ORGANIZATION OF LIFE (HOW TO BUILD A HUMAN) ATOMS ATOMS MOLECULES MOLECULES MACROMOLECULES...

ORGANIZATION OF LIFEORGANIZATION OF LIFE(HOW TO BUILD A HUMAN)(HOW TO BUILD A HUMAN)

ATOMS ATOMS MOLECULES MOLECULES MACROMOLECULES MACROMOLECULES CELLS CELLS TISSUES TISSUES ORGANS ORGANS ORGAN SYSTEMS ORGAN SYSTEMS ORGANISM (HUMAN) ORGANISM (HUMAN) POPULATION POPULATION COMMUNITY COMMUNITY ECOSYSTEM ECOSYSTEM BIOSPHEREBIOSPHERE

HEIRARCHY OF LIFEHEIRARCHY OF LIFE

PRIMARY TISSUE TYPESPRIMARY TISSUE TYPES

HISTOLOGYHISTOLOGY– study of tissues study of tissues

MUSCLE TISSUEMUSCLE TISSUE NERVOUS TISSUENERVOUS TISSUE EPITHELIAL TISSUEEPITHELIAL TISSUE CONNECTIVE TISSUECONNECTIVE TISSUE

PHYSIOLOGYPHYSIOLOGY

The study of the integrated functions of the The study of the integrated functions of the vital systems of living organismsvital systems of living organisms

This study could be of bacteria, plants, This study could be of bacteria, plants, animals or humansanimals or humans

HOMEOSTASISHOMEOSTASIS

HOMEOSTASISHOMEOSTASIS

MAINTENANCE OF A RELATIVELY MAINTENANCE OF A RELATIVELY STABLE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENTSTABLE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

Homeostasis is essential for the survival of Homeostasis is essential for the survival of each cell, and each cell, through its each cell, and each cell, through its specialized activities, contributes as part of specialized activities, contributes as part of a body system to the maintenance of the a body system to the maintenance of the internal environment shared by all cellsinternal environment shared by all cells

PARAMETERS THAT ARE HOMEOSTATICALLY PARAMETERS THAT ARE HOMEOSTATICALLY REGULATEDREGULATED

BLOOD OXYGEN CONCENTRATION BLOOD OXYGEN CONCENTRATION

– (~200 ml/L in arteries)(~200 ml/L in arteries)

– PULSE-OXYIMETER (~ 99-100%)PULSE-OXYIMETER (~ 99-100%) TOTAL BODY WATER (TBW) = 0.6 x Body WeightTOTAL BODY WATER (TBW) = 0.6 x Body Weight BLOOD GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION (~ 70-100 mg/dl)BLOOD GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION (~ 70-100 mg/dl) BLOOD/BODY NUTRIENT LEVEL (Carbohydrates, Amino Acids, BLOOD/BODY NUTRIENT LEVEL (Carbohydrates, Amino Acids,

Fatty Acids, Vitamins, Minerals, etc.)Fatty Acids, Vitamins, Minerals, etc.) BODY TEMPERATURE (~ 37 ° C OR ~ 98-99 ° F)BODY TEMPERATURE (~ 37 ° C OR ~ 98-99 ° F)

PARAMETERS THAT ARE HOMEOSTATICALLY PARAMETERS THAT ARE HOMEOSTATICALLY REGULATEDREGULATED

BLOOD CARBON DIOXIDE LEVEL (~ 480 - 520 ml/L)BLOOD CARBON DIOXIDE LEVEL (~ 480 - 520 ml/L) BLOOD pH = ACIDITY/ALKALINITY (~ 7.4)BLOOD pH = ACIDITY/ALKALINITY (~ 7.4) SALT AND OTHER ELECTROLYTE CONCENTRATION SALT AND OTHER ELECTROLYTE CONCENTRATION

– (Na(Na++, K, K++, Ca, Ca++, Cl, Cl--, Mg, Mg++, H, H++, HCO, HCO33--, PO, PO44, etc.), etc.)

BLOOD VOLUME (related to total body water)BLOOD VOLUME (related to total body water)

– plasma volume, salt and water balanceplasma volume, salt and water balance BLOOD PRESSURE BLOOD PRESSURE

– related to blood volume, cardiac output, & related to blood volume, cardiac output, &

total peripheral resistancetotal peripheral resistance METABOLIC WASTE CONCENTRATION IN BLOODMETABOLIC WASTE CONCENTRATION IN BLOOD

– urea, hormone metabolites, drug metabolites, etc.urea, hormone metabolites, drug metabolites, etc.

