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Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 1
Running Head: MOTHER NATURE, MEET FOREST KINDERGARTENS
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens: Why the Outdoor Environment Must be Integrated into Todays Classroom for the Sake of Children
Katie ClementsSeton Hall University
April 17, 2007
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 2
Abstract
Successful all-outdoor learning schools in Europe, forest kindergartens provide three to six year olds with an exploratory, play-based context for learning. The United States educational system stands in direct contrast with the forest kindergarten learning environment. A focus on standardized testing and push-down academics exposes students to developmentally inappropriate practices and undue stress, with no long-term benefits. In these atmospheres, play is relatively inexistent. Accompanying the overly academic environment comes a rush toward premature abstraction; as a result, children are missing out on essential experiences with real-life objects that are necessary to their success as adults. Forest kindergartens stand as a clear solution to these problems and must immediately be integrated into the American educational system to ensure students are learning appropriately and to their full potential. Commitments to outdoor education by school districts must include a focus on teacher development and educational programming for the community.
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 3
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens: Why the Outdoor Environment Must be Integrated into Todays Classroom for the Sake of Children
The best classroom and richest cupboard is roofed only by the sky.
Educator Margaret McMillian, who pioneered the first nature schools for children under
five years, made this assertion in the early twentieth century; however, this statement of belief
was nothing new (Forest Schools, 2007, p. 1). Despite the overwhelming proof of the benefits
of outdoor learning for the past 200 years, regular nature learning experiences in the United
States have become relatively nonexistent. In Europe, in contrast, there has been an increased
effort toward the integration of forest learning in schools over the past 50 years. Forest
kindergartens in Europe provide ample opportunities for three to six year olds to experience and
bond with nature through structured and unstructured experiences. Many barriers exist and slow
the successful integration of forest kindergartens into the United States education system. The
most prevalent of these concerns include a rapid movement away from play in the kindergarten
classroom and an increased premature rush toward abstraction. Opportunities must be increased
for teacher development through model schools and educational programming for parents related
to forest kindergartens if these programs are to be successfully proliferated across the United
States.
Into the Woods: A Forest Kindergarten Background
From its first moments in the 1950s, forest kindergartens, where three- to six-year-olds
participate in all-outdoor learning, were parent initiatives. Ella Flautau, a mother in Solierod,
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 4
Denmark, noted with enthusiasm the discoveries her own and neighborhood children made
during daily adventures she accompanied them on into the woods. It was here she noticed the
positive developmental affects of the experiences on her children which she accredited to the
nature experiences. Flautau shared her discoveries with neighborhood parents. Her ability to
pique parents curiosity, in addition to the presence of a dwindling number of local kindergarten
facilities in her community, led parents to approach her about starting an all-outdoor school
program for their young children ages three to six. It is here the first Slovbornehave (forest
kindergarten) was born. (Henke, 2007, p. 1) Today, the trend continues, with nearly all forest
kindergartens in Europe reporting to have started because of parent motivation.
Purposes for founding outdoor kindergartens vary to a certain degree. Some parents said
they were encouraged by the physical location of their village, seeing an area each day
surrounded by forests and nature and wanting their children to experience its entirety. Others
simply wanted to improve their childrens early experiences over those they might have in a
typical area kindergarten. Imke Venus, a parent of two forest kindergarteners and part of the
operating team for Waldkindergarten Wurzelkinder Leonberg. e.V., said in her experiences, the
major motivation for parents is for their children to have these nature experience. She said
parents believed it was best for young children to spend their time outside in nature, equipped
with no toys, just their imagination and a teacher to guide them, increasing their ability to watch
and learn from their surroundings (Personal communication, February 1, 2007).
Two types of forest kindergartens exist to date: traditional and integrated forest
kindergartens. Traditional forest kindergartens utilize a full- or half-day outdoor education
program and keep students outdoors every day school is in session, except in severe storms or
when temperatures drop below 10 degrees Fahrenheit. Integrated forest kindergartens are
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 5
affiliated with more traditional kindergartens that weave outdoor education into their curriculum.
These kindergartens might offer a partial outdoor program for two hours or more each day.
Others host kindergarten groups that alternate between a week at an affiliated, more traditional
kindergarten and a week outdoors in a natural site. For example, the Duffryn Infants School in
Monmouthshire, Britain, has students alternate weeks between traditional and forest settings to
provide a greater number of children with out-of-classroom exposure (Haigh, 2004, p. 1).
Although both types offer benefits for students, traditional forest kindergartens will be used for
analysis and comparison throughout this paper due to their widespread nature in Europe and
more developed programs and operating organizations. Trends general to all forest schools will
be discussed, even though it is assumed all schools operate slightly differently due to several
factors such as geographic location, government laws and restrictions and teacher training, to
name a few.
Both traditional and integrated forest kindergarten programs are spreading. The number
of Danish children attending forest kindergartens doubled from 1,627 in 1996 to 3,030 in 2000.
Norway and Sweden reported they had more than five percent of their students attending these
centers in 2003 (Borge, Lie & Nordhagen, 2003, p. 607-608). Forest schools in the United
Kingdom are still in experimental stages, with the first introduced to the area in 1995 by nursery
school professionals who visited Denmark and observed the idea firsthand. More than 20 forest
schools now exist in Wales, and the first in Scotland will open in the fall of 2007. Many of these
schools employ partial week outdoor education programs, and that number also includes schools
that make a significant commitment to the outdoors even though their base of operations is inside
(Murray, R., 2003, p. 8). In the United Kingdom, many of these schools differ from their
European counterparts due to their communitys focus on outdoor education throughout life, not
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 6
just in the early years (Murray & OBrien, 2006, p. 3). Small country size and close proximity to
neighbors has helped forest kindergartens quickly spread across Europe. Visits to these
kindergartens allows for knowledge transfer from one area to the next. Alfred Cybulska, who
founded a forest kindergarten in North Berlin, Germany, in 1999, first visited a similar program
in Denmark. I knew from that moment, whenever I would need a kindergarten or I would start
one, it would always be a Waldkindergarten (forest kindergarten). It was the quiet, the calm, that
high degree of individual doing and the connection to nature (Personal communication,
February 12, 2007).
Typically situated on the outskirts of rural areas, forest kindergartens are generally
located in forests of varying sizes; nevertheless, some do operate in open meadows or fields.
Utilized forests are primarily public owned, although a small number of forest schools do own
their land. A majority of programs include a small trailer or tent on site which can be used for
indoor activities on stormy days. A stove inside the trailer warms students when they get very
cold; however, parents report they usually move themselves enough so they keep warm (P.
Vollmers, personal communication, February 5, 2007). Despite their overwhelming presence in
rural areas situated close to more urban dwellings, forest kindergartens do exist in urban centers.
Komazawa Park International School in Tokyo, Japan, offers an integrated forest kindergarten
where students have two hours of outdoor experiences each day in a small, but convenient city
park. In both urban and rural situations, city transportation is sometimes employed to give
children access to nearby nature. At a forest kindergarten in the city-center of Berlin, children
are picked up and dropped off at a city location by a shuttle each morning, making the commute
more manageable for parents (T. Culsen, personal communication, February 5, 2007).
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 7
In a forest kindergarten, play becomes a childs serious work. Reporter Gerald Haigh
(2004), in an attempt to summarize the philosophy of forest kindergartens, wrote that through
their play, children practice and consolidate their learning, play with ideas, experiment, take
risks, solve problems and make decisions individually, in small and in large groups (p. 2). This
play is most often unstructured by teachers, allowing children to construct their own games and
through them make sense of their world. This is well aligned with the Icelandic view that
children should play in and explore their outdoor environment from an early age without direct
adult supervision (Wagner, 2004, p. 56). Although children in forest kindergartens are closely
supervised by their instructors, they still are given the freedom to make their own choices and
often play freely with the materials and people of their choosing. This necessary access to play is
recognized as an essential right of the child under Article 31 of the United Nations Convention
on the Rights of the Child (United Nations, 1990, p. 9).
