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Common misspellings - Oxford Dictionaries Online
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Home Better writing Spelling Common misspellings
Better writing
Grammar
Spelling
Punctuation
Practical writing
Improve your English
Abbreviations Common misspellings
Heres a quick-reference guide to the top misspellings according to the Oxford English Corpus an electronic collection of over 2billion words of real English that helps us to see how people are using the language and also shows us the mistakes that are most
often made.
The table gives the correct spelling of the word, handy tips o n getting it right, and also the most common misspellings that weve
found in our research, so you can check to see if any of the same mistakes have been tripping you up.
C or re ct s pe ll in g S pe ll in g a dv ic e C om m on m is sp ell in g
accommodate,
accommodation
two cs, two ms accomodate, accomodation
achieve i before e acheive
across one c accrossaggressive,
aggression
two gs agressive, agression
apparently -ent not -ant apparantly
appearance ends with -ance appearence
argument no e after the u arguement
assassination two double s s assasination
basically ends with -ally basicly
beginning double n before the -ing begining
believe i before e beleive, belive
bizarre one z , double -r bizzare
business begins with busi- buisness
calendar -ar not -er calender
Caribbean one r , twobs Carribean
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Common misspellings - Oxford Dictionaries Online
file:///C|/Users/sama/Desktop/Common%20misspellings.htm[19/12/2011 23:09:34]
cemetery ends with -ery cemetary
chauffeur ends with -eur chauffer
colleague -ea- in the middle collegue
coming one m comming
committee double m , double t, double e commitee
completely ends with -ely completly
conscious -sc- in the middle concious
curiosity -os- in the middle curiousity
defnitely -ite- not ate- defnately
dilemma -mm- not -mn- dilemna
disappear one s , two ps dissapear
disappoint one s , two p s dissapoint
ecstasy ends with sy ecstacy
embarrass two r s, two s s embarass
environment n before the m enviroment
existence ends with -ence existance
Fahrenheit begins with Fahr- Farenheit
familiar ends with -iar familar
fnally two ls fnaly
uorescent begins with fuor- orescentforeign e before i foriegn
foreseeable begins with fore- forseeable
forty begins with for- fourty
forward begins with for- foward
friend i before e freind
further begins with fur- futher
gist begins with g- jist
glamorous -mor- in the middle glamourous
government n before the m goverment
guard begins with gua- gaurd
happened ends with -ened happend
har as s, harassment one r , two s s harrass, harrassment
honorary -nor- in the middle honourary
humorous -mor- in the middle humourous
idiosyncrasy ends with -asy idiosyncracy
immediately ends with -ely immediatly
incidentally ends with -ally incidently
independent ends with -ent independant
interrupt two r s interupt
irresistible ends with -ible irresistable
knowledge remember the d knowlege
liaise, liaison remember the second i: liais- liase, liason
lollipop i in the middle lollypop
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Common misspellings - Oxford Dictionaries Online
file:///C|/Users/sama/Desktop/Common%20misspellings.htm[19/12/2011 23:09:34]
millennium,
millennia
double l, double n millenium, millenia
Neanderthal ends with -thal Neandertal
necessary one c, two s s neccessary
noticeable remember the middle e noticable
occasion two cs, one s ocassion, occassion
occ urr ed, oc curring two cs, two r s occured, occuring
occurrence two cs, two r s, -ence not -ance occurance, occurence
pavilion one l pavillion
persistent ends with -ent persistantpharaoh ends with -aoh pharoah
piece i before e peice
