View
233
Download
6
Category
Preview:
Citation preview
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 1
NMDM121
MEDICINAL FOOD SCIENCE
Session 13
Culinary Herbs and Spices Part I
Nutritional Medicine Department
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 2
Session Summary
Discuss the nutritional values, phytochemical profiles,
culinary uses and therapeutic benefits of:
• Onion
• Garlic
• Ginger
• Chilli
• Rosemary
• Nutmeg
• Fennel
• Cloves
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 3
Naming of Plants
• Common name – e.g. onion, nutmeg. Common name
often varies around the world. One plant may have many
different common names.
• Scientific name – usually written in italics with a capital
letter for the genus – e.g. Allium cepa.
• Plants that belong to the same botanical family often
have similar phytochemicals and therefore may have
similar therapeutic actions.
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 4
Herbs and Spices
(Source: Zak Greant at http://flickr.com/photos/91083986@N00/6802894502)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 5
Herbs and Spices
• Herbs and spices have a long history of both culinary
and medicinal uses as well as acting as preservatives.
• Herbs are generally plant leaves, other than those
classified as vegetables. Examples include basil, chives,
dill, parsley and thyme.
• Spices can be buds (e.g. cloves), bark (e.g. cinnamon),
rhizomes (e.g. ginger), berries (e.g. peppercorns),
aromatic seeds (e.g. cumin), the stigma of a flower (e.g.
saffron) or other plant parts.
(Hemphill, 2006)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 6
Herbs and Spices
• Herbs and spices are generally eaten in small quantities
so contribution to nutrient intake is small. There are
exceptions such as parsley in tabouli and turmeric in
India.
• Herbs and spices add flavour to food so can make
wholesome foods tastier and therefore encourage
consumption.
• Concentrated sources of phytochemicals in herbs and
spices gives them therapeutic potential.
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 7
Herbs and Spices: Digestion
Several animal studies have shown that some spices
enhance the secretion of digestive enzymes. Examples
include:
• Curcumin, capsaicin, piperine, ginger, fenugreek and
asafoetida enhanced pancreatic lipase.
• Curcumin, capsaicin, piperine, ginger, cumin and
asafoetida enhanced pancreatic amylase.
• Curcumin, capsaicin, piperine, ginger and cumin enhanced
trypsin.
• Curcumin, capsaicin, piperine, ginger, cumin, fenugreek
and asafoetida enhanced chymotrypsin.
(Platel & Srinivasan, 2000)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 8
Herbs and Spices: Digestion
In another animal study three spice mixes were tested on
rats. All spice mixes contained coriander, turmeric, red
chilli, black pepper and cumin.
• Spice mix I contained just those noted above
• Spice mix II additionally contained ginger
• Spice mix III additionally contained onion.
All 3 spice mixes enhanced the activities of pancreatic
lipase, chymotrypsin and amylase and increased bile
secretion. Spice mix III had the greatest stimulatory
effect.
(Platel et al., 2002)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 9
Onion
Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/53611153@N00/303892944/ open onion
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 10
Onion: Introduction
• The scientific name for the common (or garden) onion is
Allium cepa.
• Onions belong to the Liliaceae (Lily) family (United
States Department of Agriculture, n.d.)
• Commonly used edible Allium plants include onion,
garlic, leeks, chives, spring onions and shallots.
• About 40-100 grams of onion daily is recommended to
achieve therapeutic effects (Suleria et al., 2014).
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 11
Onion: Constituents
o Whilst onions provide some nutrients they are not
nutrient-dense. Key nutrients are summarised on the
next slide.
o The main therapeutic actions of onions are due to the
phytochemicals. Key phytochemicals are:
• Flavonoids: Quercetin and its derivatives (flavonols)
which give some onions yellow and brown skins.
Anthocyanins which impart a red to purple colour in
some varieties.
• Alk(en)yl cysteine sulfoxides (ACSOs) (sulphur-
containing compounds).
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 12
Onion: Key Nutrients
One medium onion weighs approximately 110 grams
½ cup chopped onion weighs approximately 80 grams
(Source for nutrient composition: FSANZ, NUTTAB 2010)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 13
Onion: FOS Prebiotic
Fructo-oligosaccharides:
• Onions are a good source of certain dietary fibres,
particularly fructans and FOS(16–19). Inulin-type
fructans have a potential role in colorectal cancer
prevention, associated with their ‘bifidogenic’ prebiotic
effect in animal models (Roldan-Marin et al., 2009).
• Effects of onion components on gut health parameters
including changes in pH, transit time, bacterial activities
and SCFA production need further investigation.
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 14
Onion: Flavonoids
• The flavonols (i.e. quercetin and its derivatives) are often
found concentrated in the skin of most onions where
they impart the yellow/brown colour, unless concealed by
the red pigment, anthocyanin.
• Quercetin content is highest in the dry skin and
decreases from the outer to inner rings. Thus, peeling
may significantly reduce the flavonoid content (especially
anthocyanins and to a lesser extent flavonols). (Suleria
et al., 2014).
