustraighttotheairport.HereifyoufollowtheVORdown,ittakesyou

straighttoNimitzHill.”Thepilotknewaboutthe

VOR.Itwasclearlystatedintheairport’snavigationalcharts.He’dflownintoGuameighttimesbefore,andinfact,hehadspecificallymentioneditinthebriefinghegavebeforetakeoff.Butthenagain,itwasoneinthemorning,andhe’dbeenupsincesixa.m.thepreviousday.

“Webelievethatfatiguewasinvolved,”Brennerwenton.“It’saback-of-the-clockflight.Youflyinandarriveatoneinthemorning,Koreantime.Thenyouspendafewhoursontheground,andyouflybackasthesuniscomingup.Thecaptainhasflownitamonthbefore.Inthatcase,hesleptonthefirst-classseat.Nowhe’sflyinginandsayshe’sreallytired.”

Sotheretheyare,threeclassicpreconditionsofaplanecrash,thesamethreethatsetthestageforAvianca052:aminortechnicalmalfunction;badweather;andatiredpilot.Byitself,noneofthesewouldbesufficientforanaccident.Butallthreeincombinationrequirethecombinedeffortsofeveryoneinthecockpit.Andthat’swhereKoreanAir

801ranintotrouble.

12.HereistheflightrecordertranscriptofthefinalthirtyminutesofKALflight801:Itbeginswiththecaptaincomplainingofexhaustion.

0120:01.CAPTAIN:Ifthisround-tripismorethan

anine-hourtrip,wemightgetalittlesomething.Witheighthours,wegetnothing.Eighthoursdonothelpusatall….Theymakeusworktomaximum,uptomaximum.Probablythisway…hotelexpenseswillbesavedforcabincrews,andmaximizetheflight

hours.Anyway,theymakeus…worktomaximum.

Thereisthesoundofamanshiftinginhisseat.Aminutepasses.

0121:13.CAPTAIN:Eh…really…sleepy.[unintelligiblewords]

FIRSTOFFICER:Ofcourse.

Thencomesoneofthemostcriticalmomentsintheflight.Thefirstofficerdecidestospeakup:

FIRSTOFFICER:Don’tyouthinkitrainsmore?Inthisarea,here?

Thefirstofficermusthavethoughtlongandhardbeforemakingthatcomment.He

wasnotflyingintheeasycollegialityofSurenRatwatte’scockpit.AmongKoreanAirflightcrews,theexpectationonlayoversusedtobethatthejuniorofficerswouldattendtothecaptaintothepointofmakinghimdinnerorpurchasinghimgifts.AsoneformerKoreanAirpilotputsit,thesensibilityinmanyoftheairline’scockpitswasthat

“thecaptainisinchargeanddoeswhathewants,whenhelikes,howhelikes,andeveryoneelsesitsquietlyanddoesnothing.”IntheDeltareportonKoreanAirthatwaspostedanonymouslyontheInternet,oneoftheauditorstellsastoryofsittinginonaKoreanAirflightwherethefirstofficergotconfusedwhilelisteningtoAirTrafficControlandmistakenlyput

theplaneonacourseintendedforanotherplane.“TheFlightEngineerpickedupsomethingwaswrongbutsaidnothing.FirstOfficerwasalsonothappybutsaidnothing….Despite[good]visualconditions,crewdidnotlookoutandseethatcurrentheadingwouldnotbringthemtotheairfield.”Finallytheplane’sradarpicksupthemistake,and

thencomesthekeysentence:“CaptainhitFirstOfficerwiththebackofhishandformakingtheerror.”

Hithimwiththebackofhishand?

WhenthethreepilotsallmetthateveningatKimpofortheirpreflightpreparation,thefirstofficerandtheengineerwouldhavebowedtothecaptain.Theywouldallhavethenshakenhands.“Cheo

eomboebseomnida,”thecopilotmighthavesaid,respectfully.“Itisfirsttimetomeetyou.”TheKoreanlanguagehasnofewerthansixdifferentlevelsofconversationaladdress,dependingontherelationshipbetweentheaddresseeandtheaddresser:formaldeference,informaldeference,blunt,familiar,intimate,andplain.Thefirst

officerwouldnothavedaredtouseoneofthemoreintimateorfamiliarformswhenheaddressedthecaptain.Thisisacultureinwhichenormousattentionispaidtotherelativestandingofanytwopeopleinaconversation.

TheKoreanlinguistHo-minSohnwrites:

Atadinnertable,alower-rankingpersonmustwaituntilahigher-rankingpersonsitsdownandstartseating,whilethereversedoesnotholdtrue;onedoesnotsmokeinthepresenceofasocialsuperior;whendrinkingwithasocialsuperior,thesubordinatehideshis

glassandturnsawayfromthesuperior;…ingreetingasocialsuperior(thoughnotaninferior)aKoreanmustbow;aKoreanmustrisewhenanobvioussocialsuperiorappearsonthescene,andhecannotpassinfrontofanobvioussocialsuperior.Allsocialbehaviorandactions

areconductedintheorderofseniorityorranking;asthesayinggoes,chanmultowialaykaita,thereisordereventodrinkingcoldwater.

So,whenthefirstofficersays,“Don’tyouthinkitrainsmore?Inthisarea,here?”weknowwhathemeansbythat:

Captain.Youhavecommittedustovisualapproach,withnobackupplan,andtheweatheroutsideisterrible.Youthinkthatwewillbreakoutofthecloudsintimetoseetherunway.Butwhatifwedon’t?It’spitch-blackoutsideandpouringrainandtheglidescopeisdown.

Buthecan’tsaythat.Hehints,andinhismindhe’ssaidasmuchashecantoa

superior.Thefirstofficerwillnotmentiontheweatheragain.

Itisjustafterthatmomentthattheplane,briefly,breaksoutoftheclouds,andoffinthedistancethepilotsseelights.

“IsitGuam?”theflightengineerasks.Then,afterapause,hesays,“It’sGuam,Guam.”

Thecaptainchuckles.

“Good!”Butitisn’tgood.It’san

illusion.They’vecomeoutofthecloudsforamoment.Buttheyarestilltwentymilesfromtheairport,andthereisanenormousamountofbadweatherstillaheadofthem.Theflightengineerknowsthis,becauseitishisresponsibilitytotracktheweather,sonowhedecidestospeakup.

“Captain,theweatherradarhashelpedusalot,”hesays.

Theweatherradarhashelpedusalot?Asecondhintfromtheflightdeck.Whattheengineermeansisjustwhatthefirstofficermeant.Thisisn’tanightwhereyoucanrelyonjustyoureyestolandtheplane.Lookatwhattheweatherradaristellingus:there’s

troubleahead.ToWesternears,itseems

strangethattheflightengineerwouldbringupthissubjectjustonce.Westerncommunicationhaswhatlinguistscalla“transmitterorientation”—thatis,itisconsideredtheresponsibilityofthespeakertocommunicateideasclearlyandunambiguously.EveninthetragiccaseoftheAir

Floridacrash,wherethefirstofficerneverdoesmorethanhintaboutthedangerposedbytheice,hestillhintsfourtimes,phrasinghiscommentsfourdifferentways,inanattempttomakehismeaningclear.Hemayhavebeenconstrainedbythepowerdistancebetweenhimselfandthecaptain,buthewasstilloperatingwithinaWesternculturalcontext,whichholds

thatifthereisconfusion,itisthefaultofthespeaker.

ButKorea,likemanyAsiancountries,isreceiveroriented.Itisuptothelistenertomakesenseofwhatisbeingsaid.Intheengineer’smind,hehassaidalot.

Sohngivesthefollowingconversationasanillustration,anexchangebetweenanemployee(Mr.

Kim)andhisboss,adivisionchief(kwachang).

KWACHANG:It’scoldandI’mkindofhungry.

[MEANING:Whydon’tyoubuyadrinkorsomethingtoeat?]

MR.KIM:Howabouthavingaglassofliquor?

[MEANING:Iwillbuyliquorforyou.]

KWACHANG:It’sokay.Don’tbother.

[MEANING:Iwillacceptyourofferifyourepeatit.]

MR.KIM:Youmustbehungry.Howaboutgoingout?

[MEANING:Iinsistupontreatingyou.]

KWACHANG:ShallIdoso?[MEANING:Iaccept.]

Thereissomethingbeautifulinthesubtletyofthatexchange,intheattentionthateachpartymustpaytothemotivationsanddesiresoftheother.Itiscivilized,inthetruestsenseofthatword:itdoesnotpermitinsensitivityorindifference.

Buthigh–powerdistancecommunicationworksonlywhenthelisteneriscapableofpayingcloseattention,and

itworksonlyifthetwopartiesinaconversationhavetheluxuryoftime,inordertounwindeachother’smeanings.Itdoesn’tworkinanairplanecockpitonastormynightwithanexhaustedpilottryingtolandatanairportwithabrokenglidescope.

In2000,KoreanAirfinallyacted,bringinginanoutsiderfromDeltaAirLines,DavidGreenberg,toruntheirflightoperations.

Greenberg’sfirststepwassomethingthatwouldmakenosenseifyoudidnotunderstandthetruerootsofKoreanAir’sproblems.HeevaluatedtheEnglishlanguageskillsofalloftheairline’sflightcrews.“Some

ofthemwerefineandsomeofthemweren’t,”heremembers.“SowesetupaprogramtoassistandimprovetheproficiencyofaviationEnglish.”HissecondstepwastobringinaWesternfirm—asubsidiaryofBoeingcalledAlteon—totakeoverthecompany’strainingandinstructionprograms.“AlteonconductedtheirtraininginEnglish,”

Greenbergsays.“Theydidn’tspeakKorean.”Greenberg’srulewassimple.ThenewlanguageofKoreanAirwasEnglish,andifyouwantedtoremainapilotatthecompany,youhadtobefluentinthatlanguage.“Thiswasnotapurge,”hesays.“Everyonehadthesameopportunity,andthosewhofoundthelanguageissuechallengingwereallowedto

gooutandstudyontheirownnickel.Butlanguagewasthefilter.Ican’trecallthatanyonewasfiredforflyingproficiencyshortcomings.”

Greenberg’srationalewasthatEnglishwasthelanguageoftheaviationworld.Whenthepilotssatinthecockpitandworkedtheirwaythroughthewrittencheckliststhatflightcrewsfollowoneverysignificantpointof

procedure,thosechecklistswereinEnglish.WhentheytalkedtoAirTrafficControlanywhereintheworld,thoseconversationswouldbeinEnglish.

“IfyouaretryingtolandatJFKatrushhour,thereisnononverbalcommunication,”Greenbergsays.“It’speopletalkingtopeople,soyouneedtobedarnsureyouunderstand

what’sgoingon.YoucansaythattwoKoreanssidebysidedon’tneedtospeakEnglish.ButiftheyarearguingaboutwhattheguysoutsidesaidinEnglish,thenlanguageisimportant.”

Greenbergwantedtogivehispilotsanalternateidentity.Theirproblemwasthattheyweretrappedinrolesdictatedbytheheavyweightoftheircountry’sculturallegacy.

Theyneededanopportunitytostepoutsidethoseroleswhentheysatinthecockpit,andlanguagewasthekeytothattransformation.InEnglish,theywouldbefreeofthesharplydefinedgradientsofKoreanhierarchy:formaldeference,informaldeference,blunt,familiar,intimate,andplain.Instead,thepilotscouldparticipateinacultureand

languagewithaverydifferentlegacy.

ThecrucialpartofGreenberg’sreform,however,iswhathedidn’tdo.Hedidn’tthrowuphishandsindespair.Hedidn’tfireallofhisKoreanpilotsandstartagainwithpilotsfromalow–powerdistanceculture.Heknewthatculturallegaciesmatter—thattheyarepowerfulandpervasiveand

thattheypersist,longaftertheiroriginalusefulnesshaspassed.Buthedidn’tassumethatlegaciesareanindeliblepartofwhoweare.HebelievedthatiftheKoreanswerehonestaboutwheretheycamefromandwerewillingtoconfrontthoseaspectsoftheirheritagethatdidnotsuittheaviationworld,theycouldchange.Heofferedhispilotswhateveryonefromhockey

playerstosoftwaretycoonstotakeoverlawyershasbeenofferedonthewaytosuccess:anopportunitytotransformtheirrelationshiptotheirwork.

AfterleavingKoreanAir,GreenberghelpedstartupafreightairlinecalledCargo360,andhetookanumberofKoreanpilotswithhim.Theywereallflightengineers,whohadbeennumberthree,after

thecaptainandfirstofficer,inthestricthierarchyoftheoriginalKoreanAir.“ThesewereguyswhohadperformedintheoldenvironmentatKoreanAirforasmuchasfifteentoeighteenyears,”hesaid.“Theyhadacceptedthatsubservientrole.Theyhadbeenatthebottomoftheladder.WeretrainedthemandputthemwithWestern

crew.They’vebeenagreatsuccess.Theyallchangedtheirstyle.Theytakeinitiative.Theypulltheirshareoftheload.Theydon’twaitforsomeonetodirectthem.Theseareseniorpeople,intheirfifties,withalonghistoryinonecontext,whohavebeenretrainedandarenowsuccessfuldoingtheirjobinaWesterncockpit.Wetookthemoutof

theircultureandre-normedthem.”

Thatisanextraordinarilyliberatingexample.Whenweunderstandwhatitreallymeanstobeagoodpilot—whenweunderstandhowmuchcultureandhistoryandtheworldoutsideoftheindividualmattertoprofessionalsuccess—thenwedon’thavetothrowupourhandsindespairatan

airlinewherepilotscrashplanesintothesidesofmountains.Wehaveawaytomakesuccessesoutoftheunsuccessful.

Butfirstwehavetobefrankaboutasubjectthatwewouldalltoooftenratherignore.In1994,whenBoeingfirstpublishedsafetydatashowingaclearcorrelationbetweenacountry’splanecrashesanditsscoreon

Hofstede’sDimensions,thecompany’sresearcherspracticallytiedthemselvesinknotstryingnottocauseoffense.“We’renotsayingthere’sanythinghere,butwethinkthere’ssomethingthere”ishowBoeing’schiefengineerforairplanesafetyputit.Whyarewesosqueamish?Whyisthefactthateachofuscomesfromaculturewithitsown

distinctivemixofstrengthsandweaknesses,tendenciesandpredispositions,sodifficulttoacknowledge?Whowearecannotbeseparatedfromwherewe’refrom—andwhenweignorethatfact,planescrash.

14.Backtothecockpit.

“Captain,theweather

radarhashelpedusalot.”Nopilotwouldsaythatnow.Butthiswasin1997,beforeKoreanAirtookitspowerdistanceissuesseriously.Thecaptainwastired,andtheengineer’struemeaningsailedoverthecaptain’shead.

“Yes,”thecaptainsaysinresponse.“Theyareveryuseful.”Heisn’tlistening.

TheplaneisflyingtowardtheVORbeaconandthe

VORisonthesideofamountain.Theweatherhasn’tbroken.Sothepilotscan’tseeanything.Thecaptainputsthelandinggeardownandextendstheflaps.

At1:41:48,thecaptainsays,“Wiperon,”andtheflightengineerturnsthewiperson.It’srainingnow.

At1:41:59,thefirstofficerasks,“Notinsight?”He’slookingfortherunway.

Hecan’tseeit.He’shadasinkingfeelinginhisstomachforsometimenow.Onesecondlater,theGroundProximityWarningSystemcallsoutinitstonelesselectronicvoice,“Fivehundred[feet].”Theplaneisfivehundredfeetofftheground.ThegroundinthiscaseisthesideofNimitzHill.Butthecrewisconfusedbecausetheythinkthatthe

groundmeanstherunway,andhowcanthatbeiftheycan’tseetherunway?Theflightengineersays,“Eh?”inanastonishedtoneofvoice.Youcanimaginethemallthinkingfuriously,tryingtosquaretheirassumptionofwheretheplaneiswithwhattheirinstrumentsaretellingthem.

At1:42:19,thefirstofficersays,“Let’smakea

missedapproach.”Hehasfinallyupgradedfromahinttoacrewobligation:hewantstoabortthelanding.Later,inthecrashinvestigation,itwasdeterminedthatifhehadseizedcontroloftheplaneinthatmoment,therewouldhavebeenenoughtimetopullupthenoseandclearNimitzHill.Thatiswhatfirstofficersaretrainedtodowhentheybelieveacaptainis

clearlyinthewrong.Butitisonethingtolearnthatinaclassroom,andquiteanothertoactuallydoitintheair,withsomeonewhomightrapyouwiththebackofhishandifyoumakeamistake.

1:42:20.FLIGHTENGINEER:Notinsight.

Withdisasterstaringthem

intheface,boththefirstofficerandtheengineerhavefinallyspokenup.Theywantthecaptaintogoaround,topullupandstartthelandingoveragain.Butit’stoolate.

1:42:21.FIRSTOFFICER:Notinsight,missedapproach.

1:42:22.FLIGHTENGINEER:Goaround.

1:42:23.CAPTAIN:Go

around.1:42:24:05.GROUND

PROXIMITYWARNINGSYSTEM(GPWS):Onehundred.

1:42:24:84.GPWS:Fifty.1:42:25:19.GPWS:Forty.1:42:25:50.GPWS:

Thirty.1:42:25:78.GPWS:

Twenty.1:42:25:78.[soundof

initialimpact]

1:42:28:65.[soundoftone]

1:42:28:91.[soundofgroans]

1:42:30:54.[soundoftone]

ENDOFRECORDING

CHAPTEREIGHT

RicePaddiesandMathTests

“NOONEWHOCANRISEBEFOREDAWNTHREE

HUNDREDSIXTYDAYSAYEARFAILSTOMAKEHISFAMILYRICH.”

1.ThegatewaytotheindustrialheartlandofSouthernChinarunsupthroughthewide,verdantswathofthePearlRiverDelta.Thelandiscoveredbyathick,smoggyhaze.Thefreewaysarecrammedwithtractortrailers.Powerlinescrisscrossthelandscape.Factoriesmakingcameras,computers,watches,

umbrellas,andT-shirtsstandcheekbyjowlwithdenselypackedblocksofapartmentbuildingsandfieldsofbananaandmangotrees,sugarcane,papaya,andpineappledestinedfortheexportmarket.Fewlandscapesintheworldhavechangedsomuchinsoshortatime.Agenerationago,theskieswouldhavebeenclearandtheroadwouldhavebeena

two-lanehighway.Andagenerationbeforethat,allyouwouldhaveseenwerericepaddies.

Twohoursin,attheheadwatersofthePearlRiver,liesthecityofGuangzhou,andpastGuangzhou,remnantsoftheoldChinaareeasiertofind.Thecountrysidebecomesbreathtakinglybeautiful,rollinghillsdottedwith

outcroppingsoflimestonerockagainstthebackdropoftheNanLingMountains.Hereandtherearethetraditionalkhaki-coloredmud-brickhutsoftheChinesepeasantry.Inthesmalltowns,thereareopen-airmarkets:chickensandgeeseinelaboratebamboobaskets,vegetableslaidoutinrowsontheground,slabsofporkontables,tobaccobeing

soldinbigclumps.Andeverywhere,thereisrice,milesuponmilesofit.Inthewinterseason,thepaddiesaredryanddottedwiththestubbleofthepreviousyear’scrop.Afterthecropsareplantedinearlyspring,asthehumidwindsbegintoblow,theyturnamagicalgreen,andbythetimeofthefirstharvest,asthegrainsemergeontheendsofthericeshoots,

thelandbecomesanunendingseaofyellow.

RicehasbeencultivatedinChinaforthousandsofyears.ItwasfromChinathatthetechniquesofricecultivationspreadthroughoutEastAsia—Japan,Korea,Singapore,andTaiwan.Yearin,yearout,asfarbackashistoryisrecorded,farmersfromacrossAsiahaveengagedinthesame

relentless,intricatepatternofagriculture.

Ricepaddiesare“built,”not“openedup”thewayawheatfieldis.Youdon’tjustclearthetrees,underbrush,andstonesandthenplow.Ricefieldsarecarvedintomountainsidesinanelaborateseriesofterraces,orpainstakinglyconstructedfrommarshlandandriverplains.Aricepaddyhastobe

irrigated,soacomplexsystemofdikeshastobebuiltaroundthefield.Channelsmustbedugfromthenearestwatersource,andgatesbuiltintothedikessothewaterflowcanbeadjustedpreciselytocovertherightamountoftheplant.

Thepaddyitself,meanwhile,hastohaveahardclayfloor;otherwisethewaterwillsimplyseepinto

theground.Butofcourse,riceseedlingscan’tbeplantedinhardclay,soontopoftheclay,therehastobeathick,softlayerofmud.Andtheclaypan,asit’scalled,hastobecarefullyengineeredsothatitwilldrainproperlyandalsokeeptheplantssubmergedattheoptimumlevel.Ricehastobefertilizedrepeatedly,whichisanotherart.Traditionally,farmers

used“nightsoil”(humanmanure)andacombinationofburnedcompost,rivermud,beancake,andhemp—andtheyhadtobecareful,becausetoomuchfertilizer,ortherightamountappliedatthewrongtime,couldbeasbadastoolittle.

Whenthetimecametoplant,aChinesefarmerwouldhavehundredsofdifferentvarietiesofricefromwhich

tochoose,eachoneofwhichofferedaslightlydifferenttrade-off,say,betweenyieldandhowquicklyitgrew,orhowwellitdidintimesofdrought,orhowitfaredinpoorsoil.Afarmermightplantadozenormoredifferentvarietiesatonetime,adjustingthemixfromseasontoseasoninordertomanagetheriskofacropfailure.

Heorshe(or,more

accurately,thewholefamily,sincericeagriculturewasafamilyaffair)wouldplanttheseedinaspeciallypreparedseedbed.Afterafewweeks,theseedlingswouldbetransplantedintothefield,incarefullyspacedrowssixinchesapart,andthenpainstakinglynurtured.

Weedingwasdonebyhand,diligentlyandunceasingly,becausethe

seedlingscouldeasilybechokedbyotherplantlife.Sometimeseachriceshootwouldbeindividuallygroomedwithabamboocombtoclearawayinsects.Allthewhile,farmershadtocheckandrecheckwaterlevelsandmakesurethewaterdidn’tgettoohotinthesummersun.Andwhenthericeripened,farmersgatheredalloftheirfriendsand

relativesand,inonecoordinatedburst,harvesteditasquicklyaspossiblesotheycouldgetasecondcropinbeforethewinterdryseasonbegan.

