View
229
Download
0
Category
Preview:
Citation preview
7/30/2019 Mughal ReviewPaper
1/13
Shahid 1
RESEARCH ESSAY
HIST 214: Lahore Architecture
2013-10-0148
BILAL SHAHID
INSTRUCTOR: NADHRA SHAHBAZ
DATE: 04.05.12
7/30/2019 Mughal ReviewPaper
2/13
Shahid 2
Mughal architecture has been adorned with a number of decorative motifs, elements and
other members of surface and structural ornamentation. Each aspect of the patronage by Mughal
emperors is worth an appreciation and the form they gave to the local indigenous art and
architecture appeared in the buildings they built and those later constructed by their successors
who ruled the Indian Subcontinent. The use of local Indian elements and symbols was
widespread in Mughal era, including the use of Gujrati, Bengali and other local techniques of
embellishments and the elements themselves. One of the widespread features in Mughal
architecture is the use of perforated screens orjalis. Even within the Mughal regime, there
appears to be a strong evidence of the use of the same element with different variations in terms
of the way it was designed with geometric and other patterns. However, it was only until Shah
Jahan that jalis appeared with an entirely different outlook. There is a trend in the way geometric
patterns injaliwork were replaced by floral and vegetal motifs in Shah Jahans period.
Traditionally,jalis had been used widely in India to allow the daylight and cool breeze
flow in through the perforations while preventing onlookers from viewing the indoors of private
and some public buildings. Another reason whyjalis were constructed was for the royal ladies
to watch public events without breaking theirpurdah or veil (Brown 295).
This architectural practice of carving stone screens existed in both Islamic and Indian
architecture. In Islamic architecture, it was readily adopted because it lacked representation and
iconography and allowed viewers, especially women, to look outward without being observed
(Harris 143). However, in India,jalis originated in the region of Jaisalmar, Rajasthan and since
the 7th century B.C
7/30/2019 Mughal ReviewPaper
3/13
Shahid 3
An excellent work ofjali exists in the window of a 16th
century Sidi Said Mosque at
Ahmadabad. In the qibla wall or the wall facing Mecca, there are window screens forming the
image of a tree in the stone tracery.
Exterior View of Jali Screen with Tree Motif at Sidi Saiyad Mosque
Jalis have also been used chiefly for saints tombs and for decorating holy shrines. The
tomb of Sheikh Ahmad Khattu at Sarkhej, outside Ahmadabad with its brass panels as latticed
screens on the faade became a forerunner for the construction ofShaikh Salims tomb at
Fatehpur Sikri (Asher 10). The fine perforated white marble screens which complete the marble
casing and enclose the interior square chamberof Shaikh Salims tomb also provide a passage to
allow for circumambulation of the grave, a common practice at saints shrines (Ziad 192).
7/30/2019 Mughal ReviewPaper
4/13
Shahid 4
Catherine Asher mentions in her bookArchitecture of Mughal India that the exquisitely carved
brackets and jalis belong to the Indo-Islamic architectural traditions of Gujrat and that Gujrati
trained artisans were brought to Fatehpur Sikri to work on the tomb (56).
The fact that it employed similar techniques and bears close resemblance to the earlier
tomb of Gujrat makes us believe that the Mughals used the best local craftsmen from the region
where stone carving of monolithicjalis could have possibly originated. Only stone screens and
formal gardens define any kind of commemorative space (Brand 332).
Earlier when the use of jalis was a key feature used only to embellish saints tombs, the
Mughals started using it in their palatial buildings The tomb of Jahanara built before 1681 in
Delhi has marble screens that protect the simple slab tomb without a superstructure (Ruggles
115).
7/30/2019 Mughal ReviewPaper
5/13
Shahid 5
Source: This sandstone facade of a Jaisalmer town house or "haveli" is typical of the house-fronts of the wealthy
Rajput nobles and merchants. The "havelis" of Jaisalmer are particularly noted for the ornate carving on their "jalis" &
facades. Asian Art Department, AGNSW, 1998.
The delicate pearl-white mausoleum is located on the far side of the broad courtyard
facing the Buland Darwaza, the enormous gateway built to commemorate the victory at Gujrat.
The tomb itself became a focal point of the city with the khanqah (residential compound for
spiritual study) built for Salim Chishti (Ziad 191). According to Schimmel, this small white
jewelis also mentioned in Badaunis account on Fatehpur Sikri, written in 1571, when the
chronicler tells us about Akbar laying the foundation of a new shrine (286).