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 15
Quercetin Content
Food source Quercetin
content mg/kg
Onion 300 mg/kg
Broccoli 100 mg/kg
Apples 50 mg/kg
Kale 450 mg/kg
Blackcurrants 40 mg/kg
Teas 30 mg/kg
Source: Griffiths et al., 2002
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 16
Which Allium is that?
According to Onions Australia (2010) the main Allium crops
in Australia are:
• Bulb onions (Allium cepa) – brown, red and white
• Garlic (Allium oleraceum)
• Leeks (Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum). These are
grown for their leaves and thickened stem.
• Spring onions (Allium fistulosum) - means different
things to different people. True spring onions are
harvested with about 40cm of green leaves and a
slightly enlarged bulb. In NSW spring onions are
generally a white bulbing variety harvested when the
bulb is immature and the leaves are intact.
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 17
Which Allium is that?
o (Continued from previous slide)
• Shallots (Allium cepa, aggregatum) - means different
things to different people. True shallots are grown for
their bulbs only. Shallots marketed in NSW are similar
to true spring onion and are harvested with about
40cm of green leaves and a slightly enlarged bulb.
Also called Eschallots (Allium ascalonicum).
• Chives (Allium schoenoprasum)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 18
Onion: Buying and Storing
• Choose onions that are clean and have crisp, dry outer
skins. Avoid those that are sprouting, have mould, have
soft spots or dark patches.
• Do not store in the refrigerator because of its high
moisture atmosphere.
• Store in a cool, dry place away from excessive heat and
light but with plenty of air circulation to avoid spoilage.
• Don’t store with potatoes as potatoes have a lot of
moisture and give off a gas that causes onions to spoil
more quickly.
• Stored carefully, onions will keep for several weeks.
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 19
Why do onions make us cry?
• When the onion tissue is disrupted by cutting, crushing,
or chewing, the Alk(en)yl cysteine sulfoxides (ACSOs)
are enzymatically degraded by the enzyme, alliinase, to
iminopropionic acid and alk(en)yl cysteine sulfenic acids.
• The iminopropionic acid spontaneously hydrolyses to
form ammonia and pyruvic acid.
• The sulfenic acids decompose spontaneously afterward.
Methyl and propyl sulfenic acids yield mainly
thiosulfinates. Prop-1-enyl sulfenic acid forms both the
corresponding thiosulfinate and thiopropanal S-oxide,
the onion lachrymatory factor.
(Griffiths et al., 2002)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 20
Onion: Traditional Uses
• Stimulant and counter irritant.
• Crushed raw onion applied to the forehead for relief of
headaches.
• Red small onions used as an expectorant.
• Onion and honey syrup for coughs, sore throats and
respiratory tract infections.
(Suleria et al., 2014)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 21
Onion: Therapeutic Actions
In vitro studies suggest the following potential therapeutic
actions for onions:
• Antimicrobial
• Anti-asthmatic
• Anti-tumour and anticancer effect
• Platelet anti-aggregating agent
• Hypocholesterolaemic effect
• Anti ulcer and anti gastric cancer agent
• Antioxidant
• Prebiotic
(Griffiths et al., 2002; Mitra et al., 2012)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 22
Onion: Antimicrobial Effects
In vitro studies have demonstrated the following:
• Crude extracts of onion exert potent antifungal and
antibacterial properties;
• Onion oils and aqueous extracts have been shown to
be active against several gram positive bacteria but
ineffective against gram-negative bacteria;
• Onion juice has been shown to be effective against
many yeast species;
• Onion oil has been shown to be effective against
dermatophytic fungi;
(Suleria et al., 2014)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 23
Onion: Antimicrobial Effects
• Onion extracts have been shown to inhibit oral
bacteria which are associated with formation of dental
caries (Suleria et al., 2014).
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:
Onion_bulbs#mediaviewer/File:Sweet_onions_1.jpg
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 24
Onions: Cancer Protective
• The organo-sulphur compounds in onions have been
shown to have anti-carcinogenic action in in-vitro studies
and animal studies. This is thought to be partially due to
their role in the activation of detoxifying enzymes that
remove potentially cancer-causing substances (Suleria
et al., 2014).
• Onions are rich in organo-selenium compounds, which
may help in preventing cancer. Selenium is usually fixed
to sulphur-containing amino acid derivatives (Suleria et
al., 2014).
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 25
Onion: Human Studies CVD
• Human studies have generally investigated the effects of
a high flavonoid diet rather than high onion consumption.
• Epidemiological studies suggest that high intakes of
dietary flavonoids are associated with decreased
cardiovascular disease mortality and risk factors.
• Although flavonoids from apples, berries and onions
appear to impact favourably on blood pressure, vascular
function and serum lipid levels, further research is
needed to determine the optimal quantity and food
matrix for conferring substantial clinical benefit.