Forest kindergartens do not make traditional toys such as blocks, dolls and balls available
for play. In fact, these objects are banned in several forest kindergartens and allowed in others
only for weekly show-and-tell. However, to say forest kindergartens are toy-free would not be
correctit is the definition of a toy that must shift and expand. In a forest kindergarten, children
can play with loose parts, thought to be the most creative toys available for children. These loose
parts can be almost anything in a forest, from a rock to a stick to a blade of grass; since they have
no defined function, they encourage creative play and imagination. Increased vocabularies and
communication skills are often observed in forest kindergarten students. Here, a stick is no
longer just a stick; They have to tell them whether their stick is a paddle, a cooking spoon, a
gun, a stick for skiing or anything else (E. Schulle, personal communication, March 4, 2007).
This open-endedness means students cannot rely solely on the appearance of an object to convey
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 8
its meaning. German Waldkindergarten Erdweg said this is necessary to contrast the modern life
situation of three to six year olds that is characterized by a lack of movement and filled with
function-certain toys that allow little creativity (Concept, 2006, p. 1).
Parents, especially those with one child who attended a traditional kindergarten before
discovering forest kindergartens, report lower rates of illness in their forest kindergarteners due
to increased time outdoors in all weather. The immune system is trained as children run, climb
and play outside in fresh air, escaping diseases common in enclosed kindergartens (E. Lacis,
personal communication, February 6, 2007; A. Gink, personal communication, February 7,
2007). Gross motor skills are frequently engaged as children run, climb and play. This movement
is especially important for young boys who, at kindergarten age, often lag behind their same-age
female peers developmentally (Jacobsen, 2001, p. 11). Fear of accidents is decreased, even as
children traverse bumpy ground sand scale trees. Dr. Helga Grohmann-Harpain, president of the
Waldracker Forest Kindergarten Society, found that since forest kindergarteners have increased
movement experiences in a variety of settings, they learn how to judge their own abilities, in
effect reducing the danger of accidents (Personal communication, February 23, 2007).
The natural variety that exists in the forest, in addition to its ever changing seasons and
endless opportunities for discovery, make the forest the ideal location for genuine learning. The
most successful forest kindergartens are those whose educators can identify and capitalize on the
various opportunities for learning that present themselves spontaneously in the forest. Subjects
can be tackled as they arise in real-life situations. Mathematics no longer seems isolated and
abstract when students measure and compare snow depths, observe changes in quantities of
water, examine real objects they find to show concepts of small and large and discover round and
angular objects displayed in the natural world. On any given day, a student might be asked to
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 9
collect 10 sticks of the same length to use for fire building. The student must not only ensure he
has 10 sticks but also must compare the stick lengths to see if they are longer or shorter than
desired.
Here complex science topics usually withheld until the upper grades are experienced in
day-to-day interactions with nature. Life cycles come alive with changing trees, new growth and
death, which children learn is a natural occurrence in healthy forests. Forces of gravity can be
directly observed as acorns fall from trees to the ground. Condensation on morning grass
prompts conversations of the water cycle. Since children typically explore the same areas each
day within their forest kindergarten, they are able to observe the natural processes of the forest
over the seasons. German caretaker Natacha Lautenschlager contrasted this with the play
structures students commonly experience:
A playground doesnt change. A slide remains a slide. But nature evolves and lives. When it rains, theres a small brook to run over; when it snows, they can slide. They experience the years cycles. They can touch and comprehend nature (de Pommmereau, 2003, p. 1).
Elisabeth Lacis, chairwoman of a forest kindergarten interest group, mentioned another
advantage as the unique opportunity to install basic natural science knowledge during walks and
other activities (2007). These beneficial learning opportunities often occur spontaneously, based
on childrens questions or a small rabbit print observed on a path. As the common saying in
Europe asserts, Nature is the best educator for the child.
The forest also presents students with a natural understanding of limitations and borders.
As Lacis put it, Nature gives rules that cannot be discussed by the child, and they have to go
with it. Nature is so strong, so children will eventually agree to the rules (2007). Rules no
longer seem arbitrary when placed in context and when a matter of common safety and group
survival. They are instead become understandable because they are applied directly to students
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 10
lives. For example, students must stay in sight of their educators at all times to avoid being lost
in the forest. Angelika Gink, founder and current head of Waldkindergarten Freiburg e.V (2007),
said the students are used to living with certain dangers, like ticks, bees, wet ground, where they
may slide, stones they may roll down, open fire, and know what to do in such a situation. For
example, students must avoid putting any objects in their mouth; very early lessons about the
potential dangers of unknown leaves and berries help to prevent this. Nature also presents very
natural boundaries. A brook that is too wide cannot be jumped. A tree with weak branches
cannot be climbed. However, brooks exist narrow enough for students to transverse, and most
trees in the forest have branches strong enough to support the children. These natural limits help
children respect the forest and its boundaries.
Forest kindergartens still incorporate routines into their day-to-day operations that are
necessary for young children. Morning greeting circle time allows a consistent start to the day.
Story time occurs daily in nearly all programs, where students gather together over a story which
is read and discussed. Flexibility is taught through this exercise; students must be willing to
change their plans on rainy days when a book would get ruined if taken out. Daily bread time
allows students and teachers to gather together over a communal snack in the woods. These
routines occur without the typical distractions found in a classroom. There are no phones to ring
or organizational duties to tend to. Instead, entire periods can be focused on learning and
children development. Daily routines and activities are supplemented by themed days and trips.
Project Day in one kindergarten allow students to investigate seasonally varying natural
phenomena. They may observe the indigenous resident creatures of the pond in the nearby
Biotope or journey to discover the species-rich plant world of the forest (Andrea Schwarz, Antje
Schwarz, M. Jerusalem & T. Schwarz, personal communication, March 7, 2007). Special
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 11
programs at another German forest kindergarten teach about the fruits and vegetables growing in
the region and where the childrens food comes from (B. Saile, personal communication, March
5, 2007). Field trips to local farms, community buildings and other natural areas are also
common, with some forest kindergartens taking a field trip as often as once per week.
Forest kindergartens tend to nurture a close relationship with parents and incorporate
them into daily operations and rituals. Since children in the typical forest kindergarten range
from three or four to six years old, this tight bond with parents is important and helps ease the
separation between home and school. Morning circle activities at the start, and sometimes also at
the end, of each day include parents in discussions about their childrens experiences and
interests. Through this, children learn to converse with adults on focused topics, and a necessary
home-school partnership is solidified. A state-of-mind is cultivated where parents are allowed,
even encouraged, to come spend time with their students as they learn. In many kindergartens,
this support goes further than the morning circle, with parents assisting the educators on walks
and activities (C. Trompka, personal communication, February 7, 2007). At Evelyn Schulles
school in Scotland, parents are encouraged to walk with the children into the forest to feel and
appreciate nature for themselves (2007). Parent-teacher meetings and individual talks are
common to increase trust and cooperation between the kindergarten and the childrens parents,
occurring more regularly than typical school conferences (Schwarz, et. al, 2007).
