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Module 23
Studying and Building
Memories
GP Mem(1) 1
Are Some things Easier (Harder)
to remember than others?
GP Mem(1) 2
What is easy for you?
What is difficult?
GP Mem(1) 3
Ebbinghaus (1885)
- nonsense syllable
method (e.g., DAX,
BUP, GEJ)
Tested his own
memory
Each list learned to
criterion of 2 errorless
tests.
GP Mem(1) 4
IV: Retention time (minutes, hours, days)
Dependant Measures
1) Number recalled
- fast loss at beginning, then levels out.
GP Mem(1) 5
2) Savings # of trials to relearn
Large Savings at short retention,
Rapid decreased with longer retention
Then leveled out.
E.g., After 6 days 30% savings.
GP Mem(1) 6
3) Overlearning
- learn to criterion then rehearsed thirty times more.
Greatly increased savings.
E.g., At 6 days 64% savings.
Appears Rehearsal leads to Memory.
GP Mem(1) 7
Memory Processes
-Encoding – getting information into memory
-Storage – keeping it in memory
-Retrieval – getting information from memory
Information Processing View
Divides memory into functional stages
keyboard
Printer
GP Mem(1) 8
Long-Term
Memory
S S
e t
n o
s r
o e
r
y
Retrieval
Short-Term
Memory
Stage Model of Memory
Rehearsal
Loss
Encoding
GP Mem(1) 9
Sensory Store
Sperling’s Experiment
Whole Report
Presented Array of letters for Brief Period
Subject report all letters they can recall.
GP Mem(1) 10
Results
- recalled 33% of letters (4/12)
Partial Report
Brief Presentation of Array.
Subjects cued to recall 1 row.
GP Mem(1) 11
Results
If cue is immediate subject recalls 100% (4/4)
If row cue delayed less letters recalled.
- by 1 sec delay letters could not be recalled.
To move to STM sensory information must be attended
to. If not, it is quickly lost.
Iconic (Visual) Memory
Echoic (Auditory) Memory
GP Mem(1) 12
Short-Term Memory
Limited Capacity: avg.. 7 to 9 Items
Maintenance Rehearsal: mentally repeating items.
GP Mem(1) 13
Serial position effects
Better Memory for
1) first few words (Primacy Effect)
2) last few words in the list (Recency Effect).
GP Mem(1) 14
Primacy - early rehearsed more -- moved to LTM.
Recency - last words still in STM -- recovered directly.
Evidence
1) Present words too quickly to allow rehearsed
- Primacy effect disappears.
GP Mem(1) 15
2) Peterson Study
Distracter task (e.g., count backwards)
- eliminates rehearsal
- items are lost from STM
- recency effect disappears
If not attended to at least every 30 secs items lost from
STM.
GP Mem(1) 16
Chunking – increases capacity of STM
BATCARBOYERA
- requires processing for meaning.
GP Mem(1) 17
Current View - Working Memory (Baddley)
Place where mental work is done.
Holds what you are currently aware of.
INPUTCentral Executive
From LTM
To LTM
Visuospatial
sketchpad
Phonological
Loop
GP Mem(1) 18
GP Mem(1) 19
Does Rehearsal transfer information to LTM?
Glenberg, Smith and Green Study.
- subjects presented 4 digit numbers
- each digit followed by word to repeat for 2, 6 or 18 secs.
Told to remember digits (word repetition just distracter)
Tested for the words.
Increased rehearsal did not lead to better recall from LTM.
GP Mem(1) 20
Levels of Processing (Craik and Lockhart)
Transfer to LTM requires processing for meaning.
LTM is like a library!
To encode information, there must be a place for it.
Added to similar information.
Elaborative Rehearsal - thinking about meaning.
- relate to other things you know.
GP Mem(1) 21
Semantic (meaning) Network Model
LTM organized by Meaning
Memory and Expertise
Hierarchies – Organizing
structures that allow us
link together information
into meaningful
connections.
GP Mem(1) 22
GP Mem(1) 23
GP Mem(1) 24
Is Elaborative Rehearsal Hard?
LTM Stores
Accessed to understand
Current events
New info
added to old
Modules 25 and 26
Retrieval, Forgetting,
Memory Construction and
Mnemonics
GP Mem(1) 25
GP Mem(1) 26
Schema and Scripts – Organized
Packets of information about People
Events, Topics etc.