BreakfastinSouthChina,atleastforthosewhocouldaffordit,wascongee—whitericeporridge,withlettuceanddacepasteandbambooshoots.Lunchwasmorecongee.Dinnerwasricewith

“toppings.”Ricewaswhatyousoldatthemarkettobuytheothernecessitiesoflife.Itwashowwealthandstatusweremeasured.Itdictatedalmosteveryworkingmomentofeveryday.“Riceislife,”saystheanthropologistGonçaloSantos,whohasstudiedatraditionalSouthChinesevillage.“Withoutrice,youdon’tsurvive.Ifyouwantto

beanyoneinthispartofChina,youwouldhavetohaverice.Itmadetheworldgoaround.”

2.Takealookatthefollowinglistofnumbers:4,8,5,3,9,7,6.Readthemoutloud.Nowlookawayandspendtwentysecondsmemorizingthatsequencebeforesaying

themoutloudagain.IfyouspeakEnglish,you

haveabouta50percentchanceofrememberingthatsequenceperfectly.Ifyou’reChinese,though,you’realmostcertaintogetitrighteverytime.Whyisthat?Becauseashumanbeingswestoredigitsinamemoryloopthatrunsforabouttwoseconds.Wemosteasilymemorizewhateverwecan

sayorreadwithinthattwo-secondspan.AndChinesespeakersgetthatlistofnumbers—4,8,5,3,9,7,6—rightalmosteverytimebecause,unlikeEnglish,theirlanguageallowsthemtofitallthosesevennumbersintotwoseconds.

ThatexamplecomesfromStanislasDehaene’sbookTheNumberSense.AsDehaeneexplains:

Chinesenumberwordsareremarkablybrief.Mostofthemcanbeutteredinlessthanone-quarterofasecond(forinstance,4is“si”and7“qi”).TheirEnglishequivalents—“four,”“seven”—arelonger:pronouncingthemtakesaboutone-thirdofasecond.The

memorygapbetweenEnglishandChineseapparentlyisentirelyduetothisdifferenceinlength.InlanguagesasdiverseasWelsh,Arabic,Chinese,EnglishandHebrew,thereisareproduciblecorrelationbetweenthetimerequiredtopronouncenumbersinagivenlanguageand

thememoryspanofitsspeakers.Inthisdomain,theprizeforefficacygoestotheCantonesedialectofChinese,whosebrevitygrantsresidentsofHongKongarocketingmemoryspanofabout10digits.

Itturnsoutthatthereis

alsoabigdifferenceinhownumber-namingsystemsinWesternandAsianlanguagesareconstructed.InEnglish,wesayfourteen,sixteen,seventeen,eighteen,andnineteen,soonemightexpectthatwewouldalsosayoneteen,twoteen,threeteen,andfiveteen.Butwedon’t.Weuseadifferentform:eleven,twelve,thirteen,andfifteen.Similarly,wehave

fortyandsixty,whichsoundlikethewordstheyarerelatedto(fourandsix).Butwealsosayfiftyandthirtyandtwenty,whichsortofsoundlikefiveandthreeandtwo,butnotreally.And,forthatmatter,fornumbersabovetwenty,weputthe“decade”firstandtheunitnumbersecond(twenty-one,twenty-two),whereasfortheteens,wedoittheotherwayaround

(fourteen,seventeen,eighteen).ThenumbersysteminEnglishishighlyirregular.NotsoinChina,Japan,andKorea.Theyhavealogicalcountingsystem.Elevenisten-one.Twelveisten-two.Twenty-fouristwo-tens-fourandsoon.

ThatdifferencemeansthatAsianchildrenlearntocountmuchfasterthanAmericanchildren.Four-year-old

Chinesechildrencancount,onaverage,toforty.Americanchildrenatthatagecancountonlytofifteen,andmostdon’treachfortyuntilthey’refive.Bytheageoffive,inotherwords,AmericanchildrenarealreadyayearbehindtheirAsiancounterpartsinthemostfundamentalofmathskills.

Theregularityoftheir

numbersystemalsomeansthatAsianchildrencanperformbasicfunctions,suchasaddition,farmoreeasily.AskanEnglish-speakingseven-year-oldtoaddthirty-sevenplustwenty-twoinherhead,andshehastoconvertthewordstonumbers(37+22).Onlythencanshedothemath:2plus7is9and30and20is50,whichmakes59.AskanAsianchildtoadd

three-tens-sevenandtwo-tens-two,andthenthenecessaryequationisrightthere,embeddedinthesentence.Nonumbertranslationisnecessary:It’sfive-tens-nine.

“TheAsiansystemistransparent,”saysKarenFuson,aNorthwesternUniversitypsychologistwhohascloselystudiedAsian-Westerndifferences.“Ithink

thatitmakesthewholeattitudetowardmathdifferent.Insteadofbeingarotelearningthing,there’sapatternIcanfigureout.ThereisanexpectationthatIcandothis.Thereisanexpectationthatit’ssensible.Forfractions,wesaythree-fifths.TheChineseisliterally‘outoffiveparts,takethree.’That’stellingyouconceptuallywhatafraction

is.It’sdifferentiatingthedenominatorandthenumerator.”

Themuch-storieddisenchantmentwithmathematicsamongWesternchildrenstartsinthethirdandfourthgrades,andFusonarguesthatperhapsapartofthatdisenchantmentisduetothefactthatmathdoesn’tseemtomakesense;itslinguisticstructureisclumsy;

itsbasicrulesseemarbitraryandcomplicated.

Asianchildren,bycontrast,don’tfeelnearlythatsamebafflement.Theycanholdmorenumbersintheirheadsanddocalculationsfaster,andthewayfractionsareexpressedintheirlanguagescorrespondsexactlytothewayafractionactuallyis—andmaybethatmakesthemalittlemore

likelytoenjoymath,andmaybebecausetheyenjoymathalittlemore,theytryalittleharderandtakemoremathclassesandaremorewillingtodotheirhomework,andonandon,inakindofvirtuouscircle.

Whenitcomestomath,inotherwords,Asianshaveabuilt-inadvantage.Butit’sanunusualkindofadvantage.Foryears,studentsfrom

China,SouthKorea,andJapan—andthechildrenofrecentimmigrantswhoarefromthosecountries—havesubstantiallyoutperformedtheirWesterncounterpartsatmathematics,andthetypicalassumptionisthatithassomethingtodowithakindofinnateAsianproclivityformath.*ThepsychologistRichardLynnhasevengonesofarastoproposean

elaborateevolutionarytheoryinvolvingtheHimalayas,reallycoldweather,premodernhuntingpractices,brainsize,andspecializedvowelsoundstoexplainwhyAsianshavehigherIQs.†That’showwethinkaboutmath.Weassumethatbeinggoodatthingslikecalculusandalgebraisasimplefunctionofhowsmartsomeoneis.Butthe

differencesbetweenthenumbersystemsintheEastandtheWestsuggestsomethingverydifferent—thatbeinggoodatmathmayalsoberootedinagroup’sculture.

InthecaseoftheKoreans,onekindofdeeplyrootedlegacystoodinthewayoftheverymoderntaskofflyinganairplane.Herewehaveanotherkindoflegacy,one

thatturnsouttobeperfectlysuitedfortwenty-first-centurytasks.Culturallegaciesmatter,andoncewe’veseenthesurprisingeffectsofsuchthingsaspowerdistanceandnumbersthatcanbesaidinaquarterasopposedtoathirdofasecond,it’shardnottowonderhowmanyotherculturallegacieshaveanimpactonourtwenty-first-centuryintellectualtasks.

Whatifcomingfromacultureshapedbythedemandsofgrowingricealsomakesyoubetteratmath?Couldthericepaddymakeadifferenceintheclassroom?

3.Themoststrikingfactaboutaricepaddy—whichcanneverquitebegraspeduntilyouactuallystandinthemiddle

ofone—isitssize.It’stiny.Thetypicalricepaddyisaboutasbigasahotelroom.AtypicalAsianricefarmmightbecomposedoftwoorthreepaddies.AvillageinChinaoffifteenhundredpeoplemightsupportitselfentirelywith450acresofland,whichintheAmericanMidwestwouldbethesizeofatypicalfamilyfarm.Atthatscale,withfamiliesoffive

andsixpeoplelivingoffafarmthesizeoftwohotelrooms,agriculturechangesdramatically.

Historically,Westernagricultureis“mechanically”oriented.IntheWest,ifafarmerwantedtobecomemoreefficientorincreasehisyield,heintroducedmoreandmoresophisticatedequipment,whichallowedhimtoreplacehumanlabor

withmechanicallabor:athreshingmachine,ahaybaler,acombineharvester,atractor.Heclearedanotherfieldandincreasedhisacreage,becausenowhismachineryallowedhimtoworkmorelandwiththesameamountofeffort.ButinJapanorChina,farmersdidn’thavethemoneytobuyequipment—and,inanycase,therecertainlywasn’tany

extralandthatcouldeasilybeconvertedintonewfields.Soricefarmersimprovedtheiryieldsbybecomingsmarter,bybeingbettermanagersoftheirowntime,andbymakingbetterchoices.AstheanthropologistFrancescaBrayputsit,riceagricultureis“skilloriented”:ifyou’rewillingtoweedabitmorediligently,andbecomemoreadeptatfertilizing,andspend

abitmoretimemonitoringwaterlevels,anddoabetterjobkeepingtheclaypanabsolutelylevel,andmakeuseofeverysquareinchofyourricepaddy,you’llharvestabiggercrop.Throughouthistory,notsurprisingly,thepeoplewhogrowricehavealwaysworkedharderthanalmostanyotherkindoffarmer.

Thatlaststatementmay

seemalittleodd,becausemostofushaveasensethateveryoneinthepremodernworldworkedreallyhard.Butthatsimplyisn’ttrue.Allofus,forexample,aredescendedatsomepointfromhunter-gatherers,andmanyhunter-gatherers,byallaccounts,hadaprettyleisurelylife.The!KungbushmenoftheKalahariDesert,inBotswana,whoare

oneofthelastremainingpractitionersofthatwayoflife,subsistonarichassortmentoffruits,berries,roots,andnuts—inparticularthemongongonut,anincrediblyplentifulandprotein-richsourceoffoodthatliesthickontheground.Theydon’tgrowanything,anditisgrowingthings—preparing,planting,weeding,harvesting,storing—that

takestime.Nordotheyraiseanyanimals.Occasionally,themale!Kunghunt,butchieflyforsport.Alltold,!Kungmenandwomenworknomorethanabouttwelvetonineteenhoursaweek,withthebalanceofthetimespentdancing,entertaining,andvisitingfamilyandfriends.That’s,atmost,onethousandhoursofworkayear.(Whenabushmanwasaskedonce

whyhispeoplehadn’ttakentoagriculture,helookedpuzzledandsaid,“Whyshouldweplant,whentherearesomanymongongonutsintheworld?”)

Orconsiderthelifeofapeasantineighteenth-centuryEurope.Menandwomeninthosedaysprobablyworkedfromdawntonoontwohundreddaysayear,whichworksouttoabouttwelve

hundredhoursofworkannually.Duringharvestorspringplanting,thedaymightbelonger.Inthewinter,muchless.InTheDiscoveryofFrance,thehistorianGrahamRobbarguesthatpeasantlifeinacountrylikeFrance,evenwellintothenineteenthcentury,wasessentiallybriefepisodesofworkfollowedbylongperiodsofidleness.

“Ninety-ninepercentofall

humanactivitydescribedinthisandotheraccounts[ofFrenchcountrylife],”hewrites,“tookplacebetweenlatespringandearlyautumn.”InthePyreneesandtheAlps,entirevillageswouldessentiallyhibernatefromthetimeofthefirstsnowinNovemberuntilMarchorApril.InmoretemperateregionsofFrance,wheretemperaturesinthewinter

rarelyfellbelowfreezing,thesamepatternheld.Robbcontinues:

ThefieldsofFlandersweredesertedformuchoftheyear.AnofficialreportontheNièvrein1844describedthestrangemutationoftheBurgundianday-laboreroncethe

harvestwasinandthevinestockshadbeenburned:“Aftermakingthenecessaryrepairstotheirtools,thesevigorousmenwillnowspendtheirdaysinbed,packingtheirbodiestightlytogetherinordertostaywarmandeatlessfood.Theyweakenthemselvesdeliberately.”

Humanhibernationwasaphysicalandeconomicnecessity.Loweringthemetabolicratepreventedhungerfromexhaustingsupplies….Peopletrudgedanddawdled,eveninsummer….Aftertherevolution,inAlsaceandthePas-de-Calais,officialscomplained

thatwinegrowersandindependentfarmers,insteadofundertaking“somepeacefulandsedentaryindustry”inthequieterseason,“abandonthemselvestodumbidleness.”

IfyouwereapeasantfarmerinSouthernChina,bycontrast,youdidn’tsleep

throughthewinter.Intheshortbreakmarkedbythedryseason,fromNovemberthroughFebruary,youbusiedyourselfwithsidetasks.Youmadebamboobasketsorhatsandsoldtheminthemarket.Yourepairedthedikesinyourricepaddy,andrebuiltyourmudhut.Yousentoneofyoursonstoworkinanearbyvillageforarelative.Youmadetofuanddried

beancurdandcaughtsnakes(theywereadelicacy)andtrappedinsects.Bythetimelahpcheun(the“turningofthespring”)came,youwerebackinthefieldsatdawn.Workinginaricefieldistentotwentytimesmorelabor-intensivethanworkingonanequivalent-sizecornorwheatfield.Someestimatesputtheannualworkloadofawet-ricefarmerinAsiaatthree

thousandhoursayear.

4.Think,foramoment,aboutwhatthelifeofaricefarmerinthePearlRiverDeltamusthavebeenlike.Threethousandhoursayearisastaggeringamountoftimetospendworking,particularlyifmanyofthosehoursinvolvebeingbentoverinthehot

sun,plantingandweedinginaricepaddy.

Whatredeemedthelifeofaricefarmer,however,wasthenatureofthatwork.ItwasalotlikethegarmentworkdonebytheJewishimmigrantstoNewYork.Itwasmeaningful.Firstofall,thereisaclearrelationshipinricefarmingbetweeneffortandreward.Theharderyouworkaricefield,themoreit

yields.Second,it’scomplexwork.Thericefarmerisn’tsimplyplantinginthespringandharvestinginthefall.Heorsheeffectivelyrunsasmallbusiness,jugglingafamilyworkforce,hedginguncertaintythroughseedselection,buildingandmanagingasophisticatedirrigationsystem,andcoordinatingthecomplicatedprocessofharvestingthefirst

cropwhilesimultaneouslypreparingthesecondcrop.

And,mostofall,it’sautonomous.ThepeasantsofEuropeworkedessentiallyaslow-paidslavesofanaristocraticlandlord,withlittlecontrolovertheirowndestinies.ButChinaandJapanneverdevelopedthatkindofoppressivefeudalsystem,becausefeudalismsimplycan’tworkinarice

economy.Growingriceistoocomplicatedandintricateforasystemthatrequiresfarmerstobecoercedandbulliedintogoingoutintothefieldseachmorning.Bythefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies,landlordsincentralandSouthernChinahadanalmostcompletelyhands-offrelationshipwiththeirtenants:theywouldcollectafixedrentandletfarmersgo

abouttheirbusiness.“Thethingaboutwet-rice

farmingis,notonlydoyouneedphenomenalamountsoflabor,butit’sveryexacting,”saysthehistorianKennethPomerantz.“Youhavetocare.Itreallymattersthatthefieldisperfectlyleveledbeforeyoufloodit.Gettingitclosetolevelbutnotquiterightmakesabigdifferenceintermsofyouryield.It

reallymattersthatthewaterisinthefieldsforjusttherightamountoftime.There’sabigdifferencebetweenlininguptheseedlingsatexactlytherightdistanceanddoingitsloppily.It’snotlikeyouputthecorninthegroundinmid-Marchandaslongasraincomesbytheendofthemonth,you’reokay.You’recontrollingalltheinputsinaverydirectway.Andwhen

youhavesomethingthatrequiresthatmuchcare,theoverlordhastohaveasystemthatgivestheactuallaborersomesetofincentives,whereiftheharvestcomesoutwell,thefarmergetsabiggershare.That’swhyyougetfixedrents,wherethelandlordsays,Igettwentybushels,regardlessoftheharvest,andifit’sreallygood,yougettheextra.It’sa

cropthatdoesn’tdoverywellwithsomethinglikeslaveryorwagelabor.Itwouldjustbetooeasytoleavethegatethatcontrolstheirrigationwateropenafewsecondstoolongandtheregoesyourfield.”

ThehistorianDavidArkushoncecomparedRussianandChinesepeasantproverbs,andthedifferencesarestriking.“IfGoddoesnot

bringit,theearthwillnotgiveit”isatypicalRussianproverb.That’sthekindoffatalismandpessimismtypicalofarepressivefeudalsystem,wherepeasantshavenoreasontobelieveintheefficacyoftheirownwork.Ontheotherhand,Arkushwrites,Chineseproverbsarestrikingintheirbeliefthat“hardwork,shrewdplanningandself-relianceor

cooperationwithasmallgroupwillintimebringrecompense.”

HerearesomeofthethingsthatpennilesspeasantswouldsaytooneanotherastheyworkedthreethousandhoursayearinthebakingheatandhumidityofChinesericepaddies(which,bytheway,arefilledwithleeches):

“Nofoodwithoutblood

andsweat.”“Farmersarebusy;

farmersarebusy;iffarmersweren’tbusy,wherewouldgraintogetthroughthewintercomefrom?”

“Inwinter,thelazymanfreezestodeath.”

“Don’tdependonheavenforfood,butonyourowntwohandscarryingtheload.”

“Uselesstoaskaboutthecrops,italldependsonhardworkandfertilizer.”

“Ifamanworkshard,thelandwillnotbelazy.”

And,mosttellingofall:“Noonewhocanrisebeforedawnthreehundredsixtydaysayearfailstomakehisfamilyrich.”Risebeforedawn?360daysayear?For

the!Kungleisurelygatheringmongongonuts,ortheFrenchpeasantsleepingawaythewinter,oranyoneelselivinginsomethingotherthantheworldofricecultivation,thatproverbwouldbeunthinkable.

Thisisnot,ofcourse,anunfamiliarobservationaboutAsianculture.GotoanyWesterncollegecampusandyou’llfindthatAsian

studentshaveareputationforbeinginthelibrarylongaftereveryoneelsehasleft.SometimespeopleofAsianbackgroundgetoffendedwhentheircultureisdescribedthisway,becausetheythinkthatthestereotypeisbeingusedasaformofdisparagement.Butabeliefinworkoughttobeathingofbeauty.Virtuallyeverysuccessstorywe’veseenin

thisbooksofarinvolvessomeoneorsomegroupworkingharderthantheirpeers.BillGateswasaddictedtohiscomputerasachild.SowasBillJoy.TheBeatlesputinthousandsofhoursofpracticeinHamburg.JoeFlomgroundawayforyears,perfectingtheartoftakeovers,beforehegothischance.Workingreallyhardiswhatsuccessfulpeopledo,

andthegeniusofthecultureformedinthericepaddiesisthathardworkgavethoseinthefieldsawaytofindmeaninginthemidstofgreatuncertaintyandpoverty.ThatlessonhasservedAsianswellinmanyendeavorsbutrarelysoperfectlyasinthecaseofmathematics.

Afewyearsago,AlanSchoenfeld,amathprofessoratBerkeley,madeavideotapeofawomannamedReneeasshewastryingtosolveamathproblem.Reneewasinhermid-twenties,withlongblackhairandroundsilverglasses.Inthetape,she’splayingwithasoftwareprogramdesignedtoteachalgebra.Onthescreenareayandanxaxis.Theprogram

askstheusertopunchinasetofcoordinatesandthendrawsthelinefromthosecoordinatesonthescreen.Forexample,whenshetypedin5ontheyaxisand5onthexaxis,thecomputerdidthis:

Atthispoint,I’msure,somevaguememoryofyour

middle-schoolalgebraiscomingbacktoyou.Butrestassured,youdon’tneedtorememberanyofittounderstandthesignificanceofRenee’sexample.Infact,asyoulistentoReneetalkinginthenextfewparagraphs,focusnotonwhatshe’ssayingbutratheronhowshe’stalkingandwhyshe’stalkingthewaysheis.

Thepointofthecomputer

program,whichSchoenfeldcreated,wastoteachstudentsabouthowtocalculatetheslopeofaline.Slope,asI’msureyouremember(or,moreaccurately,asI’llbetyoudon’tremember;Icertainlydidn’t),isriseoverrun.Theslopeofthelineinourexampleis1,sincetheriseis5andtherunis5.

SothereisRenee.She’ssittingatthekeyboard,and

she’stryingtofigureoutwhatnumberstoenterinordertogetthecomputertodrawalinethatisabsolutelyvertical,thatisdirectlysuperimposedovertheyaxis.Now,thoseofyouwhorememberyourhighschoolmathwillknowthatthisis,infact,impossible.Averticallinehasanundefinedslope.Itsriseisinfinite:anynumberontheyaxisstartingatzeroandgoingonforever.

It’srunonthexaxis,meanwhile,iszero.Infinitydividedbyzeroisnotanumber.

ButReneedoesn’trealizethatwhatshe’stryingtodocan’tbedone.Sheis,rather,inthegripofwhatSchoenfeldcallsa“gloriousmisconception,”andthereasonSchoenfeldlikestoshowthisparticulartapeisthatitisaperfect

demonstrationofhowthismisconceptioncametoberesolved.

Reneewasanurse.Shewasn’tsomeonewhohadbeenparticularlyinterestedinmathematicsinthepast.Butshehadsomehowgottenholdofthesoftwareandwashooked.

“Now,whatIwanttodoismakeastraightlinewiththisformula,paralleltothey

axis,”shebegins.Schoenfeldissittingnexttoher.Shelooksoverathimanxiously.“It’sbeenfiveyearssinceIdidanyofthis.”

Shestartstofiddlewiththeprogram,typingindifferentnumbers.

“NowifIchangetheslopethatway…minus1…nowwhatImeantodoismakethelinegostraight.”

Asshetypesinnumbers,

thelineonthescreenchanges.

“Oops.That’snotgoingtodoit.”

Shelookspuzzled.“Whatareyoutryingto

do?”Schoenfeldasks.“WhatI’mtryingtodois

makeastraightlineparalleltotheyaxis.WhatdoIneedtodohere?IthinkwhatIneedtodoischangethisalittlebit.”Shepointsatthe

placewherethenumberfortheyaxisis.“ThatwassomethingIdiscovered.Thatwhenyougofrom1to2,therewasaratherbigchange.Butnowifyougetwayupthereyouhavetokeepchanging.”

ThisisRenee’sgloriousmisconception.She’snoticedthehighershemakestheyaxiscoordinate,thesteeperthelinegets.Soshethinks

thekeytomakingaverticallineisjustmakingtheyaxiscoordinatelargeenough.

“Iguess12oreven13coulddoit.Maybeevenasmuchas15.”

