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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
1
The Worldwide Acclaimed
Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy
Benjamin Gal-Or, Vol. 4, Scribd, July 2008
Free, Core Curriculum Course (CCC), 207 pages
What Did van Gogh Imagine When He Painted This Picture?Apparently he did not think that the field of gravitation has generated all.
Yet, his painting convey the ‘reality’ that all living and non-living systems are embedded in a 'field of brush strokes’, which, by themselves, in their very shape, direction and rhythm,
convey the presence of flux, structure, cosmos and universal field of force, which penetrates all things
and is at one with land, life, sky and the stars.
The telescope at one end of his beat,And at the other end the microscope,
Two instruments of equal hope …Robert Frost
If you can look into the seeds of time,And say which grain will grow and which will not,
Speak then to me …William Shakespeare
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
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Evokes a person heart! Has generated a large number of responses from around the world, some declaring that it has turned them into “Gal-
Orians”. Since the thought presented by this book is so rich, translators of our country should recommend this book with all their intellectual
power. Chinese Academy of Sciences
A Master Piece. Any good library must have a copy of thisClassical work. The well-known author bases his philosophyon a very sound knowledge of present-day scientific theories.
Indian Journal of Physics
This is one of the most beautiful books that I have read.Outstanding Books List
Recommended by Encyclopedia Britannica, Nature, Philosophy of
This is a great book, and an exciting book; readable,worth reading and enlightening. Sir Karl Popper
We are all Gal-Orians. Foundations of Physics (Editor)
Tour de force. A magnificent and sustained piece of work !Sir A. Cottrell, Cambridge University Chancellor
Appeals to scientists of all disciplines who are prepared to open their minds. Shines a welcome light in some dark corners of science.
Sir Karl Popper, in a Foreword, correctly describes it “a great book”.New Scientist
Gal-Or’s “beauty” has always been the object of science, which, he lyrically observes as “a most fundamental aesthetic frame of mind, a
longing for the run-away horizons of truth and symmetry that we always try to reach.” M. Wickman, Order Amidst Chaos:
Enlightenment Aesthetics after Post-Modernity
I do not know a better modern expression of science, philosophyand classical humanism than that of Gal-Or’s book. Hah-Arretz Daily
The works of scientists like Gal-Or, Bohm, and (Noble Prize-Winner) Prigogine provide important resources. Prigogine's formalisms do not
really tell us how irreversible change emerges from reversible [mathematics]. (in this Gal-Or is superior). Gal-Or assigns priority
instead to general relativity and to gravity which drives the emergence of chemistry, life, and intelligence. Philosophy of Science,
Foundations of Social Progress
<----- <----- CONTINUES ON PAGE 29 -----> ----->
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
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One must always look beyond earth5.3, the solar system5.1; 5.3, our galaxy5.4 and our local group of galaxies5.5, while comprehending about the dark-cold,expanding-‘voids’-Space-14.4 that wraps all superclusters of galaxies4.13
(Diagram below) and assessing its everlasting control on everyday life, and its origin (p.20; p.89).
The “Kingdom of Darkness” [‘voids’ in Figs. 1.1 & 1.2, p.4] illuminates some dark corners of science, and is more important, and interesting, as demonstrated by this book, than all the shining sources combined.
Our universe contains billions of gravity-structured galaxies (e.g., upper picture), each (e.g., right), containing billions of gravity-structured stars. Only Space-1 expands(Diagram & Figs. 1.1; 1.2, p.4). Without its expansion no process in the cosmos, including life, is possible (p.9-13, 89). Gravity and Space-1-Expansion generate all chemistry4.1, plant and animal behavior (Chapter 6), black holes4.3, time, biological time, brain-mind perceptions (p.12), orientation, written languages, socio-biological concepts [Chapters 5 & 6], gravity-natural-selection and key concepts in the ‘exact & life sciences’ and the ‘humanities’ (Chapters 1 to 8).
DIAGRAM: Space-1-Expansion is the UNSATURABLE SINK for all energy pouring into it from all shining sources (p.4). It is composed of adiabatic envelopes4.15 (a), (b), (c) that wrap all clusters and superclusters of galaxies4.13; 5.5
[Fig. 1.2 below]. Gravity and Space-1-Expansion generate all structures4.12, chemistry4.1;4.2, time-asymmetries3.4, written languages and brain-mind perceptions (Parts A to D). This worldwide acclaimed
Space 1
Non-expanding Space 3 wraps our galaxy 3
Space 2wrapsclusters
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
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outlook (p.2) opens new intellectual horizons by crossing frozen disciplines and re-assessing afresh key concepts in the ‘exact & life sciences’ and the ‘humanities’.
Fig. 1.1: Space-1 Genesis. Expansion of the previously opaque universe (Chapter 1, p.40) forms the shown expanding, cold ‘voids’ [SPACE-1, (Blue)] and hotter matter emitters of radiation in Spaces 3 & 2 (p.3). Space-1 was formed below 3000K (starting at around 300,000 years post Genesis). Photons, neutrinos and anti-neutrinos3.2 then escaped from the newly-formed aggregations of nuclei, and were irreversibly absorbed in the newly-formed, unsaturable sink: SPACE-1 [Fig. 1.2 below]. About 2 billion years post Genesis, these gravity-induced, proto-massive-entities, were already condensed and heated for nuclear fusion4.2 to start. This NASA picture shows that, on a large scale, the early universe was isotropic and homogeneous in terms of distribution of cold ‘voids’, hot matter-structures-emitters and their maximum temperatures4.1. There had been no net energy flow across adiabatic envelopes 4.15 in Space-1. [Cf. Fig. 1.2 below]
Fig. 1.2: The largest portrait of the universe [NASA]. The ‘voids’ that compose Space-1 (dark-cold spaces observed in between shining filaments or clouds of superclusters), have increased in size (Cf. Fig. 1.1) These ‘voids’ are interconnected in Space-1.Uniform maximum temperatures, isotropic & homogenous distribution of ‘voids’ & galaxies are preserved (CF. Fig. 1.1). No net flow of energy from one adiabatic ‘envelope’ 4.15 to another exists. These ‘envelopes’ wrap all superclusters. Studying one is similar to the difficult study of the whole universe. As a student, in 1958, I discovered the origin of irreversibility & time-asymmetries3.4 by examining just one such envelope (Appendix IV, p. 163). Above 1028K, at black-hole’s4.3 gravitational-energy
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
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density, all fields-forces-interactions in nature3.1-3.3 are unified with ‘gravitation’3.3 --the sole origin of all structures since Genesis. [p.6; Table I & Assertion 1.1, p. 47]
SYNOPSIS I________________________________________
More than ever before the recent discoveries in astronomy and space research have forced us to re-assess many of our fundamental concepts in most branches of science and philosophy. Nevertheless, the Einsteinian relativistic gravity3.3 and quantum physics3.2 remain two different physico-philosophical world outlooks that are in constant conflict with each other3.5.
The fundamental dispute splits physics into at least two unbridgeable systems of thought, each involving far-reaching implications in general science, philosophy and education.
The disputed differences are between Einsteinian gravity physics3.3, 3.5
and quantum physics3.2; 3.5. These may be referred to as Type I Disputes.
Type II disputes is mainly amongst proponents of string theories4.6 to
4.11, the ‘cosmological constant’2.1 to 2.5; 4.5; 4.16, ‘dark matter’2.1 to 2.5; 4.17,
Faust: 'Tis writ: 'in the beginning was the Word!'I pause, to wonder what is here inferred?
The Word I cannot set supremely high,A new translation I will try.
I read, if by the spirit I am taught,This sense: 'In the beginning was the Thought'.
This opening I need to weigh again,Or sense may suffer from a hasty pen.
Does Thought create, and work, and rule the hour?'Twere best: 'In the beginning was the Power!'
Yet, while the pen is urged with willing fingers,A sense of doubt and hesitancy lingers.The spirit come to guide me in my need,I write, 'In the beginning was the Deed!'
Johann Wolfgang von GoetheFaust I. Transl. Philip Wayne (Penguin Classics, London)
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
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‘pre-creation physics’, ‘pre-creation universes’ and the origin of irreversibility and time asymmetries in nature3.4; 3.5.
The Central Theme
The Central Theme of both this course and world outlook include two Branches: In the ‘Exact & Life Sciences’ & in the ‘Humanities’.
The ‘Exact & Life Sciences’ Branch focuses first on failures to unify the fundamental forces-fields-interactions in nature3.1-3.5, while claiming that the key reasons for these failures are:
(i) Attempts to unify fields-forces-interactions by false mixing of symmetric with asymmetric mathematics [Assertion S.1], instead of first unifying time asymmetries around verified general relativistic cosmology and Space-1-Expansion.3.4, 3.5, 4.15
(ii) Above 1028K, at black-hole’s4.3 gravitational-energy density, all fields-forces-interactions in nature3.1-3.3 are united within gravitation3.3 --the sole origin of all structures. [Table I, Chapter 1, p. 40; Assertion 1.1, p.47, Chapters 3 to 8; Footnotes 3.4, 3.5, 4.15, 4.6-4.12 and Volume I]
Assertion S.1
At gravitational-energy density of a massive black-hole4.3, but as a massive ‘white hole’, and above 1028K, all fields-forces-interactionsin nature3.1-3.3 are unified in what has evolved to be recognized by us 13.7 billion years later as general relativistic gravitation3.3 -- the sole origin of all time asymmetries3.4 and structures; the starting theory of any attempt to unify physics. [Table I, Chapter 1, p. 40; Assertion 1.1, p.47, Chapters
3 to 8; Footnotes 3.4, 3.5, 4.15, 4.6-4.12 and Volume I]
Irrespective of any mathematical funambulism performed in a proof, or a theory, symmetry is always conserved in the equations.
If one starts with symmetric equations, the result can never be asymmetric. Space and time in fundamental physics are
symmetric3.4. So are the laws of fundamental physics, except the 2nd
Law of thermodynamics. Similarly, asymmetry is conserved.Asymmetry can neither result from symmetry, nor vice versa.
(Yet, a Nobel Prize was awarded to I. Prigogine for presenting such a false ‘proof’ in violation of the laws of mathematics. Starting from Ritz wrongly attacking Einstein [1], all subsequent ‘Authorities’ have similarly failed3.4; 3.5; 4.6 'to 4.11. Endless publications in statistical & quantum
mechanics rely on false mathematical ‘proofs’ and wrong verbal, pre-mathematical definitions[Chapter 4] that fabricate ‘proven’ origins of time-asymmetry and irreversibility in nature.)
See also Assertion S.3
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Beyond the issue of unifying fundamental physics [Chapter 3], this branch deals with astronomy, astrophysics, and cosmology [Chapter 4], gravity-induced orientation, balancing, socio-biology, biological clocks and some medical treatments. [Chapter 6; This Synopsis] as well as with the limitations of applied mathematics, mathematically-based definitions, statements, theories and computer ‘proofs’ [Chapter 8].
The ‘Humanities’Branch deals with the origins of linguistics [Chapter 6],
world history [Appendix V] and a new world outlook ranging from Abrahamic religions [Appendix VI] to a fresh look on faith [Chapter 10, p.119];
from the origin of literature to a fresh view on socio-biology [Chapters 6,
p.89 & 10]; from the origin of animal and human physiological structures to education. Nevertheless, this branch begins with gravity-induced physico-philosophical issues that are presented in the opening pages, this Synopsis and the Introduction (p.32). It then proceeds in Chapters 6[p.89] & 10 [p.119], Appendix V (p.168) and Appendix VI (p.181). Beyond these one may consult Volumes I & II. [Cf. Table of Contents, p.20]
Recent Discoveries
Recent astronomical discoveries combined with advances in gravitational socio-biology [Chapter 6, p.89 and Refs. 9, 50], have generated a revolution in our understanding of the most critical roles gravity has played from the early cosmos to the origin of life, language and brain-mind perception of the world and everyday life.
The new discoveries have triggered a fresh world outlook that illuminates some dark corners of science and causes us to re-assess almost everything that we have so far taken for granted, including the apparent conflict between Genesis via astrophysics, astronomy and modern physics, and Genesis via the Bible. [Chapter 1, p.40; Appendix VI, p.181]
In fact, the new discoveries in the remote external world, including those made in bio-satellites and the Hubble Space Telescope, have generated a revolution in our understanding of our external vis-à-vis internal world; a scientific revolution without parallel in the whole recorded history of mankind; a fresh look at nature, which opens up new horizons and generates new needs to reexamine all previous cosmological, biological, behavioral and philosophical convictions. [Assertions S.2 and S.3]
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
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Assertion S.2
Expanding Space-1 [Diagram, p.3] is composed of expanding ‘voids’ [Fig. 1.2,
p.4] and adiabatic envelopes 4.15 that are interconnected. Chapters 1 to 8
explain and illustrate how all time asymmetries3.4 and irreversibilities in nature are originated and caused by Space-1-Expansion -- the universal,
unsaturable sink4.4.
This new world outlook [Ref. 13; 1958-
1972] not only helps to unify physics [Assertion S.3], but extends beyond it into the domains of socio-biology, history the realities of the arts and religions,
including the asserted kind of DUALITY between science and
religion as different manifestations of one and the same reality.[chapter 10]
At the very core of this ‘external-to-internal’ revolution, we find gravity physics, gravitational-biology, gravity-perception, gravity-induced languages, gravity-induced socio-biology, geo-biological clocks and a new, gravity-induced, essence of natural selection in the living and non-living worlds [Chapters 2 to 8]. While Einstein's general relativity3.3, 3.5 remains the cornerstone of modern cosmology and astrophysics; the indispensable theory for understanding most of the new discoveries in astronomy, it is Newtonian gravity (that is included as an approximation in General relativity) that affects much of our everyday life. [Chapter 6]
Gravity, combined with updated observations in all fields of science, will guide us in structuring this book; starting from the very large cosmological structures and proceeding to the much smaller subatomic systems in which quantum physics still fails to explain the origin of time asymmetries and irreversibility in nature.
Can The Foundations of Science Be DeducedFrom Relativistic Cosmology?