politician ends with -cian politican
Portuguese ends with guese Portugese
possession two s s in the middle and two at
the end
posession
preferred, preferring two r s prefered, prefering
propaganda begins with propa- propoganda
publicly ends with cly publically
really two ls realy
receive e before i recieve
referred, referring two r s refered, refering
religious ends with -gious religous
remember -mem- in the middle rember, remeber
resistance ends with -ance resistence
sense ends with -se sence
separate -par- in the middle seperate
siege i before e seige
successful two cs, two s s succesful
supersede ends with -sede supercede
surprise begins with sur- suprise
tattoo two ts, two os tatoo
tendency ends with -ency tendancy
therefore ends with -fore therefor
threshold one h in the middle threshhold
tomorrow one m , two rs tommorow, tommorrow
tongue begins with ton-, ends with -
gu e
tounge
truly no e truely
unforeseen remember the e after the r unforseen
unfortunately ends with -ely unfortunatly
until one l at the end untillweird e before i wierd
wherever one e in the middle whereever
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Common misspellings - Oxford Dictionaries Online
file:///C|/Users/sama/Desktop/Common%20misspellings.htm[19/12/2011 23:09:34]
which begins with wh- wich
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Commonly confused words - Oxford Dictionaries Online
file:///C|/Users/sama/Desktop/Commonly%20confused%20words.htm[19/12/2011 23:10:45]
Home Better writing Improve your English Commonly confused words
Better writing
Grammar
Spelling
Punctuation
Practical writing
Improve your English
Abbreviations Commonly confused words
Take a look at these two sentences one of them contains a mistake:
I poured over book after book.
We pored over the catalogues.
Are you uncertain which one is right? There are a lot of words in English that look or sound alike but have very different
meanings, such as pore and pour orfauntandfout. Its easy to get them confused and most electronic spellcheckers wont be
much help in this type of situation: they can tell you if a word has been spelled wrongly but they cant generally ag up the misuse
of a correctly spelled word.
Heres a quick-reference list of pairs of words that regularly cause people problems. The words follow the accepted British English
spelling. Some of them do have alternative American spellings and you will nd these at the main dictionary entry on this
website.
Word 1 Meaning Word 2 Meaning
accept to agree to receive or
do
except not including
adverse unfavourable, harmful averse strongly disliking;
opposed
advice recommendations
about what to do
advise to recommend
something
affect to change or make a
difference to
effect a result; to bring about
a result
aisle a passage between
rows of seats
isle an island
all together all in one place, all atonce
altogether completely; on thewhole
along moving or extending a long referring to something
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Commonly confused words - Oxford Dictionaries Online
file:///C|/Users/sama/Desktop/Commonly%20confused%20words.htm[19/12/2011 23:10:45]
horizontally on of great length
aloud out loud allowed permitted
altar a sacred table in a
church
alter to change
amoral not concerned with
right or wrong
immoral not following accepted
moral standards
appraise to assess apprise to inform someone
assent agreement, approval ascent the action of rising or
climbing up
aural relating to the ears or
hearing
oral relating to the mouth;
spokenbalmy pleasantly warm barmy foolish, crazy
bare naked; to uncover bear to carry; to put up with
bated in phrase 'with bated
breath', i.e. in great
suspense
baited with bait attached or
inserted
bazaar a Middle Eastern
market
bizarre strange
berth a bunk in a ship, train,
etc.
