March 2009 - raritan.rutgers.eduraritan.rutgers.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/USACE...• U.S. Army...

March 2009

Volume II

Hudson-Raritan EstuaryComprehensive Restoration Plan

Inpartnership

withand

Contributing OrganizationsContributing OrganizationsGovernment

• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New York District

• The Port Authority of New York & New Jersey

• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

• U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

• New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection

Division of Fish and Wildlife

• New Jersey Department of Transportation

• New York State Department of Environmental

Conservation

• New York State Department of State, Division of

Coastal Resources

• New York City Mayor’s Office

• New York City Department of Parks and Recreation

• New York City Department of Environmental

Protection

Academia and Research Foundations

• Brooklyn College

• City University of New York

• Cornell University

• Hudson River Foundation

• Hunter College

• Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies

• Manhattan College

• Montclair State University

• Queens College

• Rutgers University and Institute of Marine and

Coastal Sciences

• Stevens Institute of Technology

• State University of New York at Stony Brook

• State University of New York – College of

Environmental Science and Forestry

• Virginia Institute of Marine Science

Non-Profit Organizations

• American Littoral Society

• Brooklyn Botanical Gardens

• Downtown Boathouse

• Environmental Defense Fund

• Going Coastal

• Gowanus Canal Conservancy

• Hackensack Riverkeeper

• Hoboken Cove Community

• Hudson River Park

• Metropolitan Waterfront Alliance

• National Fish and Wildlife Federation

• National Parks Conservation Association

• New York/New Jersey Baykeeper

• New York City Audubon

• New York State Museum

• Passaic River Boat Club

• Passaic River Coalition

• Red Hook Boaters

• Regional Plan Association

• Rockaway Waterfront Alliance

• Sebago Canoe Club

• The Gaia Institute

• The Nature Conservancy

• Urban Divers Estuary Conservancy

• Wildlife Conservation

• Wildlife Trust

• Working Harbor

Others

• AKRF, Inc.

• Battelle

• HDR, Inc.

• Hydroqual, Inc.

• New York-New Jersey Harbor Estuary Program

• URS Corporation

• Weston

ii Hudson-Raritan Estuary Comprehensive Restoration Plan - Draft March 2009

Table of Contents1.0 Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................12.0 ConductingRestorationProjects..................................................................................................................................32.1 PlanningConsiderations............................................................................................................................................................ 32.2 RegulatoryConstraints.............................................................................................................................................................. 52.3 SitingConsiderations................................................................................................................................................................. 72.4 SettingSite-specificGoals......................................................................................................................................................... 92.5 MonitoringPrograms.............................................................................................................................................................. 10

3.0 RestoringTargetEcosystemCharacteristics........................................................................................................... 113.1 Habitats................................................................................................................................................................................... 123.1.1 CoastalWetlands.................................................................................................................................................................................. 123.1.2 Waterbirds............................................................................................................................................................................................ 153.1.3 CoastalandMaritimeForests............................................................................................................................................................... 183.1.4 OysterReefs......................................................................................................................................................................................... 223.1.5 EelgrassBeds.................................................................................................................................................................................... 27

3.2 HabitatComplexes................................................................................................................................................................... 303.2.1 ShorelinesandShallows...................................................................................................................................................................... 303.2.2 HabitatforFish,Crabs,andLobsters................................................................................................................................................. 34

3.3 EnvironmentalSupportStructures.......................................................................................................................................... 363.3.1 TributaryConnections......................................................................................................................................................................... 373.3.2 EnclosedandConfinedWaters............................................................................................................................................................ 42

3.4 ContaminationIssues.............................................................................................................................................................. 453.4.1 SedimentContamination...................................................................................................................................................................... 45

3.5 SocietalValues......................................................................................................................................................................... 513.5.1 PublicAccess..................................................................................................................................................................................... 51

References........................................................................................................................................................................... 54

iiiHudson-Raritan Estuary Comprehensive Restoration Plan - Draft March 2009

List of TablesTable1-1.TargetEcosystemCharacteristics(TECs)intheHudson-RaritanEstuarystudyarea..........................................2Table2-1.Checklistforrestorationprojectplanning(NRC1992).......................................................................................4Table2-2.PertinentFederalresource,landuse,andpollutioncontrolstatuesthatshouldbereviewedwhenplanningarestorationproject(adaptedfromKreske[1996])...............................................................................................................6

iv Hudson-Raritan Estuary Comprehensive Restoration Plan - Draft March 2009

List of AcronymsCARP ContaminationAssessmentandReduction

Program

CRP ComprehensiveRestorationPlan

CSO CombinedSewerOverflow

CWA CleanWaterAct

dbh Diameteratbreastheight

DDT Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane

DO Dissolvedoxygen

EFH EssentialFishHabitat

FAA FederalAviationAdministration

HAPC HabitatAreasof ParticularConcern

HEP NewYork/NewJerseyHarborEstuaryProgram

HRE Hudson-RaritanEstuary

HRF HudsonRiverFoundation

NEPA NationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct

NJDEP NewJerseyDepartmentof Environmental

Protection

NOAA NationalOceanicandAtmospheric

Administration

NYCDEP NewYorkCityDepartmentof Environmental

Protection

NYCDPR NewYorkCityDepartmentof Parksand

Recreation

NYSDEC NewYorkStateDepartmentof Environmental

Conservation

NYSDOS NewYorkStateDepartmentof State

PANYNJ PortAuthorityof NewYorkandNewJersey

PCB PolychlorinatedBiphenyl

ppt Partspertrillion

REMAP RegionalEnvironmentalMonitoringand

AssessmentProgram

SAV Submergedaquaticvegetation

TEC TargetEcosystemCharacteristics

TMDL TotalMaximumDailyLoad

TSS Totalsuspendedsolids

USACE U.S.ArmyCorpsof Engineers

USEPA U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency

USFWS U.S.FishandWildlifeService

vHudson-Raritan Estuary Comprehensive Restoration Plan - Draft March 2009

vi Hudson-Raritan Estuary Comprehensive Restoration Plan - Draft March 2009

1.0 Introduction

TheComprehensiveRestorationPlan(CRP)fortheHudson-RaritanEstuary(HRE)isintendedtoserveasamasterplan

forrestorationeffortswithintheHRE.VolumeIof theCRPpresentedtheoverallplan,bydefiningthegoalof theHRE

EcosystemRestorationProgramandidentifyingtherestorationtargets.TheCRP’srestorationtargetsareintheformof

TargetEcosystemCharacteristics(TECs)thathavebeenassignedmeasurableshort-andlong-termobjectives(Table1-1).

Volume1identifiespotentialopportunitiestoachievetheTECobjectives,potentialfundingopportunitiesandpartnershipsfor

implementationandsubsequentmanagementstrategiesfortherestorationplan.Considerationsandrecommendationsfor

resolvingchallengestocurrentagencypoliciesandguidelinesthatwouldstreamlinerestorationeffortswerealsoidentified

inVolumeIof theCRP.

Thepurposeof VolumeIIof theCRPistoserveasatechnicalcompaniontoVolumeIthatwillassistrestorationpractitioners

inplanning,conductingandmeasuringthesuccessof restorationprojectswithintheHRE.Thisvolumeprovidesgeneral

guidanceonrestorationplanning,aswellasinformationspecifictotheTECs.ForeachTEC,theecologicalvalue,current

statusandresearchneedsarediscussed,andguidanceforconductingrestorationprojectsandperformancemonitoringis

provided.VolumeIIof theCRPisorganizedintothefollowingchapters:

Chapter1: Introduction

Chapter2: ConductingRestorationProjects

Chapter3: RestoringTargetEcosystemCharacteristics

1Hudson-Raritan Estuary Comprehensive Restoration Plan - Draft March 2009

Table 1-1. Target Ecosystem Characteristics (TECs) in the Hudson-Raritan Estuary study area.

2 Hudson-Raritan Estuary Comprehensive Restoration Plan - Draft March 2009

2.0 Conducting Restoration Projects

Conductingsuccessfulrestorationrequirescarefulplanningtoensurethat(1)theprojectisdesignedtoassistwithachieving

thegoalsof theoverallHREprogram,(2)thetypeof restorationissuitablefortheprojectsite,and(3)performancecan

bemeasuredtotracksuccess.Thefollowingsectionsprovidegeneralguidanceonplanningandimplementingrestoration

projectswithintheHRE.

2.1 Planning ConsiderationsPlanningforecosystemrestorationwithintheHREstudyareahasthepotentialtoposechallengesduetothevast

numberof municipalities,agencies,andstakeholderswithintheregion.Competinginterestsof theHRE’susergroups

couldslowtheprogressof achievingtheTECobjectives.Linkingplanningeffortsamongstakeholderswouldprovide

increasedopportunitiesformunicipalities,planners,developers,andagenciestoactuallyprovideopportunitiestomeet

economic,publicandecologicalgoalswithintheHREstudyarea.Forexample,thedevelopmentof theCRPcoincideswith

majortransitionsoccurringintheestuary’swaterfronts.Shippingfacilitiesarebeingupgraded,residentialcommunities

areexpanding,andthereareemergingdemandsforgreenerlandscapes,increasedwaterfrontaccess,andimproved

environmentalhealth.TherenewedfocusonthewaterfrontprovidesanopportunitytopromotetheCRPtoallsegmentsof

thepublicandbuildthelong-termsupportthatisneededtoachievesignificantprogress.TheTECtargetscanbeachieved

throughcollaborationwiththeseplannersandimplementinginnovativerestorationtechniques.Residentialdevelopment

providespotentialrestorationandcommunityinvolvementopportunities.Restorationopportunitiesalsoexistforareaswith

dedicatedurbanizedlanduses,suchasrestoringhabitatvaluetohardenedshorelines.

Oneof thefirstattemptsatrestorationwhilemaintainingshorelinestabilizationintheHREstudyareaisoccurringinthe

HarlemRiver,wheretheNewYorkCityDepartmentof ParksandRecreation(NYCDPR)isreplacingexistingsteelbulkheads

withastructurally-complexshorelinecontaininggabions,varioussizedrip-rapboulders,nativewetlandplants,andaseries

of tidepools.Thisapplicationof innovativetechniquescanbebeneficialinworkingtowardrestorationtargets,andsimilar

techniquescanbeincorporatedintofutureinfrastructuralplansfortheHREstudyarea.