Although some of the greatest scientists (from Newton to Einstein) studied cosmology and made substantial contributions to it - until recently it had a rejecting speculative image. Indeed, most scientists used to reject its importance, using such arguments as:
Why rely on anything based on information that had originated in remote, personally inaccessible regions of space and time? Should not we first
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
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Assertion S.3
All attempts to unify the fundamental forces-fields-
interactions in physics3.1 to 3.5
have, so far, failed3.5, 4.6 to 4.11.Trying to unify fields-forces by false
mixing of symmetric with asymmetric mathematics, instead of first unifying time asymmetries3.4
around verified (p.84) general relativistic cosmological asymmetry:
Space-1-Expansion.3.4, 3.5, 4.15, is asserted to be the major source of failures to unify quantum physics
with gravitation.[Assertion S.1]
complete our local physics before we use strange astronomical data to reexamine the very foundations of science?
To begin with it should be stressed that such geocentric, or rather anthropocentric conceptions, are as common today as they had been in the times of Copernicus (who had dethroned the Earth and paid with his life for that), Shapley (who dethroned the Sun, but was not killed), and Baada (who dethroned our Milky Way, and nobody cared anymore). And they make cosmology and astrophysics difficult intellectual subjects, even to intellectually mature persons.
Indeed, astronomy, astrophysics and cosmology - unlike local physics, chemistry, and biology, are observational rather than experimentalsciences, since they deal with objects at such great distances as to be beyond the reach of direct, man-made experimentation.
Moreover, until recently these observations have been too scarce, and the ratio of speculation to fact too high, for cosmology, astronomy and astrophysics to qualify as "hard sciences."
Recent discoveries in space, however, have transformed the situation by yielding solid new data and drastically circumscribing both speculations and physico-philosophical outlooks and models.
This transformation is due largely to NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope, new infrared, radio and X-ray techniques, including the use of gravitational lens to study the ‘dark-age’ epoch of our cosmos when it was 200,000 to 500,000 years old.
The new discoveries of supernovae4.1, quasars4.14 and black holes4.3 in the centers of galaxies4.5, and before, in 1964, the background black-body radiation4.12, have stimulated new interest in astrophysics, general
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
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relativity, relativistic cosmology, remote planetary systems, the formation of stars, galaxies, clusters and super-clusters of galaxies4.13.
Indeed, of late, we have witnessed a new revival of astronomy, general relativistic cosmology and astrophysics, a renaissance sustained by an almost daily inflow of verified empirical information on the dynamic universe around us.
To deny today the central role of astronomy, cosmology and astrophysics in modern science is to deny the very methodology of science, and to reject a large portion of its empirical evidence. Most important, gravitation3.3 is the most universal, all embracing, field-force-interaction in nature. Unlike quantum physics 3.2, it is scale-free, namely, it is not confined, or limited to any scale, as quantum physics is3.2; 3.5.
Gravity Vs. Heart FailureAnd The Biology of Our Musculoskeletal System
The evolution and everyday functioning of our skeleton -- bones, legs, hips, joints, cartilages, ligaments, femurs, tibia, pelvis and muscles [64], has been "in response" to the force and direction of gravity.
Heart Failure vs. Gravity, say, in swollen legs, or flooded lungs cases involves the use of the gravity vector in medical treatments [64]. Nevertheless, the cardinal role gravity plays in the treatment of gravity-induced disorders in human biological systems, perception, health and longevity has been largely overlooked by health providers and bio-medical researchers, partly because the key role of gravity as the universal generator of all bio-structures, physiological forms, locations, disorders, orientation and organization has not yet been well appreciated. [9, 50, Volume I]
Gravity-Induced Socio-Biology & Brain-Mind Perception
Gravity penetrates all space and all physical and biological structures. It affects all cells in our body-brain, as well as plant growth and animal and human orientation and behavior in everyday life [Assertion S.1; Parts A &
B]. It also controls all ecological systems, while affecting the origin, growth and performance of cells in living organisms.
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
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We are the ashes of dead stars, the remnants of a supernovae4.1 that had exploded when the universe has already passed more than half of its present age. Except hydrogen and helium, all chemical elements in the cosmos, and in our body, had been originated inside supernovae. The sin of these exploding massive stars was to convert, by nuclear fusion4.2, their light chemical elements, (hydrogen and helium) to heavier ones [oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, etc.], more quickly than do smaller stars, like our sun. It is always gravitation that plays the central role in the "selection" of the structures to be produced: First in controlling the cosmic expansion of inter-superclusters Space-14.4, then in forcing chemical evolution through a succession of specific reactions in which evolution means the development of complex elements from simple ones, i.e., of oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, silicon, etc. out of the hydrogen and helium in the stars4.1. [Hydrogen and helium make up about 99% of all observable matter in the universe. Hence, we and the planets in the solar system5.1, constitute just a little dirty stain in the vast ‘clean’ universe.]
Gravity is the only 'suitable' force that can build all the elements in the chemical periodic table by successively adding, in the hot interiors of active stars, small increments of mass and electric charge in selected combinations that are controlled by its force4.2. Thus, the building blocks of life had been originated by gravitation, and the entire evolution of life has since been controlled by it. [p.89]
Following such cosmological expansion and massive stars explosions4.1, the newly formed chemical elements cool and may combine to form molecules in deep-cold space, which is not entirely ‘empty’. In fact, the first local "aggregates" of matter in the solar system already contained some simple molecules, including some based on carbon. Again it was gravity that stratified all chemical compounds in ‘horizontal’ layers according to their specific gravity. Indeed, the geological strata of layers of rocks composed of one material, e.g., shale or limestone, lying between rock beds of other materials, have been structured by the "selective force of gravity”. Life is strongly affected and shaped by gravity. Some specific organelles and nuclei in biological cells are "heavier" than the rest of the cell, and serve as prime gravity-orientators. Such gravity orientators-pointers also allow plants to grow "vertically upward". Thus, gravity controls the direction of growth in roots, leaves, branches, etc. It also affects the movement of animals [50] in the sense
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of giving a common reference for orientation, 'balancing', ‘coordination’ 'walking', and space perception. The response of living organisms to gravity may be initiated by changes in the distribution of pressure on sensitive locations, exerted either by the entire cell content, or by particles (statoliths) heavier or lighter than the surrounding cytoplasm. Gravity perception may also be caused by movements, or reorientation of such particles. Acceleration, by gravity, causes stresses to be set-up in cell membranes, or in the organ as a whole, which, in turn, generates a response vis-à-vis the gravity vector.
The Origin of Life and of Primitive Learning
Since all plants and animals have evolved under the influence of gravity, their form and structural development are strongly shaped by this pointed force. In turn, they have "learned" to exploit it and even to cope with it - learned in the evolutionary as well as in the ontogenetic sense of the development of the organism.
The sensing devices which plants and animals use for "gravity perception" ("gravity receptors", "g-perception", "bio-accelerometers", "gravity-induced biological clocks", etc.) are not yet well understood, even though a voluminous literature has been published on this subject.
But what we already know justifies the central role we expect gravity to play in life origin, control, orientation and adaptive processes. For instance, we know that if a growing higher plant is displaced with respect to the "upright" position, some tens of minutes later it will adapt its growth in such a way as to restore its original orientation in coincidence with the gravity vector. (If it is displaced only briefly and then restored to its original orientation well before the growth response can set in, it still responds to that displacement.) Indirect, gravity-induced orientation-adaptation of an organism may also occur when an organism orients itself by a gradient of density differences, or hydrostatic pressure.
The connection between gravitation and the origin of life, on one hand, and between gravitation and form, adaptive structure, growth rate, growth direction, adaptive behavior, navigation, and adaptive space perception, on the other, must therefore be studied. Indeed, a considerable empirical evidence has been accumulated so far on these
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
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subjects [50, Volume I] by biophysicists, biologists, plant physiologists, botanists, zoologists and neuro-physiologists.
The Origin of Life, Biological Clocks and Innate Perception
The origin of temporal behavior in animals can be traced back in time and out to external physical influences. Even “innate patterns" are frequently associated with simple orientation movement in the field of gravity, i.e., as "upward-downward" ordering of biological systems in reaction to gravity. Consequently, gravity and geophysical periodicities emerge as prime sources of ordering, reproduction and simple orientation movements. Animals low on the evolutionary scale have a lesser adaptability to changes in the environment. Consequently, their dependence on heredity-geophysical-gravitational origins is high in proportion to animals high on the evolutionary scale.
Arrows of Time
It takes us some measurable time 'to read' a word, a sentence, a page, or a book, and even more so to 'comprehend' its meaning. I term this elapsing time, and its pointed direction, the 'Linguistic Arrow of Time'and maintain further that each word and each sentence, generates an irreversible 'Structural Space-Time Arrow' in our mind and/or a 'Space-Aggregated-Asymmetric-Picture' which points from the written-typed, form-configuration, or 'beginning', to their 'end' at the ‘right’ for Greek, Latin and English, etc., at the’ left’ for Hebrew and Arabic and ‘down’ for Chinese. Each letter-symbol, each word and each sentence is, therefore, an aggregated, configuration-boundary, gravity-oriented asymmetry on a page-space or on a computer display. Each generates an aggregated, configuration-boundary, gravity-oriented asymmetry in our brain-mind, where it is irreversibly recorded and associated with meaning introduced by education – the force that always controls the fate of nations, religions and civilizations. [Chapter 6, p.89 ]
Gravity-Induced Space-Time Perception
Our perception of time, space, symmetry, asymmetry and direction are similarly controlled by various gravity detectors (Chapter 5, p.89). These include displacement of cell parts, or of portions of multicellular structures, and intercellular structures. Much experimental evidence
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collected in spacecraft proves that there is a loss of orientability in growing seeds under weightlessness ['zero gravity']. Animals are no exception. Each of us is 'conscious' of the common "up-down" surroundings, and about "weight" and acceleration [Ref. 51].
We are born with innate gravity-sensors. Gravity-sensors also tell trees how to grow vertically up, even on steep mountainsides. All these are normal external experiences directly controlled by gravity. More specific examples range from inertial changes of the fluid in the vertebrate inner ear to a crystallizing suspension of organic spheres in water. The earth's gravitational field produces an elastic deformationthat is readily observed through its asymmetric effect on the evolving crystal structure [Volume I]. These elastic forces play an important part in crystallized virus systems. Hence, the gravitational force provides not only a reference axis, but also a useful biological function that excludes foreign particles, such as antibodies, from a crystal. [Volume I].
Gravity-Induced Biosphere and Life
The gravity-induced life envelope of earth, comprising a very thin layer (surface and lower atmosphere), was created by the "selective force of gravity". It is therefore gravitational selection that puts carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor and lightning at one and the same layer for the generation of the first DNA and the beginning of biological evolution. And it is gravitational selection that protected the early products of this evolution from damaging external radiation by supplying the upper protective layer of ozone. [Volume I] Biological detectors of sound modulation have much to do with sensors for earth gravity; both are special kinds of bio-accelerometers. In other words, gravity, bio-accelerometers and the various ways organisms are affected by vibration are interrelated. [Volume I].
Our Brain-Mind Perception
As one reads this sentence, a corresponding aggregated asymmetry is generated inside his or her brain-mind. To conform with innate [Kantian-like] and external experiences, and to communicate with our society, we introduce 'grammar' - that which keeps universal 'space-time-order-of actions': What happened first, later, and in a 'universal-future-tense order-of-things'. What is past for one person must be valid, fixed and confirmed by all else. In short; each word and each sentence,
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is equipped with an 'arrow of time' that 'forces order in our speech and life' and always points 'from past to future', and never in reverse.
To Conclude: Gravity generates structures and controls all geological layers and global phenomena ranging from mountain crests, tectonic folds, valleys, village and city structures, transportation systems, oceans and lagoons, to springs, wells, swamps, glaciers and rivers, as well as the ecological-systems connected with them.
Synopsis II
How To Use This Book________________________________________________________
There is hardly any good reason to select a level prior to reading the first pages, Synopsis I and the 9 Assertions in the Introduction (p. 32).
Level I. This multiple level is composed of a few sub-levels that can be adapted to local cultural-educational needs according to the guidelines presented in the Introduction and Appendix I: Homework and Grading, especially if used in ‘Adult-Education’, or even in a ‘High-School-CCCC’ [Cultural, Core Curriculum Course]. Readers may range from high-school pupils to adults interested in updating and advancing their education by self-help [Assertion IN.3].
Level II: The ‘Undergraduate Level’ is suitable for a two-semester course that includes the use of Volumes I and II [See Table of Contents, p.20).Comprehending the footnotes is recommended.The autodidactive methodology [Assertion IN.3] should be used when there is no qualified CCC-Coordinator.
Level III. The Central Theme (p. 6) crosses frozen disciplines in both the ‘exact sciences’ and the ‘humanities’. For graduate students this level is suitable for a two-semester course that includes selective parts of Volumes I and II, the footnotes andthe Appendices provided here. It is in Volume I where one finds mathematically-based theories, refutations of false ‘proofs’, critique of various ‘established’ theories, derivations of Einstein’s Field Equations [general relativity], quantum-statistical thermodynamics, Quantum Chromo-Dynamic [QCD], higher levels of philosophy and re-assessment of the nature of time, time arrows, linguistics and current studies of brain-mind aggregations-perceptions. Volume II: Critique of Western Thought, provides six Lectures, mainly in the domain of the ‘humanities’. The autodidactive methodology[self-help] is best used when there is no qualified CCC-Coordinator, or when this book is used by faculty, independent scientists, people of the arts, theists, or dropouts, for themselves.
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The Origin of the Deepest Crisis in Education
This broad subject is introduced in the Introduction and in its 9 Assertions. It traces past educational cultures in order to formulate
the aims, scope and foundations of this unified CCC.
Pedagogical Features
In writing this Volume IV, I continue the effort to simplify and update Volumes I & II and make them more suitable for a wider circle of readers,
researchers, faculty and students. For that purpose I include new pedagogical features that help support the integration of this CCC
with the new world outlook presented here.
