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Introduction to the Humanities I: Greece through the Renaissance11 April 2023
Museum ProjectMuseum of Fine Arts, Boston Massachusetts
Introduction:
To begin my journey, I visited the Museum of Fine Arts (MFA) in Boston, Massachusetts
on July 22, 2010. My last visit to the MFA was about 35 years ago making this an exciting field
trip for me. I arrived at the steps of the museum; I knew that this was going to be a monumental
task to select 4 pieces of work to discuss in this term paper. I spent the whole day at the
museum and walked through many collections multiple times trying to select meaningful pieces
to write about. I was please to discover that you can take photos as long as you do not use a
flash and took advantage of that. I have included my photos, which are not as good as those
provided online, however my photos make my visit more real and personal. Taking the photos
saved me from a lot of writing, although cell phone pictures are not as steady as the camera.
The photos also help demonstrate the art form that I am discussing and will give the reader a
visual of the particular piece I selected. The works of art that I chose and discuss in this paper
are the following:
1. Roman Sarcophagus – Italic, Etruscan, Late Classical or Hellenistic Period, Late 4th-
early 3rd century B.C
2. Roman Sculpture – The child Dionysus – 140-170 A.D.
3. Roman Frescoes – Villa Fondo Bottaro – First Century A.D.
4. Italian Renaissance Painting - Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple – 1467
The choices I made were not based on beauty or substance but for the empowering
effect they had on me as I studied these pieces in the museum.
2
Roman Sarcophagi
A sarcophagus is a burial container which is carved from stone; traditionally, many
sarcophagi were made from limestone, although a wide variety of types of stone may be used,
including granite and marble. Many people associate the sarcophagus with classical antiquity,
since these burial containers were extensively used during this period, although such burial
containers continue to be used in some regions today1.
The origin of the word “sarcophagus” is derived from the Greek sarx, or “flesh” and phagein,
which means “to eat.” The Greeks believed that sarcophagi literally ate the bodies stored
inside, dissolving the bones within a very short period of time, especially when they were carved
from limestone2. The word was borrowed by the Romans, and possibly the reason we see
these in Etruria, Italy in the late 4th or early 3rd century B.C.
The concept of using sarcophagi during burial dates back to Egyptian times. Although
the Egyptians used sarcophagi as a means of preserving and protecting the body, Egyptian
sarcophagi were concealed from the public and were never meant to be displayed. It was more
of a religious rite to keep away intruders from viewing the burial chamber and to allow safe
passage for the deceased to the underworld3. The Romans were practicing cremation prior to
the second Century and would place ashes in ossuaries. Eventually, the Romans adopted
inhumation (burying the dead) as their primary funerary practice which created a demand for
sarcophagi during the second and third centuries. Unlike the Egyptians, the Romans
1 Smith, S. E. "What Is a Sarcophagus?" WiseGEEK: Clear Answers for Common Questions. Google.
Web. 07 Aug. 2010. <http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-sarcophagus.htm>.
2 Smith, S. E. "What Is a Sarcophagus?" WiseGEEK: Clear Answers for Common Questions. Google.
Web. 07 Aug. 2010. <http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-sarcophagus.htm>.
3 Fadl, Ayman. "Comparison Between Egyptian and Roman Coffins." ALDOKKAN Ancient Egypt. Web.
07 Aug. 2010. <http://www.aldokkan.com/art/sarcophagus.htm>.
3
sarcophagi were displayed in a wide variety of ways. Many were viewed in open-air settings, on
pedestals or placed on the roofs of tombs. The most common shape for Roman sarcophagi
was a low rectangular box with a lid4.
Etruria is often referred to in Greek and Latin sources as Tyrrhenia and was the area
that is now the Regions of Tuscany, Latium and Umbria. Etruria was one of the most important
cities on the Italian peninsula before it fell to the Roman Republic in 3 BC5. Etruria was
prosperous with mining, trade and was also thought to be the first democracy moving away from
tribal monarchy system6. In my research on Etruria I found that the people may have migrated
from Greece to this northern region of Italy.
The sarcophagus I selected at the MFA was titled Sarcophagus and lid with portraits of
husband and wife. According to the MFA it is dated Italic, Etruscan, Late Classical or Hellenistic
Period, Late 4th-early 3rd century B.C.7
I selected this piece because of the husband and wife on the lid (Figure 1). They are
lying close to one another and embracing each other in a loving way. They are looking at each
other and have a cover over them exposing their feet. When I studied this piece I saw eternal
4 Fadl, Ayman. "Comparison Between Egyptian and Roman Coffins." ALDOKKAN Ancient Egypt. Web. 07 Aug. 2010. <http://www.aldokkan.com/art/sarcophagus.htm>.