ManymunicipalitiesintheHREstudyareahavemasterplansoropenspaceplansthatrepresentcommunities’long-term

visionsforimprovinglanduseandwaterfrontareas.Occasionally,unrelatedplansaredevelopedforthesamelocation

withdifferent,andsometimesconflicting,goalsandvisions.Theseplansmaynotcorrelatewiththeobjectivesof theCRP

byproposingalandusewherehabitatcouldbecreatedorproposinganinappropriatehabitatgiventhesite’sphysical

conditions.Theprocessof reachingouttocommunitiesandlocalgovernmentstolearnabouttheirmasterplansshouldbe

conductedaspartof duediligenceintheplanningprocess.Projectproponentsshouldseekouttheseplans,collaborate,

andidentifyhabitatrestoration/creationareasthatcoincideorenhanceexistingplans.NextstepsfortheU.S.ArmyCorpsof

Engineers(USACE)HREFeasibilityStudywillconsidermunicipalities’masterplanstoidentifypotentialcompetinglanduses

andtoaddtothemenuof restorationopportunitiesalonglocalwaterfronts.

ProjectPlanningandDesign1. Hastheproblemrequiringtreatmentbeenclearlyunderstoodanddefined?2. Isthereaconsensusontherestorationprogram’smission?3. Havethegoalsandobjectivesbeenidentified?4. Hastherestorationbeenplannedwithadequatescopeandexpertise?5. Doestherestorationmanagementdesignhaveanannualormidcoursecorrectionpointinlinewithadaptive

managementprocedures?6. Aretheperformanceindicators—themeasurablebiological,physical,andchemicalattributes—directlyand

appropriatelylinkedtotheobjectives?7. Haveadequatemonitoring,surveillance,management,andmaintenanceprogramsbeendevelopedalongwiththe

project,sothatmonitoringcostsandoperationaldetailsareanticipatedandmonitoringresultswillbeavailabletoserveasinputinimprovingrestorationtechniquesusedastheprojectmatures?

8. Hasanappropriatereferencesystem(orsystems)beenselectedfromwhichtoextracttargetvaluesof performanceindicatorsforcomparisoninconductingtheprojectevaluation?

9. Havesufficientbaselinedatabeencollectedoverasuitableperiodof timeontheprojectecosystemtofacilitatebefore-and-aftertreatmentcomparisons?

10. Havecriticalprojectproceduresbeentestedonasmallexperimentalscaleinpartof theprojectareatominimizetherisksof failure?

11. Hastheprojectbeendesignedtomaketherestoredecosystemasself-sustainingaspossibletominimizemaintenancerequirements?

12. Hasthoughtbeengiventohowlongmonitoringwillhavetobecontinuedbeforetheprojectcanbedeclaredeffective?

13. Haveriskanduncertaintybeenadequatelyconsideredinprojectplanning?DuringRestoration1. Basedonthemonitoringresults,aretheanticipatedintermediateobjectivesbeingachieved?

If not,areappropriatestepsbeingtakentocorrecttheproblem(s)?2. Dotheobjectivesorperformanceindicatorsneedtobemodified?If so,whatchangesmayberequiredinthe

monitoringprogram?3. Isthemonitoringprogramadequate?Post-Restoration1. Towhatextentwereprojectgoalsandobjectivesachieved?2. Howsimilarinstructureandfunctionistherestoredecosystemtothetargetecosystem?3. Towhatextentistherestoredecosystemself-sustaining,andwhatarethemaintenancerequirements?4. If allnaturalecosystemfunctionswerenotrestored,havecriticalecosystemfunctionsbeenrestored?5. If allnaturalcomponentsof theecosystemwerenotrestored,havecriticalcomponentsbeenrestored?6. Howlongdidtheprojecttake?7. Whatlessonshavebeenlearnedfromthiseffort?8. Havethoselessonsbeensharedwithinterestedpartiestomaximizethepotentialfortechnologytransfer?9. Whatwasthefinalcost,innetpresentvalueterms,of therestorationproject?10. Whatweretheecological,economic,andsocialbenefitsrealizedbytheproject?11. Howcost-effectivewastheproject?12. Wouldanotherapproachtorestorationhaveproduceddesirableresultsatlowercost?

Table 2-1. Checklist for restoration project planning (NRC 1992).

Otherplanningconsiderationsaretechnicalinnature,manyof whichwillultimatelybeguidedbytheTECsandtheirtargets.

TheUSACEPlanningGuidanceNotebookER-1105-2-100discussessixcriteriaorconceptsthatshouldinfluencerestoration

andpreservationactions(USACE2000):

• Scarcity:aresourcewithalimitedrangeorabundancemaybeconsideredvaluableorsignificantinaspecific

geographicrange;

• Representative:aresourcethatisrepresentativeof anaturalorundisturbedarea,suchasalargenumberof

nativespeciesinaspecifiedrange;

• StatusandTrends:trendsindicatethedecliningorimperiledhealthof aresourceandshouldalsoconsiderits

potentialforrecoverythroughhumanintervention;

• Connectivity:improveconnectivityorreducefragmentationbycreatingsuitablehabitatcorridors,removing

barriers,andaddressingpatternsof fragmentation;

• LimitingHabitat:habitatthatisessentialforimportantspeciesorcriticaltoaspecies’recoveryandsurvivalmaybe

consideredlimitingandwarrantprotection;and

• Biodiversity:effortsthatimproveorincreasebiodiversityshouldbeconsidered.

Theseconceptscanbeappliedforindividualrestorationprojects,butmayyieldthegreatestutilitywhenappliedinalarger

context(e.g.,estuary-wide).Agenericchecklistof projectplanningandimplementationconsiderationsmaybehelpfulin

prioritizingactionsandimprovingchancesof success(Table2-1[NRC1992]).

2.2 Regulatory ConstraintsAspartof projectplanning,projectproponentsshouldrecognizethatvariousFederal,stateandlocalenvironmental

regulationsinfluencelandusedecisionsthroughresourceprotection,landusecontrol,andpollutioncontrol(Table2-2).

Thepurposeof theCRPisnottosupersedelocalregulatoryauthority,buttoprovideguidanceonfutureactivitiessuchas

projects,policycollaboration,datacollection,andeconomicdevelopment.Identificationof andcoordinationwithinterested

regulatoryagenciesisessentialearlyintheplanningphaseof aproject.Eventhoughpermitapplicationsaregenerallynot

preparedandsubmitteduntiltheprojectdesignphase,earlycommunicationwithregulatoryagenciescanstreamlinethe

planningprocess.Earlycommunicationcanhelptoguidetheprocessbyidentifyingpotentialcomplianceissuesthatcan

delayorevenpreventprojectsfromoccurring.TheUSACE,stateregulatoryprograms,localconservationcommissions,

countyplanningdepartments,andregionalcommissionsshouldbeconsultedtodiscussprojectconceptsandtodetermine

therequiredapprovals.Environmentalandlanduseconstraintsassociatedwithprojectsmayinclude:

• Federal,state,and/orlocalwetlandsregulations;

• FederalEmergencyManagementAgencydesignated100-yearfloodplainandfloodwayswhereearthfilland

structuresarelimited;

• ThreatenedorendangeredspeciessubjecttotheFederalEndangeredSpeciesActand/orstateregulations;

• ConsistencywithCoastalZoneManagementAct;

• Historicaland/orarchaeologicalresourcesorfeatures(e.g.,damssubjecttotheNationalHistoricPreservationAct

Statute Concern

FederalResourceandLandUseControlStatutes

AirportandAirwayDevelopmentActof 1970 Airportdevelopmentimpactsoncommunities

ArcheologicalResourcesProtectionActof 1979 Prehistoricartifactsincludingskeletalremains

CoastalZoneManagementActof 1972 Controlof projectsincoastalzone

Departmentof TransportationActof 1966(section4(f)andFederal–AidHighwayActof 1968(section18(a))

Useof landforhighways(especiallyparksandotherreserves)

EndangeredSpeciesActof 1973 Protectionof endangered/threatenedplantandanimalspecies

FarmlandsProtectionPolicyActof 1981 Conversionof farmlands

FederalLandPolicyManagementActof 1976 Multipleuseof Departmentof Interiorpubliclands

FishandWildlifeCoordinationActof 1953 Fishandwildlifeconservation,interagencycoordination

ForestandRangelandRenewableResourcesandPlanningActof 1974

ComprehensiveplanningforUSFSforestsandrangelands

Magnuson-StevensFisheryConservationandManagementActAmendmentsof 1990

Managementof marinefisheriesandmammals

MarineMammalProtectionActof 1972 Marinemammalprotection

MarineProtectionResearch,andSanctuariesActof 1972 Marinesanctuaries

Multiple-UseSustained-YieldActof 1960 Multipleusemanagementof nationalforests

NationalEnvironmentalPolicyActof 1969 Environmentallyinformeddecisions,publicinvolvement

NationalForestManagementActof 1976 Directsforestplanning

NationalHistoricPreservationActof 1966 Preservationof prehistoricsites/structures

OuterContinentalShelf LandsActof 1953 Offshoreoildevelopment

WildandScenicRiversActof 1968 Balancesriverdevelopmentwithpermanentprotectionof thenation’sfree-flowingrivers

WildernessActof 1964 Managementof wildernessareas

FederalPollutionControlStatutes

CleanAirActAmendmentsof 1970 Airpollution

ComprehensiveEnvironmentalResponse,Compensation,andLiabilityActof 1980

Protectionfromandclean-upof hazardouswaste

FederalEnvironmentalPesticideControlActof 1972 Pesticidepollution

FederalInsecticide,FungicideandRodenticideActof 1974 Pesticidepollution

FederalWaterPollutionControlActAmendmentof 1972(ClearWaterAct)

Waterpollutionincludingfillingwetlands

MarineProtection,Research,andSanctuariesActof 1972(OceanDumpingAct)

Oceandumpingof wastes/dredgedmaterial

NoiseControlActof 1972 Noisepollution

ResourceConservationandRecoveryActof 1976 Hazardousandnon-hazardouswastemanagement

RiversandHarborsActof 1899 Depositionof refuse(Section13)innavigablewaters

ToxicSubstancesControlActof 1976 Chemicalsubstancescontrol

Table 2-2. Pertinent Federal resource, land use, and pollution control statues that should be reviewed when planning a restoration project (adapted from Kreske [1996]).

orstateregulationspromulgatedbyStateHistoricPreservationOffices(orTribalHistoricPreservationOfficeson

NativeAmericanlands);

• Contaminatedsedimentsandhazardouswaste;

• Othersitefeatures(e.g.,buildings,utilities,walls,andbridges)thatwillpotentiallyaffectrestorationworkactivities;

• Off-siteconstraintsupstreamof aprojectareathatmayaffectsuccessof theproject,suchasbridges(e.g.,footing

scourpotential),andburiedutilitylines.