Children in Scotland (2005), the voice of 350 organizations and individuals working to
ensure best practices are used in Scottish education, found forest kindergartens are especially
successful at including hard-to-reach groups of parents in daily school proceedings. A high level
of involvement by fathers has been observed in centers across Scotland (p. 3). This parental
presence reduces the teacher-student ratio significantly further than exists in a typical
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 12
kindergarten. In most states in Germany, for example, two teachers must supervise groups of no
more than 15 students. In Norway, the number of adults to children in a forest kindergarten also
falls slightly lower than in conventional care centers (Borge, et. al., 2003, p. 607). Smaller class
sizes allow for higher teacher attention per student so individualization can occur. Student
attention stays focused on a task due to a smaller number of classroom distractions. The residual
benefits of smaller classes sizes in kindergarten do not stop when students enter first grade. A
class-size analysis performed by economists Alan Krueger and Diane Whitmore found students
who had small classes in the first four years of school were more likely to take a college-entrance
exam near the end of high school (Nabhan & Trimble, 1994).
Although exact kindergarten costs are difficult to quantify, many forest kindergartens
report decreased operational costs. German Forest Kindergaten Flensburg said their yearly costs
are substantially less than in a traditional kindergarten due to a decreased number of materials
needed and non-existent building maintenance costs (Introduction, 2005, p. 1). Others call
forest kindergartens the cheapest way to offer parents a high quality of pre-school education
with many benefits (H. Grohmann-Harpain, 2007). These decreased costs make it possible to
hire two educators who oversee the smaller number of enrolled children. Close access to public
transportation and government and private subsidies currently help keep costs low at most forest
kindergartens. Parental fees typically supplement these costs (Borge, et. al., 2003, p. 615-616).
At Waldkindergarten Eschenlohe Berglowen und Waldelfen e.V. in Germany, fear of becoming
a kindergarten catering only to the wealthy prompts the center to keep costs low. They never
want to set the monthly rate so high that a normal family with several kids could not afford it
anymore (Trompka, 2007).
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 13
Forest kindergartens do not exist in the United States to the extent they exist in Europe.
Currently nine nature centers exist in the United States that operate fully licensed nature
preschools for ages three to five; these primarily include outdoor experiences for the children,
although some indoor experiences do occur at these centers, even on days when the weather is
not poor. Most have structured play yards that allow students to experience a variety of materials
such as sand areas, fort building areas and open spaces. Some use the natural wooded areas
around the center as a context for learning, taking the children into the woods as is done in
traditional forest kindergartens. Strong examples include the Dodge Nature Center in West St.
Paul, Minnesota, which also takes students to its 40-acre working farm, and the Schlitz Audubon
Nature Center in Milwaukee, Wisconsin (K. Finch, personal communication, January 26, 2007).
However, these centers are primarily for children up to age five, so they do not cover the
kindergarten-aged students included in forest kindergartens. This is a trend that must be rectified.
Kindergrind and the Rapid Departure of Play
Todays kindergarten classroom is changing rapidly, and its twentieth century
developmentally appropriate kindergarten counterpart is becoming nothing more than a distant
relative. Kindergrind, a term coined by Amy Dickinson (1999) to describe the push-down
academics in primary grades, is flooding districts across the country (p. 1). Instead of a homey
environment where students focus on developing social skills over toys and dress-up,
kindergarten children must spend their time sitting still, with attention focused on their teacher,
to learn the academic basics. Most states have standards that describe what skills and abilities
must be taught to all students through the kindergarten year. These standards do not include
learning how to socialize, developing appropriate school behaviors or strengthening motor skills
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 14
(Jackson, 2005, p. A1). With the majority of schools still employing a half-day instructional
program, limited time is available to reach the more than 100 standards and objectives that grace
many schools curriculum. These three-and-a-half hour programs typically share the room with
afternoon kindergarten classes, and expanding programs to full day is expensive and out of the
question for most districts. This leaves a hefty amount of content to be squeezed into a relatively
short period. Kindergarten, in the form it existed in the 1960s, has disappeared.
Trends toward making kindergarten more academic are not new in America. Early
German educators who attempted to bring kindergartens to the United States faced significant
resistance due to this problem. Matilda Kriege, a leading kindergarten trainer in Germany, noted
the desire of American parents to have their children taught to read at an early age was a major
source of difficulty in implementing kindergartens in the United States. William Hailmann, a
German-American kindergarten educator, noted similar trends and even criticized American
parents for demanding premature academic work from their young children (Beatty, 2000, p. 45).
Although a swing away from inappropriate academic work did occur for some time, the process
has been reversed.
Kindergarten teachers participating in a study about the nature of kindergarten all
reported kindergarten had shifted significantly from a developmental focus to an academic focus.
One teacher who summarized her beliefs for researchers said, I think its what first grade used
to be (Parker & Neuharth-Pritchett, 2006, p. 71). In August in Mobile County, Alabama,
kindergarten teachers learned they would be required to give letter grades to students in five
academic subjects (LaCoste-Caputo & Russell, 2006, p. 2). Although this example may be
extreme, in many kindergarten classes formalized assessments occur weekly or bi-weekly to
ensure students are meeting state education standards and are not falling behind. Students in low
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 15
income communities who fail to meet specific standards may be kept after school or required to
come in early for tutoring. Here, students learn how to read up to 100 common words, write
simple sentences and complete basic addition and subtraction sentences. Academic achievement
is valued, and other successes are pushed aside with the fun and playtime to make room for what
is viewed as important.
New academic kindergartens standards are accompanied by an increased focus on
standardized testing and grading. As mandated by the No Child Left Behind Act, signed into law
January 8, 2002, all schools are required to provide standardized assessments to students in
grades three through eight in mathematics and English, with science assessments beginning in
2007. Although these assessments are not mandated for the youngest school children, they do put
increased pressure on kindergarten teachers to have the students ready academically for first
grade (http://www.ed.gov/nclb/landing.jhtml?src=ln).
It comes as no surprise that members of the United States Senate and House of
Representatives are currently battling to overhaul No Child Left Behind legislation to make it so
states could opt out of the mandatory standardized testing requirement for five-year periods.
States would instead be required to submit a five-year plan to the Secretary of Education
detailing how they would raise and measure achievement of students (Rosen, 2007, p. 1).
However, these changes appear to be made for misguided reasons. Congressmen seek to provide
greater flexibility for states and school districts, not to provide more developmentally appropriate
conditions for students. The law is up for reauthorization in 2007. This significant revision of the
law contrasts sharply with Secretary of Education Margaret Spellings opinion that the law, like
Ivory soap, is 99.9 percent pure, with not much needed in the way of change (What
NCLB, 2007, p. 1).
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 16
Where in a system where even administrators cannot notice its flaws is room made for
celebrating and cultivating other intelligences? Howard Gardner, in his theory of multiple
intelligences, presented 10 types of intelligences, even including a naturalistic intelligence, seen
as humans ability to recognize plants, animals and other parts of the natural environment (Louv,
2005, p. 71). While this type of intelligence is encouraged in a forest kindergarten, in a typical
United States kindergarten its closest application would be sorting pictures of animals based on
similar characteristics during an indoor science lesson. Test-based kindergartens also appeal best
to visual and auditory learners both in instructional and assessment modes; they often ignore the
needs of those who learn kinesthetically, relying on hands-on experiences with the content they
are exploring. No Child Left Behind Legislation brushes over these alternative intelligences and
learning styles by reporting that despite educator and parental concerns, standardized tests, with
their limited paper and pencil formats, do adequately assess those who learn and express
themselves in different manners (Stronger accountability, 2004, p. 1). Often most at risk in
test-based environments are students with emotional or behavioral problems; in these
classrooms, a rising number of children are diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactive disorder
each year. In 2003, there were six million American children taking medicine to help with
attention disorders. This number contrasts with the 130,000 British students taking Ritalin in a
similar time period. Sax (2003) found overly academic kindergartens and primary classrooms
encourage the classification of students as ADHD; by committing an excessive amount of time to
academics, they leave those students who before would have benefited from the multi-modal,
sensory kindergarten experience (p. 1).