The 1958 Discovery
In 1958, by adopting the Einsteinian minority position as a student, I asserted that proponents of quantum statistical and probabilistic
thermodynamics smuggle into their thermodynamic theories the result that they wish to prove, without declaring the contraband3.4. Similar charges are
aimed today against proponents of string theories4.6 to 4.11.[Appendix IV],
The Time Paradox
To rise to the status of a scientific theory, a candidate must be supported by verifiable observations. Yet, in the actual world, there is a clash
between theoretical, time-symmetric fundamental physics, and time-asymmetries observed in nature.3.4
The ‘exact sciences’ can be reduced to physics, and fundamental physics, at high energies, to just three fundamental forces-fields: The electroweak
3.1, the strong 3.2 and the gravitational 3.3.Over the last 100 years or so many have tried to develop ‘final’ proofs that
would bridge these conflicting worlds of science. All in vain. Theorists select only prediction while ignoring the time-symmetric retrodiction, final
conditions, etc.Fig. 1.2 shows the expanding, cold ‘voids’ between shining superclusters of
galaxies [Space-1, Diagram]. Uniform maximum temperatures, isotropic and homogenous distribution of voids/galaxies (on large scales) are preserved
(Cf. Fig. 1.1). There is no net flow of energy from one adiabatic ‘envelope’4.15 to another. Such
adiabatic configurations wrap superclusters of galaxies.
In 1958 I discovered the origin of irreversibility and time-asymmetries3.4 in nature by examining just one such envelope -- but around a cluster, not
superclusters of galaxies [Fig. 1.2], which have been confirmed later –as explained in this book and in Volume I.
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
17
Being a student, and, later, an un-experienced professor, none wanted to listen to my central theme and non-conventional,
general relativistic world outlook.
Most refrained to do that because it was based on general relativity and cosmology, both far beyond their knowledge.
That situation has changed in 1969 during the International Conference on Classical and Relativistic Thermodynamics[Pittsburgh, Ref. 13] that I had organized with the participation of some
Nobel-Prize winners.
Worldwide acclaims started slowly after my Science and Nature papers in 1972 and the awarded Gold Medal from The New York Academy of
sciences.[Ref. 13]. For more information see Appendix IV.
Full worldwide acceptance has been delayed until the 80’s, with the publication of Volume I, and its subsequent editions.
(About Einstein's opposition to probabilistic quantum outlook of the world) Many of us regard this as a tragedy, both for him, as he gropes his way in loneliness, and for us, who miss our leader. Max Born
You sadist. You make people think.
Ezra Pound
People are born ignorant, not stupid;It is education that makes them stupid.
Ancient Dictum published by Bertrand Russell
Man to the Universe: I Exist ! The Universe to Man: “So what ?”
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
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Putting a Frame AroundDoes Not Make it a Unified Theory
[From Am. Sci., Sigma Xi]
Do most professors take closest to their heart the moneybox?
Priority in Parts A & B is assigned to relativistic gravity physics3.3 as applied to cosmology and to determinism over indeterminism. It is an unpopular thesis in which Einstein had been practically left alone.
To begin with, I visit his world outlook and use it to assess some new developments such as gravitational lens, new supernovae4.1 and string theories 4.6 – 4.11.
String theories are popular but are not science. They cannot
even pass Popper’s principle for being part of it. They cannot be verified by experiment and thus cannot even rise to the scientific status of being wrong [51, 53]. They justify Einstein’s claim: Quantum theory is not a complete theory.
Eventually realizing that Einstein has been right, armies of theoretical physicists work hard since his death to bridge quantum theories with general
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
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Quantum Physicists Attack Symmetry Breaking Discovered in
Quantum Kaonic Systems [CPT Breaking]
relativity by inventing various kinds, types and brands of unverifiable string theories4.6 – 4.11. All in vain.
The essence of Space-1-expansion[Diagram; Figs. 1.1; 1.2],and of relativistic gravity cosmology, are not easy to grasp. I shall therefore assume the position of a tourist guide of a Virtual Deep-Space Tour [Chapter 7] aimed at discovering the ORIGIN and CAUSE of radiation-energy gradients around stars, galaxies, clusters and super-clusters of galaxies4.13; gradients4.13 that generate all irreversible processes in nature, including those that lead to life. The key mission during the Tour is to search for ‘adiabatic envelopes’4.15 that wrap filaments or clouds of clusters or super-clusters of galaxies. These clusters and superclusters are like islands of non-expanding, gravity-bounded aggregations, in expanding, unsaturable sink. It is to this sink that all ‘solar-wind-type’ of radiation-energy in the universe is irreversibly pouring in. Local quasars4.14 and black holes4.3 form additional, local sinks. Their ancestors, the massive gravitational aggregations4.1; 4.2; 4.5; 4.14, also had come into being by Space-1-Expansion. [Diagram p.3; Figs. 1.1; 1.2, p.3]. The universal sink is composed of a large number of interconnected ‘voids’ and adiabatic cells4.15
[Diagram, sites (a), (b),
(c,] each imaginary adiabatic envelope ‘encages’ a super-cluster or superclusters of galaxies by no-net-flow of energy across its isotropic and homogeneous, large-scale, geometrical boundaries. [Fig. 1.2, p.4, p.3]
During the tour I must cross frozen disciplines and bring home the evidence about the MASTER ARROW OF TIME [Volume I].
Back to earth I re-assess how gravity and Space-1-Expansion-Inducedgradients (Diagram, p.3) cause not only all irreversible processes and time-asymmetries, but how they control ‘Gravity Selection’ and orientation that, in turn, control plant and animal behavior, languages and key concepts in the ‘exact sciences’ and the ‘humanities’ 1.1
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
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CONTENTS OF THE FOUR VOLUMES
VOLUME I
Worldwide Acclaims ……………………………………...……… iiSIR KARL POPPER, Foreword ……………….……………..…. xxSIR ALAN COTTRELL, Foreword ………………….………..... xxi Preface ……………………………………..….……….…..……... xxii
Introduction …………..………………………..…………………. 2 1.1 The Revival of Relativistic Cosmology vs. Modified Concepts in Physics and Philosophy …………………...….… 2
1.1.1 The problem of ordering ……………………...….… 31.1.2 How did it all start? ………………………………... 5 1.1.3 The first seven stages …………………………….... 7
Assertion 001
A ‘precise definition’ is often slippery, distorted or misleading. Contrary to intent, it may cause a large error. (Chapter 8, p.106). Nonetheless, we usually assume that we know exactly what we are defining, or talking about, until
someone starts wondering, if at all: What is its complete meaning?Our scientific-educational practice often begins a lesson, or a theory, by
defining a symbol, axiom, or an object – the act that a priori erects a ‘fence’ around each: Anything outside that fence is, a priori, lost.
There is no fence outside the cosmos. [S. Hawking and his club (Appendix III, p.160), have claimed that they had invented ‘The Theory of Everything’. Indeed, it accepts no fence for there is no one below their smallest ‘thing’ (10-35 meter) or outside the biggest one: the Cosmos. Nevertheless, they had to retract from that claim. Moreover, their ‘string theories’4.6-4.11 are not scientific [51, 53]. Their smallest scale is more than 15 orders of magnitude below any verification scale of any current --and expected -- experimental technique in science (10-19 meter).Hence, it is better to begin this course and worldoutlook with key verified facts about the cosmos, and we already possess them. [Cf. Figs. 1.1, 1.2,
p.4, and Table I, p.40], We can then work back and forth between these reliable facts and general relativistic cosmology, instead of with
microphysics and then proceeding up the scale to explain the overall cosmic facts, for, unlike the strong force3.2 in quantum physics,
gravitation3.3 penetrates all, is scale-free and constitutes the greatest macro builder in the universe. Moreover, according to the great Greek
philosopher Plato: Everything is connected with everything else.Therefore, any reliable definition must begin with 'the whole universe', or
fail. [Chapter 4, p.70].Mathematically-based theories that predict a new entity that is verified by
independent experimentation, or astronomical observations, is an essential part of verifiable science. Otherewise it is neither complete nor
in verified science. (Chapter 8, p.106]
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1.1.4 The present matter-dominated era …………………….. 11 2.1 The Einsteinian Methodology: A Preliminary Remark . 11
2.2 The Withdrawal of Philosophy From Physics (and ofPhysics From Philosophy) …………………………….…...… 13
2.3 The Greatest Ambition of Physics ……………………..…...... 162.3.1 Unification of initial-boundary conditions first?
Unification of fields second? …………………...….... 162.3.2 Should unification begin with differential equations? …………………..…….…...… 17
2.4 The Great Physico-Philosophical Gains FromThe Discovery of the Cosmic Background Radiation ……….. 19
2.5 The Expanding Universe ………………………….…….…... 222.6 The 1977 “Aether Drift” Discovery ……………..………....…. 232.7 Verification of Physical Laws by Astronomy and
Astrophysics ……………………………………….……….… 243.1 Some Tentative Assertions …...……………………..…...….. 263.2 The Skeptic’s Outlook .……………………...………..…...….. 69
PART I: Preliminary Concepts
1. From Terrestrial Gravitational Structures To Black Holes and Neutrinos in Astrophysics ……...….. 74
1.1 Gravitation, Asymmetry and Structure ……………….…… 801.1.1 A fallacy associated with current theories ……..…. 80 1.1.2 Gravity-induced sedimentary structures ………….. 81
1.2 Stellar Structures and the Hertzsprung-Russel Diagram …. 881.3 Supernovae, Gravitational Collapse,
Neutron Stars, Pulsars ……………………………………. 921.4 X-Ray Astronomy, Binary X-Ray Systems, and Gravitational Clocks ……………………………………... 1001.5 Black Holes …………………………………………….… 1061.6 Gas, Dust and the Formation of Stars in Our Galaxy ….… 1131.7 How Are Cosmic Distances Measured? ………………… 1161.8 Neutrino Astronomy and Astrophysics ………………… 1301.9 The Emergence of Gamma-Ray Astronomy ……………. 1321.10 Exploration of Extra-Solar Space By Unmanned Spacecraft ……………………………….. 134
2. From “Conservation” in Classical Physics To Solitons in Particle Physics ………………………..…… 136
2.1 Aim and Scope …………………………………………... 138
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2.2 Limitations of Theory …………………………………… 1402.3 The General Macroscopic Equation …………………….. 1422.4 Continuity Equation (Total Mass Conservation) ………... 1462.5 Conservation of Linear Momentum and Gravity.………… 1472.6 The Navier-Stokes Equations and Gravity ………………. 1492.7 Kinetic-Energy Equation and Dissipation Function in Gravitational Fields ……………. 1522.8 First Law of Thermodynamics or Energy
Conservation Equation …………………………………… 1542.9 First Law and Enthalpy ………………………………….. 1562.10 First Law In Terms of Temperature Field ……………….. 1572.11 Entropy Balance Equation ……………………………….. 1592.12 Beyond Classical Physics:
Solitons, Antisolitons and Conservation …………………. 1602.13 Neutrinos and the Powerful Role Conservation Equations Play in Subatomic Processes (Addendum) …… 163
3. From General Relativity and Relativistic Cosmology To Gauge Theories ………………………….……………….. 166
3.1 Introduction ……………………………………………….... 1673.1.1 Einstein’s field equations in general relativity ……….….. 1693.1.2 Confirmation of Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation ………. 172
3.2 Principles and Formulations of General Relativity andRelativistic Cosmology ………………...…………………… 181
3.3 Observations, The “Age” of the UniverseAnd “Equivalent Local Cells” …………………….……….… 200
3.4 Timekeeping, Accelerated Observers and thePrinciple Of Equivalence …………………………………… 204
3.5 From General Relativity to Unified Field Theories ………… 205
PART II: From Physics to Philosophical Crossroadsand Back
4. The Arrows of Time …………………………………..….…... 2144.1 Time and The Arrow of Time:
The Most Distorted Of All Ideas? ………………………….. 2154.2 Asymmetry-Symmetry-Space-Time and The Unification of The Laws of Physics …………………… 2164.3 Methodology, Aim and Scope ……………………………… 2174.4 Confusing Concepts of Time and Time Asymmetries ……… 2194.5 The Entropic Arrow of Time ……………………………….. 2224.6 Causality, Causation and Time Asymmetries ………………. 226
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4.7 Causation and Determinism in Relativistic Theories ………………………………………… 227
4.8 Cosmological Arrows of Time and Cosmic Time …………. 2304.9 A Few Remarks …………………………………………….. 2324.10 Time-Reversal Invariance and Irreversibility …………….… 2364.11 Microscopic Time Asymmetries in “Elementary Particles” ………………………….……….. 2404.12 The Death of Scale-Based Physics ……………….………… 2424.13 The “Dual” Quantum-Geometrodynamical
School and “Superspace” ………………………………….. 2434.14 Tachyons and Causal Violations …………………….……… 2464.15 Macrocausality and Microcausality in Quantum Mechanics … 2474.16 Fading Memory in Classical Physics ……………………….. 2474.17 Doubts As To The Universality of Entropy ………………… 2494.18 Entropy-Free Thermodynamic Arrows of Time ………….…. 250
5. The Crisis In Quantum Physics ………………………….…… 254 5.1 Preliminary Review …………………………………….……. 255
5.1.1 The effect of gravitation and the outside world on quantum physics …………………………..…. 258
5.1.2 The three main schools of thought ………………….… 2615.2 Einstein’s Objections to the Uncertainty Principle ………….. 2625.3 The Heresy of a Few Skeptics …………………………….…. 2655.4 Mythologized Concepts of Quantum Physics …………….…. 2655.5 The Failure of Classical and Quantal Statistical Mechanics to Deduce Irreversibility and Time Asymmetries ……………………………………………….… 2675.6 The Emergence of Quantum Chromodynamics
And Super-Symmetry ………………………………………... 2725.6.1 Spatio-Temporal Approach to Quantum Physics …….. 2725.6.2 From Weinberg-Salam Theory to
Quantum Chromodynamics …………………………... 2735.6.2.1 Conservation laws as symmetry principles;
and vice versa …………………………………... 2735.6.2.2 Global, exact, approximate, isotopic and SU(3) symmetries ………………………..… 2745.6.2.3 From SU(3) to renormalizable gauge
theories ……………………………………….... 2765.6.2.4 Quark confinement asymptotic freedom
in gauge theories ……………………………. 276-15.6.2.5 QCD and the search for higher symmetry
principles …………………………………… 276-1
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5.6.3 From Quantum Field Theories to Super-SymmetrySuper-Gravity …………………………………….… 276-3
5.6.3.1 On the limits of super-gravity‘unified field theories’ ………………………... 276-4
PART III: From Physics to Cosmological Crossroadsand Back
6. Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy ……………………. 2776.1 Reduction of Thermodynamics to Gravitation ……… 277
6.1.1 Methodology …………………………………. 2776.1.2 Dialectical gravitism: Definition of the
first problems ………………………………… 2786.1.3 Gravitation as super-asymmetry …………….. 279
6.2 The Earliest and Most Universal Asymmetry: Observational Evidence …………………..………….. 279