Proposedenvironmentalrestorationprojectscanencounterpublicresistanceresultingfromperceivedthreats(e.g.,existing

land/wateruses,jobs,etc.)orfrommisunderstandingtheproject’sscope(Kreske1996).Althoughpublicinvolvementmay

notbearequiredcomponentof everyrestorationproject,thebenefitsof earlydisclosurewilllikelybesubstantial.Public

involvementprovidesanopportunityforconsensusbuilding,whereissuesareidentifiedearlyandstepscanbetakento

resolvethemsothatprojectmomentumcontinues.Takingadequatemeasurestopubliclydisclosetheproject’sgoalsand

proposedactions,throughpublicmeetingsorpublications,willidentifycommunities’desiresandhelpfocuseffortsonthose

issuesrequiringresolution.Inturn,thiswillhelpeliminateunnecessaryinvestigationsandbuildsupport,savingtimeand

money.Thelevelof publicinvolvementandeffectivemethodsof reachingthepublicvarybylocationanddependonthe

typeof projectproposed,emphasizingtheneedtoknowaregion’sconstituentgroupsandkeystakeholders.Constructive

feedbackonaprojectshouldbeintegratedintotheproposedprojectcomponentssothatthepublicseestheircontribution

andtheroletheyplayedinshapingtheproject.

TheUSACE’sFeasibilityPhasewillutilizetheCRPtodevelopanenvironmentallyandeconomicallysustainableecosystem

restorationprogram.Thedevelopmentof thisprogramwillincludefulfillingtheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA)

requirementforallrecommendedactionsthroughthepreparationof aProgrammaticEnvironmentalImpactStatement

(PEIS)withtheexpectationthatregulatoryagenciesmaybeabletosimplifytheapprovalprocessforrestorationactions

withintheHREstudyarea.

2.3 Siting ConsiderationsSiteselectionisacriticalstepintherestorationprocessthatcanhavelong-termimplicationsontheproject’ssuccessand

qualityof ecosystemservicesprovided.Itisimportanttoweighthebenefitsassociatedwithsitesize,adjacentlanduses,

andcommunityneedsandpreferences.

Itisbesttoconsiderrestorationsiteswithasuitablylarge“criticalmass”of areatomaximizethevalueof therestored

habitat,maximizetheeconomiesof scale,andprotectagainstdeleteriouseffectsof adjacentlanduses(NRC1992).Many

of theTECswouldreturnmoreandhigherqualityecosystemserviceswithlargerparcelsof restoredhabitat,suchas

coastalforests,wetlands,andwhenimprovingupstreamaccessincoastalstreams(e.g.,selectstreamsthatprovidethe

mostupstreamaccessonceabarrierisremoved).Forlinearhabitatsalongtheshoreline,suchaseelgrassandmaritime

forests,severalareascanbecreated/restoredandlinkedtogetherovertime.Smaller-sizedprojectstendtoprovide

commensuratelyfewerecosystemservices,butcanbeextremelyvaluableforcreatingveryscarcehabitats,meetingspecial

needs,ormeetingthegoalof adiversesystem.Theyarealsousefulforeducationalandoutreachpurposesbecause

theyareofteneasilyaccessibleandlocatedwithinareascommunitieswouldliketoreclaim,therebyincreasingstakeholder

supportfortheoverallprogram.Large-andsmall-sizedrestorationprojectsshouldbepursuedandconstructed,resulting

inamixof ecologicallyandeducationallybeneficialprojects.Additionally,becausetheHREstudyareaisdenselydeveloped

andintenselyused,anyparcelof availableland,regardlessof size,shouldbeinvestigatedforitssuitabilityasarestoration

Thegoalof theCRPistodevelopamosaicof habitatsthatprovidessocietywithrenewedandincreasedbenefitsfromthe

estuary.Thismosaicof habitatswouldprovidemultipleecologicalbenefitsandecosystemservices.Therefore,wherever

possiblerestorationprojectsshouldbesitedadjacenttoexistingcomplementaryhabitatsorbedesignedtoincorporate

severalTECsorhabitattypesintooneproject.Forinstance,manyspeciesof shellfishcouldberestoredinadditionto

oysters,mudflatsandwetlandsprovidehabitatforbenthicinvertebratesaswellasfishandbirdspecies,maritimedunesare

essentialforthestabilityof maritimeforests,andgrasslandsareacomplementary,thoughecologicallyrare,habitattype

intheestuary.Creatinglargeplotsof heterogeneoushabitatcomplexesprovideameasureof resilienceandsustainability,

evenenablingsystemstorecoverfromcatastrophicevents(Pastoroketal.1997).Knowledgeof speciesdistributions,

migratoryroutesforanimals,anddispersalpatternsforplantspeciesareimportantconsiderationswhendetermining

thespatialscaleandlocationof thehabitat(NRC1992).However,itmaybedifficulttoidentifyavailablelandadjacentto

existinghabitatsoroutsideof industrialandcommercialinfluencesintheHREstudyarea.

Inmanycases,restorationprojectsintheHREstudyareawillbeimplementedopportunisticallyinresponsetoavailable

funding,communityconcerns,andthepresenceof projectproponents.Restorationshouldstrivetoestablishvaluable

habitatsthatprovideincreasedecosystemservicesandecologicalbenefitstotheHREstudyareainaccordancewith

thesystem-widephilosophyof theplan.Eachprojectsponsorshouldconsiderwhethertheirproposedaction(1)meets

theidentifiedTECs;(2)couldincludeadditionalTECstotheirprojectplans;(3)considersupstreamanddownstream

consequencesof projectimplementation;and(4)considershowtheprojectmightintegratewithotherlocalprojectsto

provideanevengreaterbenefit.Tobesuccessful,opportunisticrestorationrequiresunderstandingmanylarge-scale

processes,includingthestructuralcomponents(i.e.,habitats)necessarytoimprovebiological,chemical,andhydrological

functions.Itisalsoimportanttorecognizethephysicalandbiologicalcontextwithinwhichrestorationisoccurringand

integrateindividualactionstofulfillacollectivevisionforthelandscape(NRC1992).TheCRPprovidestheframeworkto

guideopportunisticrestorationprojectstomaximizethesystem-widebenefitsbyworkingtowardsachievingtheobjectivesof

theTECs.

Findingabalancebetweentheecologicalneedsof thehabitatandhumanneedsandbehaviorswillbeamajorchallengeto

sitingprojects.TheHREstudyareacontainsmanylocationswherepermittedlanduses,suchasCombinedSewerOverflows

(CSOs),landfills,portterminals,andhardenedshorelinesarenecessarytosocietyandtheeconomyandcannotberemoved.

Insomecases,projectsmaybesitedinareaswherestakeholderscandirectlyinfluencemajorcausesof ecological

disturbance,tominimizeoreliminatethedisturbance(NRC1992).Sensitivehabitatsshouldnotbeplannedforareasprone

todisturbance.Populousareasmayalsonotbeappropriateforrestoringsensitivehabitatsbecausethecostsassociated

withrestrictingaccessandsafeguardingagainstvandalismanddisturbancefromferalordomesticatedanimalscanbe

prohibitive(NRC1992).Additionally,restrictingaccesstopopularrecreationallocationscancausecommunityresentment

towardfuturerestorationactivities.Instead,restorationprojectssitedinpopulousareasshouldbedesignedtoincorporate

recreationaluses,providingnaturalsettingsandenablingresidentstogainagreaterappreciationfortheserviceshabitats

provide.

2.4 Setting Site-specific GoalsItisimportanttodeterminethegoalsandobjectivesof arestorationprojectattheoutsettomakeprojectsuccesseasierto

gaugeandmorelikelytoachieve.Cleargoalsandobjectivesassistincommunicatingrestorationplanstopotentialfunding

sources,agencypartners,andthegeneralpublic(Pastoroketal.1997).Projectgoalsshouldbeconsistentwiththegoal

of theCRPand,wherepossible,shouldincorporateelementsof theTECtargetstatementsandplanningregion-specific

guidance.

Projectgoalsaregeneralstatementsaboutthedesiredoutcomeandtypicallyrefertotheecosystemattributestobe

restored,suchashabitattype,waterquality,plantcommunities,publicaccessopportunities,orfishandwildliferesources.

Goalstatementsprovideageneralframeworkfortheproject,suchasto“restorethenativeplantcommunityandlimitthe

presenceof invasivespecies,”“developrecreationalfacilitiestoincreasepublicaccess”,“restorenaturallyslopingintertidal

shorelineswithavegetatedupland,”or“restorehistoricalewiferunstoXYZstream.”Projectobjectivesaremoreprecise,

andmayincludethespecificcharacteristics,quantitativestatements,andtangiblebenefitsof thehabitatquality,waterquality,

orplantandanimalcommunitiestoberestored.Forexample,if thegoalwastorestoreshorelinehabitat,anobjectivemight

betocreatesubtidalhabitatcomplexestobenefitjuvenilefishortocreatea100-ftwidenativevegetatedbufferalongthe

shoreline.

Developingandprioritizingspecificobjectivesattheprojectout-sethasbeenshowntoleadtoprojectsuccess(Yozzo

andSexton1996,NRC1992).However,manyfactorsplayaroleindeterminingthescopeof arestorationproject,

therebyaffectingthelevelof detailthatcanbespecified.Thesizeandcomplexityof theprojectaretypicallyinfluencedby

surroundinglanduses,thesizeof theexistingordegradedhabitat,andthebudget.Havingpriorknowledgeaboutasite

cangreatlyimprovetheplanningandgoal-settingphase.Whenavailable,existingsitedatashouldbereviewedtodetermine

pastuse,levelof degradation,existingspeciescomplexes,andmajorimpairmentsthatshouldbeaddressedthrough

restoration.Itmayalsobehelpfultoapplythisknowledgeandsite-specificunderstandingtodeterminewhatinfluences

thebroaderregionallandscapemayhaveontheproject(e.g.,nutrient/sedimentinputs,speciesdistributions;Yozzoand

Sexton1996).Becauseof theconstraintssurroundingrestorationprojects,careshouldbetakenwhenestablishingstudy

objectivestomaximizeprojectbenefits,payingparticularattentiontofunctionaltradeoffs.Forinstance,designingaproject

tomaximizetheoutputof oneparticularfunctionorTEC(e.g.,habitatforestuarine-dependentfish)mayinvolveatrade-off

whereotherfunctionsarenotadequatelyincorporatedintothedesign(e.g.,bird/wildlifehabitat,shorelinestabilization).