Shefrowns.SheandSchoenfeldgobackandforth.Sheaskshimquestions.Heprodshergentlyintherightdirection.Shekeepstryingandtrying,oneapproachafteranother.

Atonepoint,shetypesin20.Thelinegetsalittlebitsteeper.

Shetypesin40.Thelinegetssteeperstill.

“Iseethatthereisarelationshipthere.Butasto

why,itdoesn’tseemtomakesensetome….WhatifIdo80?If40getsmehalfway,then80shouldgetmeallthewaytotheyaxis.Solet’sjustseewhathappens.”

Shetypesin80.Thelineissteeper.Butit’sstillnottotallyvertical.

“Ohhh.It’sinfinity,isn’tit?It’snevergoingtogetthere.”Reneeisclose.Butthensherevertstoher

originalmisconception.“SowhatdoIneed?100?

Everytimeyoudoublethenumber,yougethalfwaytotheyaxis.Butitnevergetsthere…”

Shetypesin100.

“It’scloser.Butnotquitethereyet.”

Shestartstothinkoutloud.It’sobviousshe’sonthevergeoffiguringsomethingout.“Well,Iknewthis,though…but…Iknewthat.Foreachoneup,itgoesthatmanyover.I’mstillsomewhatconfusedastowhy…”

Shepauses,squintingatthescreen.

“I’mgettingconfused.It’satenthofthewaytotheone.

ButIdon’twantittobe…”Andthensheseesit.“Oh!It’sanynumberup,

andzeroover.It’sanynumberdividedbyzero!”Herfacelightsup.“Averticallineisanythingdividedbyzero—andthat’sanundefinednumber.Ohhh.Okay.NowIsee.Theslopeofaverticallineisundefined.Ahhhh.Thatmeanssomethingnow.Iwon’tforgetthat!”

6.Overthecourseofhiscareer,Schoenfeldhasvideotapedcountlessstudentsastheyworkedonmathproblems.ButtheReneetapeisoneofhisfavoritesbecauseofhowbeautifullyitillustrateswhatheconsiderstobethesecrettolearningmathematics.Twenty-twominutespassfromthemomentRenee

beginsplayingwiththecomputerprogramtothemomentshesays,“Ahhhh.Thatmeanssomethingnow.”That’salongtime.“Thisiseighth-grademathematics,”Schoenfeldsaid.“IfIputtheaverageeighthgraderinthesamepositionasRenee,I’mguessingthatafterthefirstfewattempts,theywouldhavesaid,‘Idon’tgetit.Ineedyoutoexplainit.’”

Schoenfeldonceaskedagroupofhighschoolstudentshowlongtheywouldworkonahomeworkquestionbeforetheyconcludeditwastoohardforthemevertosolve.Theiranswersrangedfromthirtysecondstofiveminutes,withtheaverageanswertwominutes.

ButReneepersists.Sheexperiments.Shegoesbackoverthesameissuestimeand

again.Shethinksoutloud.Shekeepsgoingandgoing.Shesimplywon’tgiveup.Sheknowsonsomevaguelevelthatthereissomethingwrongwithhertheoryabouthowtodrawaverticalline,andshewon’tstopuntilshe’sabsolutelysureshehasitright.

Reneewasn’tamathnatural.Abstractconceptslike“slope”and“undefined”

clearlydidn’tcomeeasilytoher.ButSchoenfeldcouldnothavefoundhermoreimpressive.

“There’sawilltomakesensethatdriveswhatshedoes,”Schoenfeldsays.“Shewouldn’tacceptasuperficial‘Yeah,you’reright’andwalkaway.That’snotwhosheis.Andthat’sreallyunusual.”Herewoundthetapeandpointedtoamomentwhen

Reneereactedwithgenuinesurprisetosomethingonthescreen.

“Look,”hesaid.“Shedoesadoubletake.Manystudentswouldjustletthatflyby.Instead,shethought,‘Thatdoesn’tjibewithwhateverI’mthinking.Idon’tgetit.That’simportant.Iwantanexplanation.’Andwhenshefinallygetstheexplanation,shesays,‘Yeah,

thatfits.’”AtBerkeley,Schoenfeld

teachesacourseonproblemsolving,theentirepointofwhich,hesays,istogethisstudentstounlearnthemathematicalhabitstheypickeduponthewaytouniversity.“IpickaproblemthatIdon’tknowhowtosolve,”hesays.“Itellmystudents,‘You’regoingtohaveatwo-weektake-home

exam.Iknowyourhabits.You’regoingtodonothingforthefirstweekandstartitnextweek,andIwanttowarnyounow:Ifyouonlyspendoneweekonthis,you’renotgoingtosolveit.If,ontheotherhand,youstartworkingthedayIgiveyouthemidterm,you’llbefrustrated.You’llcometomeandsay,‘It’simpossible.’I’lltellyou,Keepworking,andbyweek

two,you’llfindyou’llmakesignificantprogress.”

Wesometimesthinkofbeinggoodatmathematicsasaninnateability.Youeitherhave“it”oryoudon’t.ButtoSchoenfeld,it’snotsomuchabilityasattitude.Youmastermathematicsifyouarewillingtotry.That’swhatSchoenfeldattemptstoteachhisstudents.Successisafunctionofpersistenceand

doggednessandthewillingnesstoworkhardfortwenty-twominutestomakesenseofsomethingthatmostpeoplewouldgiveuponafterthirtyseconds.PutabunchofReneesinaclassroom,andgivethemthespaceandtimetoexploremathematicsforthemselves,andyoucouldgoalongway.OrimagineacountrywhereRenee’sdoggednessisnotthe

exception,butaculturaltrait,embeddedasdeeplyasthecultureofhonorintheCumberlandPlateau.Nowthatwouldbeacountrygoodatmath.

7.Everyfouryears,aninternationalgroupofeducatorsadministersacomprehensivemathematics

andsciencetesttoelementaryandjuniorhighstudentsaroundtheworld.It’stheTIMSS(thesametestyoureadaboutearlier,inthediscussionofdifferencesbetweenfourthgradersbornnearthebeginningofaschoolcutoffdateandthosebornneartheendofthedate),andthepointoftheTIMSSistocomparetheeducationalachievementofonecountry

withanother’s.Whenstudentssitdownto

taketheTIMSSexam,theyalsohavetofilloutaquestionnaire.Itasksthemallkindsofthings,suchaswhattheirparents’levelofeducationis,andwhattheirviewsaboutmathare,andwhattheirfriendsarelike.It’snotatrivialexercise.It’sabout120questionslong.Infact,itissotediousand

demandingthatmanystudentsleaveasmanyastenortwentyquestionsblank.

Now,here’stheinterestingpart.Asitturnsout,theaveragenumberofitemsansweredonthatquestionnairevariesfromcountrytocountry.Itispossible,infact,torankalltheparticipatingcountriesaccordingtohowmanyitemstheirstudentsansweronthe

questionnaire.Now,whatdoyouthinkhappensifyoucomparethequestionnairerankingswiththemathrankingsontheTIMSS?Theyareexactlythesame.Inotherwords,countrieswhosestudentsarewillingtoconcentrateandsitstilllongenoughandfocusonansweringeverysinglequestioninanendlessquestionnairearethesame

countrieswhosestudentsdothebestjobofsolvingmathproblems.

ThepersonwhodiscoveredthisfactisaneducationalresearcherattheUniversityofPennsylvanianamedErlingBoe,andhestumbledacrossitbyaccident.“Itcameoutoftheblue,”hesays.Boehasn’tevenbeenabletopublishhisfindingsinascientific

journal,because,hesays,it’sjustabittooweird.Remember,he’snotsayingthattheabilitytofinishthequestionnaireandtheabilitytoexcelonthemathtestarerelated.He’ssayingthattheyarethesame:ifyoucomparethetworankings,theyareidentical.

Thinkaboutthisanotherway.Imaginethateveryyear,therewasaMathOlympicsin

somefabulouscityintheworld.Andeverycountryintheworldsentitsownteamofonethousandeighthgraders.Boe’spointisthatwecouldpredictpreciselytheorderinwhicheverycountrywouldfinishintheMathOlympicswithoutaskingasinglemathquestion.Allwewouldhavetodoisgivethemsometaskmeasuringhowhardtheywerewillingto

work.Infact,wewouldn’tevenhavetogivethematask.Weshouldbeabletopredictwhichcountriesarebestatmathsimplybylookingatwhichnationalculturesplacethehighestemphasisoneffortandhardwork.

So,whichplacesareatthetopofbothlists?Theanswershouldn’tsurpriseyou:Singapore,SouthKorea,China(Taiwan),HongKong,

andJapan.Whatthosefivehaveincommon,ofcourse,isthattheyareallculturesshapedbythetraditionofwet-riceagricultureandmeaningfulwork.*Theyarethekindsofplaceswhere,forhundredsofyears,pennilesspeasants,slavingawayinthericepaddiesthreethousandhoursayear,saidthingstooneanotherlike“Noonewhocanrisebeforedawnthree

hundredsixtydaysayearfailstomakehisfamilyrich.”†

CHAPTERNINE

Marita’sBargain

“ALLMYFRIENDSNOWAREFROMKIPP.”

1.Inthemid-1990s,an

experimentalpublicschoolcalledtheKIPPAcademyopenedonthefourthfloorofLouGehrigJuniorHighSchoolinNewYorkCity.*LouGehrigisintheseventhschooldistrict,otherwiseknownastheSouthBronx,oneofthepoorestneighborhoodsinNewYorkCity.Itisasquat,gray1960s-erabuildingacrossthestreetfromableak-lookinggroup

ofhigh-rises.AfewblocksoverisGrandConcourse,theborough’smainthoroughfare.Thesearenotstreetsthatyou’dhappilywalkdown,alone,afterdark.

KIPPisamiddleschool.Classesarelarge:thefifthgradehastwosectionsofthirty-fivestudentseach.Therearenoentranceexamsoradmissionsrequirements.Studentsarechosenby

lottery,withanyfourthgraderlivingintheBronxeligibletoapply.RoughlyhalfofthestudentsareAfricanAmerican;therestareHispanic.Three-quartersofthechildrencomefromsingle-parenthomes.Ninetypercentqualifyfor“freeorreducedlunch,”whichistosaythattheirfamiliesearnsolittlethatthefederalgovernmentchipsinsothe

childrencaneatproperlyatlunchtime.

KIPPAcademyseemslikethekindofschoolinthekindofneighborhoodwiththekindofstudentthatwouldmakeeducatorsdespair—exceptthattheminuteyouenterthebuilding,it’sclearthatsomethingisdifferent.Thestudentswalkquietlydownthehallwaysinsinglefile.Intheclassroom,they

aretaughttoturnandaddressanyonetalkingtotheminaprotocolknownas“SSLANT”:smile,situp,listen,askquestions,nodwhenbeingspokento,andtrackwithyoureyes.Onthewallsoftheschool’scorridorsarehundredsofpennantsfromthecollegesthatKIPPgraduateshavegoneontoattend.Lastyear,hundredsoffamiliesfrom

acrosstheBronxenteredthelotteryforKIPP’stwofifth-gradeclasses.Itisnoexaggerationtosaythatjustovertenyearsintoitsexistence,KIPPhasbecomeoneofthemostdesirablepublicschoolsinNewYorkCity.

WhatKIPPismostfamousforismathematics.IntheSouthBronx,onlyabout16percentofallmiddle

schoolstudentsareperformingatorabovetheirgradelevelinmath.ButatKIPP,bytheendoffifthgrade,manyofthestudentscallmaththeirfavoritesubject.Inseventhgrade,KIPPstudentsstarthighschoolalgebra.Bytheendofeighthgrade,84percentofthestudentsareperformingatorabovetheirgradelevel,whichistosaythatthis

motleygroupofrandomlychosenlower-incomekidsfromdingyapartmentsinoneofthecountry’sworstneighborhoods—whoseparents,inanoverwhelmingnumberofcases,neversetfootinacollege—doaswellinmathematicsastheprivilegedeighthgradersofAmerica’swealthysuburbs.“Ourkids’readingisonpoint,”saidDavidLevin,

whofoundedKIPPwithafellowteacher,MichaelFeinberg,in1994.“Theystrugglealittlebitwithwritingskills.Butwhentheyleavehere,theyrockinmath.”

TherearenowmorethanfiftyKIPPschoolsacrosstheUnitedStates,withmoreontheway.TheKIPPprogramrepresentsoneofthemostpromisingneweducational

philosophiesintheUnitedStates.Butitssuccessisbestunderstoodnotintermsofitscurriculum,itsteachers,itsresources,orsomekindofinstitutionalinnovation.KIPPis,rather,anorganizationthathassucceededbytakingtheideaofculturallegaciesseriously.

Intheearlynineteenthcentury,agroupofreformerssetouttoestablishasystemofpubliceducationintheUnitedStates.Whatpassedforpublicschoolatthetimewasahaphazardassortmentoflocallyrunone-roomschoolhousesandovercrowdedurbanclassroomsscatteredaroundthecountry.Inruralareas,schoolsclosedinthespring

andfallandranallsummerlong,sothatchildrencouldhelpoutinthebusyplantingandharvestingseasons.Inthecity,manyschoolsmirroredthelongandchaoticschedulesofthechildren’sworking-classparents.Thereformerswantedtomakesurethatallchildrenwenttoschoolandthatpublicschoolwascomprehensive,meaningthatallchildrengotenough

schoolingtolearnhowtoreadandwriteanddobasicarithmeticandfunctionasproductivecitizens.

ButasthehistorianKennethGoldhaspointedout,theearlyeducationalreformerswerealsotremendouslyconcernedthatchildrennotgettoomuchschooling.In1871,forexample,theUScommissionerofeducation

publishedareportbyEdwardJarvisonthe“RelationofEducationtoInsanity.”Jarvishadstudied1,741casesofinsanityandconcludedthat“over-study”wasresponsiblefor205ofthem.“Educationlaysthefoundationofalargeportionofthecausesofmentaldisorder,”Jarviswrote.Similarly,thepioneerofpubliceducationinMassachusetts,HoraceMann,

believedthatworkingstudentstoohardwouldcreatea“mostperniciousinfluenceuponcharacterandhabits….Notinfrequentlyishealthitselfdestroyedbyover-stimulatingthemind.”Intheeducationjournalsoftheday,therewereconstantworriesaboutovertaxingstudentsorbluntingtheirnaturalabilitiesthroughtoomuchschoolwork.

Thereformers,Goldwrites:

stroveforwaystoreducetimespentstudying,becauselongperiodsofrespitecouldsavethemindfrominjury.HencetheeliminationofSaturdayclasses,theshorteningofthe

schoolday,andthelengtheningofvacation—allofwhichoccurredoverthecourseofthenineteenthcentury.Teacherswerecautionedthat“when[students]arerequiredtostudy,theirbodiesshouldnotbeexhaustedbylongconfinement,northeir

mindsbewilderedbyprolongedapplication.”Restalsopresentedparticularopportunitiesforstrengtheningcognitiveandanalyticalskills.AsonecontributortotheMassachusettsTeachersuggested,“itiswhenthusrelievedfromthestateoftensionbelongingto

actualstudythatboysandgirls,aswellasmenandwomen,acquirethehabitofthoughtandreflection,andofformingtheirownconclusions,independentlyofwhattheyaretaughtandtheauthorityofothers.”

Thisidea—thateffort

mustbebalancedbyrest—couldnotbemoredifferentfromAsiannotionsaboutstudyandwork,ofcourse.Butthenagain,theAsianworldviewwasshapedbythericepaddy.InthePearlRiverDelta,thericefarmerplantedtwoandsometimesthreecropsayear.Thelandwasfallowonlybriefly.Infact,oneofthesingularfeaturesofricecultivationisthat

becauseofthenutrientscarriedbythewaterusedinirrigation,themoreaplotoflandiscultivated,themorefertileitgets.

ButinWesternagriculture,theoppositeistrue.Unlessawheat-orcornfieldisleftfalloweveryfewyears,thesoilbecomesexhausted.Everywinter,fieldsareempty.Thehardlaborofspringplantingand

fallharvestingisfollowed,likeclockwork,bytheslowerpaceofsummerandwinter.Thisisthelogicthereformersappliedtothecultivationofyoungminds.Weformulatenewideasbyanalogy,workingfromwhatweknowtowardwhatwedon’tknow,andwhatthereformersknewweretherhythmsoftheagriculturalseasons.Amindmustbecultivated.Butnot

toomuch,lestitbeexhausted.Andwhatwastheremedyforthedangersofexhaustion?Thelongsummervacation—apeculiaranddistinctiveAmericanlegacythathashadprofoundconsequencesforthelearningpatternsofthestudentsofthepresentday.

SummervacationisatopicseldommentionedinAmericaneducationaldebates.Itisconsideredapermanentandinviolatefeatureofschoollife,likehighschoolfootballortheseniorprom.Buttakealookatthefollowingsetsofelementaryschooltest-scoreresults,andseeifyourfaithinthevalueoflongsummerholidaysisn’tprofoundly

shaken.Thesenumberscomefrom

researchledbytheJohnsHopkinsUniversitysociologistKarlAlexander.Alexandertrackedtheprogressof650firstgradersfromtheBaltimorepublicschoolsystem,lookingathowtheyscoredonawidelyusedmath-andreading-skillsexamcalledtheCaliforniaAchievementTest.Theseare

readingscoresforthefirstfiveyearsofelementaryschool,brokendownbysocioeconomicclass—low,middle,andhigh.

Class 1stGrade

2ndGrade

3rdGrade

4thGrade

Low 329 375 397 433Middle 348 388 425 467High 361 418 460 506

Lookatthefirstcolumn.Thestudentsstartinfirst

gradewithmeaningful,butnotoverwhelming,differencesintheirknowledgeandability.Thefirstgradersfromthewealthiesthomeshavea32-pointadvantageoverthefirstgradersfromthepooresthomes—andbytheway,firstgradersfrompoorhomesinBaltimorearereallypoor.Nowlookatthefifth-gradecolumn.Bythatpoint,four

yearslater,theinitiallymodestgapbetweenrichandpoorhasmorethandoubled.

This“achievementgap”isaphenomenonthathasbeenobservedoverandoveragain,andittypicallyprovokesoneoftworesponses.Thefirstresponseisthatdisadvantagedkidssimplydon’thavethesameinherentabilitytolearnaschildrenfrommoreprivileged

backgrounds.They’renotassmart.Thesecond,slightlymoreoptimisticconclusionisthat,insomeway,ourschoolsarefailingpoorchildren:wesimplyaren’tdoingagoodenoughjobofteachingthemtheskillstheyneed.Buthere’swhereAlexander’sstudygetsinteresting,becauseitturnsoutthatneitherofthoseexplanationsringstrue.

ThecityofBaltimoredidn’tgiveitskidstheCaliforniaAchievementTestjustattheendofeveryschoolyear,inJune.ItgavethemthetestinSeptembertoo,justaftersummervacationended.WhatAlexanderrealizedisthatthesecondsetoftestresultsallowedhimtodoaslightlydifferentanalysis.Ifhelookedatthedifferencebetweenthescoreastudent

gotatthebeginningoftheschoolyear,inSeptember,andthescoreheorshegotthefollowingJune,hecouldmeasure—precisely—howmuchthatstudentlearnedovertheschoolyear.Andifhelookedatthedifferencebetweenastudent’sscoreinJuneandtheninthefollowingSeptember,hecouldseehowmuchthatstudentlearnedoverthe

courseofthesummer.Inotherwords,hecouldfigureout—atleastinpart—howmuchoftheachievementgapistheresultofthingsthathappenduringtheschoolyear,andhowmuchithastodowithwhathappensduringsummervacation.

Let’sstartwiththeschool-yeargains.Thistableshowshowmanypointsstudents’testscoresrosefromthetime

theystartedclassesinSeptembertothetimetheystoppedinJune.The“Total”columnrepresentstheircumulativeclassroomlearningfromallfiveyearsofelementaryschool.

Class 1stGrade

2ndGrade

3rdGrade

4thGrade

Low 55 46 30 33Middle 69 43 34 41High 60 39 34 28

Hereisacompletelydifferentstoryfromtheonesuggestedbythefirsttable.Thefirstsetoftestresultsmadeitlooklikelower-incomekidsweresomehowfailingintheclassroom.Buthereweseeplainlythatisn’ttrue.Lookatthe“Total”column.Overthecourseoffiveyearsofelementaryschool,poorkids“out-learn”thewealthiestkids189points

to184points.Theylagbehindthemiddle-classkidsbyonlyamodestamount,and,infact,inoneyear,secondgrade,theylearnmorethanthemiddle-orupper-classkids.

Next,let’sseewhathappensifwelookjustathowreadingscoreschangeduringsummervacation.

Class After1st

After2nd

After3rd

After4th

Low –3.67 –1.70 2.74 2.89Middle –3.11 4.18 3.68 2.34High 15.38 9.22 14.51 13.38

Doyouseethedifference?Lookatthefirstcolumn,whichmeasureswhathappensoverthesummerafterfirstgrade.ThewealthiestkidscomebackinSeptemberandtheirreadingscoreshavejumpedmorethan15points.Thepoorestkidscomebackfromthe

holidaysandtheirreadingscoreshavedroppedalmost4points.Poorkidsmayout-learnrichkidsduringtheschoolyear.Butduringthesummer,theyfallfarbehind.

Nowtakealookatthelastcolumn,whichtotalsupallthesummergainsfromfirstgradetofifthgrade.Thereadingscoresofthepoorkidsgoupby.26points.Whenitcomestoreading

skills,poorkidslearnnothingwhenschoolisnotinsession.Thereadingscoresoftherichkids,bycontrast,goupbyawhopping52.49points.Virtuallyalloftheadvantagethatwealthystudentshaveoverpoorstudentsistheresultofdifferencesinthewayprivilegedkidslearnwhiletheyarenotinschool.

Whatareweseeinghere?Oneveryrealpossibilityis

thatthesearetheeducationalconsequencesofthedifferencesinparentingstylesthatwetalkedaboutintheChrisLanganchapter.ThinkbacktoAlexWilliams,thenine-year-oldwhomAnnetteLareaustudied.Hisparentsbelieveinconcertedcultivation.Hegetstakentomuseumsandgetsenrolledinspecialprogramsandgoestosummercamp,wherehetakes

classes.Whenhe’sboredathome,thereareplentyofbookstoread,andhisparentsseeitastheirresponsibilitytokeephimactivelyengagedintheworldaroundhim.It’snothardtoseehowAlexwouldgetbetteratreadingandmathoverthesummer.