6.2.1 Which space expands and which does not? …… 2826.3 Gravitation-Asymmetry Principle of Equivalence ….. 2846.4 Can Intercluster Space Be Saturated With Radiation? . 2876.5 Derivation of the Master Asymmetry
From Gravitation Theories …………………………. 2906.6 Irreversibility in the New Gravitational
Cosmological Thermodynamics ……………………. 2936.7 Origin of Dissipation in Newtonian Fluids …………. 2976.8 Terrestrial Thermodynamics ………………………… 2996.9 Connections With Classical and Continuum
Thermodynamics ……………………………………. 3016.10 Electromagnetic Irreversibility
And the Master Asymmetry ……………………...….. 303
7. Cosmological Origin of Time and Evolution ……………… 3087.1 Time: The All-Embracing Concept ………………….. 3097.2 Cosmological Origin of Time ………………………. 3107.3 Cosmological Interpretations of Newton’s
Laws of Motion …………………………………..…. 3147.4 Gravitational Origin of Structure and Evolution .…… 3167.5 Gravitation and the Outflow of Energy Into
Un-Saturable Space ………………………………… 322 7.6 Stellar Evolution ……………………………………. 3247.7 Terrestrial Evolution ………………………………... 325 7.8 Some Open Questions ……………………………… 326
7.8.1 Microscopic T-Violation and the Master
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Asymmetry: A possible Connection? ………..… 327
8. Black Holes and the Unification of Asymmetries ……… 3298.1 Introduction ……………………………………….. 3308.2 Observational Evidence …………………………… 3318.3 Schwarzschild Solution and Black Holes …………. 3328.4 Black Holes Mechanics and Entropy ……………… 3408.5 Can Black Holes “Evaporate”? ……………………. 3418.6 Primordial Black Holes? …………………………... 3418.7 Back to the Melting Pot of Unification? …………... 341
PART IV: Beyond Present Knowledge
9. Havahayism – The Science of The Whole …………..…… 3489.1 The Futile Quest for Final Answers ……………….. 3499.2 An Example in Havahayism ……………………..…. 3509.3 From Cosmology to Irreversible Structures and Memory ……………………………………..…. 3659.4 The Skeptic Outlook ……………………………..…. 415
VOLUME II
Critique of Western Thought
Introduction ………………………………………………….... 420
10. A Few Historical Remarks on Time, Mind and Symmetry ………………………………………..… 437
11. The Philosophy of Time & Change: Some Historical Notions …………………….………… 455
12. Structuralism and the Divided American Thought: A Short Glossary of Terms …………………………….. 467
13. Policy and Publicity: A Critique ………………………. 483
14. Thought-Provoking and Thought-Depressing Quotations ………………………………………………. 495
15. Critique of Western Methodology …………………….. 530
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VOLUME III
THE FIRST ONLINE DRAFT OF THE FREE CORE CURRICULUM COURSE
Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy
Dec. 15, 2007, MSN SCRIBD
1. Introduction ………………………………………..…………… 11
2. From Cosmology to the Foundations of Physics ………..…….. 29
3. Gravity-Induced Brain-Mind Perception Vs. Everyday Life …44
4. How Did It All Start? …………………………………………… 55
5. ‘Gravitational Selection’ Vs. 'Natural Selection' ……….……... 64
6. Condensed World History …………………………………...… 69
7. The Skeptic Outlook ……………………………………….….. 94
8. Beyond Present Knowledge …………………………………… 100
9. CCC Homework ……………………………………………….. 103
References and Further Reading …………………..………….. 122
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Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy
Benjamin Gal-Or, Vol. IV [This Vol. 4]
Free, Core Curriculum Course (CCC), MSN SCRIBD, July 2008
Worldwide Acclaims [Part 1] ……………………..………..….....…… 2
Illustrated Preface ……………………………………………………… 3
Synopsis I ………………….……………………………………….….…. 5
Synopsis II: How to Use This Book ………………………….….... 15
ContentsVolume I ……………………………………………………..………………...…. 20Volume II ……..………………………………………………………………....… 25Volume III ………………….……………………………………………...…..….. 26Volume IV ……………………………………….………………………….….… 27
Worldwide Acclaims [Part 2] ………………… …………..….….….. 29
INTRODUCTION
Notes to Readers, Students, Mentors and Professors ….… 32Knowledge Is One. Its Division is Human Weakness;The Crisis In Education; The Temples of knowledge; Assertions I.1 to I.9
PART A
From General Relativistic Cosmology to Unified Physics
1. How Did It All Start? General Relativistic Cosmology ……….… 40 The New Astrophysical Time; TABLE I, Figs. 1.1 & 1.2 of the Universe
2. How All Life Would End? ………………………………………… 55 Recent discovery: The expansion of Space-1 is accelerating to a cold death of all life
3. The Greatest Ambition of Physics …………………………….... 60Gravity, Electro-Weak, Quantum Physics; String Theories; Thermodynamics
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PART B
From Cosmic Structures to Everyday Life and Back
4. Can The Foundations of Science Be Deduced From General Relativistic Cosmology? ……………………. 70
5. The 1958 Discovery of The Origin of Time-Asymmetries & Irreversibility ……………………………...………………………….. 81
PART C
Language, Brain-Mind Perception and Gravity
6. Test Your Mind; Bio-Sociology and Everyday life ……… 897. Virtual Deep-Space Expedition To Discover
A New World Outlook ………………………………………… 101
PART D
The Skeptic Outlook
8. Limitations of Mathematically-Based Theories ………... 1059. The Biggest Clash between Science and Religion ……… 11310. Dualities in Science, the Arts and Religions ……….……. 119
APPENDICES
I: Homework and Grading ……………………………………..... 123
II: List of Nobel-Prize Winners by Country ……….….….…...... 125
III: The Pipa Prize to Stephene Hawking ………………………. 160
IV: Personally-Encountered Instructive Lessons ……………... 163
V: Condensed World History TABLE II …………….………... 168
VI: The Origin of Writing, Time, Religion and Literature … 181
VI: Names & Codes of God in Abrahamic Religions …….….. 191
References ….…………………………………………………..….……. 201
Credits & About the Author ………………………………………… 207
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Worldwide Acclaims CONTINUES FROM PAGE 2
"The Judeo-Christian Tradition” is in accord with Gal-Or’s conclusions states Weisskopf and quotes:
"Most astrophysicists, cosmologists and astronomers agree that the biblical account of cosmic evolution, in stressing `a beginning´ and the initial roles of `void,´ `light´ and a `structure-less´ state, may be uncannily close to the verified evidence with which modern science
ha already supplied us"V.F. Weisskopf, Scientific American
Gal-Or launchs a new spirit of inquiry by his excellent and thought provoking writings. I would recommend awarding a prize and would hope
that this would serve to focus attention on a most important subject. T. Gold, Cornell University
One noted scientist [B. Gal-Or], even affirms that the stress placed by Genesis, Chapter one, on ‘beginning’ and the initial roles of ‘void’, ‘light’
and a ‘structure-less’ state, “may be uncannily close to the verified evidence with which modern science has already supplied us.”
Christian Apologetics, Journal
A comprehensive explication of a large area of science which the reader may study in many subjects. Highly recommended to the philosopher of science. Contemporary Philosophy
An interesting and original book, easy to read, interesting and fascinating. Nouvo Cimento
This book has a wide-ranging scope. Dr. Gal-Or develops a philosophy of science which he calls Havahyism. Space Science Reviews
Smithsonian/NASA Astrophysics Data Systems
A book like this should be in all libraries and in the hands ofmany astronomers.
Cornelis De Jager, Laboratory for Space Research, Utrecht,The Netherlands, Smithsonian/NASA Astrophysics Data Systems
Interesting to read, integrating much of scientific material.Deutsche Literaturzeitung
One of the best books on the totality of the sciences & the universe/ It was one of the favorite books of Sir Karl Popper. It looks at physics and
the universe as a totality of the mathematical philosophical understanding. It also combines the physical concept of time with human
psychological perception and brain understanding of languages.Robin (forumhub.com/expr/@202.54.92.222
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
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Einstein's time-symmetric tensor was elevated by Gal-Or’s “New Astronomical School of Unified Thermodynamics” to the status of the
source of “Master Asymmetry” controlling not only irreversible thermodynamics, but all physical and biological phenomena!
Gal-Or calls “GRAVITISM” (his philosophy) that gravitation is the prime cause of structures, irreversibility, time, geo-chemical and biological
evolution -- that the expansion of the universe is the cause of the second law of thermodynamics -- that microscopic physics, and thermodynamics
in particular, cannot be understood without reference to cosmology.
He ties “irreversibility” to the “expansion of space itself”, i.e. as far as space is expanding, the contribution of all kinds of radiation in space is
weakened “irreversibly” due to the expansion phenomenon itself.
Such loss, or “degradation” of energy in the depth of inter-cluster expanding space, may then be considered as a universal sink for all the radiation flowing out of the material bodies in the expanding universe.
Advancement of Physics, APEIRON
I have in the meantime studied your book, with great interest, and made pages of notes on it. I feel as if I had been on numerous walks and talks with you on the great questions, and know that would be great to go on
with them!Who cannot be impressed by your love for the great men of all times
and all countries, by your phrase “working back and forth between theory and fact”, by your belief that philosophy is too important to be left to the philosophers, by your concern for where thought and language lie in the
scheme of things – and by so much more!
I continue to reflect, again and again, on your central thesis that expansion is the origin of all asymmetry in time. What an ingenious phrase is your,
“smuggle irreversibility in without declaring the contraband”!
I regard your book as seeking to accomplish two tasks – and being two books – at the very least.
One is the exposition of your central thesis, with clarity, and careful mustering of every argument pro and con that can lead to testable
consequences.
I don’t see how it is possible to do proper justice to a thesis of such importance by mixing it in with the other great task. That is to give students
an appreciation of the unity of philosophy and modern physics. You do both tasks far better than I could hope to. I give you my personal thanks for
putting the two books into a package that I personally have found most thought-provoking.
John A. WheelerInstitute for Advanced Studies, Princeton
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Gal-Or's remarkable book [Parts A & B] sees and seizes the world whole. He emphasizes that all scientists operate under some set of
philosophical prejudices, and that failure to acknowledge this is self-delusion. Furthermore, he argues that a failure to attend to the
philosophical base of physics leads to an empty scientism.
His work is challenging on many levels, constituting a review 'with derivations' of general relativity 'as applied to
cosmology', thermodynamics, the current state of theoretical particle physics, astrophysics, as well as a summary history of western philosophy, 'especially the philosophies of time and mind' and
critiques of western society, the intelligentsia and the relationship between academic science and government.
One 'and perhaps the central' theme explored, is that of the interplay between symmetry and asymmetry. His primary interest is not in the
recent progress in the unification of forces in gauge theory, although he finds support in it for his Einsteinian outlook, but is rather time, time's arrow, and the asymmetry between past and future. Around time are accumulated discussions, both mathematical and philosophical, of
thermodynamic reversibility, time reversibility, the nature of causality, and the use of advanced and retarded solutions to wave equations.
The second major theme is that of gravity and its overwhelming domination of the actual form of the universe, at all scales. The
combination of these themes is not accidental; they are point and counterpoint to his thesis that the time asymmetries are connectable to
and perhaps even determined by the master asymmetry given by the gravity of general relativity: the remorseless cosmological expansion. He argues that only the expansion can provide the unification of time
asymmetries.
The expansion provides, among other things, an for radiation, which, in turn, permits the establishment UNSATURABLE SINK of
gradients in temperature and density, which provide the basis for the physical process that leads to life.
He also criticizes the sloppy and improper use of the concepts of entropy 'and the related notions in information theory' and quantum
indeterminism, especially as covers for an inadequate understanding of temporal asymmetries. Taking an Einsteinian position on the
interpretation of quantum mechanics, he looks forward to revitalization of Einstein's quest for a deterministic interpretation of quantum events.
The value of this book lies in the challenging combination of ideas which Gal-Or presents, which goes far beyond what can be
sensibly described in a review. [This] work may be too large to digest as a text in these days of the decline of academic institutions "as Gal-Or describes them", but that will be the loss of both the faculty and the
students.
AMERICAL JOURNAL OF PHYSICS
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
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Introduction
Notes to Readers, Students, Mentors and Professors
I.1 The Road to Hell is Paved with Good Intentions
At the beginning of my first professorship position (at the Johns Hopkins University), I was so absorbed in polishing and re-polishing my first lecture that I completely forgot to go to the classroom and teach it.
About 30 minutes past the time, while I was still working hard in re-polishing the lecture, a shy student opened the door of my office to politely inform me that 5 minutes ago all students had left the classroom. The whole university laughed.
Years ago, I tried to simplify Volume I and adapt it for easier reading by all readers and by students outside the domains of physics and philosophy. Being a prisoner of the style, quest and mission of Volumes I, it was almost impossible to simplify and abridge the 300 mathematical equations and 520-pages. That draft was therefore abandoned and forgotten.
In December 2007, a shy student informed me that he could not understand the physico-mathematical themes presented in Volume I, and therefore signed-out of the CCC where it was used.
My immediate reaction was to publish, on December 15, 2007, the unfinished draft as a Free, Online Volume III. Six months later this revised version has become this online book. However, it has not yet been polished and re-polished. Anyway, all mistakes are mine.
* * *
Until around the mid-Thirties of the previous century, Core Cultural-Curriculum Courses (in Europe!) were made as ‘scientific’ as possible, and science propped up its foundations by turning to philosophy. This attitude was in part motivated by the desire to
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
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Assertion IN.1
Knowledge is One.Its division, a human weakness;
its aim, a universal beauty;an aesthetic frame of mind;a longing for the run-away
horizons of truth and symmetry that we always try to reach.
Modern physics is a picture of reality; not the house-in-itself.
