Organic Chemistry The Chemistry of Carbon. A. Carbons Versatility 1.Tetravalent - can form four...

Organic ChemistryThe Chemistry of Carbon

A. Carbons Versatility

1. Tetravalent - can form four bonds with other elements

2. May form double bonds and triple bonds.3. Bond with itself forming Chains of various

lengths4. The chains may branch. 5. May form rings

B. Characteristics of Organic Compound

1. Carbon backbones2. Composed of single units called monomers3. Monomers are joined in a condensation

reaction that usually occurs between the –OH groups of two monomers. H2O is removed linking the two monomers with an oxygen bridge

4. Polymers- many joined monomers5. Polymers are broken down in Hydrolysis

II. 4 Major Classes of Organic Compounds

A. Carbohydrates

1. Functions of Carbohydrates

a) Quick energy- sugar, glycogen and starch

b) Structure- cellulose, chitin

2. Structure of Carbohydrate

a) Glucose(C6H12O6) and Fructose (C6H12O6) are single sugars called monosaccharides

b) Isomers- compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures

C) Disaccharide- two monosaccharides joined in a condensation reaction. An example is sucrose.

D) Polysaccharides- long chains of sugars

1) Starch- storage form of carbohydrates in plants (1-4ά)

2) Glycogen- storage form of carbohydrate in animals (1-4ά)

3) Cellulose- structural polysaccharide in plants (1-4β)

B. Lipids

Animal Fat Plant Oils Waxes

1. Functionsa) Long term energy storage

b) Structure- form membranes

c) Insulation

2. Structure- 1 glycerol with fatty acid chains

3. Types of Lipids

a) Saturated fat- each carbon is bonded with two hydrogens in the fatty acid chain

1) Animal fats

2) Solid at room temperature

3) Bad for you. (Cause arteriosclerosis)

b) Unsaturated Fat- contains double bond between some of the carbons

1. Plant oils

2. Liquid at room temperature

3. Better for you. More easily absorbed

c. Phospholipid- forms the membrane around cells

C. Proteins

1 Functions:a) Structure Example: collegen

b) Transport Example: hemoglobin

c) Fight Disease Example: antibodies

d) Communication Ex: Hormones

e) Movement Ex: actin and myosin

f) Control Chemical Reactions

Example: enzymes

2. Structure- Shaped to perform functiona) Proteins are made of monomers called amino

acids

b) Amino acid structure:

Amino group

Acid group

R group

c) All amino acids have the same amino and acid groups but different r groups

d) Peptide bonds join amino acids in condensation reactions forming a dipeptide

Amino Acids with Hydrophobic Side Groups

Note the methyl groups at the bottom of the chains

Amino Acids with Hydrophilic Side Groups

Note the charged or polar groups at the bottom of the chains

And Some Amino Acids are in Between

Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic regions influence protein shape.

3. Levels of Protein Structure

a) 1st Level: Linear sequence of amino acids

b) 2nd Level: Spiraling and pleatingc) 3rd Level: Bending and foldingd) 4th Level: Intertwining of multiple

polypeptides

4. Proteins are able to function because of their complex shape

5. Enzymes Function (Enzymes control chemical reactions)

E + S E/S E + P

Enzyme Substrate Enzyme-substrate complex

Enzyme Product

a) Enzymes are specific to a substrate (like a lock and key)

b) Enzymes are named by adding “ase” to the name of the substrate

Enzyme with empty active sites Substrate

(Sucrose)

Substrate binds with the enzyme forming an enzyme-substrate complex

Hydrolysis occurs

Substrate is converted to product and the enzyme is not used up. The enzyme’s active sites are free to accept another

substrate molecule

The Catalytic Cycle of Enzymes

The Catalytic Cycle of Enzymes

a) The enzyme binds with the substrate at the active site. Induced fit stresses key bonds

b) The substrate is converted to product

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

Adding more substrate will have no affect on the rate of the reaction passed the SATURATION POINT

Low CONCENTRATION High

RATE

1. Substrate Concentration

2. TemperatureHuman enzymes have an optimal temperature of 37º Celsius. Higher temperatures cause the enzymes to denature.

0 10 20 30 40 50 50 70oC

RATE

37oC

3. pHMost enzymes have an optimal pH of 7. Some enzymes function more effectively in acidic or basic conditions.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

RATE

Nucleic Acids

D. Nucleic Acids- large complex molecules

formed of smaller smaller units called nucleotides 1. Nucleic acid structure

A) Nucleotide consists of a sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogen base

B) Sugars:1) Ribose in RNA2) Deoxyribose in DNA

C) Bases:1) Purines (2 rings) Adenine & Guanine2) Pyrimidines (1 ring) cytosine & Thymine

Nucleic Acids

2. DNA structure is a double helix with the base pairing of Thymine with Adenine and Cytosine with Guanine.

3. RNA structure is a single spiral with Uracil replacing Thymine. RNA Carries the genetic code from the nucleus to the ribosome.

4. Nucleic Acid Functions

a) DNA and RNA carry the genetic code. I.e. The information for constructing proteins

b) Other related nucleotides like Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) supplies energy to the cell

c) Many other nucleotides and dinucleotides are involved in electron transport.

– GTP, UTP, CTP– dGTP, dATP, dCTP, dTTP– AMP, NAD+, NADP, FAD