5 Marcus, Glenn, and Karen Marcus. "A Bit of Roman History - My Travels in Italy." My Travels in Italy -
Glenn & Karen Marcus. Marcustravel.com. Web. 07 Aug. 2010.
<http://www.mytravelsinitaly.com/history.htm>.
6 Brown, Mark, and Farsheed Khosmood. "Roma - Albans/Etruscans." Oracle ThinkQuest Library.
ORACLE Education Foundation. Web. 07 Aug. 2010. <http://library.thinkquest.org/26907/alban.htm>.
7 "Etruscan Art: Accession Number: 1975.799." Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA. Museum of Fine Arts.
Web. 06 Aug. 2010. <www.mfa.org>.
4
life together. You could also see both Roman and Greek influences in the design of this
sarcophagus which would explain the Etruscan influences.
The information provided by the MFA pointed out that the portrait of the man is of
particular interest to the study of Etruscan (and Early Roman) portraiture, foreshadowing in
many respects the Roman Republican portraiture which would, in considerable degree, develop
from the Etruscan form.
The woman wears a double fillet or braids around her hair, a heart-shaped earring, and
a long chiton with sleeves. The pediments at each end of the lid
(Figure 2) have three ideal, female heads in relief in rosettes.
The front of the sarcophagus (Figure 3) shows a ceremony,
presumably the couple’s marriage. They clasp hands in the
center, or (more precisely) he places his hand around her wrist,
while he also holds a knotted staff in the left hand. Four
attendants follow on either side. Those on the left comprise
(from center to corner) a man with a tall staff, a lantern or jar
suspended from it; a women with a tray on her head and a
pitcher in her lowered right hand; a women with a large fan and a situla (bucket) in her lowered
right hand; and a women with a lyre and
Figure 1:
Sarcophagus husband and wife
5
Figure 2: Front pediment Figure 3: The front of the body
plectron. On the right appear a young man with a chair; another with a small stick or scepter; a
third with a curved horn; and a woman with a wreath and double flutes8.
On the left end, two women, parasol over their heads, ride in a cart drawn by two mules
driven by a male attendant. A winged spirit of death waves two snakes at them. On the right
end, a bearded magistrate mounts a two-horse chariot, attended by a man with the pastoral
staff or lituus. Since the man on the major front panel wears the Greek himation, it has been
suggested that he is the heroized deceased, leading his wife to the underworld. If such be the
case, she may have survived him to have her own separate procession on the left end, and the
scene on the front thus may be taken as a symbolic “marriage” ceremony, the union with death
and life in the underworld rather than merely in life on earth9
This particular sarcophagus was made from nenfro, a volcanic stone that contains
fragments of basalt and limestone and other minerals. Nenfro was native to Etruria and was
8 "Etruscan Art: Accession Number: 1975.799." Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA. Museum of Fine Arts.
Web. 06 Aug. 2010. <www.mfa.org>.
9 "Etruscan Art: Accession Number: 1975.799." Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA. Museum of Fine Arts.
Web. 06 Aug. 2010. <www.mfa.org>.
6
used in many Classical period sculptures10. In my general research for the paper I discovered
that this area of Italy has several volcanic calderas that most likely provided an abundance of
volcanic stone.
Roman Sculpture
The child Dionysus (Figure 4) is a marble piece which was created during the Imperial
period about 140-170 A.D. The god Dionysus (also
known as Bacchus), the only child of Zeus and Semele, is
shown portrayed as a young child carrying pomegranates,
grapes, and other fruits in a fold of his mantle. Dionysus
was the god of drama, wine, and fertility and was
associated with the harvest and seasons as a bringer of
fruitfulness. Dionysus is the only major Greco-Roman
deity who was portrayed at all stages of his life; as an
infant, child, youth, and mature man. The god wears a
wreath of ivy leaves and grapes over his wavy hair and
grape-clusters over his ears. He also wears a fillet across
his forehead that ends in tresses on his neck. His cloak is
draped over his left arm and contains pomegranates and
fruit, indicating abundance; the cloak is buttoned on his
right shoulder and partially covers his protruding stomach.
10 "British Museum - Sarcophagus Lid with the Portrait of a Woman." British Museum - Welcome to the
British Museum. British Museum. Web. 06 Aug. 2010.
<http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/gr/s/sarcophagus_lid.aspx>.
Figure 4: The child Dionysus
7
The right arm is broken from the shoulder; and the drapery-covered left arm supports
pomegranates and fruit, although the left hand is missing. The right leg is advanced; but his
feet and part of the pedestal are missing11.
During the Roman Imperial age, most art focused on the Romans military successes.