birth the emergence of a baby
from the womb
born having started life borne carried
bough a branch of a tree bow to bend the head; the
front of a ship
brake a device for stopping a
vehicle; to stop a
vehicle
break to separate into pieces;
a pause
breach to break through, or
break a rule; a gap
breech the back part of a gun
barrel
broach to raise a subject for
discussion
brooch a piece of jewellery
canvas a type of strong cloth canvass to seek peoples votes
censure to criticize strongly censor to ban parts of a book or
lm; a person who does
this
cereal a grass producing an
edible grain; abreakfast food made
from grains
serial happening in a series
chord a group of musical
notes
cord a length of string; a
cord-like body part
climactic forming a climax climatic relating to climate
coarse rough course a direction; a school
subject; part of a meal
complacent smug and self-satised complaisant wil ling to p lease
complement to add to so as to
improve; an addition
that improves
something
compliment to praise or expr ess
approval; an admiring
remark
council a group of people who
manage or advise
counsel advice; to advise
cue a signal for action; a queue a line of people or
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Commonly confused words - Oxford Dictionaries Online
file:///C|/Users/sama/Desktop/Commonly%20confused%20words.htm[19/12/2011 23:10:45]
wooden rod vehicles
curb to keep something in
check; a control or
limit
kerb (in British English) the
stone edge of a
pavement
currant a dried grape current happening now; a ow
of water, air, or
electricity
defuse to make a situation
less tense
diffuse to spread over a wide
area
desert a waterless, empty
area; to abandon
someone
dessert the sweet course of a
meal
discreet careful not to attract
attention
discrete separate and distinct
disinterested impartial uninterested not interested
draught a current of air draft a rst version of a piece
of writing
draw an even score at the
end of a game
drawer a sliding storage
compartment
dual having two parts duel a ght or contest
between two people
elicit to draw out a reply or
reaction
illicit not allowed by law or
rules
ensure to make certain that
something will happen
insure to provide
compensation if a
person dies or property
is damaged
envelop to cover or surround envelope a paper container for a
letter
exercise physical activity; to do
physical activity
exorcise to drive out an evil spirit
fawn a young deer; light
brown
faun a mythical being, part
man, part goat
aunt to display
ostentatiously
out to disregard a rule
ounder to move clumsily; tohave difculty doing
something
founder to fail
forbear to refrain forebear an ancestor
foreword an introduction to a
book
forward onwards, ahead
freeze to turn to ice frieze a decoration along a
wall
grisly gruesome, revolting grizzly a type of bear
hoard a store horde a large crowd of people
imply to suggest indirectly infer to draw a conclusion
loath reluctant, unwilling loathe to hate
loose to unfasten; to set free lose to be deprived of; to be
unable to nd
meter a measuring device metre a metric unit; rhythm in
verse
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Commonly confused words - Oxford Dictionaries Online
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militate to be a powerful factor
against
mitigate to make less severe
palate the roof of the mouth palette a board for mixing
colours
pedal a foot-operated lever peddle to sell goods
pole a long, slender piece of
wood
poll voting in an election
pour to ow or cause to ow pore a tiny opening; to study
something closely
practice the use of an idea or
method; the work orbusiness of a doctor,
dentist, etc.
practise to do something
repeatedly to gain skill;to do something
regularly
prescribe to authorize use of
medicine; to order
authoritatively
proscribe to ofcially forbid
something
principal most important; the
head of a school
principle a fundamental rule or
belief
sceptic a person inclined to
doubt
septic infected with bacteria
sight the ability to see site a location
stationary not moving stationery writing materials
storey a level of a building story a tale or account
titillate to arouse interest titivate to make more attractive
tortuous full of twists; complex torturous full of pain or suffering
wreath a ring-shaped
arrangement of
owers etc.
wreathe to surround or encircle
See also
Like
Themselves or themself?
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Commonly confused words - Oxford Dictionaries Online
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5 High ViewNewboroughNB1 3RS
22 August 2007Mr R T BlackCustomer Services DepartmentSunny HolidaysPO Box 4BramptonBR4 3JH
Dear Mr Black
Holiday Reference Number: CT2118M
Following our telephone conversation earlier today, I am writing to give details of mydissatisfaction with my holiday at the New Hotel, Los Christianos, Tenerife (10 to 18 August2005) that I booked with your company for myself and my family.
My central complaint is that the hotel fell far short of the description in the brochure. We hadbooked two double en-suite rooms (numbers 213 and 214); although said to be four-star
accommodation, the bedrooms were very cramped and the furnishings worn and dirty. Inaddition to this, the toilet was blocked in room 214 and the shower wasnt working in room213. The hotels grounds, described in the brochure as pleasant, tranquil, and spacious werein fact bordered on two sides by a very busy main road, while the swimming pool was closedthe entire week for repairs.