Organized information allows use to
•go beyond our current experience to infer
other general information about the current
situation
•generate expectations about the Future.
All Memory depends on
Retrieval Cues
Elaborative Rehearsal – the more retrieval
cues you have, the better your chances of
finding a route to the desired memory.
Best retrieval cues come
from associations we make at the time we
encode the memory.
GP Mem(1) 27
Priming – “memoryless memory”
- Associations activated without
awareness.
- These associations can influence our
interpretations of current experiences.
GP Mem(1) 28
GP Mem(1) 29
Retrieval From LTM is based on Cues.
Recall and Recognition
Recall requires the correct association to found to a cue.
Write down the names of the seven dwarfs!
GP Mem(1) 30
GP Mem(1) 31
The Context Effect
Context at time of learning provides cues at recall
State-dependant retrieval
Mood Dependant Retrieval
What would it be like to never be able to
forget anything?
Solomon Shereshevskii (S)
Jill Price (A.J.)
Your Memory does not work like a video recording!
What if it did??Jill Price remembers all the sad and bad things in her life – the death
of loved ones, for instance, like it’s happening right now. Time heals
all wounds, but not for Jill Price.
GP Mem(1) 32
Forgetting
Our Memories are for preparing us for the
future more so than for retaining the past!
Much is forgotten. We remember the “gist of
events and often confuse parts of one event
with another similar event.
GP Mem(1) 33
Forgetting in a healthy Brain?Proactive and Retroactive Interference
Similar items learned earlier (proactive) or after
(retroactive) interfere.
Why? Similar cues lead to a variety of items in LTM.
Distinctive things are recalled better.
GP Mem(1) 34
GP Mem(1) 35
Decay Theory?
Is LTM Permanent?
We don’t know?
If you fail to remember something it could be
1) its lost from LTM.
2) its lost in LTM.
- with a proper cue, you could retrieve it.
LTM Capacity
As far as we know LTM is Unlimited!
GP Mem(1) 36
GP Mem(1) 37
Sensory Short-Term Long-Term
Duration Very Brief
< 2 secs
As long as rehearsed Perhaps Permanent
Capacity
Unlimited 7 to 9 items Unlimited
Type of Information
Sensory Sounds Meaning
Encoding
Automatic Attention Meaning
Forgetting due to
Fading Interference with
Maintanance Rehearsal
Interference
- retroactive
- proactive
Poor Cues
Amnesia
Encoding – Storage - Retrieval
• Retrograde amnesia (no retrieval)
• Anterograde amnesia (no encoding)
Implicit and Explicit Memory
Explicit – Knowing when and where you
learned the information.
Implicit – having knowledge without
awareness of where or why you know the
information.
GP Mem(1) 39
People with Anterograde Amnesia
demonstrate implicit learning – they aquire
knowledge but have no memory for having
learned the new material.
GP Mem(1) 40
GP Mem(1)41
Imperfect Memories
1) About how fast were the cars going when they
_________ with each other?
Speed estimates for the verbs used in Experiment 1
VerbMean speed estimate (mph)
Smashed 40.8
Collided 39.3
Bumped 38.1
Hit 34.0
Contacted 31.8
GP Mem(1) 42
Source Confusion
Schema Distortion
Imagination Inflation
– lost in a mall study.
- slime in the second grade.
GP Mem(1) 43
Getting Value Out of Your Study Time.
1) Distribute study sessions.
- cramming leads to poor learning.
- LTM is not limited, but your attention span is.
2) Don’t just read the material over and over.
Inefficient strategy.
GP Mem(1) 44
3) Monitor your progress
- focus in on what you need to learn.
4) Think about the meaning of the material.
5) What about meaningless stuff?
MAKE IT MEANINGFULL
Mnemonics (Memory Tricks)
Find structure to organize it.
Structure serves as a cue.
DON’T USE MNENOMICS FOR STUFF YOU
ALREADY KNOW -- It’s a waste of time!
GP Mem(1) 45
First letter cues (ROY G BIV)
Sentences (Every good boy deserves fudge).
Analogies - Compare it to something you know.
Charts - summarize and organize memory
- gives visual cues
Diagrams
- emphasize relationships between concepts.
- allow for visual encoding
- color code
Songs, Rhymes or Poems
Relate to Personal Examples
Stories
Be creative! - make it memorable!
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