(Toh et al., 2013)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 26
Onion: Human Studies CVD
• A single-blind, dose-dependent, parallel randomized controlled
dietary intervention study was conducted on male and female low
fruit and vegetable consumers who had a ≥ 1.5-fold increased risk of
CVD (n = 174).
• Participants were randomly assigned to receive a high flavonoid
Fruit and Vegetable diet, a low flavonoid F&V diet, or a habitual diet.
• Microvascular reactivity, arterial stiffness, 24-h ambulatory blood
pressure, and biomarkers of nitric oxide (NO), vascular function, and
inflammation were determined at baseline and at 6, 12, and 18 wk.
• Results support recommendations to increase F&V intake to ≥ 6
portions daily, with additional benefit from F&Vs that are rich in
flavonoids, particularly in men with an increased risk of CVD.
(Macready et al., 2014)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 27
Onion: TCM
Traditional Chinese Medicine Characteristics:
Thermal Nature: Warm
Flavour: Acrid and sweet (by lightly braising)
Prep Methods: As juice, fried, pickled or dried;
onions lose their effect when cooked
too long.
(Kastner, 2004)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 28
Onion: Contraindications
• Eating raw onion can lead to halitosis
• Onion may cause flatulence for some people
• In rare cases onion may be a trigger for migraine(Mitra et al., 2012)
• There are case reports of asthmatics developing an
asthma attack after eating pickled onions. High sulphite
content plus low pH (3.3) of Spanish pickled onions
increases the risk of an asthma attack in sulphite-
sensitive asthma sufferers.(Gastaminza et al., 1995)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 29
Onion: Contraindications (cont.)
• A high dietary intake of flavonoids can elevate urinary
homovanillic acid (HVA). Urinary HVA measurement is
used routinely as a marker of the first test for the
screening of catecholamine-secreting tumours and
dopamine metabolism. A high dietary intake of flavonoids
could result in a false positive result. Eat a low flavonoid
diet for 3 days before the test.(Combet et al., 2011)
• Some groups, such as Brahma Kumaris and Hari
Krishnas, avoid onions and garlic. Major Oriental
traditions recommend avoidance of onions and garlic for
those seeking ‘mental and spiritual refinement’.
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 30
Garlic
(Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Garlic#mediaviewer/File:Garlic_Press_and_Garlic.jpg: )
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 31
Garlic: Introduction
• The scientific name for cultivated garlic is Allium sativum.
• Garlic belongs to the Liliaceae family.
• There is some evidence that garlic was fed to athletes
during the earliest Olympics in Greece to increase
stamina.
• Two classes of organosulfur compounds are found in
whole garlic cloves:
‒ γ-glutamyl-cysteines
‒ Cysteine sulfoxides [Allylcysteine sulfoxide (alliin) accounts
for ~ 80% of the cysteine sulfoxides in garlic]
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 32
Garlic: Introduction
• Garlic has been used as both a food and medicine since
antiquity.
• Legend is that garlic was used in ancient Egypt to
increase workers’ resistance to infection and later used
externally to prevent wound infection.
• Traditionally garlic has been used as a warming and
blood cleansing herb to prevent and treat colds and flu,
coughs, menstrual pain and expel worms and other
parasites. (Braun & Cohen, 2005)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 33
Garlic: Therapeutic Actions
In-vitro studies suggest the following possible therapeutic
actions:
• Inhibits cholesterol synthesis
• Inhibits platelet aggregation
• Anti-inflammatory
• Antioxidant
• Inhibits Phase 1 biotransformation enzymes
• Induction of Phase II biotransformation enzymes
• Enhanced cellular glutathione synthesis
• Induction of apoptosis
• Antimicrobial
(Higdon, 2007)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 34
Garlic: Antimicrobial
• Allicin (diallyl-dithiosulphinate) is produced by the action
of the garlic enzyme, alliinase, from alliin when the flesh
is crushed, chopped or chewed.
• Allicin and other sulphur compounds are thought to be
the major compounds responsible for the antimicrobial
effect of garlic.
• Heat, such as cooking, inactivates alliinase.
• Allowing crushed/chopped garlic to “stand” for at least 10
minutes prior to cooking may result in the formation of
allicin.
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 35
Garlic Supplements
Garlic supplements can be classified into four groups:
• Garlic essential oil is obtained by passing steam through
garlic. Commercially available garlic oil capsules generally
contain vegetable oil, but only have a small amount of
garlic essential oil because of its strong odour.
• Garlic oil macerate products are made from encapsulated
mixtures of whole garlic cloves ground into vegetable oil.
• Garlic powder is produced by slicing or crushing garlic
cloves, then drying and grinding them into powder. Garlic
powder is used as a flavouring agent for condiments and
food and is thought to retain the same ingredients as raw
garlic.
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 36
Garlic Supplements (cont.)
• Garlic extract is made from whole or sliced garlic cloves
that are soaked in an alcohol solution (an extracting
solution) for varying amounts of time. Powdered forms of
the extract also are available.