When we spoke to your representative (Tracey Mills), she promised to try to get the showerand toilet fixed but this took an unacceptably long time to happen 3 days from when we firstcomplained. I asked her to fill out a holiday report form detailing these issues and enclose acopy for your information, together with photos of the bedrooms and the hotel grounds.
As stated in my telephone call, I feel that we are due a full refund for this holiday as it failed tomeet the description in the brochure, together with compensation to make up for the fact ourholiday was ruined. I look forward to hearing from you within the next fortnight.
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Jenny Hawkins8 Dean CloseNEWFORD
NW3 2NY
11 November 2007Customer Services ManagerEvans Electrical Products7 Swan StreetBramptonBR2 1RW
Dear Sir or Madam
RE: EasyIron Electric Iron (Model no: 2279)
I bought the above iron from The Electrical Store in Newford on 10 October 2005. On using itfor the first time, I found that the temperature control was faulty; it was not possible to set it forany temperature apart from the highest (cotton).
When I returned the iron to the store, they said that they were unable to replace it or offer mea refund, but that it could be sent away for repair. As I need an iron on a daily basis, and itwas not clear how long the repair would take, this option was unsatisfactory. As the iron
clearly does not function as it should and therefore does not comply with the legal standardsof product quality, I am therefore writing to you to ask for a full refund of the price (35.99).
I look forward to hearing from you within the next fortnight.
Yours faithfully
Jenny Hawkins (Ms)
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Flat 122aFordham WayKingtonKG8 6LP6 November 2009
Mr G J Warren18 Hurst RiseLower MinfordMN5 3TR
Dear Mr Warren
Essential repairs: Flat 122a Fordham Way, Kington
Further to my telephone calls on 1 and 4 November about the leaking radiator in the mainbedroom, I am writing to express my concern that repair work has not yet been carried out.
As I stressed when we spoke, this leak is causing a very damp patch near to an electrical socket
and as a result I have been unable to use the socket for my PC for a week. Apart from thedangerous aspects of this situation, it is also causing me much inconvenience and disrupting mystudies, as I have to use the power point in the shared living room instead.
I would be grateful if you could arrange for the radiator to be fixed within the next two days.Please contact me as soon as possible to let me know when the heating engineer will arrive, sothat I can be at the flat to show him the extent of the problem.
Yours sincerely
Daniel Simmons
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Patrick Bowles12 Scuttle StreetFenwick
FR1 6MN
7 April 2008Mr D HamptonManagerSunshine Blinds20 Apollo RoadFenwickFR1 7TB
Dear Mr Hampton,
Fiesta blackout roller blind
I am writing to complain about the faulty installation of the above blackout blind to mybedroom window. This was fitted by Mr Brand from your company on Monday 29 March. Thatsame evening I discovered the mechanism was not working and that it was impossible toeither raise or lower the blind.
I phoned your company the following morning and Mr Brand returned 3 days later to repairthe fault. However, although the blind worked for the first few days after his visit, it thenjammed once more. When I phoned again on 6 April to report this fault, I was told that no onewould be available to visit me for two weeks.
As I regularly work at nights and this blind is the only means of blocking out daylight, it is vitalthat it is functioning properly so I can sleep during the day. I therefore would appreciate it ifyou would ensure that someone returns to replace the blind by the end of the week.
Yours sincerely
Patrick Bowles (Dr)
P i O f d Di i i O li
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Punctuation - Oxford Dictionaries Online
file:///C|/Users/sama/Desktop/Punctuation.htm[20/12/2011 14:20:03]
Home Better writing Punctuation
Better writing
Grammar
Spelling
Punctuation
Practical writing
Improve your English
Abbreviations Punctuation
Why do we need pu nctuation?