It is a man-painted picture of Knowledge awaiting
to be discoverd.
Assertion IN.2
The origin of our aspirations to advance interconnected thinking
is not known. What we know is that it is not
rooted in “well-fenced” traditions and “accepted” disciplinary
sciences.
Our educational mission is to bridge fragmented courses in modern curriculum courses,
with an all-embracing outlook, and adapt it to face the ever-growing needs of narrowing
specialism.
appropriate the sciences with the great ‘prestige’ of philosophers, and for the philosopher the fast-growing ‘status’ of science.
Hence, European professors vied with one another in presenting science based on high philosophical grounds, and philosophy as a ‘science among sciences’, or even as the ‘sum of the other sciences’.
A ‘PhD’ was then a bona fide Philosophy Doctor, a person of advanced core knowledge and eloquence outside his specialism.
Western education has since withdrawn from the game.
Empty specialism has since gained the highest prestige, especially in the U.S.; no longer do professors need borrow it from philosophy, nor to teach Core Curriculum Courses [CCC].
Indeed, contemporary teachers and professors vie with one another in presenting fragmented, technical lectures devoid of interconnected content, for they can no longer hope to achieve popularity by injecting updated core knowledge into what has gradually become an ever narrower, disciplinary professionalism.
This turn of events has resulted in overvaluation of technical professionalism, empty academicism, absolutation of ever-narrower
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
34
disciplines, and the common inclination to reject bona fide core knowledge from the class. A pity. For these trends only push the young into cynicism, nihilism and feelings of emptiness in education and in society at large.
I.2 Interconnected Thinking, Teaching and Research
Although most academic teaching and research must be distributed amongst various departments of a university, there is an objective need to regenerate an old tradition that cannot be associated with any specialism, because the ideas with which it deals are common to all studies, or not involved in any. Accordingly, the selection of interconnected kernels of updated knowledge to be included in this book is based on an interconnected approach to what I consider a much needed, simplified CCC book for all.
The Current Crisis in Educationis not subsiding. More than ever before it demands answers, re-assessments, a neo-philosophy and acts: How to teach mutual interactions instead of linear causality; structured complexity instead of summation of events; structured historical buildup of facts, instead of summation of isolated events.
Modern skepticism is usually the negation of a core, interconnected, educational methodology. Not so with Einstein's skepticism.
Assertion IN.3
The greatest challenge in aquiring updated, verified knowledge and the ability to be intellectually independent, is self-removal of externally-imposed disciplinary borders while working hard,
often alone, as an AUTODIDACT.
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
35
Assertion IN.4
Without a Guiding-Structuring Theme, or at least a Unified World Outlook for gaining an all-embracing, interconnected culture-
knowledge that crosses frozen disciplines, any CCC is nothing but a pity encyclopedia
displayed by a specialist nominated by “Organizers” as the“CCC-Coordinator”, who remains helpless in teaching the alluring beauty of mathematics, physics, the life sciences,
and comparative religions but fails to perceive their profound educational implications to all, as a whole.
To start with, Einstein advocated the total removal of borders between traditional disciplines.
The current academic crisis, especially in the U.S., may be moderated by using the Einsteinian methodology, at least as properly adapted CCC series provided in high-schools and, on structured higher levels, in undergraduate and graduate schools.
Such a methodology may lead to new, interconnected fertilization between the most promising kernels of fundamental knowledge, and, thus, to the potential to rejuvenate educational methodology by resorting to an old-new world-outlook and practice.
Assertion IN.5
Structuring an all-embracing CCC-Outlook is a matter entailing far more ambiguity than the technicalities of the application of
any disciplinary course and its “Academic Credit Regulations”.
Assertion IN.6
Students are often discouraged by their professors and mentors from asking fundamental, interdisciplinary questions in class,
as a result of which inconsistent, or outright incorrect premises, are given a better chance of perpetuating themselves.
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
36
Literary intellectuals at one pole – at the other scientists,
and as the most representative,the physical scientists.
Between the two a gulf of mutual incomprehension –
sometimes (particularly among the young) hostility and dislike,
but most of all lack of understanding.
C. P. Snow, The Two CultureCambridge University Press [33]
Assertion IN.7
Students flood colleges and universities with the hope
of finding there the grand outlook of a spacecraft.
Entering our temples of knowledge they settle for that of an eagle, but what they often find
is that of a specialist gopher.
I.3 Our Temples of Knowledge
Literary intellectuals, the ‘humanists’, people of the arts and most educators are currently ignorant of modern advances in the ‘exact sciences’, of their mathematical formulations, experimental, observational and verification methods. They are likely to resort to an a priori, or superficial answers to complex problems whose detailed implications are beyond them.
Similarly, faculty, ‘experts’ and professionals in the “exact sciences”, via their past, ever-narrowing, disciplinary education, are currently ignorant of the wide-span knowledge, literature, arts and history that are needed to share their thinking and aspirations with other thinking persons.
The resulting gap can hardly be bridged despite the fact that our globe is currently an interconnected village, internationally linked by what might be expected to bridge old gaps between cultures, languages, religions and educational disciplines.
Nevertheless, the facts are that deep divisions keep deepening and deserts of narrow specialism keep spreading more than ever before. A sad fact. A dark future.
I.4 From General Relativistic Cosmology to Re-Assess
The Foundations of Science, or Vice Versa?
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37
Assertion IN.9
Thanks to the subdivision of knowledge into fragmented
‘disciplines’ and ‘territories’, we often fail to perceive the
interconnectedness between ‘self-centered’, or conflicting outlooks,
to judge their collective importance and to estimate their
inherent structure, inner logic and ordering.
In trying to overcome this lacuna, I begin this book with cosmology and its distorted image among
scientists and laypersons.[Assertion 001,
p.20]
Assertion IN.8
Large cosmological systems dominate smaller ones, not vice
versa. [ASSERTION 001, P.20]
Vindicated by empirical data that span a broad range of modern
astronomy, astrophysics, physics, biophysics, socio-biology, history and archeology, this assertion is employed here to arrive at some new concepts in a fresh world
outlook on science, philosophy and beyond.
In selecting knowledge kernels to be included here, I am simultaneously faced with subjectivistic and objectivistic discourses; subjectivistic, because all thought is, to some extent, ordered by personal bias; objectivistic, because all rational empirical knowledge singles out regularity and order ranging from the objectivistic origins of anything in the world, to the subjectivistic perception of the individual ‘Here-Now’.
Nevertheless, the following issues may also need to be encountered:
Should this course be directed from ‘innate’, or ‘a priori ideas’ of subjective human knowledge, to ‘external’ objective concepts? Or vice versa?
Should a bona fide CCC begin by updated, key, verified facts and discoveries and their origins and vindications by modern empirical knowledge? or by unverifiable string theories4.6-2.11 that attempt to unify all fundamental forces-interactions in physics? 3.1-3.3
Einstein’s failed attempts to unify [deterministic] gravity physics3.3 with [non-deterministic] quantum physics3.2, have played a major role in structuring this book. Both drive the (unpopular) philosophy to rejuvenate and bring closer together interconnected educational methodologies in the ‘humanities’ and the ‘exact sciences’.
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
38
Conclusion: The guiding philosophy and practice of bona fide CCC-Series are too important to be left to the sole care of disciplinary experts.
I.5 Survival of a Civilization and Education
Culture and a civilization are precarious. Their survival depends on innovation and inner morality a splendid minority maintains with incalculable effects these have had upon all well being of academia, government and socio-economic of each country at all times. It is therefore pertinent to investigate how, where and when such rare developments occur or are subdued.
The origin of this problem is intimately linked to the non-interconnected moral roles played by some scientists, politicians, large companies lobbyists and law manipulators in our civilization today.
A contemporary lobbyist can only deal with problems by applying those disciplinary methods and non-interconnected moral codes that are familiar to him or her through the non-philosophical (and sometimes anti-intellectual) methods of current education.
The resulting vicious cycle opens unbridgeable gaps between the ‘professionals’, and, gradually, isolates each. It is this separatism that causes declining standards, empty government and the current crisis in education.
Most students today participate in fragmented courses of disciplinary professionalism that leave them with a feeling of inner cultural emptiness in academia. In fact, what they find in the temples of knowledge is bureaucracy, inertia, nihilism, careerism, populism and irresponsibility of the faculty to provide them with what would make them bona fide cultured persons.
Wondering about their lost dream in the temples of knowledge, some promising students ask:
Has the Time for Cultured Mentors in Academia Passed?
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39
An ambitious student, who commences his/her studies in the firm belief that much of the fundamental-core knowledge of our civilization is comprehended by at least most faculty, is extremelyperplexed to discover, sooner or later, that the professors are uncertain about the fundamental, interconnected meanings of what they teach in class.
Other, who seek explanations about the world at large in which they live or about the worlds at small that compose the world at large, realize that it entails sub-terrainian links between an undeclared philosophy of fragmented education as adhered to nowadays by most.
That mundane philosophy of education is bound to confront intellectually starving students. Sensing that, the intellectually-starving students often give up, or blame themselves unnecessarily for their inability to grasp what their mentors dismiss as trivial.
A splendid minority of bright students dare to continue, by themselves, the interminable search, which calls for questioning, re-examination, screening, and at times radical rejection of ‘accepted’, or ‘established doctrines’ that fail to justify themselves through their own logic, consistency, universality and testability.
Int.1 Footnotes presented in this volume are often interconnected. They have been included to detail or illuminate some specific subjects, disputes and issues that are related the Central Theme. But no footnote can be considered as “Introduction to”, “Review of”, or “History of” the “Disciplinary Domain” it deals with, or refers to.
Without resorting to any mathematical equation, a few footnotes dealing with specific subjects stand about ‘midway’ between mathematically-formulated concepts provided in Volume I, and the abridged-simplified ones adopted here. Reference to them is marked as: […] 1.1, 1.2, …, 2.1, 2.2, …, or as […]AII.1; AII.2, …, namely, located in Chapters 1, 2, … etc., or in Appendix II, etc., respectively.
Int.2References are minimized for reasons elaborated below. The few provided at book-end are
marked as […][1, 2, …] or Ref. 11, etc.. Selection of what to read and what to study, and in what order, depends on the reader’s interests, background and on a qualified CCC-coordinator, if there is one.
Adding extensive bibliography may be confusing or misleading; there is always a temptation to be “in” regarding what has recently attracted popular attention. There are also the ‘name droppers’, the ones who wish to impress others, or put them down, if they have not heard about their last peer-circle annual meeting, or what the ‘name dropper’ had picked up in a party, committee, a club, or the media.
No science is immune to the infection of politicsand the corruption of power.
Jacob Bronowski
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
40
APPENDICES I and II
Homework and Grading
Start with the Works of
Nobel Prize Winners, Listed by Country
All scientists operate under some set of personal philosophies, whether declared or not. A failure to acknowledge that is self-delusion8.4.
Accordingly, I open this Appendix by stressing my own subjectivistic approach and guidelines while aiming at objectivistic ones.
But when it comes to homework selection and grading it may be a different kind of personal responsibility. There are at least two categories of students, faculty and general readers.
The first one may select homework themes and sources according to their own personal philosophy. They may need minimal guidance, or none at all.
The second category may rely on sources that are recommended here. The potential problem with this category may originate from the reliability and objectivity of some the selected sources.
Hence, according to my experience, one must a priori be informed about potential subjectivistic interpretations associated with any GROUP of sources. At this point my selection priorities and general guidelines are:
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
41
1. Nobel Prizes are pre-supposed to minimize subjectivistic
selections and interpretations. But as all scientists are, they also
harbor no immunity against making biased mistakes, or errors
2. Most important, they do not include important domains of
science and philosophy such as mathematics, astronomy,
archeology, geology, history, anthropology, biology, bio-
engineering, engineering, aerospace, sociobiology, ecology and
philosophy of science.
3. Nevertheless, a selection of a Nobel-Prize-Committee’s
Description of the subject for which a Nobel Prize had been
awarded, may be relatively safer than using other sources.
[Obviously, it may be found wrong or misleading at a later
time. But that is part of the history of science.]
4. Hence, the source list provided in Appendix II is recommended.
5. A mathematically based theory, by itself, is not safe.
6. “Authorities” quoted by anyone may not be safe.
7. A long list of “Authorities” is not safer than a small one.
8. Using wide-scope common sources like Wikipedia and
Britannica may not be safe, but see below.
9. Using articles published by ‘top’, ‘peer-reviewed’ journals,
periodicals and patent offices may not be safe.
Homework on a Subject for Which a Nobel Prize Was Awarded
By clicking a name on the list provided in Appendix II one is linked to Wikipedia, where a published review on the subject for which a Nobel-Prize was awarded, had been provided by a Nobel-Prize selecting body.
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
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The articles published by Wikipedia contain an (Edit) LINK. At the end of your work you may be able to contribute to the subject that you had selected for study, research and homework. Good luck!
Appendix II_____________________________________
List of Nobel-prize Winners By Country
The latest Nobel-Prize Winners in each country are listed first. Homework may best be based on the latest discoveries as described by the awarding committies.
Biographies are interesting and may be included in an assay as a brief background. Nonetheless, any homework assay intended for grading should mainly be based on a scientific topic.
Peace Laurates are interesting, but are outside the scope of this book.
A star* may be added below next to a name when the Laurate has been associated with more than one country.
The Nobel-Prize Commitees have provided the Free EncyclodepdiaWikipedia with data on each Laurate. By typing or clicking below on the Laurate name, one can get the data from Wikipedia, or use Google for internet search engines, or quality book libraries.
Data typed into the Google search engine should be inside quotation marks, for instance, “Albert Einstein”, “A. Einstein”, or “Einstein, Albert”. Good Luck!