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 37
Garlic Supplements
Product Principal Organosulfur
compounds
Delivers Allicin-Derived
Compounds?
Fresh garlic cloves Cysteine sulfoxides (alliin) Yes, when chopped,
crushed or chewed raw
Powdered garlic
(tablets)
Cysteine sulfoxides (alliin)
γ-glutamylcysteines
Varies considerably
amongst commercial
products.
Steam-distilled
garlic oil (capsules)
Diallyl disulphide. Diallyl
trisulphide, allyl methyl
trisulfide
Yes
Garlic oil macerate
(capsules)
Vinyldithiins, ajoene, diallyl
trisulfide
Yes
Aged garlic extract
(tablets/capsules)
S-allylcysteine, S-
allylmercaptocysteine, S-1-
propenylcysteine
Minimally
(Higdon, 2007)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 38
Garlic: TCM
Traditional Chinese Medicine Characteristics:
Thermal: Cooked-warm; Raw-hot
Flavour: Raw-acrid; Gently cooked-sweet-acrid
Prep Methods: Raw, gently braised (on low heat), as a
juice or decoction.
(Kastner, 2004)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 39
Garlic: Contraindications
• Ingestion of garlic and garlic supplements can cause bad
breath and body odour.
• Gastrointestinal symptoms have been reported including
heartburn, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, flatulence
and diarrhoea.
• Garlic supplements may enhance the anticoagulant
effect of warfarin.
• Some people may be allergic to garlic.
• Some people experience contact dermatitis when skin is
exposed to garlic.
(Higdon, 2007)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 40
Garlic: Contraindications
• Garlic supplements have been shown to interfere with
several prescription drugs, especially the HIV medication
saquinavir (brand names Invirase® and Fortovase®).
Garlic supplements can lower the serum levels of
saquinavir by as much as 50 percent (Piscitelli et al.,
2002)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 41
Ginger
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Ginger_flower_04516.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:
Ginger#mediaviewer/File:Gingembre.jpg
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 42
Ginger: Introduction
• Belongs to the Zingiberaceae family.
• Scientific name is Zingiber officinale (garden ginger).
• Part used is the rhizome.
• The rhizomes and stems of ginger have assumed
significant roles in Chinese, Japanese, and Indian
medicine since the 1500s.
• Major constituents include: Gingerols and shogaols, e.g.
6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, and 10-gingerol and 6-shogaol, 8-
shogaol, and 10-shogaol.
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 43
Ginger: Introduction
• The rhizome of ginger contains pungent vanillyl ketones,
including 6-gingerol and 6-paradol, and has been
reported to possess strong anti-inflammatory activity and
antitumor properties.
• Other compounds present include carbohydrates, fats,
minerals, oleoresins, vitamins, waxes, and zingibain (a
proteolytic enzyme).
(Natural Standard, 2014a)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 44
Ginger: Therapeutic Effects
• There is supportive evidence from several randomised
controlled trials that ginger reduces the severity and
duration of nausea or emesis during pregnancy.
• Ginger's effects on other types of nausea or emesis,
such as chemotherapy-induced, postoperative nausea,
or motion sickness need further investigation to confirm.
• One small RCT suggested that ginger supplements may
be helpful for dysmenorrhoea (250mg of dried Z.
officinale rhizome powder X 4 times daily starting three
days prior to the onset of menstruation).
• In vitro studies demonstrate antioxidant effect.
(Natural Standard, 2014a)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 45
Ginger
Culinary and other uses:
• Ginger can be used fresh, dried, grated, preserved in
syrup or vinegar, and crystallised.
• It can be added to savoury and sweet dishes.
• In China and other parts of Asia it is added to fish dishes.
• In Japan pink, pickled ginger is served with sushi.
• Dried and powdered ginger is used in biscuits, breads and
desserts.
• It can be used to make chutney.
• Ginger ale is a soft drink and ginger beer is a fermented
drink.
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 46
Ginger: Cautions
• The most frequent side effects associated with ginger use are
gastrointestinal upset, heartburn, gas, and bloating.
• Ginger may inhibit platelet aggregation or decrease platelet
thromboxane production, thus theoretically increasing
bleeding risk.
(Natural Standard, 2014a)
• People with gallstones are suggested to consult with their
physician and those with reflux or gastric ulcers are to use
ginger with caution, as advised by the Commission E.
• Pregnancy – upper limit of 2 g/day.
(Braun & Cohen, 2010)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 47
Chilli: Introduction
• The scientific name for chilli is Capsicum anuum.
• Chilli belongs to the Solanaceae family.
• The heat or ‘bite’ in chillies comes from phytochemicals
called capsaicinoids. Spices containing capsaicinoids
include chilli, cayenne, paprika and red pepper.
• The level of pungency (heat) of the Capsicum species
depends mainly upon the concentration of capsaicinoids,
primarily capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin. The Scoville
Scale is a common taste-based subjective measure of
pungency.