Punctuation marks are essential when you are writing. They show the reader where sentences start and nish and i f they are used
properly they make your writing easy to understand. This section gives practical guidance on how to use commas, semicolons,
and other types of punctuation correctly, so that your writing will always be clear and effective.
You may nd some aspects of punctuation harder to grasp than others (for example, when to use a semicolon or a colon). If so,
just click on the relevant heading in the list to the left. There are also handy sections with advice on using punctuation when
writing direct speech, lists, or abbreviations.
Types of punctuation
full stop
comma
semicolon
colon
apostrophe
hyphen
dash
brackets
inverted commas
exclamation mark
question mark
bullet point
See also
Punctuation in direct speech
Punctuation in listsPunctuation in abbreviations
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P t ti O f d Di ti i O li
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Punctuation - Oxford Dictionaries Online
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Apostrophe () Oxford Dictionaries Online
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Apostrophe ( ) - Oxford Dictionaries Online
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Home Better writing Punctuation Apostrophe ()
Better writing
Grammar
Spelling
Punctuation
Practical writing
Improve your English
Abbreviations Apostrophe ()
Are you uncertain about when to use an apostrophe? Many people have difculty with this punctuation mark. The best way to get
apostrophes right is to understand when and why they are used. There are two main cases click on the links below to nd
straightforward guidance:
Using apostrophes to show possession
Using apostrophes to show omission
People are often unsure about whether they should use its (without an apostrophe) or its (with an apostrophe). For information
about this, you can go straight to the section it's or its?
Apostrophes showing possession
You use an apostrophe to show that a thing or person belongs or relates to someone or something: instead of sayingthe party ofBen or the weather of yesterday, you can write Bens partyandyesterdays weather .
Here are the main guidelines for using apostrophes to show possession:
Singular nouns and most personal names
With a singular noun or most personal names: add an apostrophe plus s:
We met at Bens party.
The dogs tail wagged rapidly.
Yesterdays weather was dreadful.
Personal names that end in s
With personal names that end in -s: add an apostrophe plus s when you would naturally pronounce an extras if you said the word
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Apostrophe ( ) - Oxford Dictionaries Online
file:///C|/Users/sama/Desktop/Apostrophe ().htm[20/12/2011 14:20:21]
out loud:
He joined Charless army in 1642.
Dickens's novels provide a wonderful insight into Victorian England.
Thomas's brother was injured in the accident.
Note that there are some exceptions to this rule, especially in names of places or organizations, for example:
St Thomas Hospital
If you arent sure about how to spell a name, look it up in an ofcial place such as the organizations website.
With personal names that end in -s but are not spoken with an extras: just add an apostrophe after the -s:
The court dismissed Bridges' appeal.
Connors' nest performance was in 1991.
Plural nouns that end in s
With a plural noun that already ends in -s: add an apostrophe after the s:
The mansion was converted into a girls school.
The work is due to start in two weeks time.
My duties included cleaning out the h orses stables.
Plural nou ns that do not end in -s
With a plural noun that doesnt end in s: add an apostrophe plus s:
The childrens father came round to see me.
He employs 14 people at his mens clothing store.
The only cases in which you do no t need an apostrophe to show belonging is in the group of words called possessive pronouns -
these are the words his, hers, ours,yours, theirs (meaning belonging to him, her, us, you, or them) - and with the possessive
determiners. These are the words his, hers, its, our,your, their (meaning 'belonging to or associated with him, her, it, us, you, or
them'). See also it's or its?
Apostrophes show ing omission
An apostrophe can be used to show that letters or numbers have been omitted. Here are some examples of apostrophes that
indicate missing letters:
Im - short for I a m
hell - short for he will
shed short for she had or she would
pick n mix - short for pick and mix
its hot - short for it is hot
didnt - short for did not
It also shows that numbers have been omitted, especially in dates, e.g. the Berlin Wall came down in the autumn of 89 (short for
1989).
Apostrophe () - Oxford Dictionaries Online
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Its or its?