ButnotKatieBrindle,thelittlegirlfromtheothersideofthetracks.There’snomoneytosendhertosummer

camp.She’snotgettingdrivenbyhermomtospecialclasses,andtherearen’tbookslyingaroundherhousethatshecanreadifshegetsbored.There’sprobablyjustatelevision.Shemaystillhaveawonderfulvacation,makingnewfriends,playingoutside,goingtothemovies,havingthekindofcarefreesummerdaysthatwealldreamabout.Noneofthosethings,though,

willimprovehermathandreadingskills,andeverycarefreesummerdayshespendsputsherfurtherandfurtherbehindAlex.Alexisn’tnecessarilysmarterthanKatie.He’sjustout-learningher:he’sputtinginafewsolidmonthsoflearningduringthesummerwhileshewatchestelevisionandplaysoutside.

WhatAlexander’swork

suggestsisthatthewayinwhicheducationhasbeendiscussedintheUnitedStatesisbackwards.Anenormousamountoftimeisspenttalkingaboutreducingclasssize,rewritingcurricula,buyingeverystudentashinynewlaptop,andincreasingschoolfunding—allofwhichassumesthatthereissomethingfundamentallywrongwiththejobschools

aredoing.Butlookbackatthesecondtable,whichshowswhathappensbetweenSeptemberandJune.Schoolswork.Theonlyproblemwithschool,forthekidswhoaren’tachieving,isthatthereisn’tenoughofit.

Alexander,infact,hasdoneaverysimplecalculationtodemonstratewhatwouldhappenifthechildrenofBaltimorewentto

schoolyear-round.Theansweristhatpoorkidsandwealthykidswould,bytheendofelementaryschool,bedoingmathandreadingatalmostthesamelevel.

SuddenlythecausesofAsianmathsuperioritybecomeevenmoreobvious.StudentsinAsianschoolsdon’thavelongsummervacations.Whywouldthey?Culturesthatbelievethatthe

routetosuccessliesinrisingbeforedawn360daysayeararescarcelygoingtogivetheirchildrenthreestraightmonthsoffinthesummer.TheschoolyearintheUnitedStatesis,onaverage,180dayslong.TheSouthKoreanschoolyearis220dayslong.TheJapaneseschoolyearis243dayslong.

Oneofthequestionsaskedoftesttakersona

recentmathtestgiventostudentsaroundtheworldwashowmanyofthealgebra,calculus,andgeometryquestionscoveredsubjectmatterthattheyhadpreviouslylearnedinclass.ForJapanesetwelfthgraders,theanswerwas92percent.That’sthevalueofgoingtoschool243daysayear.Youhavethetimetolearneverythingthatneedstobe

learned—andyouhavelesstimetounlearnit.ForAmericantwelfthgraders,thecomparablefigurewas54percent.Foritspooreststudents,Americadoesn’thaveaschoolproblem.Ithasasummervacationproblem,andthat’stheproblemtheKIPPschoolssetouttosolve.TheydecidedtobringthelessonsofthericepaddytotheAmericaninnercity.

4.“Theystartschoolatseventwenty-five,”saysDavidLevinofthestudentsattheBronxKIPPAcademy.“Theyalldoacoursecalledthinkingskillsuntilsevenfifty-five.TheydoninetyminutesofEnglish,ninetyminutesofmatheveryday,exceptinfifthgrade,wheretheydotwohoursofmathaday.An

hourofscience,anhourofsocialscience,anhourofmusicatleasttwiceaweek,andthenyouhaveanhourandfifteenminutesoforchestraontopofthat.Everyonedoesorchestra.Thedaygoesfromseventwenty-fiveuntilfivep.m.Afterfive,therearehomeworkclubs,detention,sportsteams.Therearekidsherefromseventwenty-fiveuntilsevenp.m.

Ifyoutakeanaverageday,andyoutakeoutlunchandrecess,ourkidsarespendingfiftytosixtypercentmoretimelearningthanthetraditionalpublicschoolstudent.”

Levinwasstandingintheschool’smainhallway.Itwaslunchtimeandthestudentsweretroopingbyquietlyinorderlylines,allofthemintheirKIPPAcademyshirts.

Levinstoppedagirlwhoseshirttailwasout.“Domeafavor,whenyougetachance,”hecalledout,mimingatucking-inmovement.Hecontinued:“Saturdaystheycomeinninetoone.Inthesummer,it’seighttotwo.”Bysummer,LevinwasreferringtothefactthatKIPPstudentsdothreeextraweeksofschool,inJuly.Theseare,afterall,

preciselythekindoflower-incomekidswhoAlexanderidentifiedaslosinggroundoverthelongsummervacation,soKIPP’sresponseissimplytonothavealongsummervacation.

“Thebeginningishard,”hewenton.“Bytheendofthedaythey’rerestless.Partofitisendurance,partofitismotivation.Partofitisincentivesandrewardsand

funstuff.Partofitisgoodold-fashioneddiscipline.Youthrowallofthatintothestew.Wetalkalothereaboutgritandself-control.Thekidsknowwhatthosewordsmean.”

Levinwalkeddownthehalltoaneighth-grademathclassandstoodquietlyintheback.AstudentnamedAaronwasatthefrontoftheclass,workinghiswaythrougha

problemfromthepageofthinking-skillsexercisesthatallKIPPstudentsarerequiredtodoeachmorning.Theteacher,aponytailedmaninhisthirtiesnamedFrankCorcoran,satinachairtotheside,onlyoccasionallyjumpingintoguidethediscussion.ItwasthekindofscenerepeatedeverydayinAmericanclassrooms—withonedifference.Aaronwasup

atthefront,workingonthatsingleproblem,fortwentyminutes—methodically,carefully,withtheparticipationoftheclass,workinghiswaythroughnotjusttheanswerbutalsothequestionofwhethertherewasmorethanonewaytogettheanswer.ItwasReneepainstakinglyfiguringouttheconceptofundefinedslopealloveragain.

“Whatthatextratimedoesisallowforamorerelaxedatmosphere,”Corcoransaid,aftertheclasswasover.“Ifindthattheproblemwithmatheducationisthesink-or-swimapproach.Everythingisrapidfire,andthekidswhogetitfirstaretheoneswhoarerewarded.Sotherecomestobeafeelingthattherearepeoplewhocandomathandtherearepeoplewhoaren’t

mathpeople.Ithinkthatextendedamountoftimegivesyouthechanceasateachertoexplainthings,andmoretimeforthekidstositanddigesteverythingthat’sgoingon—toreview,todothingsatamuchslowerpace.Itseemscounterintuitivebutwedothingsataslowerpaceandasaresultwegetthroughalotmore.There’salotmoreretention,better

understandingofthematerial.Itletsmebealittlebitmorerelaxed.Wehavetimetohavegames.Kidscanaskanyquestionstheywant,andifI’mexplainingsomething,Idon’tfeelpressedfortime.Icangobackovermaterialandnotfeeltimepressure.”TheextratimegaveCorcoranthechancetomakemathematicsmeaningful:tolethisstudentsseetheclearrelationship

betweeneffortandreward.Onthewallsofthe

classroomweredozensofcertificatesfromtheNewYorkStateRegentsexam,testifyingtofirst-classhonorsforCorcoran’sstudents.“Wehadagirlinthisclass,”Corcoransaid.“Shewasahorriblemathstudentinfifthgrade.ShecriedeverySaturdaywhenwedidremedialstuff.Hugetearsand

tears.”Atthememory,Corcorangotalittleemotionalhimself.Helookeddown.“Shejuste-mailedusacoupleweeksago.She’sincollegenow.She’sanaccountingmajor.”

5.Thestoryofthemiracleschoolthattransformslosersintowinnersis,ofcourse,all

toofamiliar.It’sthestuffofinspirationalbooksandsentimentalHollywoodmovies.ButtherealityofplaceslikeKIPPisagooddeallessglamorousthanthat.Togetasenseofwhat50to60percentmorelearningtimemeans,listentothetypicaldayinthelifeofaKIPPstudent.

Thestudent’snameisMarita.She’sanonlychild

wholivesinasingle-parenthome.Hermotherneverwenttocollege.Thetwoofthemshareaone-bedroomapartmentintheBronx.Maritausedtogotoaparochialschooldownthestreetfromherhome,untilhermotherheardofKIPP.“WhenIwasinfourthgrade,meandoneofmyotherfriends,Tanya,webothappliedtoKIPP,”Marita

said.“IrememberMissOwens.Sheinterviewedme,andthewayshewassayingmadeitsoundsohardIthoughtIwasgoingtoprison.Ialmoststartedcrying.Andshewaslike,Ifyoudon’twanttosignthis,youdon’thavetosignthis.Butthenmymomwasrightthere,soIsignedit.”

Withthat,herlifechanged.(Keepinmind,

whilereadingwhatfollows,thatMaritaistwelveyearsold.)

“Iwakeupatfive-forty-fivea.m.togetaheadstart,”shesays.“Ibrushmyteeth,shower.Igetsomebreakfastatschool,ifIamrunninglate.UsuallygetyelledatbecauseIamtakingtoolong.ImeetmyfriendsDianaandStevenatthebusstop,andwegetthenumberonebus.”

A5:45wakeupisfairlytypicalofKIPPstudents,especiallygiventhelongbusandsubwaycommutesthatmanyhavetogettoschool.Levin,atonepoint,wentintoaseventh-grademusicclasswithseventykidsinitandaskedforashowofhandsonwhenthestudentswokeup.Ahandfulsaidtheywokeupaftersix.Threequarterssaidtheywokeupbeforesix.And

almosthalfsaidtheywokeupbefore5:30.OneclassmateofMarita’s,aboynamedJosé,saidhesometimeswakesupatthreeorfoura.m.,finisheshishomeworkfromthenightbefore,andthen“goesbacktosleepforabit.”

Maritawenton:

Ileaveschoolatfivep.m.,andifIdon’t

lollygagaround,thenIwillgethomearoundfive-thirty.ThenIsayhitomymomreallyquicklyandstartmyhomework.Andifit’snotalotofhomeworkthatday,itwilltakemetwotothreehours,andI’llbedonearoundninep.m.Orifwehaveessays,thenIwillbedoneliketenp.m.,

orten-thirtyp.m.Sometimesmy

mommakesmebreakfordinner.ItellherIwanttogostraightthrough,butshesaysIhavetoeat.Soaroundeight,shemakesmebreakfordinnerfor,like,ahalfhour,andthenIgetbacktowork.Then,usuallyafterthat,mymom

wantstohearaboutschool,butIhavetomakeitquickbecauseIhavetogetinbedbyelevenp.m.SoIgetallmystuffready,andthenIgetintobed.Itellherallaboutthedayandwhathappened,andbythetimewearefinished,sheisonthebrinkofsleeping,sothat’s

probablyaroundeleven-fifteen.ThenIgotosleep,andthenextmorningwedoitalloveragain.Weareinthesameroom.Butit’sahugebedroomandyoucansplititintotwo,andwehavebedsonothersides.Meandmymomareveryclose.

Shespokeinthematter-of-factwayofchildrenwhohavenowayofknowinghowunusualtheirsituationis.Shehadthehoursofalawyertryingtomakepartner,orofamedicalresident.Allthatwasmissingwerethedarkcirclesunderhereyesandasteamingcupofcoffee,exceptthatshewastooyoungforeither.

“SometimesIdon’tgotosleepwhenI’msupposedto,”

Maritacontinued.“Igotosleepat,like,twelveo’clock,andthenextafternoon,itwillhitme.AndIwilldozeoffinclass.ButthenIhavetowakeupbecauseIhavetogettheinformation.IrememberIwasinoneclass,andIwasdozingoffandtheteachersawmeandsaid,‘CanItalktoyouafterclass?’Andheaskedme,‘Whywereyoudozingoff?’AndItoldhimI

wenttosleeplate.Andhewas,like,‘Youneedtogotosleepearlier.’”

6.Marita’slifeisnotthelifeofatypicaltwelve-year-old.Norisitwhatwewouldnecessarilywishforatwelve-year-old.Children,weliketobelieve,shouldhavetimetoplayanddreamandsleep.

Maritahasresponsibilities.WhatisbeingaskedofheristhesamethingthatwasaskedoftheKoreanpilots.Tobecomeasuccessatwhattheydid,theyhadtoshedsomepartoftheirownidentity,becausethedeeprespectforauthoritythatrunsthroughoutKoreanculturesimplydoesnotworkinthecockpit.Maritahashadtodothesamebecausethecultural

legacyshehadbeengivendoesnotmatchhercircumstanceseither—notwhenmiddle-andupper-middle-classfamiliesareusingweekendsandsummervacationtopushtheirchildrenahead.Hercommunitydoesnotgiveherwhatsheneeds.Sowhatdoesshehavetodo?Giveuphereveningsandweekendsandfriends—alltheelementsof

heroldworld—andreplacethemwithKIPP.

HereisMaritaagain,inapassagethatislittleshortofheartbreaking:

Well,whenwefirststartedfifthgrade,Iusedtohavecontactwithoneofthegirlsfrommyoldschool,andwheneverIleft

schoolonFriday,Iwouldgotoherhouseandstaythereuntilmymomwouldgethomefromwork.SoIwouldbeatherhouseandIwouldbedoingmyhomework.Shewouldneverhaveanyhomework.Andshewouldsay,“Oh,myGod,youstaytherelate.”Thenshesaid

shewantedtogotoKIPP,butthenshewouldsaythatKIPPistoohardandshedidn’twanttodoit.AndIwouldsay,“EveryonesaysthatKIPPishard,butonceyougetthehangofit,it’snotreallythathard.”Shetoldme,“It’sbecauseyouaresmart.”AndIsaid,“No,everyoneof

usissmart.”Andshewassodiscouragedbecausewestayeduntilfiveandwehadalotofhomework,andItoldherthatushavingalotofhomeworkhelpsusdobetterinclass.Andshetoldmeshedidn’twanttohearthewholespeech.AllmyfriendsnowarefromKIPP.

Isthisalottoaskofachild?Itis.ButthinkofthingsfromMarita’sperspective.Shehasmadeabargainwithherschool.Shewillgetupatfive-forty-fiveinthemorning,goinonSaturdays,anddohomeworkuntilelevenatnight.Inreturn,KIPPpromisesthatitwilltakekidslikeherwhoarestuckinpovertyandgivethemachancetogetout.It

willget84percentofthemuptoorabovetheirgradelevelinmathematics.Onthestrengthofthatperformance,90percentofKIPPstudentsgetscholarshipstoprivateorparochialhighschoolsinsteadofhavingtoattendtheirowndesultoryhighschoolsintheBronx.Andonthestrengthofthathighschoolexperience,morethan80percentofKIPPgraduateswillgoonto

college,inmanycasesbeingthefirstintheirfamilytodoso.

Howcouldthatbeabadbargain?EverythingwehavelearnedinOutlierssaysthatsuccessfollowsapredictablecourse.Itisnotthebrightestwhosucceed.Ifitwere,ChrisLanganwouldbeuptherewithEinstein.Norissuccesssimplythesumofthedecisionsandeffortswe

makeonourownbehalf.Itis,rather,agift.Outliersarethosewhohavebeengivenopportunities—andwhohavehadthestrengthandpresenceofmindtoseizethem.ForhockeyandsoccerplayersborninJanuary,it’sabettershotatmakingtheall-starteam.FortheBeatles,itwasHamburg.ForBillGates,theluckybreakwasbeingbornattherighttimeandgettingthe

giftofacomputerterminalinjuniorhigh.JoeFlomandthefoundersofWachtell,Lipton,RosenandKatzgotmultiplebreaks.Theywerebornattherighttimewiththerightparentsandtherightethnicity,whichallowedthemtopracticetakeoverlawfortwentyyearsbeforetherestofthelegalworldcaughton.AndwhatKoreanAirdid,whenitfinallyturnedits

operationsaround,wasgiveitspilotstheopportunitytoescapetheconstraintsoftheirculturallegacy.

Thelessonhereisverysimple.Butitisstrikinghowoftenitisoverlooked.Wearesocaughtinthemythsofthebestandthebrightestandtheself-madethatwethinkoutliersspringnaturallyfromtheearth.WelookattheyoungBillGatesandmarvel

thatourworldallowedthatthirteen-year-oldtobecomeafabulouslysuccessfulentrepreneur.Butthat’sthewronglesson.Ourworldonlyallowedonethirteen-year-oldunlimitedaccesstoatime-sharingterminalin1968.Ifamillionteenagershadbeengiventhesameopportunity,howmanymoreMicrosoftswouldwehavetoday?Tobuildabetterworldweneed

toreplacethepatchworkofluckybreaksandarbitraryadvantagesthattodaydeterminesuccess—thefortunatebirthdatesandthehappyaccidentsofhistory—withasocietythatprovidesopportunitiesforall.IfCanadahadasecondhockeyleagueforthosechildrenborninthelasthalfoftheyear,itwouldtodayhavetwiceasmanyadulthockeystars.

Nowmultiplythatsuddenfloweringoftalentbyeveryfieldandprofession.Theworldcouldbesomuchricherthantheworldwehavesettledfor.

Maritadoesn’tneedabrand-newschoolwithacresofplayingfieldsandgleamingfacilities.Shedoesn’tneedalaptop,asmallerclass,ateacherwithaPhD,orabiggerapartment.

Shedoesn’tneedahigherIQoramindasquickasChrisLangan’s.Allthosethingswouldbenice,ofcourse.Buttheymissthepoint.Maritajustneededachance.Andlookatthechanceshewasgiven!SomeonebroughtalittlebitofthericepaddytotheSouthBronxandexplainedtoherthemiracleofmeaningfulwork.

EPILOGUE

AJamaicanStory

“IFAPROGENYOFYOUNGCOLORED

CHILDRENISBROUGHTFORTH,THESEAREEMANCIPATED.”

OnSeptember9,1931,ayoungwomannamedDaisyNationgavebirthtotwingirls.Sheandherhusband,Donald,wereschoolteachersinatinyvillagecalledHarewood,inthecentralJamaicanparishofSaintCatherine’s.TheynamedtheirdaughtersFaithandJoyce.WhenDonaldwastoldthathehadfatheredtwins,hesankdownonhiskneesand

surrenderedresponsibilityfortheirlivesovertoGod.

TheNationslivedinasmallcottageonthegroundsofHarewood’sAnglicanchurch.Theschoolhousewasnextdoor,along,single-roombarnofabuildingraisedonconcretestilts.Onsomedays,theremightbeasmanyasthreehundredchildrenintheroom,andonothers,lessthantwodozen.

Thechildrenwouldreadoutloudorrecitetheirtimestables.Writingwasdoneonslates.Wheneverpossible,theclasseswouldmoveoutside,underthemangotrees.Ifthechildrenwereoutofcontrol,DonaldNationwouldwalkfromoneendoftheroomtotheother,wavingastrapfromlefttorightasthechildrenscrambledbacktotheirplaces.

Hewasanimposingman,quietanddignified,andagreatloverofbooks.InhissmalllibrarywereworksofpoetryandphilosophyandnovelsbysuchwritersasSomersetMaugham.Everydayhewouldreadthenewspaperclosely,followingthecourseoftheeventsaroundtheworld.Intheevening,hisbestfriend,ArchdeaconHay,the

Anglicanpastorwholivedontheothersideofthehill,wouldcomeoverandsitonDonald’sveranda,andtogethertheywouldexpoundontheproblemsofJamaica.Donald’swife,Daisy,wasfromtheparishofSaintElizabeth.HermaidennamewasFord,andherfatherhadownedasmallgrocerystore.Shewasoneofthreesisters,andshewasrenownedforher

beauty.Attheageofeleven,the

twinswonscholarshipstoaboardingschoolcalledSaintHilda’snearthenorthcoast.ItwasanoldAnglicanprivateschool,establishedforthedaughtersofEnglishclergy,propertyowners,andoverseers.FromSaintHilda’stheyappliedandwereacceptedtoUniversityCollege,inLondon.Notlong

afterward,Joycewenttoatwenty-first-birthdaypartyforayoungEnglishmathematiciannamedGraham.Hestooduptoreciteapoemandforgothislines,andJoycebecameembarrassedforhim—eventhoughitmadenosenseforhertofeelembarrassed,becauseshedidnotknowhimatall.JoyceandGrahamfellinloveandgotmarried.They

movedtoCanada.Grahamwasamathprofessor.Joycebecameasuccessfulwriterandafamilytherapist.Theyhadthreesonsandbuiltabeautifulhouseonahill,offinthecountryside.Graham’slastnameisGladwell.Heismyfather,andJoyceGladwellismymother.

Thatisthestoryofmymother’spathtosuccess—anditisn’ttrue.It’snotalieinthesensethatthefactsweremadeup.ButitisfalseinthewaythattellingthestoryofBillGateswithoutmentioningthecomputeratLakesideisfalse,oraccountingforAsianmathprowesswithoutgoingbacktothericepaddiesisfalse.Itleavesoutmymother’smany

opportunitiesandtheimportanceofherculturallegacy.

In1935,forexample,whenmymotherandhersisterwerefour,ahistoriannamedWilliamM.MacMillanvisitedJamaica.HewasaprofessorattheUniversityofWitwatersrandinJohannesburg,SouthAfrica.MacMillanwasamanbeforehistime:hewas

deeplyconcernedwiththesocialproblemsofSouthAfrica’sblackpopulation,andhecametotheCaribbeantomakethesameargumenthehadmadebackhomeinSouthAfrica.

ChiefamongMacMillan’sconcernswasJamaica’seducationalsystem.Formalschooling—ifyoucouldcallwhathappenedinthewoodenbarnnextdoortomy

grandparents’house“formalschooling”—wentonlytofourteenyearsofage.Jamaicahadnopublichighschoolsoruniversities.Thosewithacademicinclinationstookextraclasseswiththeheadteacherintheirteenageyearsandwithluckmadeitintoteachers’college.Thosewithbroaderambitionshadtosomehowfindtheirwayintoaprivateschool,andfrom

theretoauniversityintheUnitedStatesorEngland.

Butscholarshipswerefewandfarbetween,andthecostofprivateschoolingwasprohibitiveforallbutaprivilegedfew.The“bridgefromtheprimaryschools”tohighschool,MacMillanlaterwrote,inablisteringcritiqueofEngland’streatmentofitscoloniesentitledWarningfromtheWestIndies,“is

narrowandinsecure.”Theschoolsystemdidnothingforthe“humblest”classes.Hewenton:“Ifanythingtheseschoolsareafactordeepeningandsharpeningsocialdistinctions.”Ifthegovernmentdidnotgiveitspeopleopportunities,hewarned,therewouldbetrouble.