ORGAN SYSTEMSORGAN SYSTEMS

NERVOUS SYSTEMNERVOUS SYSTEM SKELETAL SYSTEMSKELETAL SYSTEM MUSCULAR SYSTEMMUSCULAR SYSTEM CARDIOVASCULAR (CIRCULATORY) SYSTEMCARDIOVASCULAR (CIRCULATORY) SYSTEM RESPIRATORY SYSTEMRESPIRATORY SYSTEM LYMPHATIC SYSTEMLYMPHATIC SYSTEM IMMUNE SYSTEMIMMUNE SYSTEM URINARY (EXCRETORY) SYSTEMURINARY (EXCRETORY) SYSTEM DIGESTIVE SYSTEMDIGESTIVE SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEMENDOCRINE SYSTEM REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMREPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

ORGAN SYSTEMSORGAN SYSTEMS

NEGATIVE FEEDBACKNEGATIVE FEEDBACK

Most homeostatically controlled parameters Most homeostatically controlled parameters in the body are regulated by negative in the body are regulated by negative feedback.feedback.

Negative feedbackNegative feedback occurs when a change in occurs when a change in a controlled variable triggers a response that a controlled variable triggers a response that opposes the change, driving the variable in opposes the change, driving the variable in the opposite direction of the initial change.the opposite direction of the initial change.

POSITIVE FEEDBACKPOSITIVE FEEDBACK

This type of control mechanism is relatively This type of control mechanism is relatively rarerare in the body because in the body because it moves the controlled variable even farther from a steady state.it moves the controlled variable even farther from a steady state.

Positive feedbackPositive feedback continually enhances the output so that the continually enhances the output so that the controlled variable continues to be moved in the direction of the initial controlled variable continues to be moved in the direction of the initial changechange

Positive feedback reinforces the change in the same direction. Such Positive feedback reinforces the change in the same direction. Such action would be comparable to the heat generated by a furnace action would be comparable to the heat generated by a furnace triggering the thermostat to call for even more heat output from the triggering the thermostat to call for even more heat output from the furnace so that the room temperature would continually rise.furnace so that the room temperature would continually rise.

Examples = Mechanisms of Ovulation and Parturition (Birth) Examples = Mechanisms of Ovulation and Parturition (Birth)

PATHOPHYSIOLOGYPATHOPHYSIOLOGY

As we proceed through the course, we will discuss a As we proceed through the course, we will discuss a number of different pathophysiological conditions number of different pathophysiological conditions (diseases and abnormal states) which illustrate (diseases and abnormal states) which illustrate physiological mechanismsphysiological mechanisms

PathophysiologyPathophysiology refers to the study of the abnormal refers to the study of the abnormal functioning of the body (altered physiology) associated functioning of the body (altered physiology) associated with disease.with disease.

PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTSPERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS

ORGANIC ORGANIC MOLECULESMOLECULES

CARBOHYDRATES – MONOSACCHARDIES CARBOHYDRATES – MONOSACCHARDIES & DISACCHARIDE& DISACCHARIDE

STRUCTURE OF GLYCOGENSTRUCTURE OF GLYCOGEN

POLYSACCHARIDES = many simple sugar POLYSACCHARIDES = many simple sugar units linked togetherunits linked together

MONOGLYCERIDE = one molecule of MONOGLYCERIDE = one molecule of glycerol linked to one fatty acid moleculeglycerol linked to one fatty acid molecule

LIPIDS - TRIGLYCERIDES (FATS)LIPIDS - TRIGLYCERIDES (FATS)

FAT = FATTY ACID TRIGLYCERIDE = one FAT = FATTY ACID TRIGLYCERIDE = one molecule of glycerol linked to three fatty molecule of glycerol linked to three fatty

acid moleculesacid molecules

CHOLESTEROL = a different type of lipidCHOLESTEROL = a different type of lipid

LIPOSOME = the double layer of lipids LIPOSOME = the double layer of lipids that helps form cell membranes to that helps form cell membranes to

separate a cell from other cells and the separate a cell from other cells and the environmentenvironment