These two words can cause a lot of confusion: many people are uncertain about whether or not to use an apostrophe. These are the
rules to remember:
its (without an apostrophe) means belonging to i t:
The dog wagged its tail.
Each case is judged on its own merits.
its (with an apostrophe) means it is or it has:
Its been a long day.
Its cold outside.
Its a comfortable car and its got some great gadgets.
Apostrophes and plural forms
The general rule is that you should no t use an apostrophe to form the plurals of nouns, abbreviations, or dates made up o f
numbers: just add -s (or -es, if the noun in question forms its plural with -es). For example:
euro euros (e.g. The cost of the trip is 570 euros.)
pizza pizzas (e.g. Traditional Italian pizzas are thin and crisp.)
apple apples (e.g. She buys big bags of organic apples and carrots.)
MP MPs (e.g. Local MPs are divided on this issue.)
1990 1990s (e.g. The situation was different in the 1990s.)
It's very important to remember this grammatical rule.
There are one or two cases in which it is acceptable to use an apostrophe to form a plural, purely for the sake of clarity:
you can use an apostrophe to show the plurals of single letters:
I've dotted the i's and crossed the t's.
Find all the p's in appear.
you can use an apostrophe to show the plurals of single numbers:
Find all the number 7s.
These are the only cases in which it is generally considered acceptable to use an apostrophe to form plurals: remember that an
apostrophe should never be used to form the plural of ordinary nouns, names, abbreviations, or numerical dates.
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Home Better writing Punctuation Brackets ( ) [ ]
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Abbreviations Brackets ( ) [ ]
There are two main types of brackets.
Round brackets
Round brackets (also called parentheses) are mainly used to separate off information that isnt essential to the meaning of the
rest of the sentence. If you removed the bracketed material the sentence would still make perfectly good sense. Fo r example:
Mount Everest (8,848 m) is the highest mountain in the world.
There are several books on the subject (see page 120).
He coined the term hypnotism (from the Greek wordhypnos meaning 'sleep') and practised it frequently.
They can also be used to enclose a comment by the person writing:
Hed clearly had too much to drink (not that I blamed him).
Square brackets
Square brackets are mainly used to enclose words added by someone other than the original writer or speaker, typically in o rder
to clarify the situation:
He [the police ofcer] cant prove they did it.
If round or square brackets are used at the end of a sentence, the full stop should be placed outside the closing bracket:
They eventually decided to settle in the United States (Debbie's home).
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Home Better writing Punctuation Bullet points
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Abbreviations Bullet points
Bullet points are used to draw attention to important information within a document so that a reader can identify the key issues
and facts quickly. There are no xed rules about how to use them, but here are some guidelines.
1. The text introducing the list of bullet points should end with a colon.
2. If the text that follows the bullet point is not a proper sentence, it doesnt need to begin w ith a capital letter and it shouldnt
end with a full stop, for example:
Tonight's agenda includes:
annual review of ca pital gains issues
outstanding inheritance tax issues
3. If the text following the bullet point IS a complete sentence, it should begin with a capital letter. A full stop at the end is
technically required but is not absolutely essential:
The agenda for tonight is as follows:
We will conduct an annual review of capital gains issues.
The senior tax manager will talk about outstanding inheritance tax issues.
4. Lists of bullet points will have more impact if each one begins with the same word class (or part of speech) and if they are all
of a similar length. Action verbs are a good choice for the rst word, i.e. verbs that describe the performing of an action. If
you do use verbs, make sure that each one is in the same tense. Heres an example of the effective use of action verbs in a
persons CV/rsum:
Duties and responsibilities included:
teaching national curriculum to Key Stage 1 pupils
reaching attainment targets and improving learning performance
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developing extracurricular sports programme
5. Bullet points tend to have more impact if their text is relatively short. Make sure you use the same typeface and margin
width within each section.