7/30/2019 Mughal ReviewPaper
6/13
Shahid 6
The tomb was constructed out of reverence since the Chishtiyya remained for centuries
the most influential order and even Babur himself endorsed Chishti saints by visiting their
shrines (Ziad 65). The sheikh lived his life as an ascetic and it was in 1568 when Akbar heard of
him and asked him to pray for a son, whom he later named Salim after Shaikhs name (Tillotson
121). The shaikhpredicted the birth of three sons and Jahangirs birth stimulated Akbars
religious interest and out of gratitude he erected a sanctuary at the very heart of his own dream
city (Ziad 62). This shows how faithful Akbar was to the Chishtis despite that he had adopted
policies to build his power in India and this view is also endorsed in Alams article where he
describes that Chishtis had an edge at the time of Akbar (1).
After its completion, the shrine was a grand building of its type in Akbars period. With
the setting of this example, the shrine building as a royal tradition was also introduced. This
feature of the shrine is unique in Indian Muslim art and is much more valid for its own vigor and
its perfection than for the symbolism which Akbar wanted to inscribe in stone for posterity.
The shrine stands as a luminous pearl in white marble amongst the red sandstone
buildings and as Tillotson rightly mentions that the eye is easily distracted by this marble-clad
structure (121). It has a single-storey square plan, 15 meters squaredand has a large central
dome. A verandah surrounds the main tomb sepulchral chamber in which stands the cenotaph,
covered by a canopy decorated with mother-of-pearl (Fletcher 621). The dome was originally of
red sandstone, and received its marble cladding in 1866 (Tillotson 123). However, according to
the account in The Cambridge History of India, the the original tomb was built of sandstone
and was later renewed (Dodwell 546). The spectacular winding serpentine struts which appear to
support the chajja or the eave on the exterior are an unusual feature; they are duplicated in this
case from those on the small Stonecutters Mosque-an older mosque built on the ridge for
7/30/2019 Mughal ReviewPaper
7/13
Shahid 7
Salim Chishti (Tillotson 121). However, The use of white marble should be noted, for at this
time white marble was somewhat reserved for saints shrines alone (Ziad 192). For instance, the
white marble links it with the renewal of Sheikh Nizamuddins tomb at Delhi, in the same
material 20 years ago (Ziad 192). According to Lindsay Brown and Amelia Thomas,
Nizamuddins shrines present incarnation dates from 1562 (106). Similar to Shaikh Salims
tomb, it comprises a marble building, with inner tomb enclosed byjalis and so the tombs of both
the Sufi saints share this common feature although Nizamuddins tomb was of originally Delhi
Sultanate period (Brown, Thomas 106). In Mughal vocabulary, white is a reference to the
divine and this explains why white marble structures were limited exclusively for tombs of
pious saints (Kapstein 167).
It is also worth considering that the building in complete lustre of white marble was not
one of the first of its kind in India and had its precedents even before Mughal period. The tomb
derives its plan and overall appearance from earlier ones in Gujrat, for example, the 15th
century
shrine of Shaikh Ahmad Khattu at Sarkhej near Ahmadabad which, like the setting for the tomb
of Shaikh Salim, was a part of the palace of Gujrat Sultans (Ziad 192). This is further reinforced
as Asher and Talbot mention in their book, India before Europe,that the model of juxtaposing
palace and white-stone shrine highlighted the status of the Sufi in supporting the dynastic rule,
was later adopted in 16th
century by Akbar. Just as Shaikh Salim was sort of patron saint of the
Mughal family, Shaikh Ahmad Khattu was a spiritual advisor of the Sultans of Gujrat (Talbot
and Asher 92).
The tomb of Shaikh Ahmad Khattu was built between 1445 and 1451. The tomb chamber
had perforated brassjalis in geometric patterns, and the exterior walls are filled with pierced
stone tracery (Cousens 67). The square tomb, like the one at Fatehpur Sikri, measures 32 metres
7/30/2019 Mughal ReviewPaper
8/13
Shahid 8
on each side. However, its sanctuary is topped by many domes (Gaur 55). Hence, it must be
noticed that the delicate pierced stone screens of the outer walls of Shaikh Salims tomb, with
their lavish luxuriance, are also found on the tomb at Sarkhej; the magnificently carved
brackets too are a common feature of the architecture of western India (Gaur 55). Here, they
seem to have been intentionally used since Akbar sought to link his rule with the Chishti saint
(Asher 56-7).