Inadditiontoprojectgoalsandobjectives,project-specificperformanceindicatorsandsuccesscriteriashouldbedeveloped

tomeasureprojectsuccess.Performanceindicatorsarequantitative,measurablecharacteristicsusedtodetermineif

aprojectwillmeetpre-determinedsuccesscriteriaandgenerallyevaluatechangesinstructure(e.g.,plantdistribution,

organicmatter,bathymetry,etc.)andcommunitiesutilizinganarea(e.g.,benthicinvertebrates,finfish,wildlife,etc.).

Performanceindicatorscanbedevelopedduringthelifeof theproject,suchastargetspeciesheightandbasalareaina

maritimeforest,thenumberof colonialwaterbirdsnestingonanisland,thepresenceof targetfishandcrustaceanspecies

atasubtidalreef,ortherangeindailylowdissolvedoxygenconcentrationsinanenclosedbasin.Performanceindicators

shouldbebiologicallyrelevantsotheyprovideinsightintothesystem’sstructureandfunction,andberelativelysensitive

toenvironmentalstressorssotheycanbeusedasaproxyforenvironmentalhealth.Theyshouldalsohavesomeintrinsic

valuefromasocialperspective.Fromaplanningperspective,itishelpfultoestablishperformanceindicatorsconsistentwith

successfulregionalrestorationmonitoringprograms.Doingsocanprovidesomeassurancethattheperformanceindicators

areproject-appropriateandallowsforcomparisonsof baseline/post-restorationresultswithothersuccessfulprojects(Yozzo

andSexton1996).

Successcriteria,whichareusedtoevaluateperformanceindicators,aretargetedoutputsthatshouldbedevelopedand

agreeduponbythetechnicalstudyteam(i.e.,project’sproponents,outsideexperts,consultants,etc).Forexample,if the

goalof aprojectistorestorenativewetlandplants,thesuccesscriteriamightbethenumberof acresof marshthatshould

bere-colonizedbycordgrass(Spartinaspp.)at3,5,and10yearspost-restoration.Thefailureof aprojecttomeetthese

acreagetargetsshouldtriggerre-evaluationandperhapsimplementationof correctivemeasuresatthesite(i.e.,adaptive

management;Pastoroketal.1997,Weinsteinetal.1997).Thisre-evaluationshouldalsoconsiderif thelocationof the

restorationactionwasappropriate(e.g.,tidalregime,landuse,etc.).

Ultimately,projectsshouldbedesignedtoproducetangibleandmeasurableoutputs,withrealisticandattainablegoals,

objectives,andsuccesscriteria.Programsshouldbeflexibletoallowforchangingconditions,perceptions,ornew

informationtobeincorporatedintotheproject.Incorporatingflexibilitywithactiveprojectmanagementensuresthatthe

appropriatecombinationof physicalactionandmodificationstoprojectgoals/criteriaareemployedtoachievesuccess

(YozzoandSexton1996).

2.5 Monitoring ProgramsEstablishingaself-maintainingsystemrequirescontinuousinformationduringtheplanning,construction,andpost-

constructionphases,whichisgainedbymonitoring(YozzoandSexton1996).Developingamonitoringprogramreduces

theuncertaintyassociatedwithestablishinghabitatsthatmimicnaturalsystems.Monitoringplansshouldbeproject-specific,

focusingonmeetingthegoalsandobjectivesandevaluatingthevariablesmostcriticaltorestorationsuccess.Monitoring

of natural“reference”areasinadditiontotherestorationsiteisimperativetothemonitoringprocessandinbothdesigning

andadaptivelymanagingthesite.Referencesitessituatedwithinthelocalgeographicarea(or“referencedomain”)can

provideamodelfortherelativeacreageandjuxtapositionof eachhabitattype.Monitoringdatafromthereferenceand

restoredsitescanbeusedtodeterminehowsimilarthesitesaretoperformingecologicalservicesandhowsuccessful

therestorationprojecthasbeen,ultimatelyimprovinglong-termsuccessandefficiency.SincetheHREishighlyurbanized,

Baldwin(2004)suggeststhat“Referenceareas,ecologicalbenchmarks,shouldbechosenwithintheurbanizedsystem

wherespecieshavesucceededdespiteurbanconstraints.Becausethevegetationcommunitiesinexistingurbanwetlands

areadaptedtoanurbanenvironmentrestoringvegetationsimilartothatfoundinotherurbanwetlandsprovidesamore

realisticgoalthanattemptingtocreatevegetationsimilartothatof undisturbedwetlands.”

Conductingbaselinemonitoringof restorationandreferencesitesiscriticalsothatbaselineconditionscanbeevaluated

againstpost-constructionconditions.Performanceindicators,whichareusedtoevaluatethegoals,varyseasonally,in

frequency,andinthelengthof timetobecomeestablished,andtheseconsiderationsshouldbeincorporatedintoproject-

specificmonitoringplans.Post-constructionmonitoringshouldcoveratimeperiodappropriatetoevaluateprojectgoals

andcontinueuntilthesystemisself-sustaining,whetheritislessthanorlongerthanfiveyears(SimenstadandThom1996,

NecklesandDionne1999).

Thebenefitsof careful,comprehensivepost-constructionmonitoringcannotbeover-emphasized.Despitethis,restoration

projectsarenotalwaysadequatelymonitored,especiallypost-construction,oftenduetocostorotherfactors(i.e.,USACE

projectsadaptivemanagementperiodproposalis5years).Todefraycosts,manyprogramsintheHREstudyarearelyon

volunteers,suchastheNY/NJBaykeeper,theNYCAudubonSociety,andothernon-governmentalentitiesforsupplemental

monitoringdataorforcollectingamajorityof themonitoringdata.Volunteer-basedmonitoringprogramsarealow-cost

alternativeandcangathervaluable,high-qualitydataif properlytrainedandsupervised(Leslieetal.2004).Directly

involvingvolunteersintherestorationprocesshasaddedbenefitsbypromotingpublicawarenessandenthusiasmfor

habitatsintheHREstudyareaandencouragingthepublictotakeownershipof theprogram.Intheabsenceof long-

termcomprehensivemonitoring,projectproponentswillbeunabletodemonstratethatrestored/createdecosystemshave

providedthedesiredfunctions,orwilllacknecessaryfeedbacktodeterminewhetheradjustmentsshouldbeimplementedto

optimizeoutputsandachievesuccess.

Anotherimportantoutcomeof project-specificmonitoringistotrackprogresstowardtheTECtargetsandtosupplement

existingecologicaldatacollectedintheHREstudyarea.Restorationpractitionersshouldberesponsibleforreporting

monitoringresultstothemanagingbodyof theCRP.Ataminimum,themappedprojectlocation,acreage,TECsincluded

intheproject,cost(estimatedoractual),andprojectstatusshouldbereportedwhenmajormilestonesarereached.For

largerprojects,itwouldalsobehelpfulforrestorationpractitionerstoreportlessonslearned,projectconstraints,species

lists,rolesof stakeholders,andwaysadaptivemanagementwasimplementedtoimprovefutureprojects.Notonlydoesthis

providearecordof successtoencouragefutureinvestments,itenablestheoverallCRPtobebettermanagedbyidentifying

TECsthatneedattentionmorethanothers.

3.0 Restoring Target Ecosystem Characteristics

Thepurposeof theCRPistopromoterestorationthatwillcontributetoachievingtheTECobjectivesintheHREstudy

area.TheTECsaremeasurableobjectivesformeetingthecriticalhabitatandsocietalneedsof theHREstudyarea.The

TECsrepresentaninitial,decisiveenvironmentalagendafortheestuaryaswellasalong-termstrategythatcanevolve

withchangingenvironmentalconditionsandhumanneeds.Thefollowingsectionsdescribethecurrentstatus,presentthe

targets,andidentifyopportunitiesforrestorationof theTECsintheHREstudyarea.

3.1 HabitatsFiveof theTECsrepresenthabitattypesthatwerehistoricallyabundant,buthaveeitherbeeneliminatedorsignificantly

reducedinsizeintheHREstudyarea.Thesehabitatsareessentialtotheecologyof theHRE,andthepurposeof these

TECsistorestoreacreageof thesevaluablehabitatsintheHREstudyarea.ThefollowingsectionsdescribetheTEC

habitatsandtheirshort-andlong-termobjectives,presentspotentialrestorationopportunitieswithintheHREstudyarea,

currentstatusandresearchneeds,andsuggestedmonitoringparameters.

3.1.1 Coastal WetlandsCoastalwetlands,definedastidallyinfluencedwetlandsconnectedtotheopenwaters,historicallyrepresentedasignificant

habitatcomplexintheHREstudyarea.TheyareamongthemostproductiveecosystemsonEarth,withmeasured

productionratesexceedingthoseof tropicalrainforestsandfreshwaterwetlands(Goodetal.1982).

Coastalwetlandsarecharacterizedbyadistinctivevegetationcommunity.Smoothcordgrass(Spartinaalterniflora)

dominatesintertidalsaltmarshcommunitiesintheHREstudyarea.Thisspeciesgenerallyoccursbetweenmeanhighwater

(MHW)andmeansealevelandmayvaryingrowthform(i.e.,tall,medium,andshort),dependingontidalfloodingfrequency

andduration.AboveMHW(highmarsh)thefloralcompositionof saltmarshesincreasesindiversity,withseveralplant

speciestypicallypresent,includingsaltmeadowhay(S.patens)andsaltgrass(Distichlisspicata).Thestructureandfunction

of manycoastalwetlandsintheHREstudyareahavebeenalteredinrecentdecadesbytheproliferationof anaggressive

Europeangenotypeof commonreed(Phragmitesaustralis)thatformsmonoculturestands.Thereisconsiderableinterest

inrestoringcoastalwetlandsintheestuarybyremovingcommonreedandre-establishingnativesaltmarshvegetation(e.g.,

Spartinaspp.).

Itisunderstoodthattherearesomedifferingopinionsregardingthevalueof Phragmitesandothernon-nativespecies.

However,theintentof theCRPisnottoenterthatdebate,butrathertorestore,totheextentpracticableandfeasible,

indigenousspecies.Decisionsregardingtheappropriatenessof invasiveversusothernativespecieswillbemadeatthe

sitespecificlevel,notasapartof theprogrammaticplan.Themanagementof invasivespeciestomaintaindiversityisan

importantresponsibilityof theFederalgovernmentandotheragenciesandorganizations.ExecutiveOrder133112requires

theNationalInvasiveSpeciesCounciltoproduceaNationalManagementPlanforInvasiveSpecieseverytwoyears,andthis

planservesastheblueprintforallFederalactiononinvasivespecies.ThePlanwaswritteninassociationwitheightworking

groups,theInvasiveSpeciesAdvisoryCommittee,andinputobtainedfromthepublicatpublichearingsheldacrossthe

country.