Argentina
César Milstein*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1984
Adolfo Pérez Esquivel, Peace, 1980
Luis Federico Leloir, Chemistry, 1970
Bernardo Houssay, Physiol. or Medicine, 1947
Carlos Saavedra Lamas, Peace, 1936
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Australia
Barry Marshall, Physiol. or Medicine, 2005
J. Robin Warren, Physiol. or Medicine, 2005
Rolf M. Zinkernagel*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1996
Peter Doherty, Physiol. or Medicine, 1996
John Warcup Cornforth, Chemistry, 1975
Patrick White*, Literature, 1973
John Carew Eccles, Physiol. or Medicine, 1963
Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet, Physiol. or Medicine, 1960
Sir Howard Florey, Physiol. or Medicine, 1945
William Henry Bragg*, Physics, 1915
William Lawrence Bragg*, Physics, 1915
Austria
Elfriede Jelinek, Literature, 2004
Eric R. Kandel*, Physiol. or Medicine, 2000
Walter Kohn*, Chemistry, 1998
Friedrich Hayek, Economics, 1974
Konrad Lorenz, Physiol. or Medicine, 1973
Karl von Frisch*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1973
Wolfgang Pauli, Physics, 1945
Otto Loewi*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1936
Victor Franz Hess, Physics, 1936
Richard Kuhn*, Chemistry 1938
Erwin Schrödinger, Physics, 1933
Karl Landsteiner, Physiol. or Medicine, 1930
Julius Wagner-Jauregg, Physiol. or Medicine, 1927
Richard Adolf Zsigmondy*, Chemistry, 1925
Robert Bárány*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1914
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Alfred Hermann Fried*, Peace, 1911
Bertha von Suttner*, Peace, 1905
Belgium
Ilya Prigogine*, Chemistry, 1977
Christian de Duve*, Physiol. and Medicine, 1974
Albert Claude, Physiol. and Medicine, 1974
Georges Pire, Peace, 1958
Corneille Heymans, Physiol. and Medicine, 1938
Jules Bordet, Physiol. and Medicine, 1919
Henri La Fontaine, Peace, 1913
Maurice Maeterlinck, Literature, 1911
Auguste Beernaert, Peace, 1909
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Vladimir Prelog*, Chemistry, 1975
Ivo Andric*, Literature, 1961
Brazil
Peter Medawar*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1960
Bulgaria
Elias Canetti, Literature, 1981
Canada
Robert Mundell, Economics, 1999
Myron Scholes*, Economics, 1997
William Vickrey*, Economic Sciences, 1996
Bertram N. Brockhouse, Physics, 1994
Michael Smith*, Chemistry, 1993
Rudolph Marcus*, Chemistry, 1992
Richard E. Taylor, Physics, 1990
Sidney Altman, Chemistry, 1989
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John C. Polanyi*, Chemistry, 1986
David H. Hubel*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1981
Saul Bellow*, Literature, 1976
Gerhard Herzberg*, Chemistry, 1971
Charles B. Huggins*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1966
Lester B. Pearson, Peace, 1957
William Giauque*, Chemistry, 1949
John James Richard Macleod, Scotland, Physiol. or Medicine, 1923
Frederick G. Banting, Physiol. or Medicine, 1923
China
Gao Xingjian*, Literature, 2000
Daniel C. Tsui*, Physics, 1998
Edmond H. Fischer*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1992
Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama*, Peace, 1989 [now India]
Chen Ning Yang, Physics, 1957
Tsung-Dao Lee, Physics, 1957
Chile
Pablo Neruda, Literature, 1971
Gabriela Mistral, Literature, 1945
Colombia
Gabriel García Márquez, Literature, 1982
Costa Rica
Oscar Arias Sánchez, Peace, 1987
Croatia
Vladimir Prelog*, Chemistry, 1975
Ivo Andric*, Literature, 1961
Lavoslav Ružička, Chemistry, 1939
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Czech Republic
Peter Grünberg*, Physics, 2007
Jaroslave Seifert, Literature, 1984
Jaroslav Heyrovský, Chemistry, 1959
Gerty Cori*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1947
Denmark
Jens Christian Skou, Chemistry, 1997
Niels K. Jerne, Physiol. or Medicine, 1984
Ben Mottelson, Physics, 1975
Aage Bohr, Physics, 1975
Johannes Vilhelm Jensen, Literature, 1944
Henrik Dam, Physiol. or Medicine, 1943
Johannes Fibiger, Physiol. or Medicine, 1926
Niels H. Bohr, Physics, 1922
Schack August Steenberg Krogh, Physiol. or Medicine, 1920
Henrik Pontoppidan, Literature, 1917
Karl Gjellerup, Literature, 1917
Fredrik Bajer, Peace, 1908
Niels Ryberg Finsen, Physiol. or Medicine, 1903
East Timor
Carlos Felipe Ximenes Belo*, Peace, 1996
José Ramos-Horta*, Peace, 1996
Egypt
Mohamed ElBaradei, Peace, 2005
Ahmed H. Zewail* Chemistry, 1999
Naguib Mahfouz, Literature, 1988
Anwar Sadat, Peace, 1978
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Faroe Islands
Niels Finsen, Physiol. or Medicine, 1903
Finland
Ragnar Granit*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1967
Artturi Ilmari Virtanen, Chemistry, 1945
Frans Eemil Sillanpää, Literature, 1939
France
Albert Fert, Physics, 2007
Yves Chauvin, Chemistry, 2005
Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, Algeria, Physics, 1997
Georges Charpak, Physics, 1992
Pierre-Gilles de Gennes, Physics, 1991
Maurice Allais, Economics, 1988
Jean-Marie Lehn, Chemistry, 1987
Claude Simon*, Literature, 1985
Gerard Debreu, Economics, 1983
Jean Dausset, Physiol. or Medicine, 1980
Roger Guillemin*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1977
Seán MacBride*, Peace, 1974
Louis Néel, Physics, 1970
René Cassin, Peace, 1968
Alfred Kastler, Physics, 1966
François Jacob, Physiol. or Medicine, 1965
Jacques Monod, Physiol. or Medicine, 1965
André Lwoff, Physiol. or Medicine, 1965
Jean-Paul Sartre, Literature, 1964
Saint-John Perse*, Literature, 1960
Albert Camus*, Literature, 1957
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Andre Frederic Cournand, Physiol. or Medicine, 1956
François Mauriac, Literature, 1952
Léon Jouhaux, Peace, 1951
André Gide, Literature, 1947
Roger Martin du Gard, Literature, 1937
Frédéric Joliot, Chemistry, 1935
Irène Joliot-Curie, Chemistry, 1935
Ivan Bunin, Russia, Literature, 1933
Charles Nicolle, Physiol. or Medicine, 1928
Henri Bergson, Literature, 1927
Ferdinand Buisson, Peace, 1927
Aristide Briand, Peace, 1926
Jean-Baptiste Perrin, Physics, 1926
Anatole France, Literature, 1921
Léon Bourgeois, Peace, 1920
Romain Rolland, Literature, 1915
Charles Richet, Physiol. or Medicine, 1913
Alexis Carrel, Medicine, 1912
Paul Sabatier, Chemistry, 1912
Victor Grignard, Chemistry, 1912
Marie Curie*, Chemistry, 1911
Paul-Henri-Benjamin d'Estournelles de Constant, Peace, 1909
Gabriel Lippmann*, Physics, 1908
Alphonse Laveran, Physiol. or Medicine, 1907
Louis Renault, Peace, 1907
Henri Moissan, Chemistry, 1906
Frédéric Mistral, Literature, 1904
Antoine Henri Becquerel, Physics, 1903
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Pierre Curie, Physics, 1903
Marie Curie*, Physics, 1903
Frédéric Passy, Peace, 1901
Sully Prudhomme, Literature, 1901
Germany
Gerhard Ertl, Chemistry, 2007
Peter Grünberg, Physics, 2007
Theodor W. Hänsch, Physics, 2005
Wolfgang Ketterle, Physics, 2001
Herbert Kroemer*, Physics, 2000
Günter Grass, Literature, 1999
Horst L. Störmer*, Physics, 1998
Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard, Physiol. or Medicine, 1995
Reinhard Selten, Economics, 1994
Bert Sakmann, Physiol. or Medicine, 1991
Erwin Neher, Physiol. or Medicine, 1991
Hans G. Dehmelt*, Physics, 1989
Wolfgang Paul, Physics, 1989
Johann Deisenhofer, Chemistry, 1988
Robert Huber, Chemistry, 1988
Jack Steinberger*, Physics, 1988
Hartmut Michel, Chemistry, 1988
J. Georg Bednorz, Physics, 1987
John Charles Polanyi*, Chemistry, 1986
Ernst Ruska, Physics, 1986
Gerd Binnig, Physics, 1986
Klaus von Klitzing, Physics, 1985
Georges J.F. Kohler*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1984
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Georg Wittig, Chemistry, 1979
Ernst Otto Fischer, Chemistry, 1973
Karl Ritter von Frisch, Physiol. or Medicine, 1973
Heinrich Böll, Literature, 1972
Gerhard Herzberg*, Chemistry, 1971
Willy Brandt, Peace, 1971
Bernard Katz*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1970
Max Delbrück*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1969
Manfred Eigen, Chemistry, 1967
Hans Albrecht Bethe*, Physics, 1967
Nelly Sachs*, Literature, 1966
Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen, Physiol. or Medicine, 1964
Konrad Bloch*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1964
Karl Ziegler, Chemistry, 1963
Maria Goeppert-Mayer*, Physics, 1963
J. Hans D. Jensen, Physics, 1963
Rudolf Mössbauer, Physics, 1961
Werner Forssmann, Physiol. or Medicine, 1956
Walther Bothe, Physics, 1954
Hermann Staudinger, Chemistry, 1953
Fritz Albert Lipmann*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1953
Hans Adolf Krebs*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1953
Albert Schweitzer*, Peace, 1952
Otto Diels, Chemistry, 1950
Kurt Alder, Chemistry, 1950
Herman Hesse*, Literature, 1946
Ernst Boris Chain*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1945
Otto Hahn, Chemistry 1944
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Otto Stern*, Physics, 1943
Adolf Butenandt, Chemistry, 1939
Gerhard Domagk, Physiol. or Medicine, 1939
Richard Kuhn*, Chemistry 1938
Carl von Ossietzky, Peace, 1935
Hans Spemann, Physiol. or Medicine, 1935
Werner Karl Heisenberg, Physics, 1932
Otto Heinrich Warburg, Physiol. or Medicine, 1931
Carl Bosch, Chemistry 1931
Friedrich Bergius, Chemistry, 1931
Hans Fischer, Chemistry, 1930
Thomas Mann, Literature, 1929
Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus, Chemistry, 1928
Ludwig Quidde, Peace, 1927
Heinrich Otto Wieland, Chemistry, 1927
Gustav Stresemann, Peace, 1926
Richard Adolf Zsigmondy*, Chemistry, 1925
James Franck, Physics, 1925
Gustav Ludwig Hertz, Physics, 1925
Otto Fritz Meyerhof, Physiol. or Medicine, 1922
Walther Nernst, Chemistry, 1920
Johannes Stark, Physics, 1919
Fritz Haber, Chemistry 1918
Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck*, Physics, 1918
Richard Willstätter, Chemistry, 1915
Max von Laue, Physics, 1914
Gerhart Hauptmann*, Literature, 1912
Wilhelm Wien, Physics, 1911
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Otto Wallach, Chemistry, 1910
Albrecht Kossel, Physiol. or Medicine, 1910
Paul Johann Ludwig Heyse, Literature, 1910
Karl Ferdinand Braun, Physics, 1909
Wilhelm Ostwald*, Chemistry, 1909
Rudolf Christoph Eucken, Literature, 1908
Paul Ehrlich, Physiol. or Medicine, 1908
Eduard Buchner, Chemistry, 1907
Robert Koch, Physiol. or Medicine, 1905
Philipp Lenard*, Physics, 1905
Adolf von Baeyer, Chemistry, 1905
Hermann Emil Fischer, Chemistry, 1902
Theodor Mommsen*, Literature, 1902
Emil Adolf von Behring, Physiol. or Medicine, 1901
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, Physics, 1901
Greece
Odysseas Elytis, Literature, 1979
Giorgos Seferis, Literature, 1963
Guatemala
Rigoberta Menchú, Peace, 1992
Miguel Ángel Asturias, Literature, 1967
Hungary
Imre Kertész, Literature, 2002
George Andrew Olah*, Chemistry, 1994
John Charles Harsanyi*, Economics, 1994
Georg von Békésy*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1961
George de Hevesy, Chemistry, 1943
Albert Szent-Györgyi, Physiol. or Medicine, 1937
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Richard Adolf Zsigmondy*, Chemistry, 1925
Philipp Lenard*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1905
Robert Bárány*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1914
John Charles Polanyi, Chemistry, 1986
Iceland
Halldór Laxness, Literature, 1955
India
Amartya Kumar Sen, Economics, 1998
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar*, Physics, 1983
Mother Teresa*, Peace, 1979
Har Gobind Khorana*, Medicine, 1968
C. V. Raman, Physics, 1930
Rabindranath Tagore, Literature, 1913
Rudyard Kipling*, Literature, 1907
Ronald Ross*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1902
Iran
Shirin Ebadi, Peace, 2003
Ireland
John Hume, Peace, 1998
David Trimble, Peace, 1998
Seamus Heaney, Literature, 1995
Mairead Corrigan, Peace, 1976
Betty Williams, Peace, 1976
Seán MacBride, Peace, 1974
Samuel Beckett, Literature, 1969
Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton, Physics, 1951
William Butler Yeats, Literature, 1923
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Israel
Robert Aumann*, Economics, 2005
Aaron Ciechanover, Chemistry, 2004
Avram Hershko, Chemistry, 2004
Daniel Kahneman, Economics, 2002
Yitzhak Rabin, Peace, 1994
Shimon Peres, Peace, 1994
Menachem Begin, Peace, 1978
Shmuel Yosef Agnon, Literature, 1966
Italy
Mario R. Capecchi*, Physiol. or Medicine, 2007
Riccardo Giacconi*, Physics, 2002
Dario Fo, Literature, 1997
Rita Levi-Montalcini*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1986
Franco Modigliani, Economics, 1985
Carlo Rubbia, Physics, 1984