In studies following students from kindergarten through their elementary school careers,
research found a heavy reliance on academic, teacher-directed methods of teaching in
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 17
kindergarten did not translate into achievement in later grades. Marcon (2002) found those
children who experienced overly academic preschools earned significantly lower grades by the
end of sixth grade than their peers in developmentally appropriate classrooms (Parker &
Neuharth-Pritchell, 2006, p. 67). These studies focused primarily on academic achievement; they
did not explore the long-term effects that academic, didactic kindergartens had on student
personality, motivation and self confidence; these effects could be even more damaging and
harder to recover from. This environment, fortified by standardized tests, also causes high levels
of stress for many youngsters and their teachers. Rosemarie Truglio, vice president of education
and research for Sesame Street, has watched students struggle with high stress.
Acknowledging that stress is not conducive to learning, Truglio said, If you are put in a stressful
environment, youre not going to learn (Scelfo, 2006, p. 1). Stressful environments can cause
struggling students to tune out to avoid failure and additional stress, decreasing their learning
potential and increasing their likelihood of failure later in life.
The kindergarten/kindergrind debate flourished in San Diego, California, in 2005, when
the Kindergarten Leadership Committee examined city benchmarks for academic achievement in
kindergarten and found they were too advanced for students. These demanding objectives
included having young students achieve specific reading goals on a timetable, instead of at their
own pace. Lower reading benchmarks were reinstated by a vote of 3-to-2 of the San Diego
Unified Trustees. Teachers in this district are still expected to diversify instruction for students
moving faster or slower than the general class pace. Rosemary Young, president of the National
Association of Elementary School principals, summed up the school districts dilemma. The
reality is we all have benchmarks and standards to reach, but we are all agonizing over whether
we are meeting the needs of the children, or the needs to meet standards (Gao Copley, 2005, p.
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 18
1-2). Too often in these situations, young children silently lose the battle to the standards as their
greatest allies, their teachers and parents, do not fight for developmentally appropriate practices.
Kindergartens increased academic focus is causing redshirting. Formerly a practice
reserved for college athletes who would be kept on the bench for a year until they become more
able to serve the team, redshirting has worked its way to the kindergarten ranks. Parents are
choosing to hold their young five-year-olds out of the kindergarten classroom for an additional
year. The program first became popular in the early 1980s, and it has been accompanied by a
plethora of extra-year developmental programs to prepare students who are not quite ready for
todays demanding kindergarten classroom. Prior to this, parents were encouraged to send their
children to kindergarten as soon as possible, and many districts had children who were four years
old attending (Richardson, 1995, p. 4).
Redshirting occurs for several reasons. Rates of redshirting are higher among boys, who
due to delayed developmental rates and higher needs for movement, often appear not quite ready
for todays academic classroom. In affluent communities, families often hope their child, who
will be a year older when he enters kindergarten, will outpace his classmates and have higher
rates of future success (LaCoste-Caputo & Russel, 2006, p. 1A). Dr. Ada Beth Cutler, dean of
the College of Education and Human Services at Montclair State University, said she fears
parents are redshirting students for the wrong reasons. I worry about parents making the
decision not because the child is not ready, but to give the child a leg up (Nussbaum, 2003, p.
2). Some parents project this added boost will allow their children to outperform peers
competing for spots at the same highly competitive middle school due to higher verbal abilities
and increased life experiences or help their children receive sports scholarships later in life due
to physical abilities that increase with age. New York Times writer Elissa Gootman (2006)
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 19
referred to this practice by parents as an almost Darwinian desire to ensure that their own child
is not the runt of the class (p. B1).
Barbara Willer, spokeswoman for the National Association for the Education of Young
Children, said there is great concern in the education community due to redshirting. Willer said
research is clear there are no long-term positive effects of red-shirting on students and research
has begun to show there may be negative effects (Richardson, 1995, p. 1). United States
Department of Education research shows that for the six percent of children considered late
starters in kindergarten, academic benefits disappear by around the end of first grade. At this
age, late starters appear slightly more proficient than their classmates at reading, but they are less
proficient on average in mathematics (Gootman, 2006, p. 2). As parents delay their childs
kindergarten entrance, kindergarten classrooms are, in effect, given permission to become more
demanding due to the increased mean age of students in the classroom. Joan Moyer (2001), a
professor in the College of Education at Arizona State University, argued that even though six-
year-olds may possess increased abilities to meet these goals, such programs try to fit
children to the curriculum rather than adjusting the curriculum to respond to the nature of the
learner (p. 162). These arenas with increased academic focus, accompanied by paper-and-
pencil, teacher-directed tasks, have the same expectations for all children, despite differing
developmental and intellectual abilities.
As classrooms become more academic, developmentally appropriate elements of the
traditional kindergarten classroom of the 1950s and 1960s are being quickly abandoned. The
most evident of these omissions is the rapid movement away from play. This trend stands
contradictory to what parents feel is best for their children. Drake, Muran, Price and Tellijohann
(2006) conducted a survey to determine Ohio parents perceptions of the role of the elementary
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 20
school in preventing unnecessary childhood weight gain. They found nearly all of the parents,
99.7 percent, believed recess should be provided to elementary students each week, and recess
was allotted the most amount of time each week at 137 minutes when compared to other health
initiatives (p. 504). However, recess across the country is rapidly disappearing. University of
New Orleans associate professor Judith Kieff noted that by the year 2000, recess had disappeared
from more than 40 percent of elementary and middle schools in the United States (Gao, 2005, p.
1). In some areas, new elementary school buildings are being constructed without playgrounds,
making recess not even an option, and many schools have larger areas for parking than for
supervised play experiences. Rates of outdoor experiences for educational learning are not much
better. A 1989 to 1990 research project found 16 percent of American teachers had never used
the outdoors for educational purposes, and those teachers who utilized the outdoors on average
took students outside fewer than three times per year (Parker & Neuharth-Pritchett, 2006, p. 1).
The rapid movement away from both structured and unstructured play experiences
represents an abandonment of best practices and conventional wisdom regarding the benefits of
play as part of childhood. Guaranteed under Article 31 of the United Nations Convention on the
Rights of a Childhood, all children have the right to engage in play and recreational activities
appropriate to the age of the child (United Nations, 1990, p. 6). The Association of Childhood
Education International reaffirms this right. They believe play is an essential part of healthy
growth, development, and learning for children of all ages (Packer Isenberg & Quisenberry,
2002, p. 2). Play is considered by many theorists, including Vygotsky. Piaget and Dewey, to
serve as the primary source of development and learning for young children (Moyer, 2001, p.
163).
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 21
Play, while difficult to define, has several distinguishing characteristics. Play is
exploratory and active. It is self-initiated by the child, with activities chosen based on the childs
preferences. Children also must be intrinsically motivated to play. This motivation helps make
play personally relevant, increasing its meaning and appropriateness in terms of the childs
abilities (Packer Isenberg & Quisenberry, 2002, p. 1). Play can sharply contrast with work,
which is adult-initiated and adult-directed.
Both direct and indirect benefits result from childhood play opportunities. Gross and fine
motor skill development occurs more rapidly as children manipulate real-life objects in natural
ways. In a forest kindergarten students benefit from daily motor experiences, be it climbing over
a log or examining the intricacy of a bark pattern. A longitudinal study of students with poor
motor skills found these students typically exhibit higher rates of behavior problems, lower
achievement levels and may harbor feelings of intense dissatisfaction with their own
performances (Rule and Stewart, 2002, p. 9). Studies have found significant correlations between
the development of motor skills and academic and social performances later in life. A study by
Meisels and Son (2005) found that early kindergarten motor skills have a small but significant
effect on reading and mathematics levels measured at the end of first grade; these results hold
true even when initial skill levels and demographic breakdowns are controlled for. Visual motor
skills tend to have the highest impact on academic achievement, although gross motor skills were
also found to have a significant influence (p. 755-757). Since motor skill development correlates
directly to childrens cognitive preparedness for school, forest kindergartens play a unique role in
ensuring students encounter significant opportunities to develop motor control. These motor
skills allow students to attempt and succeed in situations they before would have been unable
and unwilling to try.