Saltmarshvegetationisveryeffectiveatstabilizingshorelinesandprotectingcoastalareasfromerosionduringstorms.

Bytrappingsediment,coastalwetlandsretainimportantsediment-boundnutrientsintheestuaryinsteadof allowingthese

nutrientstobecarriedtosea(SenecaandBroome1992).Sedimentretentionincoastalwetlandsisimportantforchemical

detoxification,nutrientretentionandrecycling,anddecompositionprocesses(SenecaandBroome1992).Theabilityof

coastalwetlandstoretainhighlevelsof nitrogenhasimportantimplicationsforeutrophicationandnitrogen-loadingtothe

HREstudyarea.Coastalwetlandswithwidthsassmallasseveralhundredfeet(afewhundredmeters)canbenutrient-rich

andhighlyproductivebecauseof theirsedimenttrappingabilities(TealandHowes2000).

Coastalwetlandsprovidevaluablehabitatforavarietyof organisms.Juvenilefishandcrustaceansgainrefugefrom

predatorsandbenefitfromabundantpreyresourcesinsaltmarshes.Wadingbirds,suchasegretsandherons,preyupon

residentfishesandinvertebratesinsaltmarshes.Migratorywaterfowlusesaltmarshesasstopoversduringtheirwinter

andsummermigrations.Avarietyof mammalsusesaltmarshesforforaging,breeding,andrefuge.Northerndiamondback

terrapins(Malaclemysterrapinterrapin),forageandbreedinsaltmarshes.

Coastalwetlandscanbeimportantrecreationareasandcanoffernumerouseducationalopportunities.Examplesof human

recreationalusesincoastalwetlandsof theHREincludebirdwatching,fishing,boating,andhiking.Ecologicalstudiesand

educationalprogramsintheHREincludeparticipationbyschoolchildren,collegestudents,andgraduateresearchstudents.

Theaestheticqualitiesof coastalwetlandsarevaluedbymanywhochoosetoresideinorvisitthecoastalzone.

Historically,coastalwetlandsrepresentedasignificanthabitatcomplexintheHREstudyarea.However,alargeportion

of thecoastalwetlandhabitatintheHREstudyareahasbeendegradedordestroyedbyhumanactivities.Themost

devastatinglosseshaveoccurredsinceWorldWarIIandbeforetheimplementationof theCleanWaterAct(CWA)whenlarge

expansesof wetlandswerefilled,drainedordiked(Bone1997).

Inthelast30years,cumulativewetlandlosseshaveslowedduetotheimplementationof protectivelegislationand

mitigation.Yet,acresof wetlandsstilldisappearandaredegradedannuallyintheHREstudyarea.Manyfactorshave

beensuggestedaspossiblecontributorstocurrentwetlandhabitatloss:sealevelrise;alterationsintheestuary’ssediment

budget;erosionduetochangesinwaveenergy;effectsof contaminants;changesinhydrologicconnectivity;orexcessive

consumptionof marshgrassesbywaterfowl(Steinbergetal.2004).Otherthreatsarisethroughchangesinsoilchemistry

andmoisture(e.g.,duringdroughts),suchassoiloxidation,soilacidification,andmetaltoxicitywhichcancausesudden

lossesof acresof wetlands.Stressedwetlandsmaybemoresusceptibletofungalpathogensandelevatedsalinities

(LindstedtandSwenson2006).Wetlandlossiscomplexandislikelyafunctionof manyfactors,eachof whichvariesin

intensityandexposureamongregionsof theHREstudyarea.

Thesewetlandfunctionsarenotexpectedtohaveestuary-wideeffects(e.g.,waterqualityimprovementsthroughoutthe

estuary).Instead,individualcoastalwetlandprojectsshouldevaluatethemeritof creatingsubsetsof thefollowingseven

functionswithinthevicinityof theprojectsite,payingparticularattentiontotheecologicalandsocietalneedsof theregion:

1.nutrientandcarbonretention;2.plantcommunitysupport;3.sedimentaccretionandstabilization;4.habitatforestuarine

nekton(i.e.,fishandmacrocrustaceans);5.habitatforwetlandbirds;6.habitatforothermarsh-dependentorganisms(e.g.,

smallmammals,diamondbackterrapins,terrestrialinvertebrates);and7.sceneryandrecreation(Bainetal.2007).

Restorationandcreationof wetlandsshouldnotbetheonlymethodbywhichthishabitatcomplexispreserved.The

scientificandregulatorycommunitiesshouldalsobeencouragedtoidentifywaystoconserveexistingwetlandsintheHRE

studyarea.

TEC Guidance

Coastalwetlandrestorationandcreationprojectsshouldattempttocreatehigh-qualityandsustainablesystemsthatclosely

mimicnativecommunities.Oftentimes,degradedwetlandsrepresentthegreatestpotentialforenhancingecologicalfunction

inanareaandmayrepresentthemostcost-effectiveopportunities.Althoughnon-nativeplants(e.g.,commonreed,

Phragmitesaustralis)providesomeecologicalfunctionsandfulfillsomespecieshabitatrequirements,projectsshouldstrive

toestablishnativeplantcommunities,recognizingthatmaintainingtheseassemblageswilllikelyrequireinterventionanda

commitmenttoperiodicmaintenance.

Implementationof apreferredrestorationactivitywillbesubjecttoreviewandapprovalbytheappropriateregulatory

agencies.Properplanningandobtainingearlyprojectsupportbyregulatoryagenciesattheoutsetof planningprocesswill

aidinidentifyingandresolvinganyphysical,regulatory,andinstitutionalconstraints(i.e.,standardcontaminantsampling).

Suggested Monitoring Parameters

Coastalwetlandmonitoringprotocolsshouldbetailoredtoindividualprojectgoalsandincorporatesomedegreeof site-

specificity(Niedowski2000).Togaugesuccess,restorationgoals,objectives,performanceindicatorsandsuccesscriteria

shouldbeclearlystatedandregularlyre-evaluatedunderanadaptivemanagementframework.Awell-designedmonitoring

programwillallowpractitionerstodetectdeviationfromprojectedresultsmonths,years,ordecadesfollowingconstruction.

Forexample,yearlymonitoringof arestoredsaltmarshmightrevealencroachmentbyPhragmitesaustralisorotherinvasive

plantspecies.Hydrologicmonitoringmayrevealdeficienciesinthedesignof aculvertorwatercontrolstructure,whichmay

resultininsufficientdrainage.Manualharvestingorchemicalcontrolmaybeperiodicallyrequiredtocontrolthespreadof

invasiveplants.Thespecificdesignfeaturesof aculvertorwatercontrolstructuremayrequireenhancementormodification

duringsuccessiveyearstooptimizetidalflowpatterns

Suggestedparameterstobemonitoredatsaltmarshrestorationandreferencesitesinclude:

• Surfacetopographyandelevation

• Tidalcreekcross-sections,sinuosityanddensity(i.e.,numberandorderof channelsperunitof area)

• Watertabledepth

• Surfacewaterlevelchanges

• Surfaceandgroundwaterquality

• Soilorganicmatterandwatercontent

• Sedimentaccretionrates

• Plantspeciesdistributionandcover

• Benthicinvertebratecommunities

• Utilizationof themarshbyfinfishandcrustaceans

• Utilizationof themarshbywildlife

• Stormsurgeandfloodhazard

Apost-constructionmonitoringprogramshouldincludecomponentssimilar(oridentical)tothosemeasuredduringbaseline

siteassessments.Anadditionalcomponenttoconsidermonitoringisthepublicuseof arestoredornewlycreatedcoastal

wetland(e.g.,paddlers,birders,anglers,educationalgroups),whichassessestheintrinsicandrecreationalvalueof coastal

wetlandprojects.

3.1.2 WaterbirdsWaterbirdsfunctionasimportantpredatorsinestuarinesystems,areindicatorsof ecosystemintegrity,andareintrinsically

valuabletothepublic(Bainetal.2007).Aquaticbirds(or“waterbirds”)includeavarietyof birdsadaptedtolifeinand

aroundcoastalhabitats.Waterbirdgroupsincludeseabirds(e.g.,pelicans,cormorants,gullsandterns),shorebirds,(e.g.,

ploversandsandpipers),waterfowl(e.g.,ducks,geese),andlong-leggedwadingbirds(e.g.,herons,egrets,andibis).Within

theHREstudyarea,aparticularsubsetof waterbirds,thelong-leggedwadingbirds,arethefocusof thisTEC.Ninespecies

of egrets,ibisesandheronsarecollectivelyknownasthe“HarborHerons,”andthisassemblagehasbeenmonitored

annuallyintheHREbyNewYorkCityAudubonanditsagencyandinstitutionalpartnersforovertwodecades(Bernick

2007).

Astoppredatorsincoastalwetlands,waterbirdsconsumefishandcrustaceanswithincoastalwetlandsandotherlittoral

areas,therebyplayinganimportantroleinenergytransferandcontrollingpopulationdynamicsinthesecommunities.

Waterbirdsintheirnaturalsettingaresoughtafterbymembersof thebirdingcommunity,membersof whichareoftenactive

supportersof ecologicalrestorationinitiatives,especiallyinurbanlocales.Inadditiontotheimportantecologicalroleand

theviewingopportunitieswaterbirdsoffer,theyalsofunctionasindicatorsof ecologicalhealth.Throughbioaccumulationof

contaminantsinthefoodweb,birdreproductioncanbeimpaired,leadingtodiminishedorextirpatedpopulations.

TheHarborHeronshaveexperiencedadramaticcomebacksincethe1960s,whenpopulationswerenearlyextirpatedby

centuriesof hunting,pollution,andhabitatloss.Withimprovedwaterandhabitatquality,heronsbeganpopulatingthe

uninhabitedislandsof theArthurKill,KillVanKull,EastRiver,andJamaicaBayduringthelate1970s(Steinbergetal.2004).

TenislandsintheHREstudyareacurrentlyfunctionasnestingrookeriesforresidentandtransientwaterbirds.Some

islandsoccurinopenwater,likethoseinLowerNewYorkBay,whileothersareclosetoland,likethoseintheEastRiver,or

surroundedbyintertidalmarshes,suchastheislandsinJamaicaBay.Ineachsituationtheislandsareisolated,vegetatedby

treesandshrubsessentialfornesting,yetlocatedwithincloseproximitytoforagingsites(typicallyintertidalwetlands).Even

islandsthatappearfarremovedfromfeedinggroundsmayprovidevaluablehabitatinanurbansetting.Severalwaterbird

speciesintheHREstudyareahavebeendocumentedtoflyapproximately12miles(20km)toreachforagingareas(Nagy

2005).Becausethesespeciesarehighlymobile,theycanutilizealternativenestingsiteswhennestinghabitatdegradeson

someislands.