At Shaikh Salims tomb, the struts are S-shaped and are of octagon section and terminate
in round leaf-carved knobs. The width of the strut decreases as it approaches the top where it is
crowned by a richly molded capital, diagonally placed in some cases. As the serpentine shape is
obviously frail one, they are reinforced by slender, octagonal stays inserted beneath the twists
and filled with fine stonework. The struts are monolithic-cut out of solid pieces of marble. The
convoluted struts are similar to the brackets that support the temples in Gujrat and Dodwell is
of the view that Mughal craftsmen elaborated this idea in their work (547). So, it is quite
natural that there is a Hindu feeling about it and possibly the architect may have been influenced
by South Indian buildings of 11th
and 12th
centuries as well and it can be seen that Mughals
freely borrowed elements from indigenous temple architecture (Dodwell 547).
Also, the use ofjalis was widespread in 15th
century Gujrat, and the idea was adapted
and refined in Mughal architecture and it may be that thejalisat Shaikh Salims tomb were
added later by Jahangir (Tillotson 123). Considering this aspect, as Tillotson suggests, a
slightly earlier example of similar extensive and exquisitejali-work is the tomb in Gwalior of
Muhammad Ghaus. In Rajput architecture, perforated screens were introduced primarily to
ensure the seclusion of women, but their use in Mughal building is more diverse: in the palatial
buildings they are used as an ornamental motif in the mardana or male apartments; however,
7/30/2019 Mughal ReviewPaper
9/13
Shahid 9
in thezenana or female buildings, and in tombs they generate an appropriate quiet atmosphere in
the verandah, providing shade at the same time as admitting air (Tillotson 121-3). It is also worth
mentioning here that Tansen, the famous musician at Akabrs court, was a devotee of
Muhammad Ghaus, and it may well be that his mausoleum in Gwalior, with its intricate marble
lattice work, was sponsored by Tansen (Ziad 65). So, this may also link up to explain the
closeness of Shaikh Salims shrine to the tomb of Ghaus and the reason why it bears so much
similarity to it and the resemblance injails can be explained possibly by knowing this valuable
historical information.
A closer look on the similarities the tomb and its design bears with its precedents
explains why the tomb of Shaikh Salim Chishti was evaluated by Jahangir in terms of the
money Akbar had spent upon it (Mukhia 101). Another striking similarity between the tomb at
Sarkej and Shaikh Salims tomb is that the floor of the chamber is laid in marble mosaic in a
geometrical pattern. The multi-coloured stone flooring, similar to that at Sarkhej, was donated by
a noble who lived in Gujrat (Asher 56). The materials employed are white marble, khattu and
abri, from Jaisalmar, near Jaipur, and one of peculiar tint, which varies considerably between a
dark neutral tint, and black, known assang-i-musa which comes from Alwar. Even this use of
semi-precious stones of artistic colors, to decorate the floors, is mentioned in The Cambrige
History of India by Dodwell (546). So, even in terms of its interior and exterior ornamentation,
Salim Chishtis tomb resembles Sahaikh Khattus tomb.
Yet another common feature is that the columns of the porch of Shaikh Salims tomb
which are profusely decorated, with chevron design or the zigzag pattern on the shafts,
stalactite ormuqarnas-like embellished capitals and a finely carved base (Dodwell 547).
However, the pillars of Khattus tomb are different in that they are 120 in number and are not
7/30/2019 Mughal ReviewPaper
10/13
Shahid 10
so richly embellished. In contrast to Khattus tomb with many domes, the single dome on Shaikh
Salims tomb is topped with apadmakosha or inverted lotus and a metal finial, a common
feature of many Mughal buildings.
The interior from the skirting and dados to the soffit of the dome is profusely ornamented
with paintings in floral designs. Painted patterns that cover the walls are executed on a thick
layer of plaster on the stone surface. The verandah has blind niches with inlaid chocolate-
coloured borders the make the foiled niches more prominent and there are panels inNaskh
calligraphy displaying quotations from the Quran and Hadith, occasionally painted in a gold or
blue background, giving the tomb its description of a heavenly abode and a paradisiacal setting.
The tomb is still an object of veneration, chiefly to barren women, both Muslim and
Hindu (Tillotson 123). However, it is ironic to note that Akbar, who used to visit Muinuddin
Chishtis shrine at Ajmer annually from 1564-1579 and endowed the shrine with many precious
objects, now had begun to break with saint venerationand stated that saint worship was a
shallow preoccupation, not a profound one (Ziad 65; Asher 57).
