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Module 12Remembering & Forgetting
Recall vs. Recognition Recall
Retrieving previously learned information without the aid of or with very few external cues
Recognition Identifying previously learned information with
the help of more external cues
Organization of Memories
Network Theory We store related ideas in separate categories, called
nodes As we make associations between information, we
create links among thousands of nodes Nodes make up a huge interconnected network of
files
Network Hierarchy Nodes
Memory files that contain related information organized around a specific topic
Network hierarchy Arrangement of nodes in a certain order At the bottom, are nodes with very concrete information These nodes are linked to more specific information, which is
connected to more general information 1. ABSTRACT: animal 2.MORE SPECIFIC: bird 3. CONCRETE: blue jay
Forgetting Curve Measures the amount of previously learned information that subjects can recall across time
Ebbinghaus One of the 1st psychologists to study memory & forgetting He tested his own memory of nonsense syllables
4 Reasons for Forgetting1) Repression
Mental process that automatically hides emotionally threatening or anxiety-producing information in the unconscious
2) Poor Retrieval Cues Retrieval cues are mental reminders that we create by forming
vivid mental images or creating associations between new information & information we already know
3) Amnesia Loss of memory due to a blow or damage to the brain after drug
use or after severe psychological stress
4) Interference Recall of a memory is blocked by other related memories
2 Types of Interference Proactive
Old information blocks the remembering of new information Retroactive
New information blocks the remembering of old information
Retrieval Cues Mental reminders that you create by forming vivid mental
images of information or associating new information with information that you already know
State Dependent Learning It is easier to recall information when you are in the
same physiological or emotional state or setting as when you originally learned the information
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon Strong feeling that a particular word can be recalled, but
despite a great deal of effort, we are temporarily unable to recall the info.
Poor encoding or interference
Retrieval Cues (cont.)
Location of Memories in the Brain
Cortex - short & long term memories Thin layer of brain cells that cover the surface of the forebrain
Amygdala – emotional memories Almond-shaped structure lying below the surface of the cortex in
the tip of the temporal lobe Plays a critical role in adding a wide range of emotions to our
memories Hippocampus – transferring memories
Curved, finger-like structure that lies beneath the cortex in the temporal lobe
Transfers declarative information (words, facts & events) from STM into LTM
Location of Memories in the Brain (cont.)
Mnemonic Methods Ways to improve encoding and create better retrieval cues by
forming vivid associations or images Mr. MIMAL 2 Types
1) Method of Loci Create visual associations between already memorized
places & new items to be memorized
2) Peg Method Create associations between number-word rhymes and items
to be memorized One is a bun; two is a shoe; three is a tree; four is a door; five
is a hive
Can False Memories Be Implanted?
Researchers interviewed parents about events that occurred in their children’s lives during the past 12 months
Each 3- to 6-year-old was read a list of these events including some fictitious events
Children were asked to “think hard” & identify the events that actually happened
Bar graph data from “Repeatedly Thinking About a Non-Event: Source Misattributions Among Pre-Schoolers,” by S. J. Ceci, M. L. C. Huffman, E. Smith & E. Loftus, 1994, Consciousness and Cognition, 3, 388-407.
How Accurate is an Eyewitness?
Own-Race Bias Researchers found that an
eyewitness of one race is less accurate when identifying an accused person of another race
Confidence 6 reviews of studies
concluded that there is a weak relationship between correct identification & level of witness confidence
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