What I found interesting about this piece was the Greek influence of mythology. This piece may
have been considered “public art” as I found it entertaining. Although this piece is missing its
feet it looks like the child is walking. It reminded me of my daughter walking around the house
dragging one of her favorite dolls. Some of the other things I liked about this piece were how
realistic sculpture was becoming by this time. You see the details in the cloak, the hair and the
solemn expression that was familiar in most Roman sculpture of this period.
Roman Frescoes
The Roman Frescoes in the MFA were incredible to see in person. To think that these
frescoes were once covered under tons of volcanic ash and hidden for centuries until they
began to be excavated around 1592 is amazing.
Frescoes illustrate an important art form that was widely used to decorate the interiors of
Roman buildings. In the first century B.C., wall painting became fashionable and quickly
attracted the most talented painters. Most of the surviving examples of this art are from
Campania, the region around Naples, but these represent only a tiny fraction of what existed in
the Roman world12.
Craftsmen used a technique known as fresco painting in which they applied strong
primary colors directly onto fresh (fresco) plaster while it was still damp. Ancient writers such as
the architect Vitruvius, describe the techniques used by wall painters. For the best frescoes,
11 "The Child Dionysus: Accession Number: 1994.229." Museum of Fine Arts. Museum of Fine Arts. Web.
07 Aug. 2010. <http://www.mfa.org>.
12 "Roman Frescoes." Museum of Fine Arts. Second Floor, Roman Art Gallery. 22 July 2010.
8
there could be as many as seven layers of increasingly fine plaster applied to the wall. Marble
powder was mixed into the final layer and polished to create a glossy surface. For some
frescoes, archaeologists have found preparatory drawings in red ochre, indicating that Roman
artists, like those of the Renaissance, mapped out their designs on the plaster undercoat before
they began painting.
Romans favored colors such as rich reds made from Spanish cinnabar, yellows from
ochre extracted from mines, and black from carbon created by burning brushwood or pine chips.
The red pigment was particularly expensive and reserved for the best rooms because it needed
to be treated with heated wax and oil to maintain its color and sheen. The murals from Fondo
Bottaro are in a style popular during the first
century A.D. in which painters would place
delicate, even fanciful, architectural elements as
well as floral and figural details against
monochromatic backgrounds13.
The first fresco panel (Figure 5) is this
ornate style found near Pompeii, Campania,
Italy and is dated about A.D. 14-62. The panel
shows fantastic architecture on black
background. Beneath the coffered ceiling is a
hexastyle circular building stands on a low
pediment. Two peacocks perch on scrolls emerging from the roof of circular building14. On the
roof of the building is an object that almost looks like it has a face when I zoom in closely on the
photo that is available on the MFA web site15
13 "Roman Frescoes." Museum of Fine Arts. Second Floor, Roman Art Gallery. 22 July 2010.14 "Roman Frescoes." Museum of Fine Arts. Second Floor, Roman Art Gallery. 22 July 2010.
15 "Fresco Panel: Accession Number: 25.44." Fresco Panel. Museum of Fine Arts. Web. 06 Aug. 2010.
<www.mfa.org>.
Figure 5: Frescoe panel on black
9
The second panel I selected (Figure 6) is also from
the Roman, Imperial Period about 14-62 A.D. and
was also found near Pompeii, Campania, Italy. This
panel is an excellent example of architectural
decoration and ground ornaments in yellow and
creamy white set upon a red background. This is a
two-tiered Ionic structure, with twisted reeds
supporting a projection at right. The window at the
center of the upper field frames what appears to be a
flying eagle. The fragile, uppermost architrave is
crowned by three lyres, which turn into floral scrolls, and by two birds, perhaps falcons. The
lower central field is framed by an ornamental band attached to a pediment by palmettos. At the
center of the field are unclear figures, perhaps a ram beside a round basket with raised lid and
snakes and a thyrsus16.
Italian Renaissance Painting
Renaissance means “rebirth.” In Italy during the Renaissance, people believed that they
were living in a period of revival one that was often inspired by the ancient past. Objects made
during this period frequently reflect ancient artistic forms, architecture or texts, many of which
survived in Italy. The period was also marked by a sense of individual creative accomplishment,
expressed by artists working in all materials. This creativity was supported and embraced by
16 "Fresco Panel: Accession Number: 33.503." Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA. Museum of Fine Arts.
Web. 06 Aug. 2010. <www.mfa.org>.
Figure 6: Frescoe panel on red
10
patrons, who commissioned artworks both for public display in civic and religious settings and
for private use in the home. Commissioning works of art could express ideals of civic life,
religious beliefs and devotions, as well as the wealth, status and good taste of the individual17.