AyearafterMacMillanpublishedhisbook,awaveof

riotsandunrestswepttheCaribbean.Fourteenpeoplewerekilledandfifty-nineinjuredinTrinidad.Fourteenwerekilledandforty-seveninjuredinBarbados.InJamaica,aseriesofviolentstrikesshutdownthecountry,andastateofemergencywasdeclared.Panicked,theBritishgovernmenttookMacMillan’sprescriptionstoheartand,amongother

reforms,proposedaseriesof“all-island”scholarshipsforacademicallymindedstudentstogotoprivatehighschools.Thescholarshipsbeganin1941.Mymotherandhertwinsistersatfortheexamthefollowingyear.Thatishowtheygotahighschooleducation;hadtheybeenborntwoorthreeorfouryearsearlier,theymightneverhavegottenafulleducation.My

motherowesthecourseherlifetooktothetimingofherbirth,totheriotersof1937,andtoW.M.MacMillan.

IdescribedDaisyNation,mygrandmother,as“renownedforherbeauty.”Butthetruthisthatwasacarelessandcondescendingwaytodescribeher.Shewasaforce.ThefactthatmymotherandhersisterleftHarewoodforSaintHilda’s

wasmygrandmother’sdoing.Mygrandfathermayhavebeenanimposingandlearnedman,buthewasanidealistandadreamer.Heburiedhimselfinhisbooks.Ifhehadambitionsforhisdaughters,hedidnothavetheforesightandenergytomakethemreal.Mygrandmotherdid.SaintHilda’swasheridea:someofthewealthierfamiliesintheareasenttheir

daughtersthere,andshesawwhatagoodschoolmeant.Herdaughtersdidnotplaywiththeotherchildrenofthevillage.Theyread.Latinandalgebrawerenecessaryforhighschool,soshehadherdaughterstutoredbyArchdeaconHay.

“Ifyou’daskedherabouthergoalsforherchildren,shewouldhavesaidshewantedusoutofthere,”mymother

recalls.“Shedidn’tfeelthattheJamaicancontextofferedenough.Andiftheopportunitywastheretogoon,andyouwereabletotakeit,thentohertheskywasthelimit.”

Whentheresultscamebackfromthescholarshipexam,onlymyauntwasawardedascholarship.Mymotherwasnot.That’sanotherfactthatmyfirst

historywascarelessabout.Mymotherremembersherparentsstandinginthedoorway,talkingtoeachother.“Wehavenomoremoney.”Theyhadpaidthetuitionforthefirsttermandboughttheuniformsandhadexhaustedtheirsavings.Whatwouldtheydowhenthesecond-termfeesformymothercamedue?Butthenagain,theycouldn’tsendone

daughterandnottheother.Mygrandmotherwassteadfast.Shesentboth—andprayed—andattheendofthefirstterm,itturnedoutthatoneoftheothergirlsattheschoolhadwontwoscholarships,sothesecondwasgiventomymother.

Whenitcametimetogotouniversity,myaunt,theacademictwin,wonwhatwascalledaCentenary

Scholarship.The“Centenary”wasareferencetothefactthatthescholarshipwasestablishedonehundredyearsaftertheabolitionofslaveryinJamaica.Itwasreservedforthegraduatesofpublicelementaryschools,and,inameasureofhowdeeplytheBritishfeltabouthonoringthememoryofabolition,therewasatotalofoneCentenaryscholarship

awardedeveryyearforthewholeisland,withtheprizegoingtothetopgirlandthetopboyinalternatingyears.Theyearmyauntappliedwasoneofthe“girl”years.Shewaslucky.Mymotherwasnot.MymotherwasfacedwiththecostofpassagetoEngland,roomandboardandlivingexpenses,andtuitionattheUniversityofLondon.Togetasenseofhowdaunting

thatfigurewas,thevalueoftheCentenaryscholarshipmyauntwonwasprobablyasmuchasthesumofmygrandparents’annualsalaries.Therewerenostudentloanprograms,nobankswithlinesofcreditforschoolteachersoutinthecountryside.“IfI’daskedmyfather,”mymothersays,“hewouldhavereplied,‘Wehavenomoney.’”

WhatdidDaisydo?She

wenttotheChineseshopkeeperinaneighboringtown.JamaicahasaverylargeChinesepopulationthatsincethenineteenthcenturyhasdominatedthecommerciallifeoftheisland.InJamaicanparlance,astoreisnotastore,itisa“Chinee-shop.”Daisywenttothe“Chinee-shop,”toMr.Chance,andborrowedthemoney.Nooneknowshow

muchsheborrowed,althoughitmusthavebeenanenormoussum.AndnooneknowswhyMr.ChancelentittoDaisy,exceptofcoursethatshewasDaisyNation,andshepaidherbillspromptlyandhadtaughttheChancechildrenatHarewoodSchool.ItwasnotalwayseasytobeaChinesechildinaJamaicanschoolyard.TheJamaicanchildrenwould

taunttheChinesechildren.“Chineenyan[eat]dog.”Daisywasakindlyandbelovedfigure,anoasisamidthathostility.Mr.Chancemayhavefeltinherdebt.

“Didshetellmewhatshewasdoing?Ididn’tevenaskher,”mymotherremembers.“Itjustoccurred.Ijustappliedtouniversityandgotin.IactedcompletelyonfaiththatIcouldrelyonmy

mother,withoutevenrealizingthatIwasrelyingonmymother.”

JoyceGladwelloweshercollegeeducationfirsttoW.M.MacMillan,andthentothestudentatSaintHilda’swhogaveupherscholarship,andthentoMr.Chance,andthen,mostofall,toDaisyNation.

3.DaisyNationwasfromthenorthwesternendofJamaica.Hergreat-grandfatherwasWilliamFord.HewasfromIreland,andhearrivedinJamaicain1784havingboughtacoffeeplantation.Notlongafterhisarrival,heboughtaslavewomanandtookherashisconcubine.Henoticedheronthedocksat

AlligatorPond,afishingvillageonthesouthcoast.ShewasanIgbotribeswomanfromWestAfrica.Theyhadason,whomtheynamedJohn.Hewas,inthelanguageoftheday,a“mulatto”;hewascolored—andalloftheFordsfromthatpointonfellintoJamaica’scoloredclass.

IntheAmericanSouthduringthatsameperiod,itwouldhavebeenhighly

unusualforawhitelandownertohavesuchapublicrelationshipwithaslave.Sexualrelationsbetweenwhitesandblackswereconsideredmorallyrepugnant.Lawswerepassedprohibitingmiscegenation,thelastofwhichwerenotstruckdownbytheUSSupremeCourtuntil1967.Aplantationownerwholivedopenlywithaslavewoman

wouldhavebeensociallyostracized,andanyoffspringfromtheunionofblackandwhitewouldhavebeenleftinslavery.

InJamaica,attitudeswereverydifferent.TheCaribbeaninthoseyearswaslittlemorethanamassiveslavecolony.Blacksoutnumberedwhitesbyaratioofmorethantentoone.Therewerefew,ifany,marriageablewhitewomen,

andasaresult,theoverwhelmingmajorityofwhitemenintheWestIndieshadblackorbrownmistresses.OneBritishplantationownerinJamaicawhofamouslykeptaprecisediaryofhissexualexploitssleptwith138differentwomeninhisthirty-sevenyearsontheisland,almostallofthemslavesand,onesuspects,notallofthem

willingpartners.Andwhitessawmulattoes—thechildrenofthoserelationships—aspotentialallies,abufferbetweenthemandtheenormousnumbersofslavesontheisland.Mulattowomenwereprizedasmistresses,andtheirchildren,oneshadelighterinturn,movedstillfurtherupthesocialandeconomicladder.Mulattoesrarelyworkedinthefields.

Theylivedthemucheasierlifeofworkinginthe“house.”Theyweretheonesmostlikelytobefreed.SomanymulattomistresseswereleftsubstantialfortunesinthewillsofwhitepropertyownersthattheJamaicalegislatureoncepassedalawcappingbequestsattwothousandpounds(which,atthetime,wasanenormoussum).

“WhenaEuropeanarrivesintheWestIndiesandgetssettledorsetdownforanylengthoftime,hefindsitnecessarytoprovidehimselfwithahousekeeperormistress,”oneeighteenth-centuryobserverwrote.“Thechoicehehasanopportunityofmakingisvarious,ablack,atawney,amulattooramestee,oneofwhichcanbepurchasedfor100or150

sterling….Ifaprogenyofyoungcoloredchildrenisbroughtforth,theseareemancipated,andmostlysentbythosefatherswhocanaffordit,attheageofthreeorfouryears,tobeeducatedinEngland.”

ThisistheworldDaisy’sgrandfatherJohnwasborninto.Hewasonegenerationremovedfromaslaveship,livinginacountrybest

describedasanAfricanpenalcolony,andhewasafreeman,witheverybenefitofeducation.Hemarriedanothermulatto,awomanwhowashalfEuropeanandhalfArawak,whichistheIndiantribeindigenoustoJamaica,andhadsevenchildren.

“Thesepeople—thecoloreds—hadalotofstatus,”theJamaican

sociologistOrlandoPattersonsays.“Byeighteentwenty-six,theyhadfullcivilliberties.Infact,theyachievefullcivillibertiesatthesametimeastheJewsdoinJamaica.Theycouldvote.Doanythingawhitepersoncoulddo—andthisiswithinthecontextofwhatwasstillaslavesociety.

“Ideally,theywouldtrytobeartisans.Remember,

Jamaicahassugarplantations,whichareverydifferentfromthecottonplantationsyoufindintheAmericanSouth.Cottonisapredominantlyagriculturalpursuit.Youarepickingthisstuff,andalmostalloftheprocessingwasdoneinLancashire,ortheNorth.Sugarisanagro-industrialcomplex.Youhavetohavethefactoryrightthere,

becausesugarstartslosingsucrosewithinhoursofbeingpicked.Youhadnochoicebuttohavethesugarmillrightthere,andsugarmillsrequireawiderangeofoccupations.Thecoopers.Theboilermen.Thecarpenters—andalotofthosejobswerefilledbycoloredpeople.”

ItwasalsothecasethatJamaica’sEnglishelite,

unliketheircounterpartsintheUnitedStates,hadlittleinterestinthegrandprojectofnationbuilding.TheywantedtomaketheirmoneyandgobacktoEngland.Theyhadnodesiretostayinwhattheyconsideredahostileland.Sothetaskofbuildinganewsociety—withthemanyopportunitiesitembodied—felltothecoloredsaswell.

“Byeighteenfifty,the

mayorofKingston[theJamaicancapital]wasacoloredperson,”Pattersonwenton.“AndsowasthefounderoftheDailyGleaner[Jamaica’smajornewspaper].Thesewerecoloredpeople,andfromveryearlyon,theycametodominatetheprofessionalclasses.Thewhiteswereinvolvedinbusinessortheplantation.Thepeoplewhobecame

doctorsandlawyerswerethesecoloredpeople.Thesewerethepeoplerunningtheschools.ThebishopofKingstonwasaclassicbrownman.Theyweren’ttheeconomicelite.Buttheyweretheculturalelite.”

ThechartbelowshowsabreakdownoftwocategoriesofJamaicanprofessionals—lawyersandmembersofparliament—intheearly

1950s.Thecategorizationisbyskintone.“Whiteandlight”referstopeoplewhoareeitherentirelywhiteor,morelikely,whohavesomeblackheritagethatisnolongerreadilyapparent.“Olive”isonestepbelowthat,and“lightbrown”onestepbelowolive(althoughthedifferencebetweenthosetwoshadesmightnotbereadilyapparenttoanyone

butaJamaican).Thefacttokeepinmindisthatinthe1950s“blacks”madeupabout80percentoftheJamaicanpopulation,outnumberingcoloredsfivetoone.

Ethnicity Lawyers(percentage)

MembersofParliament(percentage)

Chinese 3.1EastIndians —

Jews 7.1

Syrians —Whiteandlight 38.8 10

Olive 10.2 13Lightbrown 17.3 19

Darkbrown 10.2 39

Black 5.1 10Unknown 8.2

Lookattheextraordinaryadvantagethattheirlittlebitofwhitenessgavethecoloredminority.Havinganancestor

whoworkedinthehouseandnotinthefields,whogotfullcivilrightsin1826,whowasvaluedinsteadofenslaved,whogotashotatmeaningfulworkinsteadofbeingconsignedtothesugarcanefields,madeallthedifferenceinoccupationalsuccesstwoandthreegenerationslater.

DaisyFord’sambitionforherdaughtersdidnotcomefromnowhere,inother

words.Shewastheinheritorofalegacyofprivilege.HerolderbrotherRufus,withwhomshewenttoliveasachild,wasateacherandamanoflearning.HerbrotherCarloswenttoCubaandthencamebacktoJamaicaandopenedagarmentfactory.Herfather,CharlesFord,wasaproducewholesaler.Hermother,Ann,wasaPowell,anothereducated,upwardly

mobilecoloredfamily—andthesamePowellswhowouldtwogenerationslaterproduceColinPowell.HeruncleHenryownedproperty.HergrandfatherJohn—thesonofWilliamFordandhisAfricanconcubine—becameapreacher.NolessthanthreemembersoftheextendedFordfamilyendedupwinningRhodesScholarships.Ifmymother

owedW.M.MacMillanandtheriotersof1937andMr.Chanceandhermother,DaisyFord,thenDaisyowedRufusandCarlosandAnnandCharlesandJohn.

4.Mygrandmotherwasaremarkablewoman.Butitisimportanttorememberthatthesteadyupwardpathupon

whichtheFordsembarkedbeganwithamorallycomplicatedact:WilliamFordlookeduponmygreat-great-great-grandmotherwithdesireataslavemarketinAlligatorPondandpurchasedher.

Theslaveswhowerenotsochosenhadshortandunhappylives.InJamaica,theplantationownersfeltitmadethemostsenseto

extractthemaximumpossibleeffortfromtheirhumanpropertywhilethepropertywasstillyoung—toworktheirslavesuntiltheywereeitheruselessordead—andthensimplybuyanotherroundatthemarket.Theyhadnotroublewiththephilosophicalcontradictionofcherishingthechildrentheyhadwithaslaveandsimultaneouslythinkingof

slavesasproperty.ThomasThistlewood,theplantationownerwhocatalogedhissexualexploits,hadalifelongrelationshipwithaslavenamedPhibbah,whom,byallaccounts,headored,andwhoborehimason.Buttohis“field”slaves,hewasamonster,whosepreferredpunishmentforthosewhotriedtorunawaywaswhathecalled“Derby’sdose.”The

runawaywouldbebeaten,andsaltpickle,limejuice,andbirdpepperwouldberubbedintohisorheropenwounds.Anotherslavewoulddefecateintothemouthofthemiscreant,whowouldthenbegaggedforfourtofivehours.

Itisnotsurprising,then,thatthebrown-skinnedclassesofJamaicacametofetishizetheirlightness.Itwastheirgreatadvantage.

Theyscrutinizedtheshadeofoneanother’sskinandplayedthecolorgameasruthlesslyintheendasthewhitesdid.“If,asoftenhappens,childrenareofdifferentshadesofcolorinafamily,”theJamaicansociologistFernandoHenriquesoncewrote:

themostlightly

coloredwillbefavoredattheexpenseoftheothers.Inadolescence,anduntilmarriage,thedarkermembersofthefamilywillbekeptoutofthewaywhenthefriendsofthefairorfairermembersofthefamilyarebeingentertained.Thefairchildisregardedasraisingthecolorofthe

familyandnothingmustbeputinthewayofitssuccess,thatisinthewayofamarriagewhichwillstillfurtherraisethecolorstatusofthefamily.Afairpersonwilltrytoseversocialrelationshemayhavewithdarkerrelatives…thedarkermembersofaNegrofamilywillencourage

theeffortsofaveryfairrelativeto“pass”forWhite.Thepracticesofintra-familyrelationslaythefoundationforthepublicmanifestationofcolorprejudice.

Myfamilywasnotimmunetothis.Daisywasinordinatelyproudofthefact

herhusbandwaslighterthanshewas.Butthatsameprejudicewasthenturnedonher:“Daisy’snice,youknow,”hermother-in-lawwouldsay,“butshe’stoodark.”

Oneofmymother’srelatives(I’llcallherAuntJoan)wasalsowellupthecolortotempole.Shewas“whiteandlight.”ButherhusbandwaswhatinJamaica

iscalledan“Injun”—amanwithadarkcomplexionandstraight,fineblackhair—andtheirdaughtersweredarkliketheirfather.Oneday,afterherhusbandhaddied,shewastravelingonatraintovisitherdaughter,andshemetandtookaninterestinalight-skinnedmaninthesamerailwaycar.WhathappenednextissomethingthatAuntJoantoldonlymymother,

yearslater,withthegreatestofshame.Whenshegotoffthetrain,shewalkedrightbyherdaughter,disowningherownfleshandblood,becauseshedidnotwantamansolight-skinnedanddesirabletoknowthatshehadborneadaughtersodark.

Inthe1960s,mymotherwroteabookaboutherexperiences.ItwasentitledBrownFace,BigMaster,the

“brownface”referringtoherself,andthe“bigmaster”referring,intheJamaicandialect,toGod.Atonepoint,shedescribesatimejustaftermyparentsweremarriedwhentheywerelivinginLondonandmyeldestbrotherwasstillababy.Theywerelookingforanapartment,andafteralongsearch,myfatherfoundoneinaLondonsuburb.Onthedayafterthey

movedin,however,thelandladyorderedthemout.“Youdidn’ttellmeyourwifewasJamaican,”shetoldmyfatherinarage.

Inherbook,mymotherdescribesherlongstruggletomakesenseofthishumiliation,toreconcileherexperiencewithherfaith.Intheend,shewasforcedtoacknowledgethatangerwasnotanoptionandthatasa

coloredJamaicanwhosefamilyhadbenefitedforgenerationsfromthehierarchyofrace,shecouldhardlyreproachanotherfortheimpulsetodividepeoplebytheshadeoftheirskin:

IcomplainedtoGodinsomanywords:“HereIwas,thewoundedrepresentativeofthe

negroraceinourstruggletobeaccountedfreeandequalwiththedominatingwhites!”AndGodwasamused;myprayerdidnotringtruewithHim.Iwouldtryagain.AndthenGodsaid,“Haveyounotdonethesamething?Rememberthisoneandthatone,

peoplewhomyouhaveslightedoravoidedortreatedlessconsideratelythanothersbecausetheyweredifferentsuperficially,andyouwereashamedtobeidentifiedwiththem.Haveyounotbeengladthatyouarenotmorecoloredthanyouare?Gratefulthatyou

arenotblack?”Myangerandhateagainstthelandladymelted.Iwasnobetterthanshewas,norworseforthatmatter….Wewerebothguiltyofthesinofself-regard,theprideandtheexclusivenessbywhichwecutsomepeopleofffromourselves.

Itisnoteasytobesohonestaboutwherewe’refrom.Itwouldbesimplerformymothertoportrayhersuccessasastraightforwardtriumphovervictimhood,justasitwouldbesimplertolookatJoeFlomandcallhimthegreatestlawyerever—eventhoughhisindividualachievementsaresoimpossiblyintertwinedwithhisethnicity,hisgeneration,

theparticularsofthegarmentindustry,andthepeculiarbiasesofthedowntownlawfirms.BillGatescouldacceptthetitleofgenius,andleaveitatthat.Ittakesnosmalldegreeofhumilityforhimtolookbackonhislifeandsay,“Iwasverylucky.”Andhewas.TheMothers’ClubofLakesideAcademyboughthimacomputerin1968.Itisimpossibleforahockey

player,orBillJoy,orRobertOppenheimer,oranyotheroutlierforthatmatter,tolookdownfromtheirloftyperchandsaywithtruthfulness,“Ididthis,allbymyself.”Superstarlawyersandmathwhizzesandsoftwareentrepreneursappearatfirstblushtolieoutsideordinaryexperience.Buttheydon’t.Theyareproductsofhistoryandcommunity,of

opportunityandlegacy.Theirsuccessisnotexceptionalormysterious.Itisgroundedinawebofadvantagesandinheritances,somedeserved,somenot,someearned,somejustplainlucky—butallcriticaltomakingthemwhotheyare.Theoutlier,intheend,isnotanoutlieratall.

Mygreat-great-great-grandmotherwasboughtatAlligatorPond.Thatact,in

turn,gaveherson,JohnFord,theprivilegeofaskincolorthatsparedhimalifeofslavery.ThecultureofpossibilitythatDaisyFordembracedandputtousesobrilliantlyonbehalfofherdaughterswaspassedontoherbythepeculiaritiesoftheWestIndiansocialstructure.Andmymother’seducationwastheproductoftheriotsof1937andtheindustriousness

ofMr.Chance.Thesewerehistory’sgiftstomyfamily—andiftheresourcesofthatgrocer,thefruitsofthoseriots,thepossibilitiesofthatculture,andtheprivilegesofthatskintonehadbeenextendedtoothers,howmanymorewouldnowlivealifeoffulfillment,inabeautifulhousehighonahill?

ReadingGroupGuide

OutliersTheStoryofSuccess

MALCOLMGLADWELL

AconversationwithMalcolmGladwell

Whatisanoutlier?

“Outlier”isascientifictermtodescribethingsorphenomenathatlieoutsidenormalexperience.Inthesummer,inParis,weexpectmostdaystobesomewhere

betweenwarmandveryhot.ButimagineifyouhadadayinthemiddleofAugustwhenthetemperaturefellbelowfreezing.Thatdaywouldbeanoutlier.AndwhilewehaveaverygoodunderstandingofwhysummerdaysinParisarewarmorhot,weknowagooddeallessaboutwhyasummerdayinParismightbefreezingcold.InthisbookI’minterestedinpeoplewhoare

outliers—inmenandwomenwho,foronereasonoranother,aresoaccomplishedandsoextraordinaryandsooutsideofordinaryexperiencethattheyareaspuzzlingtotherestofusasacolddayinAugust.

WhydidyouwriteOutliers?

IwritebookswhenIfindmyselfreturningagainand

again,inmymind,tothesamethemes.IwroteTippingPointbecauseIwasfascinatedbythesuddendropincrimeinNewYorkCity—andthatfascinationgrewtoaninterestinthewholeideaofepidemicsandepidemicprocesses.IwroteBlinkbecauseIbegantogetobsessed,inthesameway,withhowallofusseemtomakeupourmindsabout

otherpeopleinaninstant—withoutdoinganyrealthinking.

InthecaseofOutliers,thebookgrewoutofafrustrationIfoundmyselfhavingwiththewayweexplainthecareersofreallysuccessfulpeople.YouknowhowyouhearsomeonesayofBillGatesorsomerockstarorsomeotheroutlier“They’rereallysmart”or“They’re

reallyambitious”?Well,Iknowlotsofpeoplewhoarereallysmartandreallyambitious,andtheyaren’tworth60billiondollars.Itstruckmethatourunderstandingofsuccesswasreallycrude—andtherewasanopportunitytodigdownandcomeupwithabettersetofexplanations.

Inwhatwayareour

explanationsofsuccess“crude”?