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 22
Gunhild Westman (2003), a professor of education at Uppsala University in Sweden, has
observed a high link between language and vocabulary development and play. As children play,
they must describe the events they are experiencing. Although play offers the freedom to make
mistakes in the descriptions of actions, it is also demanding for children in that they must pay
attention to each others choice of words and actions and decide how to respond appropriately (p.
5). High levels of excitement during play activities, especially those that are outdoors and
unstructured, leave children more encouraged to share their experiences with their teachers,
parents and peers. This also encourages the use of higher-level vocabulary as children find the
words to describe the natural phenomena and play concepts they encountered. An England-
Wales forest kindergarten study found these results were also consistent for students with
language difficulties aligned with emotional or behavioral problems, especially those students
with receptive language disabilities (Murray & OBrien, 2006, p. 36). Role-playing through play
allows children to develop and clarify societal roles and personal ideas; by acting as someone
other than themselves, they learn to see others point of view (Moyer, 2001, p. 163).
These increased opportunities for language development and communication
enhancement led naturalists Gary Paul Nabhan and Stephen Trimble (1994) to consider the
necessity of play in childhood. They wrote:
Given that it has long been known that children up until about seven years of age communicate with each other more adequately by play than in speech, an argument can certainly be made that their childhood right to play is the same as our adult First Amendment right to free speech (p. 9).
Dorothy and Jerome Singer, child psychologists at Yale University, found that strong
imaginative play opportunities in childhood correlate with more pronounced leadership skills in
the classroom and higher desires to cooperate with others (Hannaford, 2002, p. 132). Carol
Seefeldt, former professor of human development at the University of Maryland, noted improved
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 23
learning skills in students who had opportunities for physical activity at school. Increased
abilities were observed in the areas of concentration, memory and problem solving (Wineberg,
2000, p. 27). Physical movement and play with others also contributes to decreased stress levels
and increased learning potential. These results were observed by Gabbard and Rodriques, whose
research found movement activity plays an essential role in encouraging brain development and
learning cementation in children (Burlingame, 2005, p. 6).
In classrooms, the disappearance of play has led to what Robert Michael Pyle termed the
extinction of experience (Nabhan and Trimble, 1994, p. 86). Instead of children participating in
direct contact with nature and wildlife, their new experiences are more academic and less
effective. As part of their schooling, students may learn about the rainforest during an in-depth,
cross-curricular unit of study, but they might spend little to no time learning about the deciduous
forest in their own backyard. Instead of observing animals and nature first hand, children may
visit zoos or watch nature films where others experience the nature and interpret it for the child.
Instead of being allowed free time to observe and truly understand a tree with all senses, children
are finding their outdoor experiences as part of the school day to be highly teacher-directed and
dictated, if and when they occur. The National Association for the Education of Young Children
worries that childrens perceptual abilities may suffer due to the overwhelming amount of school
experiences that require only two senses, such as computers, worksheets and books. The
powerful learning tools of smell, touch, tasted and physical engagement are being relatively
ignored (The Value, 2006, p. 1).
Almost concurrent with plays dismissal from the classroom comes a new type of play at
home. When it does occur, this play is much more supervised than it was for kindergarten
counterparts in previous generations. Children under five years of age rarely participate in
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 24
unsupervised outdoor play experiences, and a majority of five- to 10-year-old students are still
supervised when playing outside. Many factors contribute to this increase in supervision,
including adult fears of strangers and violence, particularly in urban areas, and a decreasing
presence of outdoor play spaces close to the home (Rivkin, 2000, p. 1-2). Play even looks
different. Today play experiences are often highly structured and over-planned by parents who
want to provide high levels of stimulation for their children and who seek to prevent boredom.
Competitive sports and physical education programs, music lessons and play with toys that ask
for little imagination contribute to these trends. The high appeal of technology also contributes to
keeping children away from true physical engagement in an activity. As child psychologist
Brian Sutton-Smith put it, Play has become too domesticated and regimented while playgrounds
themselves have become more and more barren (Nabhan and Trimble, 2004, p. 8-9). Today,
children spend a mere one percent of their time each week, about one hour, outdoors engaged in
unstructured free play (Wells, 2007). While schools indoor, academic nature used to be an
appropriate balance for the outdoor-rich lives of children, todays children now face a lack of
outdoor activities from both fronts.
Could curricular goals be pushed down too far, to the point where they are harming
students future abilities rather than giving them a head start? Walter Gilliam, a child
development expert at Yale University, believes so. He questioned the ever rising academic
focus of kindergartens. There comes a time when prudent people begin to wonder just how high
we can raise our expectations for our littlest schoolkids (Tyre, 2006, p. 2). This does not mean
expectations should be lowered. High standards are necessary, especially when students from
some high income communities enter school with four years of preschool experience and basic
abilities to read, write letters and simple words and add single and two digit numbers. They are
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 25
also essential to meet the needs of children in some low-income communities who enter school
with no pre-school experience and limited concepts of language and print. However, challenging
these students does not have to come at the expense of the rest of the kindergarteners, who need
opportunities for play, socialization and physical engagement in their learning. It also needs not
come at the expense of those children prepared academically for kindergarten; opportunities to
socialize, make concrete connections with natural objects and learn through self exploration
provide innumerable benefits to these students. Instead of making the classroom more academic
to meet the needs of these students, it must instead become more developmentally appropriate.
Academic learning will follow as a direct result.
Forest kindergartens stand as a clear alternative to problems raised by the overly
academic kindergarten. Forest kindergartens provide a unique context for play found to be most
beneficial for children. Here, ample opportunities for outdoor play are created and allowed to
evolve. While planned lessons do often occur in forest kindergartens, frequently surrounding a
story or a topic students observed in their natural environment, time for free play is structured
into the daily schedule for all programs. With loose parts such as twigs, grass and mud, students
creativity blossoms. Teacher observations and assessments occur informally; no student is
subjected to time sitting still, attempting to put paper to pencil to accomplish a task.
Fredrika Martensson (2003), a Swedish environmental psychologist and researcher,
found children play more freely in natural environments, such as a forest or meadow, because
they are not restricted by traditional playground rules and government regulations limiting free
movement. Play without these rules and restrictions becomes more complex for children since
they are not told how to think or act. The forest also provides opportunities for movement and
engagement of gross motor skills as children conquer hills, trees and other natural obstacles not
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 26
found in a classroom. In this way, outdoor play becomes more vigorous than indoor play (p. 3).
In a 2001 study, Wells observed that childrens movement changes as their environment
changes. She found that as children moved from places with less nature to places with more
nature, the movement was associated with increased cognitive functioning (Wells, 2007).
Outside, students can at times play without regard to noise level. Whereas in a school
environment children must constantly control their noise level to avoid disrupting others in the
classroom and other classes in the building, a forest absorbs noise and allows students to play
loudly without disrupting others. In a survey by British organization Playday, four out of five
children responded they prefer this type of outdoor play to indoor play; seventy-five percent said
they would prefer to play outside more often (Outdoor play, 2006, p. 1). This preference for
outdoor play is encouraging as the amount of overweight children continues to climb. Amount of
time spent outdoors is directly related to level of physical activity, which is associated with
higher levels of health and physical wellness. Nature play has been found to be more physically,
emotionally and cognitively valuable than indoor electronic play which is passive in nature
(Green Hearts, 2007, p. 2.)