STRUCTURE OF AN AMINO ACID = the STRUCTURE OF AN AMINO ACID = the building block of proteinsbuilding block of proteins

AMINO ACIDS ARE LINKED TOGETHER BY AMINO ACIDS ARE LINKED TOGETHER BY PEPTIDE BONDS TO FORM PROTEINSPEPTIDE BONDS TO FORM PROTEINS

PROTEINS/PEPTIDESPROTEINS/PEPTIDES(PRIMARY STRUCTURE)(PRIMARY STRUCTURE)

LEVELS OF LEVELS OF PROTEIN PROTEIN

STRUCTURE = STRUCTURE = amino acid chains amino acid chains fold up in specific fold up in specific

ways at the ways at the molecular level to molecular level to give the protein give the protein

an overall specific an overall specific three dimensional three dimensional shape and thus a shape and thus a specific functionspecific function

MUSCLE IS MADE MOSTLY OF PROTEINMUSCLE IS MADE MOSTLY OF PROTEIN

HUMAN MUSCLE FIBERSHUMAN MUSCLE FIBERS

HAIR IS MADE MOSTLY OF PROTEINHAIR IS MADE MOSTLY OF PROTEIN

AN ENZYME = A BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTAN ENZYME = A BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTMOST ENZYMES ARE PROTEINSMOST ENZYMES ARE PROTEINS

DNA DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)(DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)

A DNA NUCLEOTIDE = THE BUILDING A DNA NUCLEOTIDE = THE BUILDING BLOCK OF A LARGER DNA MOLECULEBLOCK OF A LARGER DNA MOLECULE

A CHAIN OF DNA NUCLEOTIDESA CHAIN OF DNA NUCLEOTIDES

THE DNA DOUBLE HELIX = TWO STRANDS THE DNA DOUBLE HELIX = TWO STRANDS OF DNA NUCLEOTIDES BONDED OF DNA NUCLEOTIDES BONDED

TOGETHERTOGETHER

HORMONESHORMONES

Hormone = a chemical (molecule) released Hormone = a chemical (molecule) released from one cell or tissue that regulates the from one cell or tissue that regulates the function of another cell or tissue. function of another cell or tissue. Hormones are always transported in the Hormones are always transported in the blood.blood.

TYPES OF HORMONES BASED ON THEIR CHEMICAL TYPES OF HORMONES BASED ON THEIR CHEMICAL STRUCTURESTRUCTURE

STEROIDS = have a structure similar to STEROIDS = have a structure similar to cholesterolcholesterol

PROTEINS = chains of amino acidsPROTEINS = chains of amino acids FATTY ACIDS = look somewhat like fatFATTY ACIDS = look somewhat like fat AMINES = contain a special nitrogen group AMINES = contain a special nitrogen group

EXAMPLES OF HORMONESEXAMPLES OF HORMONES

STEROIDS STEROIDS – Testosterone, Estrogen, ProgesteroneTestosterone, Estrogen, Progesterone

PROTEINSPROTEINS– LH, FSH, GnRH LH, FSH, GnRH (these regulate the gonads)(these regulate the gonads)

FATTY ACIDSFATTY ACIDS– Prostaglandins Prostaglandins (these cause cramps)(these cause cramps)

AMINESAMINES– Adrenaline, SerotoninAdrenaline, Serotonin

LIGHT MICROSCOPELIGHT MICROSCOPE

ELECTRON MICROSCOPEELECTRON MICROSCOPE

ANIMAL (HUMAN) CELLANIMAL (HUMAN) CELL

CELL BIOLOGYCELL BIOLOGY

AN ANIMAL CELLAN ANIMAL CELL

CELLS ARE SMALL – THEY NEED A LARGE CELLS ARE SMALL – THEY NEED A LARGE SURFACE AREA FOR THE TRANSPORT OF SURFACE AREA FOR THE TRANSPORT OF

NUTRIENTS IN AND WASTES OUTNUTRIENTS IN AND WASTES OUT

AN ANIMAL CELL SHOWING ORGANELLESAN ANIMAL CELL SHOWING ORGANELLESORGANELLE = A COMPARTMENTALIZED ORGANELLE = A COMPARTMENTALIZED