Bullet points are visually attractive and make it easy for a reader to locate important information. Nevertheless, try to use them
sparingly: too many bullet-pointed sections in the same document will mean that their impact is lost.
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Home Better writing Punctuation Colon (:)
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Abbreviations Colon (:)
There are three main uses of the colon:
between two main clauses in cases where the second clause explains or follows from the rst:
That is the secret of my extraordinary life: always do the unexpected.
It wasnt easy: to begin with, I had to nd the right house.
to introduce a list:
The price includes the following: travel to London, ight to Venice, hotel accommodation, and excursions.
The job calls for skills in the following areas: proong, editing, and database administration.
before a quotation, and sometimes before direct speech:
The headline read: Taxi Driver Battles Gangsters.
They shouted: Our families are starving! We need land!
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Home Better writing Punctuation Comma (,)
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Abbreviations Comma (,)
A comma marks a slight break between different parts of a sentence. Used properly, commas make the meaning of sentences
clear by grouping and separating words, phrases, and clauses. Many people are uncertain about the use of commas, though, and
often sprinkle them throughout their writing without knowing the basic rules.
Here are the main cases when you need to use a comma:
in lists
in direct speech
to separate clauses
to mark off certain parts of a sentence
Using commas in lists
You need to put a comma between the different items in a list, as in the following sentences:
Saturday morning started with a hearty breakfast of scrambled eggs, bacon, sausage, and French toast.
The school has a vegetable garden in which the children grow cabbages, onions, potatoes, and carrots.
The nal comma in these lists (before the word and) is known as the serial comma. Not all writers or publishers use it, but it is
used by Oxford Dictionaries some people refer to it as the Oxford comma. Using it can make your meaning clearer. Take a look
at this sentence:
My favourite sandwiches are chicken, bacon and ham and cheese.
It isnt entirely clear from this sentence whether the writer is listing three or four of their favourite sandwich llings: is ham o ne
of their favourites and cheese another, or is it ham and cheese that they like? Adding an Oxford comma makes the meaning
clear:
My favourite sandwiches are chicken, bacon, and ham and cheese.
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Using commas in direct speech
When a writer quotes a speakers words exactly as they were spoken, this i s known asdirect speech. If the piece of direct speech
comes after the information about who is speaking, you need to use a comma to introduce the direct speech. The comma comes
before the rst quotation mark. Note that the nal quotation mark follows the full stop at the end of the direct speech:
Steve replied, No problem.
You also need to use a comma at the end of a piece of direct speech, if the speech comes before the information about who is
speaking. In this case, the comma goes inside the quotation mark:
I dont agree, I replied.Here we are,' they said.
There are two exceptions to this rule. If a piece of direct speech takes the form of a question or an exclamation, you should end it
with a question mark or an exclamation mark, rather than a comma:
Stop him! she shouted.
Did you see that? he asked.
Direct speech is often broken up by the information about who is speaking. In these cases, you need a comma to end the rst
piece of speech (inside the quotation mark) and another comma before the second piece (before the quotation mark):
Yes, he said, and I always keep my promises.
Thinking back, she added, I didnt expect to win.
See more about Punctuation in direct speech.
Using commas to separate clauses
Commas are used to separate clausesin a complex sentence (i.e. a sentence which is made up of amain clause and one or more
subordinate clauses).
The following examples show the use of commas in two complex sentences:
Hav ing had lunch, we went back to work.
[subordinate clause] [main clause]
I rst saw her in Paris, where I lived in the early nineties.
[main clause] [subordinate clause]
If the commas were removed, these sentences wouldnt be as clear but the meaning would still be the same. There are different
types ofsubordinate clause, though, and in some types the use of commas can be very important.
A subordinate clause beginning with who, which, that, whom, or where is known as a relative clause. Take a look at this
example:
Passengers who have young children may board the aircraft rst.