Speciessuchasblack-crownednightheron(Nycticoraxnycticorax),yellow-crownednightheron(Nyctanassaviolacea),

glossyibis(Plegadisfalcinellus),snowyegret(Egrettathula),andgreategret(Casmerodiusalbus)arethemostabundant

andof primaryconcernintheHREstudyarea.Attheirpeak,waterbirdnestingintheestuaryconstitutednearly25%of

theentireNewYork,NewJersey,andConnecticutpopulations(Steinbergetal.2004,Kerlinger2004).However,recently

productivenestinghabitats,includingislandsintheArthurKillandKillVanKull,havebeenvirtuallyabandonedbywaterbirds

withinthepastseveralyears,andbreedingpopulationsmaynowbedecliningonceagain.

TEC Guidance

Severalfactorsinfluencetheuseof islandsbynestingwaterbirds,includinghabitatchangesandincreaseddisturbance.

Manyof theestuary’sshorelinesaresubjecttostrongcurrentsanderosivewaveaction,whichcanreduceforaginghabitat.

Furtherlossestoforaginghabitathaveoccurredthroughrecentoilspills,persistentcontamination,remnantdebris,

encroachingdevelopment,andinvasivenon-nativespecies(Yozzoetal.2001).

Increaseddisturbanceontheislandshascauseddeclinesinsuitablenestingmaterialorhabitatanddecreasedthenumber

of suitablenestingareasintheHREstudyarea.Potentiallycriticaldisturbancestowaterbirdnestinghabitatandsuggested

methodsformitigatingthedisturbancesinclude:

• Invasivevinesandshrubs-Duringthe2007Audubonsurvey,egretsandheronswereobservednestingonthe

invasivemultifloraroseshrubs(Rosamultiflora)andaninvasivevine,kudzu(Puerariamontana;Bernick2007).

Thisisaconcernbecausewaterbirdscanbecometangledintheinvasivevinesandasinvasivevinesspread,they

canreplacemoredesirablenativetreespecies.Invasivespeciesremovalprogramsandprogramstoplantnative

treespeciessuitablefornestingcanbeconductedtoamelioratetheimpact.Theseprogramsshouldbetargeted

onislandsthatarecurrentlyusedbywaterbirdsasthenativetreeswillrequireseveralyearsof growthtoprovide

suitablenestinghabitat.

• Asianlong-hornedbeetle-Therecentdiscoveryof anAsianlong-hornedbeetle(Anoplophoraglabripennis)

infestationonPrallsIslandinMarch2007,ledresourcemanagersfromNYSDEC,NYCDPR,U.S.Departmentof

Agriculture,andNewYorkState’sDepartmentof AgricultureandMarketstoremove3,000potentialhosttreeson

thatisland(Bernick2007).Heavyinfestationsof thisnon-native,invasivespeciesof beetlekillimportanthardwood

trees,likegraybirchesandredmaples.Adultbeetlesburrowintothetreestolayeggs,andlarvaelaterdevelop

andfeeddeepwithinthetree.Deforestationisoneof thefewknownmanagementtoolsforcontrollingthisspecies

onceaninfestationoccurs.However,thedeforestationof PrallsIslandalsopresentsarestorationopportunityfor

creatingacoastalcommunityof nativehardwoodtrees(seeCoastalandMaritimeForestsTEC).

• Double-crestedcormorants-Populationincreasesof thedouble-crestedcormorant(Phalacrocoraxauritus)maybe

negativelyaffectingwaders.Cormorants,whichalsonestintrees,tendtofoul(i.e.,excessivewasteaccumulation)

andsometimeskillsuitablenestingtrees.However,thereisnotyetsufficientinformationtodeterminewhether

increasesinthedouble-crestedcormorantpopulationinanywayrelatetoobservednumbersof waterbirdsinthe

HREstudyarea.

• Contamination-Someof theislandsintheHREstudyareamaycontaincontaminatedsoils,surfacewaters,and

biota,fromoilspillsorhistoricindustrialormedicaluses.Sedimentcontaminationcanhavesub-lethalbehavioral

effectsonbirds,andcontaminantsbiomagnifiedthroughconsumptionof fishandinvertebratesmayleadto

reproductiveanomaliesinavifauna.Relativelylittledataisavailableregardingpotentialeffectsof contaminants

onwaterbirdsintheHREstudyarea.Thisisanimportantavenueforfutureresearch,priortoimplementationof

restorationactionspertainingtowaterbirdsandtheirhabitats.

• Predators-Evidenceof eggpredation,particularlybyraccoons,hasbeenobservedonseveralof theislands,

butbecausetherearenolocalnaturalresourceagenciesconductingpredatormonitoringontheislands,littleis

knownaboutmammalianpredatorpopulations.Tomaximizethesuccessof waterbirdrestorationprojects,itmight

bebeneficialtoinitiateapredator-monitoringprogramaspartof anactivepre-orpost-restorationmanagement

regime.Predatorcontrolmethodscouldbeconsideredonislandswithknownimpactsoncolonialwaterbirdsboth

topreparethesitesforrestorationand,if necessary,toperiodicallymaintainthesepredatorlevels.Althoughthere

isnoformalpredatoreradicationprogram,theNYSDECwillremovepredatorsinresponsetocalls.

• Humandisturbance-Abandonmentof islandsmayalsooccurduetohumandisturbance,whichisagrowing

concernduetotheincreaseddemandforpublicgreenspaces(Nagy2005).Increasedhumanpresenceonislands

candisruptthenestingbehaviorof thewaterbirdsandleaveeggsvulnerabletopredation.Itmaybebeneficial

toeducatethepublicaboutthenestingwaterbirdsandtherisksassociatedwithhumandisturbancebyplacing

interpretivesignsalongislandtrails.Conductingvolunteer-basedhabitatrestorationorinvasivespeciesremoval

programsalsopromotesanincreasedawarenessof thewaterbirds.Forislandswherepublicaccesswillbe

permitted,restrictingaccesstothecoloniesduringthenestingseasonmaybenecessary.

Althoughthefactorscontributingtotheabandonmentorcolonizationof anislandarecomplex,thisbehavioremphasizesthe

needfordiverseandscatteredislandhabitat.Changesinhabitatavailabilityorsuitabilitycanaffectlocalpopulationlevels

throughfailednestingattemptsorabandonment.If manyof theexistingthreatstowaterbirdscontinue,theymaycause

furtherpopulationdeclinesinbreedingpairsintheHREstudyarea.Therefore,restoringoptimalrookeryhabitatonexisting

islandsandcreatingadditionalforaginghabitat(intheformof intertidalwetlands)canprovideestuary-widebenefitsto

thousandsof waterbirds.

Data Needs

Futurebaselinestudiesshouldevaluatethespecificattributesof eachislandintermsof soils/substrate,vegetationcover,

predators,andhumandisturbance(includingcontaminationof soilsandbiota).Inthefaceof potentiallysignificantincreases

insealevelrisewithintheHREstudyareaincomingyears,islandhabitatsshouldberestoredwithlong-termsustainability

inmind;thismayentailraisingtheelevationsof low-lyingareaswithcleanfill(e.g.,dredgedsandfromongoingchannel

maintenanceprojects)priortotherestorationof nativevegetationcommunities.

Inordertogainabetterunderstandingof thespatialrelationshipsbetweenexistingnestingareasandavailableforaging

habitat,itisrecommendedthatradio-telemetryandbandingstudiesbeconductedongroupsof severalbirdsfromeachof

theactivecoloniestodeterminewheretheyarefeedingandthedirection/distancetheytravel.Thisshouldbeimplemented

asabaselinemonitoringcomponentatexistingrookeries,andincorporatedintoalong-termmonitoringprogramatrestored

islands,followingre-colonizationbywaders.

Animportantbaselinedatacomponentwillbetoidentifythepresenceof contaminatedsoilsorbiotaontheislands,evaluate

bodyburdensforthepopulations,anddeterminetheeffectof contaminantsonbehaviorandreproductivehealthof

waterbirdpopulations.Beyondtheinitialbaselinecharacterization,itwillbeimportanttomonitorcontaminantsinsoilsand

biotaatrestoredsitesonalong-termbasis(yearstodecades)tobeabletoevaluatethisfactorontheintegrityof waterbird

populationsintheHREstudyarea,relativetoimprovementsinnesting/foraginghabitat.

Waterbirdsitemonitoringprotocolsshouldbetailoredtoindividualprojectgoalsandincorporatesomedegreeof site-

specificity(Niedowski2000).Togaugesuccess,restorationgoals,objectives,performanceindicatorsandsuccesscriteria

shouldbeclearlystatedandregularlyre-evaluatedunderanadaptivemanagementframework.Awell-designedmonitoring

programwillallowprojectmanagerstodetectdeviationfromprojectedresultsmonths,years,ordecadesfollowing

construction.Forexample,yearlymonitoringof arestoredrookery/nestingsitemightrevealencroachmentbycommonreed

(Phragmitesaustralis),tree-of-heaven(Ailanthusaltissima),sumacs(Rhusspp.),orotherinvasiveorundesirableplant

species.Manualharvestingorchemicalcontrolmaybeperiodicallyrequiredtocontrolthespreadof invasiveplants.The

specificdesignfeaturesof anisland-nestingsitemayrequireenhancementormodificationduringsuccessiveyearstoensure

integrityinthefaceof stormsand/orerosionfromvesselwakes.

WithintheHREstudyarea,aconsiderablebodyof knowledgeexistsonthenumbersof breedingpairsforindividualwader

populations.However,additionalinformationisneededonthespecificenvironmentalattributesof islandsandotherareas

thatcurrentlyserveormayhavehistoricallyservedasnestingsites.Collectionof thisinformationshouldprecedeanylarge-

scaleimplementationof restorationprojectsintendedtobenefitwadersand/orshorebirdsintheHREstudyarea.Suggested

parameterstobemonitoredatrestoredwaterbirdrookery/nestingsitesinclude:

• Surfacetopography,elevation,andshorelineerosion

• Surfacewaterquality

• Soilorganicmatterandcontaminantconcentrationsinsoilsandbiota

• Plantspeciesdistributionandcover,especiallyinfluxof invasivespecies

• Colonizationorre-colonizationof thesitebytargetwaterbirdspecies,aswellasbynon-targetwaterbirds,suchas

cormorants

• Quantifyingnesting/fledglingsuccess

• Determinationof materialusedinnestconstructionatactiverookeries

• Movementsof targetspeciesbetweenrookeriesandforagingsites

• Utilizationof thesitebyotherwildlife,especiallypredatorsoneggsandchicks

• Utilization/disturbanceof thesitebyhumans

Ideally,awaterbirdrestorationsiteshouldbemonitoreduntilitappearsmatureandself-sustaining,andisbeingusedin

successiveyearsbyasub-population(s)of thetargetspecies.