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 48
Chilli: Therapeutic Uses
• Overall there is good clinical evidence to support the use of
topical Capsicum in a plaster for low back pain and at various
acupoints for postoperative pain, nausea, and vomiting.
• The mechanism of action for topical pain relief by Capsicum is
well studied. It is likely that the analgesic effect of pungent
Capsicum spp. is due to the analgesic effects of its
constituent capsaicin.
• Capsaicin is an activator of nociceptors, cutaneous peripheral
receptive endings of primary sensory neurons (unmyelinated
C-fibres) activated by noxious stimuli. Pain relief may occur
due to sensitisation of these neurons. Capsaicin depletes
stores of substance P from sensory neurons, thus reducing
pain with extended use.
(Natural Standard, 2014b)
Chilli: Therapeutic Effects
• A recent animal study showed that high-fat fed mice given dietary capsaicin, a component of chili pepper, showed improved glucose tolerance, reduced liver fat, and improved insulin sensitivity.
• In another animal study, the topical application of capsaicin in mice saw a reduction in visceral adipose tissue resulting in decreased inflammation and increased insulin sensitivity.
• Preliminary human trials suggest that capsaicinoids may have a beneficial effect on weight loss. This effect has been shown to be due to increased energy expenditure, increased lipid oxidation, and decrease in appetite (may reduce hunger hormone Ghrelin). However, further investigations are needed to evaluate their role in long-term usage.
(Agarwal, 2014)
Chilli: Therapeutic Effects
• A meta analysis investigated the potential effects of capsaicinoids on energy intake. 74 clinical trials were identified but 8 were included based on suitability for combined analysis (191 participants).
• Doses of chillies used in the studies varied from 0.4 mg to 33 mg. The sub-group analysis showed lower effect for dosages < 2 mg (energy intake increase of 35.4 kJ (8.4 kcal) p = 0.74), whereas dosages >2 mg produced a significant effect (energy intake decrease of 372.0 kJ (88.9 kcal) p < 0.001).
• Overall results suggested that capsaicinoid ingestion prior to a meal reduced ad libitum energy intake by 309.9 kJ (74.0 kcal) (p < 0.001) during the meal.
• However as heterogeneity of the participants/studies was high (Table on next slide), results should be interpreted with caution and further studies are required.
(Whiting, Derbyshire & Tiwari., 2014)
(Whiting, Derbyshire & Tiwari., 2014)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 52
Chilli: Cautions
• When used orally, Capsicum may cause gastrointestinal
irritation, mouth and throat irritation, damaged taste buds
with reduced ability to taste foods, fullness, flatulence,
dyspepsia, diarrhoea, ulcer aggravation, and stomach
pain.
• According to secondary sources, large amounts may
cause kidney and liver damage.
• Topically, Capsicum may cause burning, redness, and
irritation. Inhalation of Capsicum may cause dyspnea
and cough. It may also irritate mucous membranes.
(Natural Standard, 2014b)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 53
Rosemary: Introduction
• The scientific name for rosemary is Rosmarinus
officinalis.
• Rosemary belongs to the Lamiaceae/Labiateae (mint)
family.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
Rosmarinus_officinalis#mediaviewer/File:Rosemaryflower.jpg
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 54
Rosemary: History
• The ancient Greeks used rosemary to strengthen
memory function and scholars wore garlands of
rosemary during examinations in order to improve their
memory and concentration.
• It is widely used as a food spice and as an antioxidant to
preserve foods.
• Topically it has also been used traditionally for wound
healing, as an insect repellent, and to treat toothache
and eczema.
(Braun & Cohen, 2005)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 55
Rosemary: Therapeutic Effects
• The most well-studied constituents of rosemary are caffeic
acid and its derivative, rosmarinic acid. These compounds are
thought to have antioxidant properties and are under
investigation as potential therapies for cancer, hepatotoxicity,
and inflammatory conditions.
• Currently, high-quality human trials investigating rosemary
and its possible therapeutic applications are lacking. A small
number of methodologically weak studies show some promise
in the improvement of mental state (via aromatherapy) and as
a topical treatment for alopecia.
• Germany's Commission E has approved rosemary leaf for the
treatment of dyspepsia and rosemary oil (used externally) for
joint pain and poor circulation.
(Natural Standard, 2014c)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 56
Rosemary: TCM
Traditional Chinese Medicine Characteristics:
Thermal Nature: Warming
Flavour: Bitter, acrid
(Kastner, 2004)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 57
Rosemary
Culinary and other uses:
• Often included in a bouquet garni.
• Added to marinades for meat, poultry and fish.
• Studded into lamb with garlic for a roast.
• Can be added to some desserts.
• Can be used as a fumigant – burn rosemary and wave its
plume of smoke around the room to get rid of bad odours.
(Batemen, 2003, p. 208)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 58
Nutmeg: Introduction
• The scientific name for nutmeg is Myristica fragrans.
• Nutmeg belongs to the Myristicaceae family.