That’sabitofapuzzlebecausewecertainlydon’tlackforinterestinthesubject.Ifyougotothebookstore,youcanfindahundredsuccessmanuals,orbiographiesoffamouspeople,orself-helpbooksthatpromisetooutlinethesixkeystogreatachievement.

(Orisitseven?)Soweshouldbeprettysophisticatedonthetopic.WhatIcametorealizeinwritingOutliers,though,isthatwe’vebeenfartoofocusedontheindividual—ondescribingthecharacteristicsandhabitsandpersonalitytraitsofthosewhogetfurthestaheadintheworld.Andthat’stheproblem,becauseinordertounderstandoutliersIthink

youhavetolookaroundthem—attheircultureandcommunityandfamilyandgeneration.We’vebeenlookingattalltrees,andIthinkweshouldhavebeenlookingattheforest.

Canyougivesomeexamples?

Sure.Forexample,oneofthechapterslooksatthefactthatasurprisingnumberofthe

mostpowerfulandsuccessfulcorporatelawyersinNewYorkCityhavealmosttheexactsamebiography:theyareJewishmen,bornintheBronxorBrooklyninthemid-1930stoimmigrantparentswhoworkedinthegarmentindustry.Now,youcancallthatacoincidence.Oryoucanask—asIdo—whatisitaboutbeingJewishandbeingpartofthegeneration

bornintheDepressionandhavingparentswhoworkedinthegarmentbusinessthatmighthavesomethingtodowithturningsomeoneintoareally,reallysuccessfullawyer?Andtheansweristhatyoucanlearnahugeamountaboutwhysomeonereachesthetopofthatprofessionbyaskingthosequestions.

Doesn’tthatmakeitsoundlikesuccessissomethingoutsideofanindividual’scontrol?

Idon’tmeantogothatfar.ButIdothinkthatwevastlyunderestimatetheextenttowhichsuccesshappensbecauseofthingstheindividualhasnothingtodowith.Outliersopens,forexample,byexaminingwhya

hugelydisproportionatenumberofprofessionalhockeyandsoccerplayerswereborninJanuary,February,andMarch.I’mnotgoingtospoilthingsforyoubygivingyoutheanswer.Butthepointisthattheverybesthockeyplayersarepeoplewhoaretalentedandworkhardbutwhoalsobenefitfromtheweirdandlargelyunexaminedandpeculiar

waysinwhichtheirworldisorganized.

IactuallyhavealotoffunwithbirthdatesinOutliers.Didyouknowthatthere’samagicyeartobebornifyouwanttobeasoftwareentrepreneur?Andanothermagicyeartobebornifyouwanttobereallyrich?Infact,onenine-yearstretchturnsouttohaveproducedmoreoutliersthananyotherperiod

inhistory.It’sremarkablehowmanypatternsyoucanfindinthelivesofsuccessfulpeoplewhenyoulookclosely.

What’sthemostsurprisingpatternyouuncoveredinthebook?

It’sprobablythechapterneartheendofOutlierswhereItalkaboutplanecrashes.How

goodapilotis,itturnsout,hasalottodowithwherethatpilotisfrom—thatis,thecultureheorshewasraisedin.Iwasactuallystunnedbyhowstrongtheconnectionisbetweencultureandcrashes,andit’ssomethingthatIwouldneverhavedreamedwastrueinamillionyears.

Wait.DoesthismeanthattherearesomeairlinesthatI

shouldavoid?

Yes.Although,asIpointoutinOutliers,byacknowledgingtherolethatcultureplaysinpiloting,someofthemostunsafeairlineshaveactuallybeguntocleanuptheiract.

InTheTippingPoint,youhadanentirechapteronsuicide.InBlink,youended

thebookwithalongchapterontheDialloshooting—andnowplanecrashes.Doyouhaveamacabreside?

Yes!I’mafrustratedthrillerwriter!But,seriously,there’sagoodreasonforthat.Ithinkthatwelearnmorefromextremecircumstancesthananythingelse;disasterstellussomethingaboutthewaywethinkandbehavethatwe

can’tlearnfromordinarylife.That’sthepremiseofOutliers.It’sthosewholieoutsideordinaryexperiencewhohavethemosttoteachus.

HowdoesthisbookcomparetoBlinkandTheTippingPoint?

It’sdifferentinthesensethatit’smuchmorefocusedon

peopleandtheirstories.Thesubtitle—“TheStoryofSuccess”—issupposedtosignalthat.Alotofthebookisanattempttodescribethelivesofsuccessfulpeople,buttotelltheirstoriesinadifferentwaythanwe’reusedto.Ihaveachapterthatdeals,inpart,withexplainingtheextraordinarysuccessofBillGates.ButI’mnotinterestedinanythingthathappenedto

himpasttheageofaboutseventeen.OrIhaveachapterexplainingwhyAsianschoolchildrenaresogoodatmath.Butit’sfocusedalmostentirelyonwhatthegrandparentsandgreat-grandparentsandgreat-great-grandparentsofthoseschoolchildrendidforaliving.You’llmeetmorepeopleinOutliersthaninmyprevioustwobooks.

WhatwasyourmostmemorableexperienceinresearchingOutliers?

Thereweresomany!I’llneverforgetthetimeIspentwithChrisLangan,whomightbethesmartestmanintheworld.I’veneverbeenabletofeelsomeone’sintellectbefore,thewayIcouldwithhim.Itwasanintimidatingexperience,but

alsoprofoundlyheartbreaking—asIhopebecomesapparentin“TheTroublewithGeniuses”chapter.IalsowenttosouthernChinaandhungoutinricepaddies,andwenttothisweirdlittletownineasternPennsylvaniawherenooneeverhasaheartattack,anddecipheredaircraft“blackbox”recorderswithcrashinvestigators.Ishouldwarnallpotentialreadersthat

onceyougetinterestedintheworldofplanecrashes,itbecomesveryhardtotearyourselfaway.I’mstillobsessed.

WhatdoyouwantpeopletotakeawayfromOutliers?

IthinkthisisthewayinwhichOutliersisalotlikeBlinkandTheTippingPoint.Theyareallattemptstomake

usthinkabouttheworldalittledifferently.ThehopewithTheTippingPointwasitwouldhelpthereaderunderstandthatrealchangewaspossible.WithBlink,Iwantedtogetpeopletotaketheenormouspoweroftheirintuitionseriously.MywishwithOutliersisthatitmakesusunderstandhowmuchofagroupprojectsuccessis.Whenoutliersbecome

outliersitisnotjustbecauseoftheirownefforts.It’sbecauseofthecontributionsoflotsofdifferentpeopleandlotsofdifferentcircumstances,andthatmeansthatwe,asasociety,havemorecontrolaboutwhosucceeds—andhowmanyofussucceed—thanwethink.That’sanamazinglyhopefulandupliftingidea.

Inoticedthatthebookisdedicatedto“Daisy.”Whoisshe?

Daisyismygrandmother.Shewasaremarkablewomanwhowasresponsibleformymother’ssuccess—forthefactthatmymotherwasabletogetoutofthelittleruralvillageinJamaicawhereshegrewup,getauniversityeducationinEngland,and

ultimatelymeetandmarrymyfather.ThelastchapterofOutliersisanattempttounderstandhowDaisywasabletomakethathappen—usingallthelessonslearnedoverthecourseofthebook.I’veneverwrittensomethingquitethispersonalbefore.IhopereadersfindherstoryasmovingasIdid.

Questionsandtopicsfordiscussion

1. MalcolmGladwellarguesthatthere’snosuchthingasaself-mademanandthatsuperachieversaresuccessfulbecauseoftheircircumstances,theirfamilies,andtheir

appetiteforhardwork.Howisthisviewdifferentfromthewayyouhavethoughtaboutandunderstoodsuccessinthepast?

2. In“TheEthnicTheoryofPlaneCrashes,”Gladwelldiscussesoneextremewayinwhichdifferent“culturallanguages”manifest

themselves.Inyouropinion,whatisour“culturallanguage”?Howdiditemergeandevolve?Doesitworkinourfavorwithregardtooursocialstructure?

3. DiscusswhatGladwellmeanswhenhesaysthatbiologistsoftentalkabout“the‘ecology’ofanorganism”(here).

Howisthissimilarto“accumulativeadvantage”(here)?

4. Doyoubelievethatthereissuchathingasinnatetalent?What,accordingtoGladwell,isthedifferenceamongtalent,preparation,andopportunity?Whatlinkdoespracticehavetosuccess?

5. Whoarethe“Termites”andwhydidtheygetthisnickname?What,inGladwell’sopinion,wasTerman’serror?

6. WhatdoesGladwellthinkaresomeconsequencesofthewaythatwehavechosentothinkaboutandpersonalizesuccess?Whatopportunitiesdo

wemissasaresult?Doyouthinkthatasasocietyweshouldreviseourdefinitionofsuccessandhowitisachieved?

7. Inyouropinion,isthe10,000-hourruleanencouragingorfatalisticlensthroughwhichtoviewthepossibilityofindividualsuccess?Howdoesthisrulealterour

notionoftheAmericanDream?

8. Gladwellwritesaboutmeritocraciesinfluencedbyadvantagessomepeoplehaveoverothersbyvirtueofopportunities,education,andcoaching.AstheincomegapintheUnitedStatescontinuestowiden,doyouthink

thatsocialmobility,whichisanessentialpartofachievingsuccess,willcontinuetosuffer?

9. Arethereanyoutliersinyourlife?Whoaretheyandwhataretheirstories?Hasreadingthisbookchangedwhatyouthinkoftheirstories?

INTRODUCTION

JohnG.BruhnandStewartWolfhavepublishedtwobooksontheirworkinRoseto:TheRosetoStory(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1979)andThePowerofClan:TheInfluenceofHumanRelationshipsonHeart

Disease(NewBrunswick,N.J.:TransactionPublishers,1993).ForacomparisonofRosetoValfortore,Italy,andRoseto,Pennsylvania,USA,seeCarlaBianco,TheTwoRosetos(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1974).RosetomightbeuniqueamongsmallPennsylvaniatownsinthedegreeofacademicinterestithasattracted.

ONE:THEMATTHEWEFFECT

JebBush’sfantasiesaboutbeingaself-mademanaredetailedinS.V.Dáte’sJeb:America’sNextBush(NewYork:JeremyP.Tarcher/Penguin,2007),esp.pages80–81.Dátewrites:“Inbothhis1994and1998runs,Jebmadeitclear:notonlywashenotapologizingforhisbackground,hewasproudofwherehewasfinancially,and

certainthatitwastheresultofhisownpluckandworkethic.‘I’veworkedrealhardforwhatI’veachievedandI’mquiteproudofit,’hetoldtheSt.PetersburgTimesin1993.‘Ihavenosenseofguilt,nosenseofwrongdoing.’

“TheattitudewasmuchthesameashehadexpressedonCNN’sLarryKingLivein1992:‘Ithink,overall,it’sa

disadvantage,’hesaidofbeingthepresident’ssonwhenitcametohisbusinessopportunities.‘Becauseyou’rerestrictedinwhatyoucando.’

“Thisthinkingcannotbedescribedasanythingotherthandelusional.”TheLethbridgeBroncos,whowereplayingthedaythatPaulaandRogerBarnsleyfirstnoticedtherelative-age

effect,wereajunioricehockeyteamintheWesternHockeyLeaguefrom1974until1986.TheywontheWHLChampionshipin1982–83,andthreeyearslaterwerebroughtbacktoSwiftCurrentinSaskatchewan.Seehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lethbridge_BroncosForanoverviewoftherelative-ageeffect,seeJochenMuschandSimonGrondin,“UnequalCompetitionasan

ImpedimenttoPersonalDevelopment:AReviewoftheRelativeAgeEffectinSport,”publishedinDevelopmentalReview21,no.2(2001):147–167.RogerBarnsleyandA.H.ThompsonhaveputtheirstudyonaWebsite,http://www.socialproblemindex.ualberta.ca/relage.htmSelf-fulfillingpropheciescanbetracedbacktoancientGreekandIndianliterature,

butthetermitselfwascoinedbyRobertK.MertoninSocialTheoryandSocialStructure(NewYork:FreePress,1968).Barnsleyandhisteambranchedoutintoothersports.SeeR.Barnsley,A.H.Thompson,andPhilipeLegault,“FamilyPlanning:FootballStyle.TheRelativeAgeEffectinFootball,”publishedintheInternational

ReviewfortheSociologyofSport27,no.1(1992):77–88.Thestatisticsfortherelative-ageeffectinbaseballcomefromGregSpira,inSlatemagazine,http://www.slate.com/id/2188866/A.Dudink,attheUniversityofAmsterdam,showedhowthecutoffdateforEnglishPremierLeaguesoccercreatesthesameage

hierarchyasisseeninCanadianhockey.See“BirthDateandSportingSuccess,”Nature368(1994):592.Interestingly,inBelgium,thecutoffdateforsoccerusedtobeAugust1,andbackthen,almostaquarteroftheirtopplayerswereborninAugustandSeptember.ButthentheBelgiansoccerfederationswitchedtoJanuary1,andsureenough,withinafew

years,therewerealmostnoelitesoccerplayersborninDecember,andanoverwhelmingnumberborninJanuary.Formore,seeWernerF.Helsen,JanetL.Starkes,andJanvanWinckel,“EffectsofaChangeinSelectionYearonSuccessinMaleSoccerPlayers,”AmericanJournalofHumanBiology12,no.6(2000):729–735.

KellyBedardandElizabethDhuey’sdatacomesfrom“ThePersistenceofEarlyChildhoodMaturity:InternationalEvidenceofLong-RunAgeEffects,”publishedintheQuarterlyJournalofEconomics121,no.4(2006):1437–1472.

TWO:THE10,000-HOURRULE

Muchofthediscussionof

BillJoy’shistorycomesfromAndrewLeonard’sSalonarticle,“BSDUnix:PowertothePeople,fromtheCode,”May16,2000,http://archive.salon.com/tech/fsp/2000/05/16/chapter_2_part_one/index.htmlForahistoryoftheUniversityofMichiganComputerCenter,see“ACareerInterviewwithBernieGaller,”professoremeritusintheElectricalEngineeringandComputerScience

departmentattheschool,IEEEAnnalsoftheHistoryofComputing23,no.4(2001):107–112.Oneof(many)wonderfularticlesbyEricssonandhiscolleaguesabouttheten-thousand-hourruleisK.AndersEricsson,RalfTh.Krampe,andClemensTesch-Römer,“TheRoleofDeliberatePracticeintheAcquisitionofExpert

Performance,”PsychologicalReview100,no.3(1993):363–406.DanielJ.LevitintalksaboutthetenthousandhoursittakestogetmasteryinThisIsYourBrainonMusic:TheScienceofaHumanObsession(NewYork:Dutton,2006),p.197.Mozart’sdevelopmentasaprodigyisdiscussedinMichaelJ.A.Howe’sGenius

Explained(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1999),p.3.HaroldSchonbergisquotedinJohnR.Hayes,ThinkingandLearningSkills.Vol.2:ResearchandOpenQuestions,ed.SusanF.Chipman,JudithW.Segal,andRobertGlaser(Hillsdale,N.J.:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,1985).Forchess’sexceptiontothe

rule,grandmasterBobbyFischer,seeNeilCharness,RalfTh.Krampe,andUlrichMayrintheiressay“TheRoleofPracticeandCoachinginEntrepreneurialSkillDomains:AnInternationalComparisonofLife-SpanChessSkillAcquisition,”inTheRoadtoExcellence:TheAcquisitionofExpertPerformanceintheArtsandSciences,SportsandGames,

ed.K.AndersEricsson(Hillsdale,N.J.:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,1996),pp.51–126,esp.p.73.Toreadmoreaboutthetime-sharingrevolution,seeStephenManesandPaulAndrews’sGates:HowMicrosoft’sMogulReinventedanIndustry—AndMadeHimselftheRichestManinAmerica(NewYork:Touchstone,1994),p.26.

PhilipNormanwrotetheBeatles’biographyShout!(NewYork:Fireside,2003).JohnLennonandGeorgeHarrison’sreminiscencesabouttheband’sbeginninginHamburgcomefromHamburgDaysbyGeorgeHarrison,AstridKirchherr,andKlausVoorman(Surrey:GenesisPublications,1999).Thequotationisfrompage122.

RobertW.WeisbergdiscussestheBeatles—andcomputesthehourstheyspentpracticing—in“CreativityandKnowledge:AChallengetoTheories”inHandbookofCreativity,ed.RobertJ.Sternberg(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1999):226–250.Thecompletelistoftherichestpeopleinhistorycan

befoundathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wealthy_historical_figures_2008ThereferencetoC.WrightMillsinthefootnotecomesfromTheAmericanBusinessElite:ACollectivePortrait,publishedintheJournalofEconomicHistory5(December1945):20–44.SteveJobs’spursuitofBillHewlettisdescribedinLeeButcher’sAccidentalMillionaire:TheRiseand

FallofSteveJobsatAppleComputer(NewYork:ParagonHouse,1987).

THREE:THETROUBLEWITHGENIUSES,PART1

Theepisodeof1vs.100featuringChrisLanganairedJanuary25,2008.LetaHollingworth,whoismentionedinthefootnote,publishedheraccountof“L”inChildrenAbove180IQ(NewYork:WorldBooks,1942).

AmongotherexcellentsourcesonthelifeandtimesofLewisTermanareHenryL.Minton,“ChartingLifeHistory:LewisM.Terman’sStudyoftheGifted”inTheRiseofExperimentationinAmericanPsychology,ed.JillG.Morawski(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1988);JoelN.Shurkin,Terman’sKids(NewYork:Little,Brown,1992);andMay

Seagoe,TermanandtheGifted(LosAltos:Kauffman,1975).ThediscussionofHenryCowellcomesfromSeagoe.LiamHudson’sdiscussionofthelimitationsofIQtestscanbefoundinContraryImaginations:APsychologicalStudyoftheEnglishSchoolboy(Middlesex:PenguinBooks,1967).Hudsonisanabsolute

delighttoread.TheMichiganLawSchoolstudy“Michigan’sMinorityGraduatesinPractice:TheRiverRunsThroughLawSchool,”writtenbyRichardO.Lempert,DavidL.Chambers,andTerryK.Adams,appearsinLawandSocialInquiry25,no.2(2000).PitirimSorokin’srebuttaltoTermanwaspublishedin

FadsandFoiblesinModernSociologyandRelatedSciences(Chicago:HenryRegnery,1956).

FOUR:THETROUBLEWITHGENIUSES,PART2

KaiBirdandMartinJ.Sherwin,AmericanPrometheus:TheTriumphandTragedyofJ.RobertOppenheimer(NewYork:Knopf,2005).RobertJ.Sternberghaswrittenwidelyonpracticalintelligenceandsimilar

subjects.Foragood,nonacademicaccount,seeSuccessfulIntelligence:HowPracticalandCreativeIntelligenceDetermineSuccessinLife(NewYork:Plume,1997).Asshouldbeobvious,IlovedAnnetteLareau’sbook.Itiswellworthreading,asIhaveonlybeguntooutlineherargumentfromUnequalChildhoods:Class,Race,and

FamilyLife(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2003).AnotherexcellentdiscussionofthedifficultiesinfocusingsolelyonIQisStephenJ.Ceci’sOnIntelligence:ABioecologicalTreatiseonIntellectualDevelopment(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,1996).ForagentlebutcriticalassessmentofTerman’s

study,see“TheVanishingGenius:LewisTermanandtheStanfordStudy”byGretchenKreuter.ItwaspublishedintheHistoryofEducationQuarterly2,no.1(March1962):6–18.

FIVE:THETHREELESSONSOFJOEFLOM

ThedefinitivehistoryofSkadden,Arpsandthe

takeoverculturewaswrittenbyLincolnCaplan,Skadden:Power,Money,andtheRiseofaLegalEmpire(NewYork:Farrar,Straus,andGiroux,1993).AlexanderBickel’sobituaryranintheNewYorkTimesonNovember8,1974.ThetranscriptofhisinterviewisfromtheAmericanJewishCommittee’soralhistoryproject,whichisarchivedat

theNewYorkPublicLibrary.ErwinO.SmigelwritesaboutNewYork’soldwhite-shoelawfirmsinTheWallStreetLawyer:ProfessionalOrganizationMan?(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1969).Theirparticularemployeepreferencesarelistedonpage37.LouisAuchinclosshaswrittenmoreaboutthe

changesthattookplaceintheold-linelawfirmsofManhattaninthepostwaryearsthananyone.ThequotationisfromhisbookTheScarletLetters(NewYork:HoughtonMifflin,2003),p.153.TheeconomicannihilationfacedbylawyersatthelowerendofthesocialspectrumduringtheDepressionisexploredinJeroldS.

Auerbach’sUnequalJustice:LawyersandSocialChangeinModernAmerica(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1976),p.159.StatisticsonthefluctuatingbirthrateinAmericaduringthetwentiethcenturycanbefoundathttp://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0005067.htmlTheimpactofthe“demographictrough”isexploredinRichardA.

Easterlin’sBirthandFortune:TheImpactofNumbersonPersonalWelfare(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1987).H.ScottGordon’spaeantothecircumstancesofchildrenbornduringatroughisfromp.4ofhispresidentialaddresstotheWesternEconomicAssociationattheannualmeetinginAnaheim,California,inJuneof1977,

“OnBeingDemographicallyLucky:TheOptimumTimetoBeBorn.”Itisquotedonpage31.ForadefinitiveaccountoftheriseofJewishlawyers,seeEliWald,“TheRiseandFalloftheWASPandJewishLawFirms,”StanfordLawReview60,no.6(2008):1803.ThestoryoftheBorgenichtswastoldbyLouistoHaroldH.Friedmanandpublishedas

TheHappiestMan:TheLifeofLouisBorgenicht(NewYork:G.P.Putnam’sSons,1942).Formoreonthevariousoccupationsofnineteenth-andtwentieth-centuryimmigrantstoAmerica,readThomasKessner’sTheGoldenDoor:ItalianandJewishImmigrantMobilityinNewYorkCity1880–1915(NewYork:Oxford

UniversityPress,1977).StephenSteinberg’sTheEthnicMyth:Race,Ethnicity,andClassinAmerica(Boston:BeaconPress,1982)includesabrilliantchapteronJewishimmigrantstoNewYork,towhichIamheavilyindebted.LouiseFarkas’sresearchwaspartofhermaster’sthesisatQueen’scollege:LouiseFarkas,“Occupational

GenealogiesofJewsinEasternEuropeandAmerica,1880–1924(NewYork:QueensCollegeSpringThesis,1982).