The art work chosen from the Renaissance
period is Fra Carnevale (Bartolomeo di Giovanni
Corradini) who was active by 1445 and died in
1484. His Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple
(Figure 7) was completed about 1467. This
painting is Oil and tempera on panel. This work
was part of an altarpiece painted for a church in
Urbino, and the repainted area along the top
reveals the shape of the original frame. The young
Virgin is in the foreground, dressed in blue. The
exact subject matter remains in doubt, since the
Virgin neither climbs the steps of the temple nor is
welcomed by the high priest, features generally
included in depictions of the Presentation. Fra
Carnevale, a Dominican friar, was inspired by ancient Roman architecture and sculpture as well
as the new science of linear perspective, which allowed an artist to create the illusion of deep
space on a flat surface18. This painting is an excellent example of linear perspective and is the
reason I selected the piece to include in my museum project.
Conclusion
17 "Renaissance Masters." Museum of Fine Arts. Second Floor, Renaissance Gallery. 22 July 2010.
18 "Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple: Accession Number: 37.108." Museum of Fine Arts. Web. 07
Aug. 2010. <www.mfa.org>.
Figure 7: Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple
11
The works of art chosen for this project had special meaning to me. I found the
sarcophagi to be religious and meaningful in the beliefs of the people from Etrucia. The way the
couple lovingly embrace each other spoke volumes to devotion and commitment. I spent a little
more time on the sarcophagi as it was an area I had not spent time on in this class. I have
learned a great deal in this class in such a short time. The changes in art form over the
centuries are remarkable. As tools and technology has changed, so has our art form. To view
the wall frescoes on flat wall panels and know how they were discovered allows you to look into
the lives of those that have lived for centuries. When I got to the Renaissance period I could
feel the change and how different the art had become from previous periods such as Roman,
Greek and Egyptian. You could feel the cause of celebration. Taking notice for the first time
and seeing an example of the introduction of linear perspective is a wonderful glimpse into how
painting has transformed over centuries.
12
Works Cited
"British Museum - Sarcophagus Lid with the Portrait of a Woman." British Museum - Welcome to the British Museum. British Museum. Web. 06 Aug. 2010. <http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/gr/s/sarcophagus_lid.aspx>.
Brown, Mark, and Farsheed Khosmood. "Roma - Albans/Etruscans." Oracle ThinkQuest Library. ORACLE Education Foundation. Web. 07 Aug. 2010. <http://library.thinkquest.org/26907/alban.htm>.
"The Child Dionysus: Accession Number: 1994.229." Museum of Fine Arts. Museum of Fine Arts. Web. 07 Aug. 2010. <http://www.mfa.org>.
"Etruscan Art: Accession Number: 1975.799." Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA. Museum of Fine Arts. Web. 06 Aug. 2010. <www.mfa.org>.
Fadl, Ayman. "Comparison Between Egyptian and Roman Coffins." ALDOKKAN Ancient Egypt. Web. 07 Aug. 2010. <http://www.aldokkan.com/art/sarcophagus.htm>.
"Fresco Panel: Accession Number: 25.44." Fresco Panel. Museum of Fine Arts. Web. 06 Aug. 2010. <www.mfa.org>.
"Fresco Panel: Accession Number: 33.503." Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA. Museum of Fine Arts. Web. 06 Aug. 2010. <www.mfa.org>.
Marcus, Glenn, and Karen Marcus. "A Bit of Roman History - My Travels in Italy." My Travels in Italy - Glenn & Karen Marcus. Marcustravel.com. Web. 07 Aug. 2010. <http://www.mytravelsinitaly.com/history.htm>.
"Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple: Accession Number: 37.108." Museum of Fine Arts. Web. 07 Aug. 2010. <www.mfa.org>.
"Renaissance Masters." Museum of Fine Arts. Second Floor, Renaissance Gallery. 22 July 2010.
"Roman Frescoes." Museum of Fine Arts. Second Floor, Roman Art Gallery. 22 July 2010.
"Roman Wall Painting." The Alamo Colleges - Homepage. Hoover and San Antonio College, 03 Aug. 2009. Web. 24 July 2010. <http://www.alamo.edu/sac/vat/arthistory/arts1303/rome4.htm>.
Smith, S. E. "What Is a Sarcophagus?" WiseGEEK: Clear Answers for Common Questions. Google. Web. 07 Aug. 2010. <http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-sarcophagus.htm>.
List of Photographs
Note: Photographs taken by Deb Minassian during MFA visit.
13
Figure 1: Sarcophagus husband and wife
Figure 2: Front pediment
Figure 3: The front of the body
Figure 4: The child Dionysus
Figure 5: Frescoe panel on black
Figure 6: Frescoe panel on red
Figure 7: Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple
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