Nature also provides a restorative environment for children and their teachers. The
attention restoration theory, developed by University of Michigan professors Stephen and Rachel
Kaplan, examines the difference between directed and involuntary attention. Directed attention,
where individuals must focus or direct their energy on a task that does not fascinate them, is
tiring and causes fatigue with overuse. Impulsive behavior, agitation and irritability often occur
as results. As individuals are required to direct their attention for long periods of time, their
ability to fully learn and comprehend experiences is diminished. Involuntary attention, in
contrast, is easy to maintain and is captured effortlessly. Since attention in the forest is captured
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 27
without effort, directed attention is given a chance to rest. The Kaplans observed four
components of a natural environment that help prevent this directed attention fatigue. When
these elements are present, they lead to a restorative environment. These elements include:
fascination, such as the babble of a brook or the shimmer of leaves; being away and experiencing
a mini-break in the woods; compatibility due to the support a forest provides for varied interests
and grouping arrangements; and the vast extent or scope of the forest. The Kaplans found nature
to serve as the most effective restorative environment, with over 100 studies backing their
findings (Louv, 2005b, p. 1; Wells, 2007). It comes as no surprise based on these findings that
decreased stress levels are reported in forest kindergarteners and their teachers.
A 2006 study by Wells and Lekies and previous studies by Palmer and Tanner suggest
childhood exposure to nature, both wild and domesticated, is indicative of environmental
attitudes and pro-environmental behavior in adulthood (Wells, 2007). Environmental curricula in
academic-based environments that teach of environmental injustices and travesties have, in
effect, an opposite then desired effect on environmental beliefs in adulthood. In schools, children
are often exposed to environmental problems before they have had real opportunities to connect
with the environment and develop a reverence for it. This creates what educator David Sobel
(1999) refers to as ecophobia, or the fear of ecological problems and the natural world (p. 1).
Without first having direct opportunities to experience nature, desired pro-environmental
attitudes are less likely to develop.
The constantly fed fear of the natural world by both children and adults must be
addressed, and the United States view of childhood and kindergarten will have to change to
accomplish this goal. In Norway, which stressed nature experiences in its Organization for
Economic Co-operation and Development report on early childhood education, happy children
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 28
are those outside playing without regard of season and weather. Forest day care centers, which
offer children these experiences on a daily basis, represent a child-care practice in harmony
with images parents held for their children in Norway (Borge, Lie & Nordhagen, 2003, p. 606).
In the United States, the recent movement has been toward adults serving as protectorate of
children, not as a guardian. Where Norwegian families allow children to play outside without
supervision or may loosely observe their children to provide educational support, United States
families tend to keep children inside for their own sake, to protect them from community
violence and danger. While fears must be acknowledged, so must the fact that the number of
childhood stranger abductions in the United States did not increase from 1988 to 1999
(Finkelhor, Hammer, Porcelli & Sedlak, 2004, p. 1).
Caution must also be taken to prevent parents and educators from unnaturally passing on
a culture of fear to young children. A 1994 study by Wilson showed preschool children are
acutely aware of these fears and harbor an increasing number of personal fears. Thirty-three
preschool children were interviewed individually to obtain insight into their environmental
knowledge and opinions. Some children commented they disliked rain because it could make
them sick. Similarly, wildflowers were viewed as dangerous because of their ability to attract
stinging bees. Boats were frightening due to their potential to tip over. Simmons conducted a
similar study in 1994 and found many children were afraid of trees because their branches or
trunks might fall without notice. Poisonous fish, birds that swoop down from the sky and attack
children and the sharp rocks in the water were common outdoor fears listed by young children
(Wilson, 1997, p. 2). These studies demonstrate how children are becoming increasingly fearful
and distanced from the natural world, afraid of the small animals and experiences that fascinated
children for centuries.
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 29
The nurturing environment of a forest kindergarten helps to eliminate these fears by
setting clear ground rules, while, at the same time, allowing children to experience the properties
of nature on their own, even if it might mean an occasional bump or bruise. Forest kindergartens
provide direct nature experiences that allow students to construct their own understandings of the
world instead of learning about nature primarily through stories about witches and wild beasts.
Here, opportunities are providedto be in the natural world with modeling by a responsible adult,
which Sobel (1996) feels is necessary to address issues of fear and ecophobia (p. 200). After
these nature experiences, students will be much more likely to construct their own positive
opinions of the forest. Overtime, a study of forest schools in England and Wales showed that
parental opinions of nature even changed while their children attended a forest kindergarten.
Fears and perceptions of risk showed marked decreases, and parents were more likely to provide
less structured outdoor experiences for their children, especially when they had previously
limited these experiences due to personal fears (Murray & OBrien, 2006, p. 46).
Educator, writer and biologist Carla Hannaford (2002) observed these phenomena first-
hand when she encountered a forest kindergarten by surprise on a walk through the woods during
a visit to Europe. She observed that play opportunities, both alone and with friends, emerged
like raindrops from a moisture-laden cloud. The limitless opportunities provided by the forest,
in addition to the freedom of unstructured play, left the door open for children to pursue their
interests and ideas. Hannaford observed gross and fine motor skill development as students
climbed on logs and fingered patterns on pine needles. She saw conversations sprout up over
new finds and imaginary games. Hannaford observed high levels of cooperation in the forest as
children interacted with one another through varied groupings. They could move fluidly between
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 30
activities and were not mandated to continue one project for a required amount of time.
Flexibility and respect to individual differences and preferences were paramount (p. 141).
Integration of forest kindergartens into the United States educational system will help
more schools reach success with their students in areas of education where the United States is
currently lagging sorely behind. In an Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development report on the state of early childhood education (ECE), Norways review
demonstrated its high regard for the role of play and the outdoor environment in education.
Norways framework for childcare centers validated the importance of childrens free time,
individual choices and play. Educators emphasized the importance of protecting children from
too much adult control and direction in their play activities. All ECE programs described in
Norway were designed to develop childrens love of nature, going deeper than a basic
understanding of an ecosystems functions and struggles. This report contrasts greatly with
OECDs report on the state of ECE in the United States, in which there is no mention of outdoor
or play activities in education (OECD- Norway, 1999; & OECD- United States, 1999).
While the report focused on a number of educational concerns, such as testing, state standards
and the need for funding, it completed neglected aspects of schooling significantly important to
children and their development. It is no surprise then that school in America has become
synonymous with staying inside, out of touch with the natural world and real-life experiences.
These nature experiences are not hard to come by and do not require long trips to faraway
national parks. Nearby nature, which is close to the home, can instead be explored. This attitude
is realized at the Komazawa Park International School in Tokyo, Japan, where an integrated
forest kindergarten in the heart of the city uses a one-acre city park for its daily explorations.
Although this plot of land may be considerably smaller than most forest kindergartens, it still
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 31
provides free exploration and limitless possibilities for kindergarten children playing in it. The
National Association for the Education of Young Children (2005) outlined the importance of
outdoor play in its ten signs of a well-functioning, beneficial kindergarten classroom, regardless
of location and resources. Number seven reads: Children have an opportunity to play outside
everyday that weather permits. This play is never sacrificed for more instructional time (Top
Ten, p. 1).
The most beneficial outdoor play opportunities, as realized through forest kindergartens,
are very inexpensive. Here, traditional, often age-inappropriate toys that provide limits to
imagination and fantasy are abandoned. Children can use only the basic earth elements of sand,
water and mud to create castles and faraway lands, without fear of spilling materials or making a
mess of themselves or a classroom. Loose-parts are inexhaustible in the forest. These open-ended
materials can be used in many ways and combined with other loose parts through imagination
and creativity. Nearly any forest material can be a loose part, with common examples including
trees, flowers, long grasses, sticks, etc. Naturalist Richard Louv (2005) argued that nature,
which excites all the senses, remains the richest source of loose parts to engage children from all
directions (Last Child, p. 86). In its imperfection, nature, and all its loose parts, becomes the
perfect landscape for outdoor play and self-expression.