STRUCTURE IN A CELL THAT PERFORMS A STRUCTURE IN A CELL THAT PERFORMS A SPECIFIC FUNCTION FOR THE CELLSPECIFIC FUNCTION FOR THE CELL

A BACTERIA CELL = NO CELL NUCLEUSA BACTERIA CELL = NO CELL NUCLEUSTHESE TYPES OF CELLS ARE THESE TYPES OF CELLS ARE

PROKARYOTICPROKARYOTIC

E. COLI E. COLI = A BACTERIA FOUND IN YOUR = A BACTERIA FOUND IN YOUR INTESTINESINTESTINES

CELL NUCLEUS AND ROUGH CELL NUCLEUS AND ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUMENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

CELL NUCLEICELL NUCLEI

THE ROUGH ER MAKES PROTEINS THAT THE ROUGH ER MAKES PROTEINS THAT WILL BE RELEASED FROM CELLSWILL BE RELEASED FROM CELLS

MITOCHONDRIA = MAKES CELL ENERGY MITOCHONDRIA = MAKES CELL ENERGY IN THE FORM OF A MOLECULE CALLED IN THE FORM OF A MOLECULE CALLED

ATPATP

CELL CYTOSKELETON = PROTEIN FIBERS CELL CYTOSKELETON = PROTEIN FIBERS THAT GIVE THE CELL ITS SHAPETHAT GIVE THE CELL ITS SHAPE

FLAGELLA = SPERM TAILFLAGELLA = SPERM TAIL

ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUMROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

CELLS DIVIDING IN AN EARLY EMBRYOCELLS DIVIDING IN AN EARLY EMBRYO

CHROMOSOMES IN THE CELL NUCLEUSCHROMOSOMES IN THE CELL NUCLEUSCHROMOSOMES ARE MADE OF DNACHROMOSOMES ARE MADE OF DNA

CHROMOSOMES DUPLICATE BEFORE CHROMOSOMES DUPLICATE BEFORE CELLS DIVIDECELLS DIVIDE

THE CELL CYCLE = THE DAY-TO-DAY LIFE THE CELL CYCLE = THE DAY-TO-DAY LIFE OF A CELLOF A CELL

THE HUMAN LIFE CYCLETHE HUMAN LIFE CYCLE

A DIVIDING CELLA DIVIDING CELL

SKIN CELLS ARE CONSTANTLY DIVIDINGSKIN CELLS ARE CONSTANTLY DIVIDING

BREAST CELLSBREAST CELLSNORMAL CANCEROUSNORMAL CANCEROUS

CELL DIVISION - MITOSISCELL DIVISION - MITOSIS

CELL DIVISION - MITOSISCELL DIVISION - MITOSIS

INTERPHASEINTERPHASE

PROPHASEPROPHASE

SPINDLE FIBERS FORM DURING CELL SPINDLE FIBERS FORM DURING CELL DIVISION TO MOVE CHROMOSOMESDIVISION TO MOVE CHROMOSOMES

INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT OF CHROMOSOMESCHROMOSOMES

MOUSE TRAITSMOUSE TRAITS

CROSSING OVER = Chromosomes break CROSSING OVER = Chromosomes break off and re-attach to recombine genes off and re-attach to recombine genes between homologous chromosomes = between homologous chromosomes =

OCCURS DURING PROPHASE OCCURS DURING PROPHASE

CROSSING OVER OF CHROMOSOMES CROSSING OVER OF CHROMOSOMES CREATES CREATES RECOMBINEDRECOMBINED CHROMOSOMES CHROMOSOMES

METAPHASEMETAPHASE

ANAPHASEANAPHASE

TELOPHASETELOPHASE

CELL DIVISION - MITOSISCELL DIVISION - MITOSIS

MEIOSIS – MEIOSIS IMEIOSIS – MEIOSIS I

MEIOSIS – MEIOSIS IIMEIOSIS – MEIOSIS II

COMPARISON OF COMPARISON OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSISMITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

DOWN’S SYNDROMEDOWN’S SYNDROME

MATERNAL AGE vs. MATERNAL AGE vs. RATE OF DOWN’S SYNDROME RATE OF DOWN’S SYNDROME

KARYOTYPING = a technique to visualize KARYOTYPING = a technique to visualize the chromosomes and number of the chromosomes and number of chromosomes in a dividing cellchromosomes in a dividing cell