SIX:HARLAN,KENTUCKY

HarryM.CaudillwroteaboutKentucky,itsbeautyanditstroubles,inNightComestotheCumberlands:ABiographyofaDepressed

Area(Boston:Little,Brown,1962).TheimpactofcoalminingonHarlanCountyisexaminedin“SocialDisorganizationandReorganizationinHarlanCounty,Kentucky,”byPaulFrederickCresseyinAmericanSociologicalReview14,no.3(June1949):389–394.ThebloodyandcomplicatedTurner-Howardfeudis

described,alongwithotherKentuckyfeuds,inJohnEdPearce’smarvelouslyentertainingDaysofDarkness:TheFeudsofEasternKentucky(Lexington:UniversityPressofKentucky,1994),p.11.ThesameclashesareassessedfromananthropologicalperspectivebyKeithF.Otterbeinin“FiveFeuds:AnAnalysisof

HomicidesinEasternKentuckyintheLateNineteenthCentury,”AmericanAnthropologist102,no.2(June2000):231–243.J.K.Campbell’sessay“HonourandtheDevil”appearedinJ.G.Peristiany(ed.),HonourandShame:TheValuesofMediterraneanSociety(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1966).

TheScotch-Irishancestryofthesouthernbackcountry,aswellasaphoneticguidetoScotch-Irishspeech,canbefoundinDavidHackettFischer’smonumentalstudyofearlyAmericanhistory,Albion’sSeed:FourBritishFolkwaysinAmerica(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1989),p.652.ThehighmurderrateintheSouth,andthespecificnature

ofthesemurders,isdiscussedbyJohnSheltonReedinOneSouth:AnEthnicApproachtoRegionalCulture(BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1982).See,particularly,chapter11,“BelowtheSmithandWessonLine.”FormoreonthehistoricalcausesofthesoutherntemperamentandtheinsultexperimentattheUniversity

ofMichigan,seeCultureofHonor:ThePsychologyofViolenceintheSouth,byRichardE.NisbettandDovCohen(Boulder,Colo.:WestviewPress,Inc.,1996).RaymondD.Gastil’sstudyonthecorrelationbetween“southernness”andtheUSmurderrate,“HomicideandaRegionalCultureofViolence,”waspublishedintheAmericanSociological

Review36(1971):412–427.Cohen,withJosephVandello,SylviaPuente,andAdrianRantilla,workedonanotherstudyabouttheAmericanNorth-Southculturaldivide:“‘WhenYouCallMeThat,Smile!’HowNormsforPoliteness,InteractionStyles,andAggressionWorkTogetherinSouthernCulture,”SocialPsychologyQuarterly62,no.3(1999):

257–275.

SEVEN:THEETHNICTHEORYOFPLANECRASHES

TheNationalTransportationSafetyBoard,thefederalagencythatinvestigatescivilaviationaccidents,publishedanAircraftAccidentReportontheKoreanAir801crash:NTSB/AAR-00/01.ThefootnoteaboutThree

MileIslanddrawsheavilyontheanalysisofCharlesPerrow’sclassicNormalAccidents:LivingwithHighRiskTechnologies(NewYork:BasicBooks,1984).Theseven-errors-per-accidentstatisticwascalculatedbytheNationalTransportationSafetyBoardinasafetystudytitled“AReviewofFlightcrew-InvolvedMajorAccidentsofU.S.Air

Carriers,1978Through1990”(SafetyStudyNTSB/SS-94/01,1994).TheagonizingdialogueandanalysisoftheAvianca052crashcanbefoundintheNationalTransportationSafetyBoardAccidentReportAAR-91/04.UteFischerandJudithOrasanu’sstudyofmitigationinthecockpit,“CulturalDiversityandCrew

Communication,”waspresentedatthefiftiethAstronauticalCongressinAmsterdam,October1999.ItwaspublishedbytheAmericanInstituteofAeronauticsandAstronautics.DialoguebetweenthefatedAirFloridacaptainandfirstofficerisquotedinasecondstudybyFischerandOrasanu,“Error-ChallengingStrategies:TheirRolein

PreventingandCorrectingErrors,”producedaspartoftheInternationalErgonomicsAssociationfourteenthTriennialCongressandHumanFactorsandErgonomicsSocietyForty-secondAnnualMeetinginSanDiego,California,August2000.TheunconsciousimpactofnationalityonbehaviorwasformallycalculatedbyGeert

HofstedeandoutlinedinCulture’sConsequences:ComparingValues,Behaviors,Institutions,andOrganizationsAcrossNations(ThousandOaks,Calif.:SagePublications,2001).ThestudyofFrenchandGermanmanufacturingplantsthathequotesonpage102wasdonebyM.BrossardandM.Maurice,“Existe-t-ilunmodèleuniverseldes

structuresd’organisation?,”SociologieduTravail16,no.4(1974):482–495.TheapplicationofHofstede’sDimensionstoairlinepilotswascarriedoutbyRobertL.HelmreichandAshleighMerrittin“CultureintheCockpit:DoHofstede’sDimensionsReplicate?,”JournalofCross-CulturalPsychology31,no.3(May2000):283–301.

RobertL.Helmreich’sculturalanalysisoftheAviancacrashiscalled“AnatomyofaSystemAccident:TheCrashofAviancaFlight052,”InternationalJournalofAviationPsychology4,no.3(1994):265–284.ThelinguisticindirectnessofKoreanspeechascomparedwithAmericanwasobservedbyHo-minSohnatthe

UniversityofHawaiiinhispaper“InterculturalCommunicationinCognitiveValues:AmericansandKoreans,”publishedinLanguageandLinguistics9(1993):93–136.

EIGHT:RICEPADDIESANDMATHTESTS

Toreadmoreonthehistoryandintricaciesofrice

cultivation,seeFrancescaBray’sTheRiceEconomies:TechnologyandDevelopmentinAsianSocieties(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1994).ThelogicofAsiannumeralscomparedwiththeirWesterncounterpartsisdiscussedinStanislasDehaeneinTheNumberSense:HowtheMindCreatesMathematics(Oxford:OxfordUniversity

Press,1997).GrahamRobb,TheDiscoveryofFrance(NewYork:W.W.Norton,2007).Thesurprisinglysecureandleisurelylifeofthe!Kungisdetailedinchapter4ofMantheHunter,ed.RichardB.LeeandIrvenDeVore,withhelpfromJillNash-Mitchell(NewYork:Aldine,1968).TheworkingyearofEuropeanpeasantrywas

calculatedbyAntoineLavoisierandquotedbyB.H.SlichervanBathinTheAgrarianHistoryofWesternEurope,A.D.500–1850,trans.OliveOrdish(NewYork:St.Martin’s,1963).

Activities DaysPloughingand

sowing 12

Cerealharvest 28Haymaking 24

andcartingThreshing 130Otherwork 12Total 206

ThefatalismofRussianpeasantproverbsiscontrastedwiththeself-relianceofChineseonesbyR.DavidArkushin“IfManWorksHardtheLandWillNotBeLazy—EntrepreneurialValuesinNorthChinese

PeasantProverbs,”ModernChina10,no.4(October1984):461–479.Thecorrelationbetweenstudents’nationalaveragescoresinTIMSSandtheirpersistenceinansweringthestudentsurveyattachedtothetesthasbeenevaluatedin“PredictorsofNationalDifferencesinMathematicsandScienceAchievementofEighthGradeStudents:Data

fromTIMSSfortheSix-NationEducationalResearchProgram,”byErlingE.Boe,HenryMay,GemaBarkanic,andRobertF.BoruchattheCenterforResearchandEvaluationinSocialPolicy,GraduateSchoolofEducation,UniversityofPennsylvania.ItwasrevisedFebruary28,2002.Thegraphshowingtheresultscanbeseenonpage9.

ResultsoftheTIMSSteststhroughouttheyearscanbefoundontheNationalCenterforEducationStatisticsWebsite,http://nces.ed.gov/timss/.PriscillaBlinco’sstudyisentitled“TaskPersistenceinJapaneseElementarySchools”andcanbefoundinEdwardBeauchamp,ed.,WindowsonJapaneseEducation(NewYork:GreenwoodPress,1991).

NINE:MARITA’SBARGAIN

AnarticleintheNewYorkTimesMagazinebyPaulTough,“WhatItTakestoMakeaStudent”(November26,2006),examinestheimpactofthegovernment’sNoChildLeftBehindpolicy,thereasonsfortheeducationgap,andtheimpactofcharterschoolssuchasKIPP.KennethM.Gold,School’sIn:TheHistoryofSummer

EducationinAmericanPublicSchools(NewYork:PeterLang,2002),isanunexpectedlyfascinatingaccountoftherootsoftheAmericanschoolyear.KarlL.Alexander,DorisR.Entwisle,andLindaS.Olson’sstudyontheimpactofsummervacationiscalled“Schools,Achievement,andInequality:ASeasonalPerspective,”publishedin

EducationEvaluationandPolicyAnalysis23,no.2(Summer2001):171–191.Muchofthecross-nationaldatacomesfromMichaelJ.Barrett’s“TheCaseforMoreSchoolDays,”publishedintheAtlanticMonthlyinNovember1990,p.78.

EPILOGUE:AJAMAICANSTORY

WilliamM.MacMillan

detailshowhisfearscametopassintheprefacetothesecondeditionofWarningfromtheWestIndies:ATractforAfricaandtheEmpire(U.K.:PenguinBooks,1938).ThesexualexploitsandhorrificpunishmentsofJamaica’swhiterulingclassaredetailedbyTrevorBurnardinMastery,TyrannyandDesire:ThomasThistlewoodandHisSlaves

intheAnglo-JamaicanWorld(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2004).TheintermediarycolorclassintheWestIndies,notseenintheAmericanSouth,isdescribedbyDonaldL.Horowitzin“ColorDifferentiationintheAmericanSystemsofSlavery,”JournalofInterdisciplinaryHistory3,no.3(Winter1973):509–541.

Populationandemploymentstatisticsamongthedifferent-coloredclassesin1950sJamaicaaretakenfromLeonardBroom’sessay“TheSocialDifferentiationofJamaica,”AmericanSociologicalReview19,no.2(April1954):115–125.DivisionsofcolorwithinfamiliesareexploredbyFernandoHenriquesin“ColourValuesinJamaican

Society,”BritishJournalofSociology2,no.2(June1951):115–121.JoyceGladwell’sexperiencesasablackwomanintheUKarefromBrownFace,BigMaster(London:Inter-VarsityPress,1969).Itisawonderfulbook.Irecommendithighly—although,asyoucanimagine,Icouldbeabitbiased.

Acknowledgments

I’mhappytosaythatOutliersconformstoitsownthesis.Itwasverymuchacollectiveeffort.Iwasinspired,asIseemtoalwaysbe,bytheworkofRichardNisbett.ItwasreadingtheCultureofHonorthatsetinmotionalotofthethinkingthatledtothis

book.Thankyou,ProfessorNisbett.

Asalways,Iprevaileduponmyfriendstocritiquevariousdraftsofthemanuscript.Happily,theycomplied,andOutliersisinfinitelybetterasaresult.ManythankstoJacobWeisberg,TerryMartin,RobertMcCrum,SarahLyall,CharlesRandolph,TaliFarhadian,ZoeRosenfeld,

andBruceHeadlam.StaceyKalishandSarahKesslerdidyeoman’sworkinresearchandfact-checking.SuzyHansenperformedherusualeditorialmagic.DavidRemnickgraciouslygavemetimeofffrommydutiesatTheNewYorkertocompletethisbook.Thankyou,asalways,David.HenryFinder,myeditoratTheNewYorker,savedmefrommyselfand

remindedmehowtothink,ashealwaysdoes.IhaveworkedwithHenryforsolongthatInowhavewhatIliketocallthe“internalFinder,”whichisaself-correctingvoiceinsidemyheadthatgivesmethebenefitofHenry’swisdomevenwhenheisnotthere.BothFinders—internalandexternal—wereinvaluable.

BillPhillipsandIhave

beentwofortwosofar,andI’mverygratefulIwasabletoenlisthisMidastouchoncemore.Thankyou,Bill.Here’shopingwegothreeforthree.WillGoodladandStefanMcGrathatPenguininEngland,andMichaelPietschand—especially—GeoffShandleratLittle,Brownsawthismanuscriptthrough,fromstarttofinish.ThankstotherestoftheteamatLittle,

Brownaswell:HeatherFainandHeatherRizzoandJunieDahn.MyfellowCanadianPamelaMarshallisawordwizard.Icannotimaginepublishingabookwithouther.

Twofinalwordsofappreciation.TinaBennett,myagent,hasbeenwithmefromtheverybeginning.Sheisinsightfulandthoughtfulandencouragingand

unfailinglywise,andwhenIthinkofwhatshehasdoneforme,IfeelasluckyasahockeyplayerbornonJanuary1.

Iowethanksmostofall,though,tomyparents,GrahamandJoyce.Thisisabookaboutthemeaningofwork,andIlearnedthatworkcanbemeaningfulfrommyfather.Everythinghedoes—fromhismostcomplex

academicmathematicstodigginginthegarden—hetackleswithjoyandresolveandenthusiasm.Myearliestmemoriesofmyfatherareofseeinghimworkathisdeskandrealizingthathewashappy.Ididnotknowitthen,butthatwasoneofthemostpreciousgiftsafathercangivehischild.Mymother,forherpart,taughtmehowtoexpressmyself;shetaughtme

thatthereisbeautyinsayingsomethingclearlyandsimply.Shereadeverywordofthisbookandtriedtoholdmetothatstandard.MygrandmotherDaisy,towhomOutliersisdedicated,gavemymotherthegiftofopportunity.Mymotherhasdonethesameforme.

Contents

FrontCoverImageWelcomeDedication

READINGGROUPGUIDE

ACONVERSATIONWITHMALCOLMGLADWELL

QUESTIONSANDTOPICSFORDISCUSSION

INTRODUCTIONTheRosetoMystery

“Thesepeopleweredyingofoldage.That’sit.”

PARTONE:OPPORTUNITY

ONETheMatthewEffect“Foruntoeveryonethathathshallbegiven,andheshallhaveabundance.

Butfromhimthathathnotshallbetakenawayeven

thatwhichhehath.”—Matthew25:29

TWOThe10,000-Hour

Rule“InHamburg,wehadtoplayforeighthours.”

TheTroublewithGeniuses,Part1“Knowledgeofaboy’sIQisoflittlehelpifyouarefacedwitha

formfulofcleverboys.”FOUR

TheTroublewithGeniuses,Part2“Afterprotractednegotiations,itwas

agreedthatRobertwouldbeputonprobation.”

FIVETheThreeLessons

ofJoeFlom“Marygotaquarter.”

PARTTWO:LEGACY

SIXHarlan,Kentucky

“Dielikeaman,likeyourbrother

did!”SEVEN

TheEthnicTheoryofPlaneCrashes“Captain,the

weatherradarhashelpedusalot.”

EIGHTRicePaddiesand

MathTests

“Noonewhocanrisebeforedawnthreehundredsixtydaysayearfailstomakehisfamily

rich.”NINE

Marita’sBargain“Allmyfriendsnowarefrom

KIPP.”

EPILOGUE

AJamaicanStory“Ifaprogenyofyoungcolored

childrenisbroughtforth,theseareemancipated.”

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

AbouttheAuthor

AlsobyMalcolmGladwellAcclaimforMalcolm

Gladwell’sOutliersCopyright

MALCOLMGLADWELLisalsotheauthoroftheinternationallybestsellingbooksTheTippingPoint,Blink,andWhattheDogSaw.HehasbeenastaffwriterforTheNewYorkermagazinesince1996.PriortothathewasareporterwiththeWashingtonPost,wherehecoveredbusinessandscienceandalsoservedasthenewspaper’sNewYorkCity

bureauchief.Formoreinformation

aboutMalcolmGladwell,visithiswebsiteatwww.gladwell.com.

ALSOBYMALCOLMGLADWELL

WhattheDogSawBlink

TheTippingPoint

AcclaimforMalcolmGladwell’s

OutliersTheStoryofSuccess

“Onaneternalquesttoexplainustoourselves,MalcolmGladwellonceagainturnshisintellectualdiviningrodtowardacommonyetmysteriousculturalphenomenon—inthiscase,

thelivesofoutliers,thoseremarkableindividualswhosesuccessmillionsofusstrivetoduplicate.Whatisthedifference,Gladwellwonders,betweenthosewhodosomethingspecialwiththeirlivesandeveryoneelse?Fromsoftwarebillionairestoprofessionalathletes,Gladwellexplainswithhistrademarkcounterintuitivelogichowthehabitsofhighly

successfulpeoplepaleinimportancetowhere,when,andhowyouwereraised….Asalways,insightsguaranteedtocomfortanddiscomfortequally.”

—ElissaSchappell,VanityFair

“Inthevastworldofnonfictionwriting,MalcolmGladwellisasclosetoasingulartalentasexists

today….Outliersisapleasuretoreadandleavesyoumullingoveritsinventivetheoriesfordaysafterward….OutliersrepresentsanewkindofbookforGladwell….Itisalmostamanifesto.”

—DavidLeonhardt,NewYorkTimesBookReview

“Unabashedlyinspiring….Aprovocativeandpracticalbookaboutthelandscapeof

success.”—JonahRaskin,SanFranciscoChronicle

“Amust-readforeducators,recruiters,andparents….OutliersisevidenceofMr.Gladwell’s10,000hours.”

—JoanneMcNeil,SundayTimes

“Animportantnewbook….Gladwellintelligently

capturesalargertendencyofthought—thegrowingappreciationofthepowerofculturalpatterns,socialcontagions,memes….Gladwell’ssocialdeterminismisausefulcorrectivetotheHomoeconomicusviewofhumannature.”—DavidBrooks,NewYork

“Outliersisacompellingreadwithanimportantmessage:byunderstandingbetterwhatmakespeoplesuccessfulweshouldbeabletoproducemoresuccessful(andhappy)people.”

—Economist

“TheexplosivelyentertainingOutliersmightbeGladwell’sbestandmostusefulworkyet….Therearebothbrilliant

yarnsandlifelessonshere:Outliersisrivetingscience,self-help,andentertainment,allinonebook.”

—GregoryKirschling,EntertainmentWeekly

“NootherbookIreadthisyearcombinessuchadistinctiveprosestylewithtrulythought-provokingcontent.Gladwellsomehowwriteswithahighdegreeof

dazzlebutatthesametimeremainsasclearanddirectasevenStrunkorWhitecouldhopefor.”

—FrankReiss,AtlantaJournal-Constitution

“Afascinatingandentertainingbook,onethatexposestherarelyacknowledgedforcesbehindsuccess.”

—JamesF.Sweeney,

ClevelandPlainDealer

“Gladwell’spointsarewellworthpondering.”

—BusinessWeek

“Insightful….IfenoughpeoplereadandpondertheimplicationsofOutliers,perhapsthatcanhelpbeginthemuchneededprocessofturningaroundcurrentcounterproductiveattitudes

towardeducationandtowardlife.”

—ThomasSowell,WashingtonTimes

“MalcolmGladwellhasarareability:hecantransformacademicresearchintoengagingfablesspotlightingrealpeople….Outliers,withitsentertainingpsychologyandsociology,iscatchyandbeautifullywritten.”

—StephenKotkin,NewYorkTimes

“It’shardtoresistMalcolmGladwell….Readingoneofhisbooksislikesittingatthekitchentablewhileherunsabouthishouse,pullingresearchstudiesoutoffilecabinets,thickbiographiesoffbookshelves,andspreadsheetsfromhislaptop.‘Checkthisout!’heexclaims,

and‘Canyoubelievethisone?!’Thenhegetsserious.‘Youknowhowimportantthisis,don’tyou?’heasks….Ultimately,Outliersisabookaboutthetwentiethcentury.Itoffersafascinatinglookathowcertainpeoplebecomesuccessful.”

—RebeccaSteinitz,BostonGlobe

“Thought-provoking,

entertaining,andirresistiblydebatable….Outliersisanotherwinnerfromthisagilesocialobserver.”—HellerMcAlpin,Christian

ScienceMonitor

“Gladwell’swritingisalwaysaccessibleandattractive,andhisideas—culledfromscience,brimmingwithresearch—arefascinating.”—MargaretSullivan,Buffalo

“Gladwellturnsconventionalwisdomonitshead….Withhisknackforspottingcuriousfindingsinthesocialsciences,hestandsoutamongcontemporarywriters….GladwellrevealshisspecialgeniusinthisremarkabletrilogycompletedbyOutliers….Itisinspottingremarkablejewelsinthevast

rockcollectionofsocial-scienceresearchandplacingthemexpertlyintoanexquisitesetting.”

—HowardGardner,WashingtonPost

“AsinBlinkandTheTippingPoint,theanecdotesaredazzlingandthedatauncanny.”

—MaxRoss,MinneapolisStarTribune

“Nootherwritertodaycanpullthissortofthingoffsowell.IfIhadn’tjustreadGladwell’sbook,I’dbejealousofhistalent,insteadofhisluck.”

—JerryAdler,Newsweek

“Aninsightfulbook….Requiredreadingforanyoneinterestedinthepsychologyofachievement.”

—ConnieGlaser,Atlanta

BusinessChronicle

“ThethrustofMr.Gladwell’sargumentisrightontarget….Hepassionatelyemphasizestheneedtocultivategreatmindsthatmightbelimitedbytheircircumstancesorenvironment.”—DavidA.Shaywitz,Wall

StreetJournal

“Downrightentertainingand

informative….MalcolmGladwellmakesusthink.Isthereanyfinercomplimentforanauthor?”

—AlHutchison,TampaTribune

“Readableandentertaining….MalcolmGladwellisasuccessfulpractitionerofwhatwemightthinkofasanewwaveofsocialscience—sociology,

economics,psychology,history—forageneralreadership….ThesuccessstoriesGladwellrelatesareinspiring,andthetalesofsuccess,whetherabouthockeyplayers,computergeniuses,corporatelawyers,orentrepreneurs,arenarratedexpertly.”

—CrispinSartwell,PhiladelphiaInquirer

“Thought-provoking….Gladwellroveswidely,anecdotally,andalwaysreadably….Thebook’smiscellanyofinformationandindividualsentertains.”

—NewScientist

“OutliersisprobablyMalcolmGladwell’smostimportantbookyet….Gladwellgivesyouanewwayofseeingtheworld.”

—MichaelBond,NatureMagazine

“Gladwell’suniqueperspectivechallengesreaderstothinkaboutintelligence,success,andfameinanewway….Outliersisaclever,entertainingbookthatstimulatesreaders’mindsandbroadenstheirperspectives.Itis,initsownway,genius.”