A forest kindergarten education can also help eliminate the push-down academic trend.
With nature as their teacher, students learn at their own pace in a forest kindergarten,
independent from a scripted curriculum. However, a lack of formalized curriculum does not
mean no learning occurs and that play takes place without meaning. Scottish kindergarten
teacher Evelyn Schulle (2007) said lessons are flexible, and teachers are willing to change the
agenda when necessary. She said the instructional plans for the day cannot forsee the snail on the
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 32
trail or a squirrel that lies on the ground dying. Planned lessons occur in the forest each day, in
addition to spontaneous learning opportunities. In some states in Germany, forest kindergartens
only receive financial support from the state if they adopt the educational plan and standards of
the state (N. J., personal communication, March 1, 2007). Even with the standards requirements,
educators and parents have observed children in these communities learning at their own pace, as
they are developmentally ready. Imke Venus (2007), a mother of two forest kindergarteners,
shared this story of her sons development throughout his time in the forest kindergarten:
What I found so amazing about my sons development was that he had the time to find out what he can do. He was able to realize his development. At the beginning there was a tree, and he was too small to climb up that one. He had to watch the older children doing it. A year later he could climb up the first part of the tree, and when he left the kindergarten he was at the top of the tree as the others before him, and he was deathly proud of it.
Dominic Gullo, professor and deputy chair of the elementary and early childhood department at
Queens College, believes this independence to learn when ready is necessary becuase young
brains advance at uneven rates. Until age eight, children continue to catch up to their peers in
maturity (LaCoste-Caputo & Russel, 2006, p. 3). Scaffolded activities that can be experienced
and interpreted at a variety of levels are necessary at younger ages so all students can benefit
from learning experiences.
The flexibility and freedom provided by the forest kindergarten curriculum also means
children have to find ways to mediate personal boredom; they cannot sit back and merely listen
as they do in many traditional kindergarten programs. This eliminates a traditional lack of
motivation and negative attitude toward learning that can be found even in the youngest students
in a typical school atmosphere. It is through these child-led, meaningful experiences that children
can best construct knowledge from their interactions with their environment, teachers and peers.
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 33
Academically, children who attend forest kindergartens perform as well as and often
better than peers educated in a typical kindergarten setting. German educationalist and researcher
Dr. Peter Hafner (2003) examined the abilities of students who attend forest kindergartens
compared to their regular kindergarten peers. He found children from forest kindergartens were
much better in three necessary areas: motivation, concentration/social behavior and class
participation. Hafner noted the renunciation of standard toys also inspired greater verbal
communication among these children (p. 3). Studies by Play Scotland (2005), the leading
Scottish body for play, found children who attend outdoor kindergartens are strong, confident
and good at problem solving due to the freedom to explore and inherent challenges provided by
their high-quality outdoor play experiences (Savin, p. 3). These outdoor experiences can also
boost test scores. The California Department of Education found in a 2005 study that schools
who used the outdoor classroom as a frequent context for learning saw their students testing
scores in science improve by 27 percent. Significant gains were also observed in the areas of
mathematics, social studies and language arts (Louv, 2007, p. 4).
Reported academic benefits are not only found in studies but in reports from first-grade
teachers whose students previously attended forest kindergartens. Evelyn Schulle, a teacher and
founder of an integrated forest kindergarten, said, What I usually hear is that the children from
my kindergarten listen more carefully than others, are more patient and can solve problems more
easily than others (2007). Others report higher concentration levels due to an increased ability
to focus on the task at hand (Kremkus, D., personal communication, February 16, 2007). A 2003
forest school study from the United Kingdom by Murray that examined a forest school primarily
designed to service low-income children found those children who appeared vulnerable and
easily upset at beginning sessions, often due to problems at home and separation anxiety issues,
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 34
demonstrated significantly higher levels of self confidence and success as the program
progressed. These experiences can have a significant impact on future classroom experience.
According to teachers, these children are at least as prepared as their peers to enter first grade,
and their entrance to the classroom is accompanied by a rich set of life experiences due to forest
kindergarten experiences. These studies effectively disprove accusations that students run wild in
the forest without purpose and have few opportunities for real learning. By not sitting at a desk
and discussing what cannot be seen, a forest kindergarten provides richer experiences for its
students as they interact with objects to form their own meanings and understandings.
The multi-year atmosphere most forest kindergartens provide makes developmental
differences which stick out in a typical kindergarten non-existent. No children need to be red-
shirted for a year. In these small, intimate settings, three- to six-year-old students learn the
importance of the group and social relationships through nearly constant interactions and play
with their peers. The multi-age dimension of the groups requires older students to guide and look
out for their younger counterparts (Schoenebaum, B., personal communication, February 1,
2007). This pro-social behavior, noted by giving, helping, sharing and comforting behaviors, is a
key indicator of successful social skills. With distractions minimized due to the absence of toys
and noise reflecting from walls or surrounding rooms, young students are more able to focus
attention on one another. According to Lacis (2007), this is often observed in forest
kindergartens. You wait for slower/weaker/younger children as they are lost without you, so
were you when you were young. She said children remember these behaviors of kindness and
reciprocate by helping younger children as they mature and take on a leadership role in the
kindergarten (2007). This relationship is natural since in the forest, small situations can get
serious, and each student must contribute to the group if obstacles are to be tackled.
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 35
Development of group behavior, especially realized through successful group
conversations, is essential since in most out-of-school activities students are discouraged from
free talk. These groups, such as soccer teams and Girl Scouts, are more geared toward individual
development than the creation of a successful group. In a forest kindergarten, as children are
given the autonomy to make decisions in groups, they learn the communication strategies
necessary to make decisions and reach effective compromises. These skills must be taught young
to successfully develop, and forest kindergartens provide that opportunity (Clements, 2000, p.
203). Small group sizes also allow frequent opportunities for all students to take on leadership
roles, whether it is organizing the collection of same-size sticks for fort building or watching the
tea kettle to see when hot water will be ready for the group to drink. Opportunities must be
presented for students to develop these skills, and a focus on social skills must be integrated into
existing state standards in the United States.
Unfortunately today, camps currently provide American students with the highest amount
of access to nature. Many students attend camps part- or full-time over the summer for periods of
one week or more. While camps are somewhat effective in providing nature experiences to
children, they are often highly structured, allowing few chances for participants to actually
experienced nature. Approximately 12,000 of these camps exist across the United States and
offer various focuses. Some are nature-centered, providing experiences fire building and tent
pitching, along with miles of hiking trails. An example is Camp Woods Play in New York.
Director Marcie Matthews started the camp in 2005 to provide necessary nature experiences for
children she felt spend too much time indoors. Matthews said she found the camp to be a major
success in providing students with these experiences. When they were out in nature, they
seemed to drink it in with every pore of their bodies (Personal communication, February 11,
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 36
2007). However, Matthews only saw the children for a few hours a day for one to two week
sessions. She found this was nowhere near enough to resolve the severe need the children had for
nature.
From Hands-On to Hands-Off: How Abstraction is Replacing Experience
If the pushed-down academics of kindergarten do not create enough problems, premature
abstraction of content most surely makes up for it. Abstraction, in this sense, is the process
through which a concept or idea is presented separate from physical experiences. Through
abstraction, children recognize new experiences as sharing qualities similar with previous
findings. In primary schools in the United States today, premature abstraction is the norm. Due to
factors such as an increased amount of content to cover which leaves seemingly less time for in-
depth lessons, educators are replacing primary experiences with nature and other phenomena
with one-way experiences with non-reactionary, abstract materials.