[relative clause]
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This sentence contains whats known as a restrictive relative clause. Basically, a restrictive relative clause contains information
thats essential to the meaning of the sentence as a whole. If you left it out, the sentence wouldnt make much sense. If we removed
the relative clause from the example above, then the whole point of that sentence would be lost and wed be left with the rather
puzzling statement:
Passengers may board the aircraft rst.
You should no t put commas round a restrictive relative clause.
The other type of subordinate clause beginning with who, which, whom, etc. is known as a non-restrictive relative clause. A
non-restrictive relative clause contains information that is not essential to the overall meaning of a sentence. Take a look at the
following example:
Mar y, who has two young children, has a par t- time job in the library.
[relative clause]
If you remove this clause, the meaning of the sentence isnt affected and it still makes perfect sense. All thats happened is that
weve lost a bit of extra information about Mary:
Mary has a part-time job in the library.
You need to put a comma both before and after a non-restrictive relative clause.
Using commas to mark off parts of a sentence
Commas are used to separate a part of a sentence that is an optional aside and not part of the main statement.
Gunpowder is not, of course, a chemical compound.
His latest lm, Calypso Dreams, opens next month.
In these sentences, the role of the commas is similar to their function in non-restrictive relative clauses: they mark off information
that isnt essential to the overall meaning. Using commas in this way can really help to clarify the meaning of a sentence. Take a
look at this example:
Cynthias daughter, Sarah, is a midwife.
The writers use of commas tells us that Cynthia has only one daughter. If you removed Sarahs name from the sentence, there
would still be no doubt as to who was the midwife:
Cynthias daughter is a midwife.
If you rewrite the original sentence without commas its meaning changes:
Cynthias daughter Sarah is a midwife.
The lack of commas tells us that the name Sarah is crucial to the understanding of the sentence. It shows that Cynthia h as more
than one daughter, and so the name of the one who is a midwife needs to be specied for the meaning to be clear.
If you arent sure whether youve used a pair of commas correctly, try replacing them w ith brackets or removing the informationenclosed by the commas altogether, and then see if the sentence is still understandable, or if it still conveys the meaning you
intended.
Comma (,) - Oxford Dictionaries Online
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Dash () - Oxford Dictionaries Online
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Home Better writing Punctuation Dash ()
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Abbreviations Dash ()
A dash is used:
in pairs, to mark off information or ideas that are not essential to an understanding of the rest of the sentence:
Thousands of children like the girl in this photograph have been left homeless.
My son where has he gone? would like to meet you.
to show other kinds of break in a sentence where a comma, semicolon, or colon would be traditionally used:
One things for sure he doesnt want to face the truth.
Things have changed a lot in the last year mainly for the better.
Dashes are especially common in informal writing, such as personal emails or blogs, but its best to use them sparingly when you
are writing formally.
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Exclamation mark (!) - Oxford Dictionaries Online
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Home Better writing Punctuation Exclamation mark (!)
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Abbreviations Exclamation mark (!)
The main use of the exclamation mark is to end sentences that express:
an exclamation:
Ow! That hurt!
Hello! How are you?
direct speech that represents something shouted or spoken very loudly:
Look up there! she yelled.
something that amuses the writer:
Included on the list of b anned items was 'crochet hooks'!
An exclamation mark can also be used in brackets after a statement to show that the writer nds it funny or ironic:
She says shes stopped feeling insecure (!) since she met him.
People tend to use a lot of exclamation marks in informal writing such as emails or text messages, but you should avoid using
them in formal writing.
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Full stop (.) - Oxford Dictionaries Online
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Home Better writing Punctuation Full stop (.)
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Abbreviations Full stop (.)
Full stops are used:
to mark the end of a sentence that is a complete statement:
My names Beth and I was 18 in July.
After leaving school, she went to work in an insurance company.
to mark the end of a group of words that dont form a conventional sentence, so as to emphasize a statement:
I keep reliving that moment. Over and over again.
in some abbr
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