3.1.3 Coastal and Maritime ForestsTheCoastalandMaritimeForestsTECaddressesecologicallyrareandunusualsystemsthathavebecomevulnerableto

extirpation,withintheHREstudyareaandglobally.Theseplantcommunitiesareimportantecologicalcorridors,providing

habitatandfoodresourcestosupportmanywildlifespecies.

Maritimeplantcommunitiesaredynamicsystemsthatoccuracrossarangeof fringeseacoasthabitatsinnarrow,

discontinuousbands(NBS1995).Theseforests,oftendescribedas“strandforests”,areinfluencedbystrongsaltspray,

highwinds,unstablesubstrates(e.g.,dunedeposition/shifting),andhavecharacteristicallystuntedandcontortedtreeswith

“salt-pruned”branches(NBS1995,Yozzoetal.2003,Edingeretal.2002).Therelativeinfluenceof physicalstressors

likesaltsprayorsandysoilslimitscanopyheightandshapesspeciescompositioninmaritimeforests(NBS1995).High

surfacesoiltemperatures,sandysoilswithlownutrients,anunpredictablesupplyof freshwaterandperiodicseawater

inundationalsomaketheselandsformidabletomostplantspecies(Bainetal.2007,NBS1995,Yozzoetal.2003).Some

maritimespecieshaveevolvedadaptationstoprotectagainstsaltspray,suchascompletingtheirentirelifecyclebetween

majorstorms,growinginalow-profileformtoavoidthespray,orgrowingbeneathprotectivecanopiesof moresalt-tolerant

species(Bainetal.2007).

Maritimecommunitiesareperpetuallyshiftingcomplexesthatinterchangeinresponsetothedynamicsof thesubstrate.

Beachanddunehabitatsarethemostdynamicof themaritimevegetativecommunities,beingmodifiedbywindsandwaves

andstabilizedbyvegetation.Whenthedunesarealtered,thischangestheinlandshrubandforestedlands,bringingthem

closertoshore,pushingthemfurtherinlandorevenperiodicallyeliminatingthem.Herbaceousandshrublayersthrive

ontheoutskirtsof theforestandinbogareas,behindtheduneandswalecommunities.Bothevergreenanddeciduous

trees,suchasAmericanholly(Ilexopaca),oaks(Quercusspp.),sassafras(Sassafrasalbidum),shadbush(Amelanchier

canadensis),blacktupelo(Nyssasylvatica),beech(Fagusgrandifolia),redcedar(Juniperusvirginiana),northernbayberry

(Myricapensylvanica),andbeachplum(Prunusmaritima),commonlydominatetheforestcommunity.Thespecies

compositioncandependuponhowconnectedthesecommunitiesaretonearbyforestsonthecoastalplain(Bainetal.

2007).

Coastalforestsarenon-maritimecommunitiesfoundwithinthecoastalplain,butarenotexposedtothesameintensityof salt

spray,wind,andsubstrateshiftingasmaritimecommunities.Becauseof this,treesareof normalstatureandnotcontorted

or“salt-pruned”,despitetheminorsaltsprayfromseverestormslikehurricanes.Coastalforestsoccurondry,well-drained,

low-nutrientsoils,donothavedense,vineyundergrowth,andhavelowspeciesdiversitytypicallydominatedbyoneortwo

treespecies.Thesecommunitiesincludeoak,hickory(Caryaspp.),beech,holly,redmaple(Acerrubrum),andpitchpine

(Pinusrigida)forests(Edingeretal.2002).

Barrens(i.e.,pinebarrens)occuronshallow,low-nutrientsoils,comprisedof stuntedordwarfedtrees.Thesecommunities

occuronstabilizeddunes,glacialtill,outwashplains,androckysoilsandincludespeciessuchaspitchpine,scruboak

(Quercusilicifolia),postoak(Quercusstellata),andblueberry(Vacciniumcorymbosum)andhuckleberry(Gaylussacia

baccata)shrubs.Pine-dominatedforestsblendwithpine-oakforestsassoilcompositionchanges,butspeciescomposition

generallystaysthesame,withonlyabundancechanging(Olsvigetal.1998).Partsof LongIsland,mostlyoutsideof the

HREstudyarea,haveremnantpinebarrensthataresimilartotheNewJerseyPinelands.However,theseforestsarehighly

disturbedandcoveramuchsmallerareathanthoseof NewJersey(Olsvigetal.1998).

MostcoastalandmaritimeforestsintheHREstudyareahavebeendegradedoreliminatedbytimberharvestand

development.Recentencroachingdevelopmenthasincreasinglyimpactedandfragmentedthesecommunities.Although

therehavebeenfewattemptstorestoretheseforests,manyspeciesinthesehabitattypesareopportunisticandcanrapidly

colonizeprotectedareas,makingrestorationof theseforestcommunitiesintheHREstudyareapotentiallyfeasible(Yozzo

etal.2003).

TEC Guidance

Theseforestcommunitiesprovidemanyfunctionsincluding:

• Corridorforwildlife.Whenclosetoorconnectedtoamainland,maritimeforestscanprovidewildlifespecieswith

dispersalcorridorstoaccesscoastalhabitatsandcanbeareasof highspeciesdiversity(Yozzoetal.2003,NBS

1995).

• Foodsource.Manyof themaritimetreespeciesarefruit-bearingandhaveco-evolutionaryrelationshipswithavian

migrants,suchasrobins,towhees,andwarblers,providinganimportantfoodsourcefortheirfallmigration(Bain

etal.2007).

• Stormwaterreclamation.Forestsof approximately20acrescanprovidesomestormwaterreclamationservicesby

minimizingrunoff intowaterbodiesandrechargingthegroundwater.

• Shoreline/landstabilization.Shorelineanddunevegetationreduceserosionandprotectstheseareasfromwave

energy.Theseforestsarefringehabitats,adaptedtoharshanddynamicconditionsthatcanoccurincoastalor

maritimezonesandsurviveinregionswhereotherplantspeciesmaynot.

• Nestinghabitat.Thediamondbackterrapin(Malaclemysterrapin)andmanyshorebirds(e.g.,plovers[subfamily:

Charadriinae])usesandysoilsinlandfromdunesfornestinghabitat.Themaritimeforestscanprovidesecondary

nestinghabitatforbirdspecies.

• Refugefrompredators.Thespecificphysicalcharacteristicsof someof theseforesttypescanmakethesehabitats

relativelyisolatedfromothers,affordingrefugefrompredation.

• Habitatforrare,threatened,andendangeredspecies.Althoughthesespeciesarenotrestrictedtocoastaland

maritimeforests,theseareasprovidemuchneededfeedingandbreedinghabitat.

• Seedsource.BecausemaritimeforestsliedirectlyalongtheAtlanticFlyway,theyarevisitedbymanybirdsand

actasanucleus,dispersingseedsfromtheberriesoverawidenorthwardandsouthwarddistribution(Bainetal.

2007).

• Coverformigratorystaging.Heronsandegretsdonotnestinthesehabitats,butwillstageinthemduringpost-

breedingdispersal.

• Aestheticvalue.Forestscanprovidescenicviewsalongthecoastlineandofferhikingandwildlife-viewing

opportunities.

• Protectionfromclimatechange.Establishinghabitatalongtheshorelinecanprovidethebufferneededtoprotect

developedareasfromsea-levelrise.Treesprovideshadinganddonotradiateheatlikepavedsurfaces.Treesalso

supportcleanerair,whichisagoalof thePlaNYC2030initiative.

Severalareasof theHREcouldbeappropriateforcreatingtheseforesthabitats.Forinstance,brownfieldscouldbea

potentialrestorationopportunity,wherecleanfillmaterialcouldbeplacedoveradegradedsitetomakeitsuitable.The

cleanmaterialchosenforthesesitesshouldbeappropriateforthedevelopmentof thedesiredplantcommunityaswellas

economical.Topographymayneedtobealteredtocreateopportunitiesforadiversetreecommunity.Whereverpossible,

plantingsshouldbenativetotheHREstudyarea,andcareshouldbetakentoensureplantingsdonotcarryinvasivespecies

(e.g.,Asianlonghornedbeetle).CoastalandMaritimeForestsarebeingrestoredonclosedlandfills,likeacoastaloakforest

thathasbeenrestoredalongwithfreshwaterandtidalwetlandswithintheboundariesof FreshKills.Closedlandfillsare

occasionallyappropriatelocationsformaritimegrasslands,whichareregionallyrareandvulnerabletoextinctionthroughout

theirrange.Ultimately,whateveruplandsiteischosen,thesubstrate,salt-influence,andwatertablewouldinfluencethe

forestcommunity,makingitdifficulttoentirelyengineersitesfortheseforestcommunities.Currentlythereisnoestuary-

widesoilsdatasetthatcanbeusedtoidentifypotentialareasforsitingtheseforestcommunities,andthisrepresentsan

importantdataneed.

Inadditiontothesesitingandplanningconsiderations,thereareseveralothermanagementandregulatoryconsiderations

torestoringtheseforesttypeswithinanurbanestuaryliketheHRE.Forinstance,severalof theseforesttypesareadapted

toandmaintainedbyperiodicfires.However,prescribedburningsarenotpermittedwithincitylimitsforsafetyreasonsand

pollutioncontrol.Itmaybepossibletogainregulatoryandpublicacceptanceformanagingfire-dependentsystems,butin

theinterim,cutting/mowingplants,clearingtheunder-story,plantingburntseeds,orusingacombinationof thesemethods

maysuccessfullysustaintheseforests.

Anotherregulatoryconsiderationisthepotentialproximityof theseforesttypestomajorairportsintheHREstudyarea.

TheFederalAviationAdministration(FAA)hasbeenconcernedwithlandusedecisionsthataffectbirdpopulationswithin

afive-mileradiusof anyairport.TheFAAisconcernedwithincreasingtheamountof habitatthatwouldattractbirds

(i.e.,fruitingtreesandshrubs)nearairports.Birdstrikesbyplanesarecommonandcancausesignificantandcostly

engineandequipmentdamage.Theseconcernsareoftenaddressedthroughcooperativeinteragencypolicies,likeWildlife

HazardManagementPlans,thatdetailpreventativemeasurestoreducewildlifeattractants,minimizehazards,andidentify

responsibleparties.SeveralwildlifebiologistsworkinginandaroundtheHREstudyareabelievethatthepresenceof

maritimeforestsnearairportscouldreducethelocalpresenceof geese,ducks,andgulls,potentiallyreducingthenumberof

birdstrikesnearairports.StateandcityagencieshavebeencollaboratingwithairportsintheHREstudyareaandwiththe

FAAtominimizewildliferiskstoaviationandhumansafetyandprotecthabitatsadjacenttoairports.