George Maxim (1997), professor of childhood studies and reading at West Chester
University, found that through preschool and primary years, childrens ability to physically
experience and manipulate objects represents the primary way they gain knowledge of the
objects themselves (p. 42). These experiences help children discover new ways to represent
objects as they begin to think more abstractly. For example, students who have physically
experienced a farm are more likely to later transition to using blocks and paper shapes to
represent the farm buildings. This beginning ability of four to six year olds to think abstractly
grows gradually through these experiences.
Although many criticize technology as the signifier of a move toward abstraction, Lowell
Monke (2005) said this trend began long before the introduction of computers into the
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 37
classroom. Even relying on books too much or too early inhibits the ability of children to
develop direct relationships with the subjects they are studying (p. 1). Due to the strong
qualities of books and computers to transport people to a different world, individuals come to the
incorrect understanding that the overwhelming amounts of information available via these
sources can somehow replace real-life experiences. Wherever they turn, students are being
inundated with symbolic representations for physical objects, often before they have had a
chance to connect with the physical objects. For example, how can a tree be experienced through
a website? While a website may provide facts about the a trees origin and history, an incredibly
essential physical experience is being neglected. Children need opportunities to experience real
trees with their five senses before they can successfully comprehend abstract information about
them.
The rush toward abstraction has been addressed uniquely in mathematics instruction in
many school districts. Due to an inability to connect the abstract signs and symbols on their
papers to the real world, more and more children began displaying signs of math phobias in the
primary grades. Instruction focused on the procedures on mathematics instead of their
applications to everyday life. Rote memorization of facts was a highly rewarded skill. Textbooks
and curriculum guides reflected this approach, making it all too easy for teachers to perpetuate its
ideals. Failure resulted when children did not have enough concrete experiences to construct
relationships with objects before transitioning to formal operations. Although abstract
mathematics can successfully be learned through this process by a small number of students over
time, concrete connections to the real world help solidify learning for all children, especially in
beginning learners.
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 38
Over the past two decades, mathematics instruction has been reinvigorated by the
introduction of concrete materials. These hands-on manipulatives include Cuisinaire rods,
fraction bars and clocks. Numerous opportunities must be presented for students to engage with
these materials before more abstract numerals and concepts are introduced. In addition to
manipulatives, mathematical procedures are now connected to real-life problems and experiences
(Sobel, 2007, p. 2). Now, children receive many experiences when learning a concept such as
addition. They might begin by adding together physical apples, then transition to cubes with one
cube representing each apple. As abstract thinking develops, appropriately supported by concrete
experiences, these physical manipulatives may give way to tally marks and eventually to the
numbers themselves. This mode of concept acquisition is essential since, as Stice (1987) found,
students retain only 10 percent of what they read, 26 percent of what they hear, 30 percent of
what they see, 50 percent of what they see and hear and 70 percent of what they say. However,
learners remember 90 percent of what they do (Felder & Henriques, 1995, p. 28). Tall (1994)
argued that the continuation of these methods is necessary for the development of successful
mathematicians later in life; he said it is only when children are immersed in an environment
where they can construct their own knowledge from experiences that they will learn to think
mathematically (p. 2).
The National Science Teachers Association (2002) recognized the importance of this
type of instruction in science. In a position paper outlining essential practices in an elementary
school science classroom, they prioritized first-hand experiences and investigation as most
essential; however, to be effective, they note these experiences must build on a students
conceptual framework (p. 1). This movement must occur across the board in primary school
instruction, especially in kindergartens.
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 39
Children are prematurely being asked to think about and respond to complex
environmental problems when they have never had a chance to connect with the natural world
and become close to it. As Sobel put it, So much of environmental education has become a
didactic focus on the dispersion of environmental facts. Instead, children need an immersion into
nature. Sobel (2007) argued that one transcendent nature experience is of equal worth to a
thousand nature facts. Opportunities to experience nature, provided each day by forest
kindergartens, will help create future developing generations that will display a vested interest in
the planet due to their early childhood experiences. Encouraging and providing opportunities to
develop this indirect side-effect may be necessary as debates over how to address global
warming escalate and sustainable living becomes more commonplace.
In a similar style, and with increased emphasis, learning must allow primary aged
students to make appropriate concrete connections with their environment. Before students can
create understanding from abstract information, they must be able to connect what they know
about the information to their concrete experiences. Uri Wilensky (1991), researcher at the
Center for Concrete Operations at Northwestern University, suggested the definition of
concreteness is directly tied to the number of connections a person has between one object and
other objects. As students have numerous opportunities to play with, experience and discover a
new object, the object becomes more concrete for the student based on these experiences.
Concreteness, then, is that property which measures the degree of our relatedness to the object
(p. 1). Any object can be made concrete for learners, even those not frequently associated with
the senses. For example, textured letters can allow beginning readers to touch and feel the
alphabet, and moveable letters allow new writers to manipulate words. While the letters are
primarily an abstract concept, they become concrete for the learner as students experience
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 40
multiple modes of engagement with them and a sufficiently rich collection of models to represent
them (Wilensky, p. 5). Especially in kindergarten, efforts toward concreteness require multiple
opportunities for engagement with physical manifestations of the concept, in addition to a
diverse collection of models to represent the concept in real ways for the students. Real-life
experiences with objects also increases student interest and curiosity about the materials,
supplementing opportunities for later successful studies. Without these methods, von Glasersfeld
(1989) believed teaching would remain a hit-or-miss affair, with diminished prospects of success
for all parties (p. 1).
Schools directed under the educational philosophy of Maria Montessori adopt this
philosophy to benefit their youngest students. The Orno Montessori School in Wayzata,
Minnesota, provides a vast assortment of sensory experiences to accompany every concept
taught in the classroom. Land and water formations are initially taught through three-
dimensional models. Students demonstrate their understanding of words such as run and march
through full body experiences as they act the concept out (Kindergarten curriculum, n.d., p. 1).
The Green Mountain Montessori School in Essex, Virginia, takes a similar approach, using
materials designed to always present a concept concretely. These materials tend to be isolated
and seek to teach only one concept at a time (Our Montessori, n.d., p. 1).
Concrete preoperational experiences are not, and should not, be limited to the classroom;
instead, they are well suited to the out of doors. As L.B. Sharp, author of Outside the Classroom
commented, objects occurring in or dealing with nature should be taught there (Dissinger, 1987,
p. 1). Child development theorist John Dewey took Sharps belief a step further. He believed all
studies arise from aspects of the earth and the lives lived upon it. Because of this, Dewey felt the
outdoor environment could provide meaningful contextual experiences to complement and
Mother Nature, Meet Forest Kindergartens 41
expanded instruction in all subject areas (Knapp & Woodhouse, 2000, p. 1). These activities
could include role playing, where students attempt to take on the characteristics, feelings and
essential qualities of a natural object of their choice. Through the role play, students develop
language skills and learn to connect their mental symbols with concrete objects. Another
example could be the collection and sorting of different natural materials by the students based
on characteristics; this demonstrates the fluidity of relationships between objects. While
classification tasks may be difficult for students this age, appropriate experiences with concrete
materials allow them to make attempts at the task earlier (Hrecz, 1995, p. 1).
No foreign materials representing other concepts are introduced to the forest. By relying
on natural materials to teach all educational concepts, forest kindergartens successfully provide
concrete experiences for students who desperately need them. Here learning is active as students
engage in nature with all their senses. Forest kindergartens provide necessary immersion
experiences with natural objects to ensure children have a database of experiences to draw from
to produce real meaning as adults. These concrete experiences are also necessary because they
provide children with direct exposure to the natural world. Loose parts in the forest provide an
appropriate avenue through which students can develop abstract thinking skills. As students use
simple objects, such as sticks, to represent more complex objects, they practice high levels of
abstraction appropriate to their ability levels. These experiences also help students develop
strong language skills which are essential to abstract thinking. Language abilities developed
young benefit students through their educational career and life experiences. Through concrete
experiences, chi
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