• The spice, mace, comes from the lacy red covering of
the nutmeg seed.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
Myristica_fragrans#mediaviewer/File:Muskatnuss.jpg
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 59
Nutmeg: Constituents
• Nutmeg contains a compound called macelignan. In vitro
studies have shown a spectrum of pharmacological
activities for macelignan, including anti-bacterial, anti-
inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-diabetes, and
hepatoprotective activities; recently, it has also been
shown to have neuroprotective activities (Paul et al., 2013).
• Myristicin is the main component of nutmeg essential oil.
This compound acts as a serotonin receptor agonist and
a hallucinogenic agent. It is also a weak monoamine
oxidase inhibitor.
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 60
Nutmeg: Biological Effects
• While nutmeg is most commonly known for its use in foods,
such as eggnog, it also has a history of abuse as a
recreational psychoactive drug. Users have reported narcotic-
like effects with two tablespoons of nutmeg. Unpleasant
effects, including bitter taste, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, and
disorientation, may limit its popularity as a psychoactive
substance.
• Evidence from human study suggests that nutmeg extract,
when used as part of chewing gum, may decrease plaque and
gingivitis. However, well-designed clinical trials in this context,
or any other human indication, are currently lacking.
(Natural Standard, 2014d)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 61
Nutmeg
Culinary and other uses:
• Best to buy whole nutmeg and grate freshly when needed.
• In India it is used as a warming ingredient in spice pastes
and powders.
• In the Caribbean it is often included in pastes to marinate
pork, goat, chicken and fish.
• In Europe it is included in Christmas pudding and mince
pies. It is also used with cheese and milk dishes.
(Bateman, 2003, p. 230)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 62
Nutmeg: Cautions
• Cases of acute nutmeg poisoning from ingestion of very
large amounts of nutmeg (over 10g), for recreational
purposes, have been reported.
• Symptoms include, but are not limited to,
electrocardiographic changes, severe gastrointestinal
symptoms, severe musculoskeletal symptoms (such as
muscle weakness and ataxia), neurological symptoms
(such as headache and dizziness), blurred and duplicate
vision, various psychotic symptoms, and death.
(Natural Standard, 2014d)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 63
Fennel
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fennel)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 64
Fennel: Introduction
• The scientific name is Foeniculum vulgare.
• Fennel belongs to the Apiaceae (also called the
Umbelliferae) family.
• Parts used are the bulb and stems, the seeds and the
green foliage.
(http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fennel_flowers_J1.jpg)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 65
Fennel Bulb: Key Nutrients
Raw fennel Per 100 grams
Energy 92 kJ
Water 92.9 grams
Protein 1 gram
Dietary fibre 1.8 grams
Sugars 3.3 grams
Calcium 20 mg
Potassium 280 mg
Vitamin C 9 mg
(FSANZ: NUTTAB, 2010)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 66
Fennel Seed: Constituents
The essential oil of fennel seeds contain many constituents
including:
• d-α pinene
• Camaphene
• d-α phellanderin
• Dipentene
• Trans-anethole
• d-fenchone
• Estrogolefoeniculin
• Anisaldehyde
• Several alkaline compounds that cause its distinctive smell
(Akha, 2014)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 67
Fennel Seeds: Traditional Uses
Fennel seeds have been used traditionally as:
• Carminative – term used to describe remedies that
ease flatulence and abdominal cramping.
• Galactagogue – term used to describe remedies that
increase the supply of breast milk.
• Anorexia, colic, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea,
diarrhoea, nausea, cold and coughs (Akha, 2014).
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 68
Fennel Seeds: Therapeutics
In-vitro and animal studies suggest that fennel seed may
have the following therapeutic actions:
• Antimicrobial
• Antioxidant
• Antitumour
• Chemopreventive
• Cytoprotective
• Hepatoprotective
• Hypoglycemic
• Oestrogenic
(Badgujar et al., 2014)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 69
Fennel Seeds: Therapeutics
• In-vitro studies have demonstrated Apiaceae extracts
have high antibacterial activity with fennel possessing
the strongest and broadest activity (Nguyen et al., 2014).
• A small placebo controlled trial (n=60) found that 30 mg
of fennel seed extract capsule taken 4 times a day for 3
days from the start of menstruation resulted in greater
pain relief than placebo in young women with primary
dysmenorrhoea (Omidvar et al., 2012).
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 70
Fennel: Therapeutic Actions
• Fennel seed ethanol extract has been shown to have
phytoestrogenic activity.
• In-vitro studies have suggested an anti-osteoporotic
effect for fennel seed ethanol extract.
• More than 80% of the essential oil of fennel seeds is
trans-Anatole. This constituent appears to have
oestrogenic activity and is believed to be responsible for
the potential anti-osteoporotic effect. Further research is
needed, especially human clinical trials.
(Mahmoudi et al., 2013)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 71
Fennel: Therapeutic Actions
• Several randomised controlled trials have shown
promising results for the topical use of a fennel gel
(2%/3% fennel seed extract gel) in the treatment of mild
to moderate idiopathic hirsutism.