Renato Dulbecco*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1975
Eugenio Montale, Literature, 1975
Salvador Luria*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1969
Giulio Natta, Chemistry, 1963
Salvatore Quasimodo, Literature, 1959
Emilio Segrè, Physics, 1959
Daniel Bovet*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1957
Enrico Fermi, Physics, 1938
Luigi Pirandello, Literature, 1934
Grazia Deledda, Literature, 1926
Guglielmo Marconi, Physics, 1909
Ernesto Teodoro Moneta, Peace, 1907
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55
Giosuè Carducci, Literature, 1906
Camillo Golgi, Physiol. or Medicine, 1906
Japan
Masatoshi Koshiba, Physics, 2002
Koichi Tanaka, Chemistry, 2002
Ryoji Noyori, Chemistry, 2001
Hideki Shirakawa, Chemistry, 2000
Kenzaburo Oe, Literature, 1994
Susumu Tonegawa*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1987
Kenichi Fukui, Chemistry, 1981
Eisaku Sato, Peace, 1974
Leo Esaki, Physics, 1973
Yasunari Kawabata, Literature, 1968
Shinichirou Tomonaga, Physics, 1965
Hideki Yukawa, Physics, 1949
Kenya
Wangari Maathai, Peace, 2004
Latvia
Wilhelm Ostwald, Chemistry, 1909
Lithuania
Aaron Klug, Chemistry, 1982
Mexico
Mario J. Molina*, Chemistry, 1995
Octavio Paz, Literature, 1990
Alfonso García Robles, Peace, 1982
Myanmar
Aung San Suu Kyi, Peace, 1991
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
56
The Netherlands
Martinus J.G. Veltman, Physics, 1999
Gerardus 't Hooft, Physics, 1999
Paul Crutzen, Chemistry, 1995
Simon van der Meer, Physics, 1984
Nicolaas Bloembergen*, Physics, 1981
Tjalling Koopmans, Economics, 1975
Nikolaas Tinbergen*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1973
Jan Tinbergen, Economics, 1969
Frits Zernike, Physics, 1953
Peter Debye, Chemistry, 1936
Christiaan Eijkman, Physiol. or Medicine, 1929
Willem Einthoven, Physiol. or Medicine, 1924
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, Physics, 1913
Tobias Asser, Peace, 1911
Johannes Diderik van der Waals, Physics, 1910
Pieter Zeeman, Physics, 1902
Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, Physics, 1902
Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, Chemistry, 1901
New Zealand
Alan MacDiarmid*, Chemistry, 2000
Maurice Wilkins*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1962
Ernest Rutherford*, Chemistry, 1908
Nigeria
Wole Soyinka, Literature, 1986
Norway
Finn Kydland, Economics, 2004
Trygve Haavelmo, Economics, 1989
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
57
Ivar Giaever, Physics, 1973
Ragnar Frisch, Economics, 1969
Odd Hassel, Chemistry, 1969
Sigrid Undset, Literature, 1928
Fridtjof Nansen, Peace, 1922
Christian Lous Lange, Peace, 1921
Knut Hamsun, Literature, 1920
Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Literature, 1903
Pakistan
Abdus Salam, Physics, 1979
Poland
Wisława Szymborska, Literature, 1996
Józef Rotblat*, Peace, 1995
Lech Wałęsa, Peace, 1983
Czesław Miłosz, Literature, 1980
Isaac Bashevis Singer*, Literature, 1978
Tadeus Reichstein*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1950
Isidor Isaac Rabi*, Physics 1944
Władysław Reymont, Literature, 1924
Marie Skłodowska-Curie, Physics, 1903 and Chemistry, 1911
Albert Abraham Michelson*, Physics 1907
Henryk Sienkiewicz, Literature, 1905
Portugal
José Saramago, Literature, 1998
Egas Moniz, Medicine, 1949
Romania
George E. Palade*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1974
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
58
Russia
Alexei A. Abrikosov, Physics, 2003
Vitaly Ginzburg, Physics, 2003
Zhores I. Alferov*, Physics, 2000
Mikhail Gorbachev, Peace, 1990
Iosif Aleksandrovich Brodsky*, Literature, 1987
Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa, Physics, 1978
Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov, Peace, 1975
Leonid Kantorovich, Economics, 1975
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Literature, 1970
Michail Sholokhov, Literature, 1965
Nicolay G. Basov, Physics, 1964
Aleksandr M. Prokhorov*, Physics, 1964
Lev Landau*, Physics, 1962
Boris Pasternak, Literature, 1958
Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov, Physics, 1958
Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm, Physics, 1958
Ilya Mikhailovich Frank, Physics, 1958
Nikolay Semyonov, Chemistry, 1956
Ivan Bunin*, Literature, 1933
Ilya Mechnikov*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1908
Ivan Pavlov, Physiol. or Medicine, 1904
St Lucia
Derek Walcott, Literature, 1992
Sir Arthur Lewis*, Economics, 1979
South Africa
J. M. Coetzee, Literature, 2003
Sydney Brenner*, Physiol. or Medicine, 2002
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
59
F.W. de Klerk, Peace, 1993
Nelson Mandela, Peace, 1993
Nadine Gordimer, Literature, 1991
Desmond Tutu, Peace, 1984
Allan M. Cormack*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1979
Albert Lutuli, Peace, 1960
Max Theiler, Physiol. or Medicine, 1951
South Korea
Kim Dae Jung, Peace, 2000
Spain
Camilo José Cela, Literature, 1989
Vicente Aleixandre, Literature, 1977
Severo Ochoa*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1959
Juan Ramón Jiménez, Literature, 1956
Jacinto Benavente, Literature, 1922
Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Physiol. or Medicine, 1906
José Echegaray, Literature, 1904
Sweden
Arvid Carlsson, Physiol. or Medicine, 2000
Alva Myrdal, Peace, 1982
Sune Bergström, Physiol. or Medicine, 1982
Bengt I. Samuelsson, Physiol. or Medicine, 1982
Kai Siegbahn, Physics, 1981
Torsten Wiesel*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1981
Eyvind Johnson, Literature, 1974
Harry Martinson, Literature, 1974
Bertil Ohlin, Economics, 1977
Gunnar Myrdal, Economics, 1974
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
60
Ulf von Euler, Physiol. or Medicine, 1970.
Hannes Alfvén, Physics, 1970
Ragnar Granit*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1967
Nelly Sachs*, Literature, 1966
Dag Hammarskjöld, Peace, 1961 (posthumously)
Pär Lagerkvist, Literature, 1951
Arne Tiselius, Chemistry, 1948
Erik Axel Karlfeldt, Literature, 1931
Nathan Söderblom, Peace, 1930
Hans von Euler-Chelpin, Chemistry, 1929
Theodor Svedberg, Chemistry, 1926
Karl Manne Siegbahn, Physics, 1924
Hjalmar Branting, Peace, 1921
Carl Gustaf Verner von Heidenstam, Literature, 1916
Gustaf Dalén, Physics, 1912
Selma Lagerlöf, Literature, 1909
Klas Pontus Arnoldson, Peace, 1908
Svante Arrhenius, Chemistry, 1903
Switzerland
Kurt Wüthrich, Chemistry, 2002
Rolf M. Zinkernagel, Physiol. or Medicine, 1996
Edmond H. Fischer*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1992
Richard R. Ernst, Chemistry, 1991
Karl Alexander Müller, Physics, 1987
Heinrich Rohrer, Physics, 1986
Georges J.F. Kohler*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1984
Werner Arber, Physiol. or Medicine, 1978
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
61
Vladimir Prelog*, Chemistry, 1975
Daniel Bovet, Physiol. or Medicine, 1957
Felix Bloch, Physics, 1952
Tadeus Reichstein, Physiol. or Medicine, 1950
Walter Rudolf Hess, Physiol. or Medicine, 1949
Paul H. Müller, Physiol. or Medicine, 1948
Herman Hesse*, Literature, 1946
Leopold Ružička*, Chemistry, 1939
Charles Edouard Guillaume, Physics, 1920
Carl Spitteler, Literature, 1919
Alfred Werner, Chemistry, 1913
Theodor Kocher, Physiol. or Medicine, 1909
Henry Dunant, Peace, 1901
Taiwan
Yuan T. Lee, Chemistry, 1986
Samuel C.C. Ting, Physics, 1976
Turkey
Orhan Pamuk, Literature, 2006
Ukraine
Georges Charpak*, Physics, 1992
Roald Hoffmann*, Chemistry, 1981
Ilya Mechnikov*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1908
United Kingdom
Doris Lessing, Literature, 2007
Sir Martin J. Evans, Physiol. or Medicine, 2007
Oliver Smithies*, Physiol. or Medicine, 2007
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
62
Harold Pinter, Literature, 2005
Clive W. J. Granger*, Economics, 2003
Anthony J. Leggett*, Physics, 2003
Peter Mansfield, Physiol. or Medicine, 2003
Sydney Brenner, Physiol. or Medicine, 2002
John E. Sulston, Physiol. or Medicine, 2002
Tim Hunt, Physiol. or Medicine, 2001
Paul Nurse, Physiol. or Medicine, 2001
V.S. Naipaul, Literature 2001
John Hume, Peace, 1998
John Pople, Chemistry, 1998
David Trimble, Peace, 1998
John E. Walker, Chemistry, 1997
Harold Kroto, Chemistry, 1996
James A. Mirrlees, Economics, 1996
Joseph Rotblat*, Peace, 1995
Richard J. Roberts, Physiol. or Medicine, 1993
Michael Smith*, Chemistry, 1993
Ronald Coase, Economics, 1991
James W. Black, Physiol. or Medicine, 1988
Niels Kaj Jerne*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1984
César Milstein*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1984
Richard Stone, Economics, 1984
William Golding, Literature, 1983
Aaron Klug, Chemistry, 1982
John Robert Vane, Physiol. or Medicine, 1982
Elias Canetti, Literature, 1981
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
63
Frederick Sanger, Chemistry, 1958 and 1980
Arthur Lewis, Economics, 1979
Godfrey Hounsfield, Physiol. or Medicine, 1979
Peter D. Mitchell, Chemistry, 1978
James Meade, Economics, 1977
Nevill Francis Mott, Physics, 1977
Betty Williams, Peace, 1976
Mairead Corrigan, Peace, 1976
John Cornforth, Chemistry, 1975
Christian de Duve*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1974
Friedrich Hayek, Economics 1974
Antony Hewish, Physics, 1974
Nikolaas Tinbergen, Physiol. or Medicine, 1973
Patrick White*, Literature, 1973
Geoffrey Wilkinson, Chemistry, 1973
Brian David Josephson, Physics, 1973
Rodney Robert Porter, Physiol. or Medicine, 1972
John Hicks, Economics, 1972
Dennis Gabor, Physics, 1971
Bernard Katz, Physiol. or Medicine, 1970
Derek Harold Richard Barton, Chemistry, 1969
Ronald George Wreyford Norrish, Chemistry, 1967
George Porter, Chemistry, 1967
Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin, Chemistry, 1964
Andrew Huxley, Physiol. or Medicine, 1963
Alan Lloyd Hodgkin, Physiol. or Medicine, 1963
John Kendrew, Chemistry, 1962
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
64
Max Perutz, Chemistry, 1962
Francis Crick, Physiol. or Medicine, 1962
Maurice Wilkins*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1962
Peter Medawar*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1960
Philip Noel-Baker, Peace, 1959
Frederick Sanger, Chemistry, 1958 and 1980
Alexander R. Todd, Baron Todd, Chemistry, 1957
Cyril Norman Hinshelwood, Chemistry, 1956
Max Born*, Physics, 1954
Winston Churchill, Literature, 1953
Hans Adolf Krebs*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1953
Archer John Porter Martin, Chemistry, 1952
Richard Laurence Millington Synge, Chemistry, 1952
John Cockcroft, Physics, 1951
Bertrand Russell, Literature, 1950
Cecil Frank Powell, Physics, 1950
John Boyd Orr, Peace, 1949
Patrick Blackett, Baron Blackett, Physics, 1948
T. S. Eliot*, Literature, 1948
Edward Victor Appleton, Physics, 1947
Robert Robinson, Chemistry, 1947
Martin Ryle, Physics, 1946
Ernst Boris Chain*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1945
Alexander Fleming, Physiol. or Medicine, 1945
George Paget Thomson, Physics, 1937
Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood, Peace, 1937
Norman Haworth, Chemistry, 1937
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65
Henry Hallett Dale, Physiol. or Medicine, 1936
James Chadwick, Physics, 1935
Arthur Henderson, Peace, 1934
Norman Angell, Peace, 1933
Paul Dirac, Physics, 1933
Charles Scott Sherrington, Physiol. or Medicine, 1932
John Galsworthy, Literature, 1932
Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian, Physiol. or Medicine, 1932
Arthur Harden, Chemistry, 1929
Frederick Hopkins, Physiol. or Medicine, 1929
Owen Willans Richardson, Physics, 1928
Charles Thomson Rees Wilson, Physics, 1927
Austen Chamberlain, Peace, 1925
George Bernard Shaw*, Literature, 1925
John James Richard Macleod*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1923
Francis William Aston, Chemistry, 1922
Archibald Hill, Physiol. or Medicine, 1922
Frederick Soddy, Chemistry, 1921
Charles Glover Barkla, Physics, 1917
William Henry Bragg, Physics, 1915
William Lawrence Bragg*, Physics, 1915
Ernest Rutherford*, Chemistry, 1908
Rudyard Kipling*, Literature, 1907
Joseph John Thomson, Physics, 1906
John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh, Physics, 1904
William Ramsay, Chemistry, 1904
William Randal Cremer, Peace, 1903
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
66
Ronald Ross, Physiol. or Medicine, 1902
United States of America
Leonid Hurwicz*, Economics, 2007
Eric S. Maskin, Economics, 2007
Roger B. Myerson, Economics, 2007
Al Gore, Peace, 2007
Mario R. Capecchi*, Physiol. or Medicine, 2007
Oliver Smithies*, Physiol. or Medicine, 2007
Roger D. Kornberg, Chemistry, 2006