—JohnT.Slania,BookPage

“Outlierswillselljillionsofcopiesinthetimeittakesyoutoreadthisparagraph.AndwhilethousandsofitsreaderswillbebusinessstudentsandcorporateexecutiveslookingforGladwelltodemystifytheincomprehensiblebehaviorofhumanbeingsforthem,thetargetaudienceforOutlierscouldjustaswellbevery

anxiousparentsinAmerica.”—JoelLovell,GQ

“WithOutliers,MalcolmGladwellhasdoneitagain:takenwhatmighthavebeenadryandpedanticsubjectandinsteadproducedanenjoyable,almostbreezy,treatiseontheexceptional…illuminatedwiththeminute-yet-tellingdetailsthatmarkGladwell’sbestwork.”

—ScottCoffman,LouisvilleCourier-Journal

“Gladwellknowshowtospinayarnfromwhatmightotherwisebedrysociologicalandpsychologicalstudiesbyweavinginanecdotesandinterviewsthatillustratehistheoriesonhowtomaximizehumanpotential.”

—MichelleArcher,USAToday

“IlikethewayMalcolmGladwellmakesmethink….Gladwelluseshisspecialbrandofpopsociologyandacollectionofintriguinganecdotestopostulatethattiminghasasmuchtodowithsuccessasgritandbrains.”—SusanReimer,Baltimore

“Gladwellonceagainprovesmasterfulinagenrehe

essentiallypioneered—thebookthatilluminatessecretpatternsbehindeverydayphenomena….Gladwelltearsdownthemythofindividualmerittoexplorehowculture,circumstance,timing,birth,andluckaccountforsuccess—andhowhistoricallegaciescanholdothersbackdespiteampleindividualgifts.Evenasweknowhowmanyofthesestoriesend,Gladwell

restoresthesuspenseandserendipitytothesenarrativesthatmakethemfreshandsurprising.”

—PublishersWeekly

“Outliersisaprovocativeandstimulatingbook,apleasuretoreadforitsclearproseanditsvigorousintelligence.Gladwell’stimingisonceagainimpeccable,andwiththebenefitofhisgood

Canadianeducation,he’sequippedtosharehisgraspofzeitgeistwithanaudienceeagerforenlightenment.”

—JohnStrawn,PortlandOregonian

*ThewayCanadiansselecthockeyplayersisabeautifulexampleofwhatthesociologistRobertMertonfamouslycalleda“self-fulfillingprophecy”—asituationwhere“afalsedefinition,inthebeginning…evokesanewbehaviorwhichmakestheoriginalfalseconceptioncometrue.”Canadiansstartwithafalsedefinitionofwhothebestnine-andten-year-oldhockeyplayersare.They’rejustpickingtheoldesteveryyear.Butthewaytheytreatthose“all-stars”endsupmakingtheiroriginalfalsejudgmentlookcorrect.AsMertonputsit:“Thisspeciousvalidityoftheself-fulfillingprophecyperpetuatesareignoferror.Fortheprophetwillcite

theactualcourseofeventsasproofthathewasrightfromtheverybeginning.”

*AphysicallyimmaturebasketballplayerinanAmericancitycanprobablyplayasmanyhoursofbasketballinagivenyearasarelativelyolderchildbecausetherearesomanybasketballcourtsandsomanypeoplewillingtoplay.It’snotlikeicehockey,whereyouneedarink.Basketballissavedbyitsaccessibilityandubiquity.

*Evenmoresocialphenomenacanbelinkedtorelativeage.Barnsleyandtwocolleagues,forinstance,oncefoundthatstudentswhoattemptsuicidearealsomorelikelytobeborninthesecondhalfoftheschoolyear.Theirexplanationisthatpoorerschoolperformancecanleadtodepression.Theconnectionbetweenrelativeageandsuicide,however,isn’tnearlyaspronouncedasthecorrelationbetweenbirthdateandathleticsuccess.

*ThesociologistC.WrightMillsmadeanadditionalobservationaboutthatspecialcohortfromthe1830s.HelookedatthebackgroundsoftheAmericanbusinesselitefromtheColonialEratothetwentiethcentury.Inmostcases,notsurprisingly,hefoundthatbusinessleaderstendedtocomefromprivilegedbackgrounds.Theoneexception?The1830sgroup.Thatshowshowbigtheadvantagewasofbeingborninthatdecade.ItwastheonlytimeinAmericanhistorywhenthoseborninmodestcircumstanceshadarealisticshotatrealriches.Hewrites:“ThebesttimeduringthehistoryoftheUnitedStatesforthepoorboy

ambitiousforhighbusinesssuccesstohavebeenbornwasaroundtheyear1835.”

*ThesuperIQtestwascreatedbyRonaldK.Hoeflin,whoishimselfsomeonewithanunusuallyhighIQ.Here’sasamplequestion,fromtheverbalanalogiessection.“TeethistoHenasNestisto?”Ifyouwanttoknowtheanswer,I’mafraidIhavenoidea.

*TogetasenseofwhatChrisLanganmusthavebeenlikegrowingup,considerthefollowingdescriptionofachildnamed“L,”whohadanIQinthesame200rangeasLangan’s.It’sfromastudybyLetaStetterHollingworth,whowasoneofthefirstpsychologiststostudyexceptionallygiftedchildren.Asthedescriptionmakesobvious,anIQof200isreally,reallyhigh:“YoungL’seruditionwasastonishing.Hispassionforscholarlyaccuracyandthoroughnesssetahighstandardforaccomplishment.Hewasrelativelylarge,robustandimpressive,andwasfondlydubbed‘Professor.’Hisattitudesandabilitieswereappreciatedbyboth

pupilsandteachers.Hewasoftenallowedtolecture(foraslongasanhour)onsomespecialtopic,suchasthehistoryoftimepieces,ancienttheoriesofengineconstruction,mathematics,andhistory.Heconstructedoutofoddsandends(typewriterribbonspools,forexample)ahomemadeclockofthependulartypetoillustratesomeoftheprinciplesofchronometry,andthisclockwassetupbeforetheclassduringtheenrichmentuniton‘TimeandTimeKeeping’todemonstratesomeoftheprinciplesofchronometry.Hisnotebooksweremarvelsofscholarlyexposition.

“Beingdiscontentedwithwhathe

consideredtheinadequatetreatmentoflandtravelinaclassuniton‘Transportation,’heagreedthattimewastoolimitedtodojusticetoeverything.Butheinsistedthat‘atleasttheyshouldhavecoveredancienttheory.’Asanextraandvoluntaryproject,‘hebroughtinelaboratedrawingsandaccountsoftheancienttheoriesofengines,locomotivesetc.’…Hewasatthattime10yearsofage.”

*Theansweristhataroundmanholecovercan’tfallintothemanhole,nomatterhowmuchyoutwistandturnit.Arectangularcovercan:Allyouhavetodoistiltitsideways.There:nowyoucangetajobatMicrosoft.

*The“IQfundamentalist”ArthurJensenputitthuslyinhis1980bookBiasinMentalTesting(p.113):“ThefoursociallyandpersonallymostimportantthresholdregionsontheIQscalearethosethatdifferentiatewithhighprobabilitybetweenpersonswho,becauseoftheirlevelofgeneralmentalability,canorcannotattendaregularschool(aboutIQ50),canorcannotmasterthetraditionalsubjectmatterofelementaryschool(aboutIQ75),canorcannotsucceedintheacademicorcollegepreparatorycurriculumthroughhighschool(aboutIQ105),canorcannotgraduatefromanaccreditedfour-yearcollegewithgradesthat

wouldqualifyforadmissiontoaprofessionalorgraduateschool(aboutIQ115).Beyondthis,theIQlevelbecomesrelativelyunimportantintermsofordinaryoccupationalaspirationsandcriteriaofsuccess.ThatisnottosaythattherearenotrealdifferencesbetweentheintellectualcapabilitiesrepresentedbyIQsof115and150orevenbetweenIQsof150and180.ButIQdifferencesinthisupperpartofthescalehavefarlesspersonalimplicationsthanthethresholdsjustdescribedandaregenerallyoflesserimportanceforsuccessinthepopularsensethanarecertaintraitsofpersonalityand

character.”

*Justtobeclear:itisstillthecasethatHarvardproducesmoreNobelPrizewinnersthananyotherschool.Justlookatthoselists.Harvardappearsonbothofthem,atotalofthreetimes.AschoollikeHolyCrossappearsjustonce.Butwouldn’tyouexpectschoolslikeHarvardtowinmoreNobelsthantheydo?Harvardis,afterall,therichest,mostprestigiousschoolinhistoryandhasitspickofthemostbrilliantundergraduatestheworldover.

*TogetasenseofhowabsurdtheselectionprocessateliteIvyLeagueschoolshasbecome,considerthefollowingstatistics.In2008,27,462ofthemosthighlyqualifiedhighschoolseniorsintheworldappliedtoHarvardUniversity.Ofthesestudents,2,500ofthemscoredaperfect800ontheSATcriticalreadingtestand3,300hadaperfectscoreontheSATmathexam.Morethan3,300wererankedfirstintheirhighschoolclass.HowmanydidHarvardaccept?About1,600,whichistosaytheyrejected93outofevery100applicants.IsitreallypossibletosaythatonestudentisHarvardmaterialandanotherisn’t,whenbothhaveidentical

—andperfect—academicrecords?Ofcoursenot.Harvardisbeingdishonest.Schwartzisright.Theyshouldjusthavealottery.

*Here’sanotherstudent’sanswers.ThesemightbeevenbetterthanPoole’s:“(Brick).Tobreakwindowsforrobbery,todeterminedepthofwells,touseasammunition,aspendulum,topracticecarving,wallbuilding,todemonstrateArchimedes’Principle,aspartofabstractsculpture,cosh,ballast,weightfordroppingthingsinriver,etc.,asahammer,keepdooropen,footwiper,useasrubbleforpathfilling,chock,weightonscale,topropupwobblytable,paperweight,asfirehearth,toblockuprabbithole.”

*MostestimatesputtheheritabilityofIQatroughly50percent.

*ThelawyerandnovelistLouisAuchincloss,whoverymuchbelongstotheoldWASP-ywhite-shoelegalestablishmentinNewYork,hasasceneinhisbookTheScarletLettersthatperfectlycapturestheantipathythedowntownfirmsfelttowardtakeoverlaw.“Faceit,mydear,yourhusbandandIarerunningafirmofshysters,”atakeoverattorneyexplainstothewifeofhislawpartner.

Hecontinues:“Nowadayswhenonewishestoacquireacompanythatdoesn’twishtobeacquired,one’scounselbringallkindsofnuisancesuitstoinduceittochangeitsmind.Wesueformismanagementbythedirectors,for

unpaiddividends,forviolationofthebylaws,forimproperissuanceofstock.Weallegecriminalmisconduct;weshoutaboutantitrust;wesueforancientanddubiousliabilities.Andouropponent’scounselwillanswerwithinordinatedemandsforallourfilesandseekendlessinterrogatoriesinordertoenmeshourclientinahopelesstangleofredtape….Itissimplywar,andyouknowthequalitythatappliestothatandlove.”

*ThebestanalysisofhowadversityturnedintoopportunityforJewishlawyershasbeendonebythelegalscholarEliWald.Waldiscarefultomakethepoint,however,thatFlomandhisilkweren’tmerelylucky.Luckyiswinningthelottery.Theyweregivenanopportunity,andtheyseizedit.AsWaldsays:“Jewishlawyerswereluckyandtheyhelpedthemselves.That’sthebestwaytoputit.Theytookadvantageofthecircumstancesthatcametheirway.TheluckypartwastheunwillingnessoftheWASPfirmstostepintotakeoverlaw.Butthatwordluckfailstocapturetheworkandtheeffortsandtheimaginationandthe

actingonopportunitiesthatmighthavebeenhiddenandnotsoobvious.”

*JanklowandNesbit,theagencyhestarted,is,infact,myliteraryagency.ThatishowIheardaboutJanklow’sfamilyhistory.

*IrealizethatitseemsstrangetorefertoAmericanJewishimmigrantsasluckywhenthefamiliesandrelativestheyleftbehindinEuropewereonthevergeofexterminationatthehandsoftheNazis.Borgenicht,infact,unwittinglycapturesthispoignancyinhismemoir,whichwaspublishedin1942.HecalleditTheHappiestMan.Afternumerouschaptersbrimmingwithoptimismandcheer,thebookendswiththesoberingrealityofNazi-dominatedEurope.HadTheHappiestManbeenpublishedin1945,whenthefullstoryoftheHolocaustwasknown,oneimaginesitwouldhavehadaverydifferenttitle.

*Justtobeclear:tosaythatgarmentworkwasmeaningfulisnottoromanticizeit.Itwasincrediblyhardandoftenmiserablelabor.Theconditionswereinhuman.Onesurveyinthe1890sputtheaverageworkweekateighty-fourhours,whichcomestotwelvehoursaday.Attimes,itwashigher.“Duringthebusyseason,”DavidVonDrehlewritesinTriangle:TheFireThatChangedAmierca,“itwasnotunusualtofindworkersonstoolsorbrokenchairs,bentovertheirsewingorhotirons,from5a.m.to9p.m.,ahundredormorehoursaweek.Indeed,itwassaidthatduringthebusyseasonsthegrindinghumofsewing

machinesneverentirelyceasedontheLowerEastSide,dayornight.”

*TheconventionalexplanationforJewishsuccess,ofcourse,isthatJewscomefromaliterate,intellectualculture.Theyarefamously“thepeopleofthebook.”Thereissurelysomethingtothat.Butitwasn’tjustthechildrenofrabbiswhowenttolawschool.Itwasthechildrenofgarmentworkers.Andtheircriticaladvantageinclimbingtheprofessionalladderwasn’ttheintellectualrigoryougetfromstudyingtheTalmud.ItwasthepracticalintelligenceandsavvyyougetfromwatchingyourfathersellapronsonHesterStreet.

*DavidHackettFischer’sbookAlbion’sSeed:FourBritishFolkwaysinAmericaisthemostdefinitiveandconvincingtreatmentoftheideathatculturallegaciescastalonghistoricalshadow.(Ifyoureadmyfirstbook,TheTippingPoint,you’llrememberthatthediscussionofPaulReverewasdrawnfromFischer’sPaulRevere’sRide.)InAlbion’sSeed,FischerarguesthattherewerefourdistinctBritishmigrationstoAmericainitsfirst150years:firstthePuritans,inthe1630s,whocamefromEastAngliatoMassachusetts;thentheCavaliersandservants,whocamefromsouthernEnglandtoVirginiainthemid-seventeenthcentury;thenthe

Quakers,fromtheNorthMidlandstotheDelawareValleybetweenthelateseventeenthandearlyeighteenthcenturies;andfinally,thepeopleoftheborderlandstotheAppalachianinteriorintheeighteenthcentury.Fischerarguesbrilliantlythatthosefourcultures—eachprofoundlydifferent—characterizethosefourregionsoftheUnitedStateseventothisday.

*Cohenhasdoneotherexperimentslookingagainforevidenceof“southernness,”andeachtimehefindsthesamething.“Once,webotheredstudentswithpersistentannoyances,”hesaid.“Theycomeintothelabandtheyaresupposedtodrawpicturesfromtheirchildhood.Theyaredoingthiswiththeconfederate,andhe’sbeingajerk.Hedoesallthesethingstopersistentlyannoythesubject.He’llwaduphisdrawingandthrowitatthewastebasketandhitthesubject.He’llstealthesubject’scrayonsandnotgivethemback.Hekeepsoncallingthesubject‘Slick,’andhesays,‘I’mgoingtoputyournameonyourdrawing,’and

writes‘Slick.’Whatyoufindisthatnorthernerstendtogiveoffdisplaysofanger,uptoacertainpoint,atwhichpointtheyleveloff.Southernersaremuchlesslikelytobeangryearlyon.Butatsomepointtheycatchuptothenorthernersandshootpastthem.Theyaremorelikelytoexplode,muchmorevolatile,muchmoreexplosive.”

*Howarethesekindsofattitudespasseddownfromgenerationtogeneration?Throughsocialheritance.Thinkofthewayaccentspersistovertime.DavidHackettFischerpointsoutthattheoriginalsettlersofAppalachiasaid:“wharforwhere,tharforthere,hardforhired,critterforcreature,sartinforcertain,a-goinforgoing,hitforit,he-itforhit,farforfire,deeffordeaf,pizenforpoison,nekkidfornaked,eetchforitch,booshforbush,wrassleforwrestle,chawforchew,pooshforpush,shetforshut,ba-itforbat,be-itforbe,narrerfornarrow,winderforwindow,widderforwidow,andyoung-unsforyoungone.”Recognizethat?

It’sthesamewaymanyruralpeopleintheAppalachiansspeaktoday.Whatevermechanismpassesonspeechpatternsprobablypassesonbehavioralandemotionalpatternsaswell.

*KoreanAirwascalledKoreanAirlinesbeforeitchangeditsnameaftertheGuamaccident.AndtheBarentsSeaincidentwasactuallyprecededbytwoothercrashes,in1971and1976.

*Thisistruenotjustofplanecrashes.It’strueofvirtuallyallindustrialaccidents.Oneofthemostfamousaccidentsinhistory,forexample,wasthenearmeltdownatPennsylvania’sThreeMileIslandnuclearstationin1979.ThreeMileIslandsotraumatizedtheAmericanpublicthatitsenttheUSnuclearpowerindustryintoatailspinfromwhichithasneverfullyrecovered.Butwhatactuallyhappenedatthatnuclearreactorbeganassomethingfarfromdramatic.AsthesociologistCharlesPerrowshowsinhisclassicNormalAccidents,therewasarelativelyroutineblockageinwhatiscalledtheplant’s“polisher”—akindof

giantwaterfilter.Theblockagecausedmoisturetoleakintotheplant’sairsystem,inadvertentlytrippingtwovalvesandshuttingdowntheflowofcoldwaterintotheplant’ssteamgenerator.Likeallnuclearreactors,ThreeMileIslandhadabackupcoolingsystemforpreciselythissituation.Butonthatparticularday,forreasonsthatnoonereallyunderstands,thevalvesforthebackupsystemweren’topen.Someonehadclosedthem,andanindicatorinthecontrolroomshowingtheywereclosedwasblockedbyarepairtaghangingfromaswitchaboveit.Thatleftthereactordependentonanotherbackupsystem,aspecialsortof

reliefvalve.But,asluckwouldhaveit,thereliefvalvewasn’tworkingproperlythatdayeither.Itstuckopenwhenitwassupposedtoclose,and,tomakemattersevenworse,agaugeinthecontrolroomthatshouldhavetoldtheoperatorsthatthereliefvalvewasn’tworkingwasitselfnotworking.BythetimeThreeMileIsland’sengineersrealizedwhatwashappening,thereactorhadcomedangerouslyclosetoameltdown.

NosinglebigthingwentwrongatThreeMileIsland.Rather,fivecompletelyunrelatedeventsoccurredinsequence,eachofwhich,hadithappenedinisolation,wouldhave

causednomorethanahiccupintheplant’sordinaryoperation.

*Weknowthisbecausetheflightattendantsurvivedthecrashandtestifiedattheinquest.

*Hofstede,similarly,referencesastudydoneafewyearsagothatcomparedGermanandFrenchmanufacturingplantsthatwereinthesameindustryandwereroughlythesamesize.TheFrenchplantshad,onaverage,26percentoftheiremployeesinmanagementandspecialistpositions;theGermans,16percent.TheFrench,furthermore,paidtheirtopmanagementsubstantiallymorethantheGermansdid.Whatweareseeinginthatcomparison,Hofstedeargued,isadifferenceinculturalattitudestowardhierarchy.TheFrenchhaveapowerdistanceindextwicethatoftheGermans.Theyrequireandsupport

hierarchyinawaytheGermanssimplydon’t.

*HerearethetopfivepilotPDIsbycountry.Ifyoucomparethislisttotherankingofplanecrashesbycountry,theymatchupveryclosely.

1.Brazil2.SouthKorea3.Morocco4.Mexico5.Philippines

ThefivelowestpilotPDIsbycountryare:

15.UnitedStates16.Ireland17.SouthAfrica

18.Australia19.NewZealand

*Oninternationalcomparisontests,studentsfromJapan,SouthKorea,HongKong,Singapore,andTaiwanallscoreroughlythesameinmath,aroundtheninety-eighthpercentile.TheUnitedStates,France,England,Germany,andtheotherWesternindustrializednationsclusteratsomewherebetweenthetwenty-sixandthirty-sixthpercentile.That’sabigdifference.

†Lynn’sclaimthatAsianshavehigherIQshasbeenrefuted,convincingly,byanumberofotherexperts,whoshowedthathebasedhisargumentonIQsamplesdrawndisproportionatelyfromurban,upper-incomehomes.JamesFlynn,perhapstheworld’sleadingexpertonIQ,hassubsequentlymadeafascinatingcounterclaim.Asians’IQs,hesays,havehistoricallybeenslightlylowerthanwhites’IQs,meaningthattheirdominanceinmathhasbeeninspiteoftheirIQ,notbecauseofit.Flynn’sargumentwasoutlinedinhisbookAsianAmericans:AchievementBeyondIQ(1991).

*Twosmallpoints.MainlandChinaisn’tonthislistbecauseChinadoesn’tyettakepartintheTIMSSstudy.ButthefactthatTaiwanandHongKongranksohighlysuggeststhatthemainlandwouldprobablyalsodoreallywell.

Second,andperhapsmoreimportant,whathappensinthenorthofChina,whichisn’tawet-riceagriculturesocietybuthistoricallyawheat-growingculture,muchlikeWesternEurope?Aretheygoodatmathtoo?Theshortansweristhatwedon’tknow.ThepsychologistJamesFlynnpointsout,though,thattheoverwhelmingmajorityofChinese

immigrantstotheWest—thepeoplewhohavedonesowellinmathhere—arefromSouthChina.TheChinesestudentsgraduatingatthetopoftheirclassatMITarethedescendants,chiefly,ofpeoplefromthePearlRiverDelta.Healsopointsoutthatthelowest-achievingChineseAmericansaretheso-calledSzeYappeople,whocomefromtheedgesoftheDelta,“wheresoilwaslessfertileandagriculturelessintense.”

†ThereisactuallyasignificantscientificliteraturemeasuringAsian“persistence.”Inatypicalstudy,PriscillaBlincogavelargegroupsofJapaneseandAmericanfirstgradersaverydifficultpuzzleandmeasuredhowlongtheyworkedatitbeforetheygaveup.TheAmericanchildrenlasted,onaverage,9.47minutes.TheJapanesechildrenlasted13.93minutes,roughly40percentlonger.

*KIPPstandsfor“KnowledgeIsPowerProgram.”

Copyright

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UnequalChildhoods:Class,Race,andFamilyLife,byAnnetteLareau,copyright

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PublishedbytheUniversityofCaliforniaPress;

“InterculturalCommunicationinCognitiveValues:

AmericansandKoreans,byHo-minSohn,UniversityofHawaiiPress,1983;TheHappiestMan:TheLifeof

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FriedmanSobelandAliceFriedmanHolzman.

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