• A reduction in hair thickness of 22.7% was noted in the
group applying the fennel gel after 24 weeks.
• There were no noticeable side effects.
• Mechanism of action is not clear but believed to be due
to an anti-androgenic effect of trans-anethole and di-
anethole.
(Akha et al., 2014)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 72
Fennel: Characteristics
TCM:
Thermal Nature: Warming (Bulb and Seed)
Flavour: Sweet, acrid (Bulb)
Acrid, Sweet (Seed)
(Kastner, 2004)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 73
Fennel: Culinary Uses
Culinary and other uses:
• In Italy ‘Florence fennel’ is used raw as a crunchy salad
vegetable or braised or boiled to be eaten warm or cold
with an olive oil dressing.
• In India fennel seeds are chewed to freshen the breath.
• Fennel has an affinity for fish. In France, fish is often
baked on a bed of sliced fennel.
• Fennel stalks can be used like celery stalks.
• Separate the fennel stems (stalks) from the bulb before
storing.
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 74
Cloves
(Source:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Cloves.JPG)
(Source:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Cloves_fresh_in_hand.JPG)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 75
Cloves: Introduction
• Myrtaceae family
• Scientific name is Syzygium aromaticum.
• Part used is the flower bud.
• In-vitro studies indicate that clove oil has analgesic, local
anaesthetic, anti-inflammatory and antibacterial effects (Kothiwale et al., 2014).
• Traditional remedy for: dental conditions, respiratory
conditions, headache and sore throat. Believed to be an
aphrodisiac in Ayurvedic medicine; used to treat male
sexual disorders (Mishra & Singh, 2013).
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 76
Cloves: Bioactive Compounds
Bioactive compounds include (Liu et al., 2014):
• Eugenol
• β-caryophyllene
• Humulene
• Chavicol
• Methyl salicylate
• α-ylangene
• Eugonene
• Flavonoids: eugenin, rhamnetin, kaempferol and eugenitin
• Triterpenoids: oleanolic acid, stigmasterol and campesterol
• Several sesquiterpenes
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 77
Cloves: Culinary Uses
Culinary and other uses:
• One of the ingredients in garam masala (Indian spice mix)
– warming spice often added at the end of cooking curries.
• In the UK cloves are added to Christmas cake, Christmas
pudding and mulled wine – brings warmth.
• Used with apples – e.g. apple pie.
• Used as a pickling spice because of its antimicrobial
qualities.
• World’s major consumers are the Indonesians who use
cloves in the manufacture of a flavoured cigarette, Kretek.
(Bateman, M, 2003, p. 212)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 78
Session Summary
Discuss the nutritional values, phytochemical profiles,
culinary uses and therapeutic benefits of:
• Onion
• Garlic
• Ginger
• Chilli
• Rosemary
• Nutmeg
• Fennel
• Cloves
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 79
References
Akha, O., Rabiei, K., Kashi, Z., Bahar, A., , Zaeif-Khorasani, E., Kosaryan, M., Saeedi,
M., Ebrahimzadeh, M.A. & Emadian, O. (2014). The effect of fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) gel 3% in decreasing hair thickness in idiopathic mild to
moderate hirsutism, a randomised placebo controlled clinical trial. Caspian
Journal of Internal Medicine 5(1), 26-29. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3894467/
Agarwal, A. (2014). Spice up your life: Adipose tissue and inflammation. Journal of Lipids,
vol. 2014, Article ID 182575, 8 pages, doi: 10.1155/2014/182575. Retrieved
from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3950654/pdf/JL2014-
182575.pdf
Badgujar, S. (2014). Foeniculum vulgare Mill: A review of its botany, phytochemistry,
pharmacology, contemporary application and toxicology. Biomed Research
International, Article ID 842674, 32 pages. Retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/842674
Bateman, M. (2003). The world of spice. Great Britain: Kyle Cathie Ltd.
Braun, L. & Cohen, M. (2005). Herbs and natural supplements. NSW: Elsevier Mosby,
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 80
References
FSANZ. (2010). Onion, mature, brown skinned, peeled, raw. NUTTAB 2010. Retrieved
November 1, 2014, from
http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/monitoringnutrients/nutrientables/nutt
ab/Pages/default.aspx
Griffiths, G., Trueman, L., Crowther, T., Thomas, B & Smith, B. (2002). Onions – A global
benefit to health. Phytotherapy Research, 16(7), 603-615.
Hemphill, I. & Cobiac, L. (2006). The historical and cultural use of herbs and spices.
Medical Journal of Australia, 184(4), Suppl S5-S6.
Higdon, J. (2007). An evidence-based approach to dietary phytochemicals. New York:
Thieme.
Kastner, J. (2004). Chinese nutrition therapy (2nd ed.). New York: Thieme.
Kothiwale, S., Patwardhan, V., Gandhi, M., Sohoni, R. & Kumar, A. (2014). A comparative
study of antiplaque and antigingivitis effects of herbal mouthrinse containing
tea tree oil, clove and basil with commercially available essential oil
mouthrinse. Journal of the Indiian Society of Periodontology, 18(3), 316-320.