John C. Mather, Physics, 2006
Edmund S. Phelps, Economics, 2006
George F. Smoot, Physics, 2006
Andrew Z. Fire, Physiol. or Medicine, 2006
Craig C. Mello, Physiol. or Medicine, 2006
Robert H. Grubbs, Chemistry, 2005
Richard R. Schrock, Chemistry, 2005
Thomas Schelling, Economics, 2005
John L. Hall, Physics, 2005
Roy J. Glauber, Physics, 2005
Irwin Rose, Chemistry, 2004
Edward C. Prescott, Economics, 2004
David J. Gross, Physics, 2004
H. David Politzer, Physics, 2004
Frank Wilczek, Physics, 2004
Richard Axel, Physiol. or Medicine, 2004
Linda B. Buck, Physiol. or Medicine, 2004
Peter Agre, Chemistry, 2003
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
67
Roderick MacKinnon, Chemistry, 2003
Robert F. Engle, Economics, 2003
Anthony J. Leggett*, Physics, 2003
Paul C. Lauterbur, Physiol. or Medicine, 2003
Alexei A. Abrikosov*, Physics, 2003
Daniel Kahneman*, Economics, 2002
Vernon L. Smith, Economics, 2002
Jimmy Carter, Peace, 2002
Raymond Davis Jr., Physics, 2002
Riccardo Giacconi*, Physics, 2002
Sydney Brenner*, Physiol. or Medicine, 2002
H. Robert Horvitz, Physiol. or Medicine, 2002
William S. Knowles, Chemistry, 2001
K. Barry Sharpless, Chemistry, 2001
Joseph E. Stiglitz, Economics, 2001
George A. Akerlof, Economics, 2001
A. Michael Spence, Economics, 2001
Eric A. Cornell, Physics, 2001
Carl E. Wieman, Physics, 2001
Leland H. Hartwell, Physiol. or Medicine, 2001
Alan Heeger, Chemistry, 2000
Alan MacDiarmid*, Chemistry, 2000
James J. Heckman, Economics, 2000
Daniel L. McFadden, Economics, 2000
Jack Kilby, Physics, 2000
Paul Greengard, Physiol. or Medicine, 2000
Eric R. Kandel*, Physiol. or Medicine, 2000
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
68
Ahmed H. Zewail*, Chemistry, 1999
Günter Blobel*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1999
Walter Kohn*, Chemistry, 1998
Robert B. Laughlin, Physics, 1998
Daniel C. Tsui*, Physics, 1998
Robert F. Furchgott, Physiol. or Medicine, 1998
Louis J. Ignarro, Physiol. or Medicine, 1998
Ferid Murad, Physiol. or Medicine, 1998
Paul D. Boyer, Chemistry, 1997
Robert C. Merton, Economics, 1997
Myron Scholes*, Economics, 1997
Jody Williams, Peace, 1997
Steven Chu, Physics, 1997
William D. Phillips, Physics, 1997
Stanley B. Prusiner, Physiol. or Medicine, 1997
Richard E. Smalley, Chemistry, 1996
Robert F. Curl Jr., Chemistry, 1996
William Vickrey*, Economics, 1996
David M. Lee, Physics, 1996
Douglas D. Osheroff, Physics, 1996
Robert C. Richardson, Physics, 1996
Mario J. Molina*, Chemistry, 1995
F. Sherwood Rowland, Chemistry, 1995
Robert Lucas, Jr., Economics, 1995
Martin L. Perl, Physics, 1995
Frederick Reines, Physics, 1995
Edward B. Lewis, Physiol. or Medicine, 1995
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
69
Eric F. Wieschaus, Physiol. or Medicine, 1995
George Andrew Olah*, Chemistry, 1994
John Charles Harsanyi*, Economics, 1994
John Forbes Nash, Economics, 1994
Clifford G. Shull, Physics, 1994
Alfred G. Gilman, Physiol. or Medicine, 1994
Martin Rodbell, Physiol. or Medicine, 1994
Kary B. Mullis, Chemistry, 1993
Robert W. Fogel, Economics, 1993
Douglass C. North, Economics, 1993
Toni Morrison, Literature, 1993
Russell A. Hulse, Physics, 1993
Joseph H. Taylor Jr., Physics, 1993
Phillip A. Sharp, Physiol. or Medicine, 1993
Rudolph A. Marcus, Chemistry, 1992
Gary S. Becker, Economics, 1992
Edmond H. Fischer*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1992
Edwin G. Krebs, Physiol. or Medicine, 1992
Elias James Corey, Chemistry, 1990
Merton H. Miller, Economics, 1990
William F. Sharpe, Economics, 1990
Harry M. Markowitz, Economics, 1990
Jerome I. Friedman, Physics, 1990
Henry W. Kendall, Physics, 1990
Joseph E. Murray, Physiol. or Medicine, 1990
E. Donnall Thomas, Physiol. or Medicine, 1990
Sidney Altman*, Chemistry, 1989
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
70
Thomas R. Cech, Chemistry, 1989
Hans G. Dehmelt*, Physics, 1989
Norman F. Ramsey, Physics, 1989
J. Michael Bishop, Physiol. or Medicine, 1989
Harold E. Varmus, Physiol. or Medicine, 1989
Leon M. Lederman, Physics, 1988
Melvin Schwartz, Physics, 1988
Jack Steinberger*, Physics, 1988
Gertrude B. Elion, Physiol. or Medicine, 1988
George H. Hitchings, Physiol. or Medicine, 1988
Charles J. Pedersen*, Chemistry, 1987
Donald J. Cram, Chemistry, 1987
Robert M. Solow, Economics, 1987
Joseph Brodsky*, Literature, 1987
Dudley R. Herschbach, Chemistry, 1986
Yuan T. Lee*, Chemistry, 1986
James M. Buchanan, Economics, 1986
Elie Wiesel*, Peace, 1986
Stanley Cohen, Physiol. or Medicine, 1986
Rita Levi-Montalcini*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1986
Jerome Karle, Chemistry, 1985
Herbert A. Hauptman, Chemistry, 1985
Franco Modigliani*, Economics, 1985
Michael S. Brown, Physiol. or Medicine, 1985
Joseph L. Goldstein, Physiol. or Medicine, 1985
Bruce Merrifield, Chemistry, 1984
Henry Taube*, Chemistry, 1983
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
71
Gerard Debreu*, Economics, 1983
William A. Fowler, Physics, 1983
Barbara McClintock, Physiol. or Medicine, 1983
George J. Stigler, Economics, 1982
Kenneth G. Wilson, Physics, 1982
Roald Hoffmann*, Chemistry, 1981
James Tobin, Economics, 1981
Nicolaas Bloembergen*, Physics, 1981
Arthur L. Schawlow, Physics, 1981
David H. Hubel*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1981
Roger W. Sperry, Physiol. or Medicine, 1981
Walter Gilbert, Chemistry, 1980
Paul Berg, Chemistry, 1980
Lawrence R. Klein, Economics, 1980
Czeslaw Milosz*, Literature, 1980
James Cronin, Physics, 1980
Val Fitch, Physics, 1980
Baruj Benacerraf*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1980
George D. Snell, Physiol. or Medicine, 1980
Herbert C. Brown, Chemistry, 1979
Theodore Schultz, Economics, 1979
Steven Weinberg, Physics, 1979
Sheldon Glashow, Physics, 1979
Allan M. Cormack*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1979
Herbert A. Simon, Economics, 1978
Isaac Bashevis Singer*, Literature, 1978
Robert Woodrow Wilson, Physics, 1978
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
72
Arno Penzias, Physics, 1978
Hamilton O. Smith, Physiol. or Medicine, 1978
Daniel Nathans, Physiol. or Medicine, 1978
Philip Anderson, Physics, 1977
John H. van Vleck, Physics, 1977
Roger Guillemin*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1977
Andrzej W. Schally*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1977
Rosalyn Yalow, Physiol. or Medicine, 1977
William Lipscomb, Chemistry, 1976
Milton Friedman, Economics, 1976
Saul Bellow*, Literature, 1976
Burton Richter, Physics, 1976
Samuel C. C. Ting, Physics, 1976
Baruch S. Blumberg, Physiol. or Medicine, 1976
Daniel Carleton Gajdusek, Physiol. or Medicine, 1976
Tjalling C. Koopmans*, Economics, 1975
Ben R. Mottelson*, Physics, 1975
James Rainwater, Physics, 1975
David Baltimore, Physiol. or Medicine, 1975
Renato Dulbecco*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1975
Howard Martin Temin, Physiol. or Medicine, 1975
Paul J. Flory, Chemistry, 1974
George E. Palade*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1974
Wassily Leontief*, Economics, 1973
Henry Kissinger, Peace, 1973
Ivar Giaever*, Physics, 1973
Christian Anfinsen, Chemistry, 1972
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
73
Stanford Moore, Chemistry, 1972
William H. Stein, Chemistry, 1972
Kenneth J. Arrow, Economics, 1972
John Bardeen, Physics 1972
Leon N. Cooper, Physics 1972
Robert Schrieffer, Physics 1972
Gerald Edelman, Physiol. or Medicine, 1972
Simon Kuznets*, Economics, 1971
Earl W. Sutherland Jr., Physiol. or Medicine, 1971
Paul A. Samuelson, Economics, 1970
Norman Borlaug, Peace, 1970
Julius Axelrod, Physiol. or Medicine, 1970
Murray Gell-Mann, Physics, 1969
Max Delbrück*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1969
Alfred Hershey, Physiol. or Medicine, 1969
Salvador Luria*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1969
Lars Onsager*, Chemistry, 1968
Luis Alvarez, Physics, 1968
Robert W. Holley, Physiol. or Medicine, 1968
Har Gobind Khorana*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1968
Marshall Warren Nirenberg, Physiol. or Medicine, 1968
Hans Bethe*, Physics, 1967
Haldan Keffer Hartline, Physiol. or Medicine, 1967
George Wald, Physiol. or Medicine, 1967
Robert S. Mulliken, Chemistry, 1966
Charles B. Huggins*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1966
Francis Peyton Rous, Physiol. or Medicine, 1966
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
74
Robert B. Woodward, Chemistry, 1965
Richard P. Feynman, Physics, 1965
Julian Schwinger, Physics, 1965
Martin Luther King, Jr., Peace, 1964
Charles H. Townes, Physics, 1964
Konrad Bloch*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1964
Maria Goeppert-Mayer*, Physics, 1963
Eugene Wigner*, Physics, 1963
John Steinbeck, Literature, 1962
Linus C. Pauling, Peace, 1962
James D. Watson, Physiol. or Medicine, 1962
Melvin Calvin, Chemistry, 1961
Robert Hofstadter, Physics, 1961
Georg von Békésy*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1961
Willard F. Libby, Chemistry, 1960
Donald A. Glaser, Physics, 1960
Owen Chamberlain, Physics, 1959
Emilio Segrè*, Physics, 1959
Arthur Kornberg, Physiol. or Medicine, 1959
Severo Ochoa*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1959
George Beadle, Physiol. or Medicine, 1958
Joshua Lederberg, Physiol. or Medicine, 1958
Edward Tatum, Physiol. or Medicine, 1958
William B. Shockley, Physics, 1956
John Bardeen, Physics, 1956
Walter H. Brattain, Physics, 1956
Dickinson W. Richards, Physiol. or Medicine, 1956
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
75
André F. Cournand*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1956
Vincent du Vigneaud, Chemistry, 1955
Willis E. Lamb, Physics, 1955
Polykarp Kusch*, Physics, 1955
Linus C. Pauling, Chemistry, 1954
Ernest Hemingway, Literature, 1954
John F. Enders, Physiol. or Medicine, 1954
Frederick C. Robbins, Physiol. or Medicine, 1954
Thomas H. Weller, Physiol. or Medicine, 1954
George C. Marshall, Peace, 1953
Fritz Lipmann, Physiol. or Medicine, 1953
E. M. Purcell, Physics, 1952
Felix Bloch, Physics, 1952
Selman A. Waksman, Physiol. or Medicine, 1952
Edwin M. McMillan, Chemistry, 1951
Glenn Theodore Seaborg, Chemistry, 1951
Ralph J. Bunche, Peace, 1950
Philip S. Hench, Physiol. or Medicine, 1950
Edward C. Kendall, Physiol. or Medicine, 1950
William Giauque, Chemistry, 1949
William Faulkner, Literature, 1949
T. S. Eliot*, Literature, 1948
Carl Cori, Physiol. or Medicine, 1947
Gerty Cori, Physiol. or Medicine, 1947
Wendell M. Stanley, Chemistry, 1946
James B. Sumner, Chemistry, 1946
John H. Northrop, Chemistry, 1946
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
76
Emily G. Balch, Peace, 1946
John R. Mott, Peace, 1946
Percy W. Bridgman, Physics, 1946
Hermann J. Muller, Physiol. or Medicine, 1946
Cordell Hull, Peace, 1945
Isidor Isaac Rabi*, Physics, 1944
Joseph Erlanger, Physiol. or Medicine, 1944
Herbert S. Gasser, Physiol. or Medicine, 1944
Otto Stern*, Physics, 1943
Edward A. Doisy, Physiol. or Medicine, 1943
Ernest Lawrence, Physics, 1939
Pearl S. Buck, Literature, 1938
Clinton Davisson, Physics, 1937
Eugene O'Neill, Literature, 1936
Carl Anderson, Physics, 1936
Harold C. Urey, Chemistry, 1934
George R. Minot, Physiol. or Medicine, 1934
William P. Murphy, Physiol. or Medicine, 1934
George H. Whipple, Physiol. or Medicine, 1934
Thomas H. Morgan, Physiol. or Medicine, 1933
Irving Langmuir, Chemistry, 1932
Jane Addams, Peace, 1931
Nicholas M. Butler, Peace, 1931
Sinclair Lewis, Literature, 1930
Frank B. Kellogg, Peace, 1929
Arthur H. Compton, Physics, 1927
Charles G. Dawes, Peace, 1925
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
77
Robert A. Millikan, Physics, 1923
Albert Einstein*, Physics, 1921
Woodrow Wilson, Peace, 1919
Theodore W. Richards, Chemistry, 1914
Elihu Root, Peace, 1912
Albert A. Michelson*, Physics, 1907
Theodore Roosevelt, Peace, 1906
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I shall make you love books more than you love mother,and I shall place their excellence before you.
A scribe is the task-must of everyone.
Father to Son in the Middle Kingdom of Egypt (Papurus Saller I)
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Credits
Most photographs are acknowledged as due to the general courtesy of NASA’s FREE-TO-THE PUBLIC service, as this volume IV is. Some pictures were taken by the author. Most figures, diagrams and caricatures are taken from the unabridged VOLUMES I and II [Ref. 13]. The List of Nobel Prize Winners by Country has been provided free by Nobel-Prize Selection Committees and has been reproduced by Wikipedia – The Free Encyclopedia.
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