Finally, evaluating Shaikh Salims tomb in terms of its architectural design and its
ornamentation techniques, as patronized by Akbar, it can be safely held that the tomb derived its
square plan in white marble and salient features like serpentine struts and jalis from Gujrati
period monuments, chiefly Shaikh Ahmad Khattus tomb at Ahmadabad and Ghaus tomb at
Gwalior. Undoubtedly, it was linked to other saints shrines, such as Nizamuddins shrine at
Delhi, by the fact that it was also built in white stone, which symbolized purity and sanctity and
served the purpose to embellish a chaste place and also like Shaikh Salims tomb, the vestibule is
separated from the burial vault by dense lattice. Added to this fact, by setting up this shrine,
7/30/2019 Mughal ReviewPaper
11/13
Shahid 11
Akbar set up an example of a religious architecture to be followed by his successors and so the
present example was followed by the tomb of Itimad-ud-daulah in Agra, built in 1622-7 and
henceforth the white marble that was chiefly used for saint shrines now became to be used for
royal figures in the age of Jahangiri architecture. (1992 words)
7/30/2019 Mughal ReviewPaper
12/13
Shahid 12
Works Cited
Alam, Muzaffar. The Mughals, the Sufi Shaikhs and the Formation of the Akbari
Dispensation.Modern Asian Studies Vol.43 (Jan. 2009): 135-174.
Asher, B. Catherine. Architecture of Mughal India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2001. Print.
Ruggles, F. Islamic Gardens and Landscape. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania
Press, 2008. Print.
Harris, F. Dianne, Ruggles, F. Sites Unseen: Landscape and Vision. Pittsburg: University of
Pittsburg Press, 2008. Print.
Collins, Sheldon. Image: Exterior View of Jali Screen with Tree Motif at Sidi Saiyad Mosque.
1984. Ahmadabad, India. Asher, B. Catherine, and Talbot, Cynthia.India before Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. 2006. Print.
Brown, Lindsay, and Thomas, Amelia. Rajasthan, Delhi and Agra. China: Lonely Planet
Publications, 2008. Print.
Cousens, Henry. The Architectural Antiquities of Western India. Britain: Cousens Press, 2007.
http://www.google.com.pk/search?tbs=bks:1&tbo=p&q=+inauthor:%22Lindsay+Brown%22http://www.google.com.pk/search?tbs=bks:1&tbo=p&q=+inauthor:%22Amelia+Thomas%22http://www.google.com.pk/search?tbs=bks:1&tbo=p&q=+inauthor:%22Amelia+Thomas%22http://www.google.com.pk/search?tbs=bks:1&tbo=p&q=+inauthor:%22Amelia+Thomas%22http://www.google.com.pk/search?tbs=bks:1&tbo=p&q=+inauthor:%22Lindsay+Brown%227/30/2019 Mughal ReviewPaper
13/13
Shahid 13
Print.
Dodwell, H. The Cambridge History of India: British India, 1497-1858. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1968. Print.
Fletcher, Banister, and Cruickshank, Dan. A History of Architecture. Delhi:Architectural
Press, 1996. Print.
Gaur, Abhilash. City of the Dead. Outlook TravellerApril 2008: 54-55.
Kapstein, Matthew. The Presence of Light: Divine Radiance and Religious Experience.
Chicago, USA: University of Chicago Press, 2004. Print.
Mukhia, Harbans. The Mughals of India. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. Print.
Schimmel, Annemarie. The Empire of the Great Mughals. Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications,
2004. Print.
Tillotson, G. Architectural Guides for TravellersMughal India. London: Penguin Group,
1990. Print.
Ziad, Zeenut. The Magnificent Mughals. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2002. Print.
http://www.google.com.pk/search?tbs=bks:1&tbo=p&q=+inauthor:%22Sir+Banister+Fletcher%22http://www.google.com.pk/search?tbs=bks:1&tbo=p&q=+inauthor:%22Dan+Cruickshank%22http://www.google.com.pk/search?tbs=bks:1&tbo=p&q=+inauthor:%22Dan+Cruickshank%22http://www.google.com.pk/search?tbs=bks:1&tbo=p&q=+inauthor:%22Matthew+Kapstein%22http://www.google.com.pk/search?tbs=bks:1&tbo=p&q=+inauthor:%22Matthew+Kapstein%22http://www.google.com.pk/search?tbs=bks:1&tbo=p&q=+inauthor:%22Matthew+Kapstein%22http://www.google.com.pk/search?tbs=bks:1&tbo=p&q=+inauthor:%22Dan+Cruickshank%22http://www.google.com.pk/search?tbs=bks:1&tbo=p&q=+inauthor:%22Sir+Banister+Fletcher%22Recommended