Liu, H., Schmitz, J., Wei, J., Cao, S., Beumer, J., Strychor, S…..Lin, X. (2014). Clove
extract inhibits tumour growth and promotes cell cycle arrest and apoptosis.
Oncology Reviews 21(5), 247-259.
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 81
ReferencesMacready, A., George, T., Chong, M., Alimbetov, D., Jin, Y., Spencer, J……Lovegrove, J.
(2014). Flavonoid-rich fruit and vegetables improve microvascular reactivity
and inflammatory status in men at risk of cardiovascular disease--FLAVURS: a
randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 99(3), 479-
89. Retrieved from http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/99/3/479.long
Mahmoudi, Z., Soleimani, M., Saidi, A., Khamisipour, G. & Azizsoltani, A. (2013). Effects
of Foeniculum vulgare ethanol extract on osteogensis in human mecenchymal
stem cells. Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine, 3(2), 135-142. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4075705/
Mishra & Singh (2013). Reproductive effects of lipid soluble components of Syzygium
aromaticum flower bud in male mice. Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative
Medicine, 4(2):94-8. doi: 10.4103/0975-9476.113870.
Mitra, J., Shrivastava, S. & Rao, P. (2012). Onion dehydration: a review. Journal of Food
Science and Technology 49(3), 267-277.
Natural Standard 2014a, ‘Ginger’, © Natural Standard, www.naturalstandard.com
Natural Standard 2014b, ‘Cayenne’, © Natural Standard, www.naturalstandard.com
Natural Standard 2014c, ‘Rosemary’, © Natural Standard, www.naturalstandard.com
Natural Standard 2014c, ‘Nutmeg’, © Natural Standard, www.naturalstandard.com
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 82
References
Nguyen, S. , Huang, H., Foster, B., Tam, T., Xing, T. Smith, M……Akhtar, H. (2014).
Antimicrobial and P450 inhibitory properties of common functional foods.
Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 17(2), 254-265.
Omidvar, S., Esmailzadeh, S., Baradaran, M. & Basirat, Z. (2012). Effect of fennel on
pain intensity in dysmenorrhoea: a placebo controlled trial. Ayurveda, 33(2),
311-313.
Onions Australia 2010. Allium crops in Australia. Retrieved November 1, 2014, from
http://www.onionsaustralia.org.au/aboutonions/allium-crops.htm
Paul, S., Hwang, J., Kim, H., Jeon, W., Chung, C. & Han, J. (2013). Multiple biological
properties of macelignan and its pharmacological implications. Archives of
Pharmacology Research, 36(3), 264-272.
Piscitelli, S.C., Burstein, A.H., Welden, N., Gallicano, K.D., & Falloon J. (2002). The effect
of garlic supplements on the pharmacokinetics of saquinavir. Clinical Infectious
Diseases, 34(2):234–238.
Platel, K. & Srinivasan, K. (2000). Influence of dietary spices and their active principles
on pancreatic digestive enzymes in albino rats. Nahrung, 44(1), 42-46.
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 83
References
Platel, K., Rao, A., Saraswathi, G. & Srinivasan, K. (2002). Digestive stimulant action of
three Indian spice mixes in experimental rats. Nahrung, 46(6), 394-398.
Roldan-Marin, E., Krath, E., Poulsen, M., Binderup, M., Nielsen, T., Hansens,
M……Dragsted, L. (2009). Effects of an onion by-product on bioactivity and
safety markers in healthy rats. British Journal of Nutrition, 102, 1574-1582.
Suleria, H., Butt, M., Anjum, F., Saeed, F. & Khalid, N. (2014). Onion: Nature protection
against physiological threats. Critical reviews in food science and nutrition,
55(1), 50-66.
Toh, J., Tan, V., Lim, P., Lim, S. & Chong, M. (2013). Flavonoids from fruit and
vegetables: a focus on cardiovascular risk factors. Current Atherosclerosis
Reports 15(12), 368. doi: 10.1007/s11883-013-0368-y.
United States Department of Agriculture (n.d.). Classification of plants. Retrieved from
https://plants.usda.gov
Whiting, S., Derbyshire, E.J., Tiwari, B. (2014). Could capsaicinoids help to support
weight management? A systematic review and meta-analysis of energy intake
data. Appetite 73, 183–188.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666313004492
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 84
COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA
Copyright Regulations 1969
WARNING
This material has been reproduced and communicated to you by or on behalf of the Australian College of
Natural Medicine Pty Ltd (ACNM) trading as Endeavour College of Natural Health, FIAFitnation, College
of Natural Beauty, Wellnation - Pursuant Part VB of the Copyright Act 1968 (the Act).
The material in this communication may be subject to copyright under the Act. Any further reproduction
or communication of this material by you may be the subject of copyright protection under the Act.
Do not remove this notice.
Recommended