HUMAN FEMALE KARYOTYPEHUMAN FEMALE KARYOTYPE

HUMAN MALE KARYOTYPEHUMAN MALE KARYOTYPE

NONDISJUNCTION = failure of NONDISJUNCTION = failure of chromosomes to separate during meiosischromosomes to separate during meiosis

FERTILIZATION AFTER NONDISJUNCTION FERTILIZATION AFTER NONDISJUNCTION IN AN EGGIN AN EGG

DOWN’S SYNDROME KARYOTYPEDOWN’S SYNDROME KARYOTYPE

AmniocentesisAmniocentesis = sampling the amnionic fluid around the fetus = sampling the amnionic fluid around the fetus for fetal cellsfor fetal cells

Chorionic Villi SamplingChorionic Villi Sampling = sampling the placental cells = sampling the placental cells which have the same DNA as fetal cellswhich have the same DNA as fetal cells

KLINEFELTER’S SYNDROME (XXY) = due to KLINEFELTER’S SYNDROME (XXY) = due to nondisjunction of sex chromosomesnondisjunction of sex chromosomes

Due to fertilization with an egg or sperm that has an extra X chromosome

TURNER’S SYNDROME (XO) = due to TURNER’S SYNDROME (XO) = due to nondisjunction of sex chromosomesnondisjunction of sex chromosomes

Due to fertilization with an egg or sperm lacking an X chromosome

THE HUMAN LIFE CYCLETHE HUMAN LIFE CYCLE

Proteins Perform Most Cell FunctionsProteins Perform Most Cell Functions

DNA = DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACIDDNA = DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID

DNA BASESDNA BASES

RNA = RIBONUCLEIC ACIDRNA = RIBONUCLEIC ACIDTHIS IS AN RNA NUCLEOTIDETHIS IS AN RNA NUCLEOTIDE

DNA FORMING A DOUBLE HELIXDNA FORMING A DOUBLE HELIX

DNA REPLICATES (IT IS COPIED) TO MAKE DNA REPLICATES (IT IS COPIED) TO MAKE NEW CHROMOSOMES BEFORE CELL NEW CHROMOSOMES BEFORE CELL DIVISION OCCURS (during S phase)DIVISION OCCURS (during S phase)

DNA DUPLICATION = COPYING DNA DUPLICATION = COPYING CHROMOSOMESCHROMOSOMES

DNA IS USED AS THE BLUEPRINT TO MAKE DNA IS USED AS THE BLUEPRINT TO MAKE PROTEINSPROTEINS

GENE = A SEQUENCE OF DNA THAT GENE = A SEQUENCE OF DNA THAT CODES FOR THE AMINO ACID SEQUENCE CODES FOR THE AMINO ACID SEQUENCE

IN A PROTEININ A PROTEIN

THE GENETIC CODE = each triplet of DNA THE GENETIC CODE = each triplet of DNA bases codes for a triplet of RNA bases = a bases codes for a triplet of RNA bases = a

CODON CODON

Each triplet RNA Each triplet RNA CODON codes for a CODON codes for a specific amino acid in specific amino acid in a proteina protein

DNA IS TRANSCRIBED INTO RNADNA IS TRANSCRIBED INTO RNARNA IS TRANSLATED INTO A PROTEINRNA IS TRANSLATED INTO A PROTEIN

CHANGES IN THE DNA CAUSE CHANGES CHANGES IN THE DNA CAUSE CHANGES IN THE RNA AND THUS IN THE AMINO IN THE RNA AND THUS IN THE AMINO

ACID SEQUENCE OF A PROTEINACID SEQUENCE OF A PROTEIN

Sickle Cell AnemiaSickle Cell Anemia

Sickle Red Blood CellsSickle Red Blood Cells

Normal vs. Sickle Red Blood CellsNormal vs. Sickle Red Blood Cells

SICKLE CELL ANEMIA IS CAUSED BY A SINGLE SICKLE CELL ANEMIA IS CAUSED BY A SINGLE CHANGE IN ONE DNA BASE WHICH CAUSES A CHANGE IN ONE DNA BASE WHICH CAUSES A

SINGLE AMINO ACID TO CHANGE IN SINGLE AMINO ACID TO CHANGE IN HEMOGLOBINHEMOGLOBIN