Somehabitattradeoff issuesmayarisewhenplanningcoastalandmaritimeforestrestoration.Theseforestcommunities

shouldnotreplacewetlandsorgrasslands,whicharealsocriticalhabitatsthatshouldbepreservedandrestored.

WithintheHREstudyarea,littleinformationexistsforcoastalandmaritimeforests,andadditionalinformationisneededon

thespecificenvironmentalattributes(e.g.,soilcriteria,requiredminimumacreages).Collectionof thisinformationshould

precedeanylarge-scaleimplementationof forestrestorationprojectsintheHREstudyarea.Apost-constructionmonitoring

programshouldincludecomponentssimilar(oridentical)tothosemeasuredduringbaselinesiteassessments.Suggested

samplingparametersforbothrestorationandreferencesitesinclude:

• Presence/absenceof plantspecies

• Percentcover

• Soiltexture,organicmatter,andwatercontent

• Watertabledepth

• Wildlifeobservations

• Siteconditionsassessment

• PublicUse

• Stormsurgeandfloodhazard

Althoughqualitative,photographycanbeausefuladditiontoamonitoringprogram.Photographsatfixedstationsand

samplingquadratsshouldbearoutinepartof allmonitoringincommunitiesinwhichtheamountof treeandshrubcover

versusopenhabitat(e.g.,grassland)iscritical.Wherepossible,aerialphotoscouldbeobtainedfromstatesorflown

annuallytoprovideaholisticviewof changesingroundcoverandpatchiness.Periodictopographicsurveysmayalsobe

appropriateformaritimeforestcommunities,todocumentshiftingsubstratesandtheirinfluenceoncommunitycomposition.

3.1.4 Oyster ReefsOysterreefsprovidespatially-complexsubstrateandbenthicstructurethatisimportantformanyestuarineorganisms.A

well-developedreef willtypicallyconsistof intricatelylayeredformationsof liveoystersontheexteriorandlayersof old

oystershellformingthebaseandreef interior.Deepcrevicescreatedbytheoystershellproviderefugefornumerous

speciesof smallaquaticorganisms.Whetherthesesmallorganismsaresedentaryormobile,eachfunctionsasacritical

playerinthelowertrophiclevels.Oysterreefsarealsofeeding,breeding,andnurserygroundsforfinfishandlarge

crustaceans,wheremulti-speciescongregationsoccur(HardingandMann1999).Includedinthisdiverseassemblageare

manyimportantcommercialandrecreationalspeciessuchasstripedbass(Moronesaxatilis),bluefish(Pomatomussaltatrix),

andweakfish(Cynoscionregalis).Oysterreefsprovideattachmentsitesfortheeggsof manysmallfishes,suchasgobies

andblennies,aswellastheoystertoadfish(Opsanustau).Juvenileandadultoystersareimportantpreyforgastropods,

whelks,seastars,crabs,andboringsponges.Intertidaloysterreefsproviderichfeedinggroundsformanyshorebird

species.

Oystersarevaluableorganismsthatcanactuallypromotethegrowthandviabilityof otherhabitats.Byfilteringparticulate

materialfromthewatercolumn,oystersformanimportantlinkbetweenthepelagic(i.e.,openwater)andbenthicfoodwebs.

Throughwaterclarityimprovements,oysterscanenhanceothersubtidalhabitatslikeeelgrassbyincreasingtheamountof

lightthatcanpenetratethewater(CercoandNoel2007).Insomegeographicareas,oysterreefsmaydevelopsubstantial

verticalrelief off theseafloor,alteringpatternsof currentflowandpossiblycreatingorexpandingshallowwaterhabitatby

trappingsediments.Oysterreefscanencouragethegrowthandexpansionof saltmarsheslocatedinshoreof thereefsby

functioningasnaturalbreakwaters(CoenandLuckenbach2000).

Inadditiontoprovidingmanyecosystemfunctions,oysterreefshavebeenanimportantculturalandeconomicresource

intheHREstudyarea.HistoricalaccountsfromColonialtimesdocumentabundantoysterpopulationsintheestuary

(MacKenzie1992).Largeexpansesof oystersinupperRaritanBaystretchedamileindiameterandwerereferredtoas

the“GreatBeds”(MacKenzie1992).PopulationsalsoexistedintheHudsonRiverandtributariesof StatenIsland,although

theupstreamextenttowhichtheyoccurredisuncertain(MacKenzie1992).Throughoysterseedingandculturingpractices,

theoysterfishingindustryintheestuarythrivedinthemidtolate19thcenturyandwasestimatedtocoverapproximately

200,000acres(810km2;Kennish2002,Bainetal.2007).However,bytheearly20thCentury,poorwaterquality

conditionsandincidenceof human-transferablediseases,suchastyphoidandintestinalillnesses,resultedindeclining

harvestandby1925,theoysterindustryintheestuarywasabandoned(MacKenzie1992).Thelossof historicoysterbeds

permanentlyalteredthestructureandfunctionof theestuary’sbenthicecosystem.Thislosseliminatedasignificanthabitat

resourceforestuarinefishandinvertebratespeciesthatrelyonspatially-complexsubmergedstructures.

Therearepotentialindirecteconomicvaluesassociatedwithoysterreef restorationefforts,includingenvironmental

educationandstewardshipopportunitiesandlocalizedimprovementstorecreationalfishing.Oystersarefilterfeedersand

cansignificantlycontributetolocalizedwaterqualityimprovements.However,thisbenefitiscommonlyexaggeratedand

shouldnotbeextrapolatedtoproducingestuary-wideeffectsintheHREstudyarea(Pomeroyetal.2006,CercoandNoel

2007).Oysterrestorationcanandshouldbeusedinconjunctionwithothermethodsof reducingnutrientinputstoimprove

estuary-widewaterquality(CercoandNoel2007).

Today,noknownoysterreefsexistintheHREstudyarea.However,scatteredliveoysterscanbefoundincertainareas,

indicatingthepresenceof isolatedpopulationsoralarvaltransportsourcethatoriginatesoutsidethestudyarea.Oyster

restorationprograms,suchastheNY/NJBaykeeper’sOysterRestorationProgramoystergardeningandseedingprogram

havebecomeincreasinglypopularthroughenthusiasticgrassrootsparticipation.Researchinitiatives,suchasthe

HackensackMeadowlandsOysterHabitatDevelopmentStudy,establishedthroughpartnershipswithRutgersUniversity,NY/

NJBaykeeper,HackensackRiverkeeperandNJMeadowlandsCommission,areinvestigatingoysterviabilitywithinportionsof

theHREstudyarea(Von-Weis2007).TheOysterReefsTECaddressesimportantbiologicalandphysicalcontributionstothe

estuary,andemphasizestheuniqueroleoystershaveplayedinthecultureandhistoryof theHRE.

TEC Guidance

Althoughmuchof theHREstudyareameetsthewaterqualityanddepthrequirementsforoysterreproductionandgrowth,

thelackof hardsubstratemaybeamajorfactorlimitingoysterpopulations.Theprimarymeansof restoringoyster

populationsistoprovideadditionalhardsubstrateforlarvaetosettleupon.Thisistypicallyaccomplishedthroughthe

creationof artificialreefsmadeof oystershell,shellsof othershellfishspecies,orman-madestructuressuchasdredged

materialcappedwithshell,concreterubble,orreef balls.Larvaloystersareplanktonic(i.e.,driftusingwatercurrents)for

thefirstfewweeksof theirlifeandaredispersedbywatercurrents.Thelarvaesettleonhardsubstrateswheretheyremain

fortherestof theirlife.Reefsmadeof shellorothermaterialmayinitiallyprovidethesameorgreaterhabitatqualityas

livingoysterreefs.Invertebrateandvertebratespeciesrapidlycolonizethereef structuresandattractotherorganisms

creatinganentirecommunity(MeyerandTownsend2000).However,reefswithsustainingpopulationsof livingoysters,

whethernaturalorartificiallycreated,arebelievedtoprovidehighqualityhabitatbecauseoysterscementtheirshells

creatingdeeperinterstitialspaces,generatetheirownsubstrate,andprovideacontinualfoodsourcefororganisms(Rodney

andPaynter2006).

Restorationmaynotbepossibleinplacesthathistoricallycontainedreefsbecausetheestuary’shydrodynamicshavebeen

alteredbyshorelinehardening,bathymetrychanges,andtheadditionof in-waterstructures,suchaspiers.Reefsmustbe

situatedinareaswithsufficienttidalflowtotransportfoodparticlestooysters,toreduceoreliminateepisodichypoxia(i.e.,

lowdissolvedoxygen),andtogentlyscourfineparticlesthatmayfoulareef bedincalmerwaters.Optimalhydrodynamics

arealsocriticalforthere-circulationof oysterlarvae,ensuringsettlementontherestoredreefs.

Considerationof optimaldepthsforconstructingreefswillbeanimportantsitingfactor.Inprehistoricandcolonialtimes,

mostoysterbedsintheHREstudyareaoccurredatdepthsof 2-16feet(MacKenzie1997).Americanoystersinthe

northeasternU.S.arelimitedtosubtidalhabitatsbecauseof shallowerhabitatsfreezeinthewinter(Dameetal.1984).

Assumingadesiredverticalrelief of atleastthreefeet,andhavingthreeormorefeetof waterabovethereef (atMean

LowWater)toprotectfromwaveactionandiceshear,locationsforrestoredreefsintheHREstudyareawilllikelyneedtobe

seawardof thesixfootdepthcontour.

HistoricalsalinitypatternsintheHREstudyareahavechanged,andthismayhaveimplicationsforsitingof oysterrestoration

projects.Becauseof changesinfreshwaterinputstotheestuary,somehistoricallyfreshwaterareasthatdidnothave

recordedevidenceof oystersmaynowbeabletosupportthem.Theinteractionbetweensalinityandincidenceof oyster

diseasesmustalsobeconsideredinarestorationplan.ThenotablediseasesthataffectoystersareDermo,causedby

Perkinsusmarinus,andMSX,causedbyHaplosporidiumnelsoni.Whilenotharmfultohumans,thesediseaseshaveseriously

reducedoysterharvestsinChesapeakeBayandothermid-Atlanticestuaries.Ingeneral,thegreatestincidenceof disease

occursinhigh-salinitywaters,greaterthan15ppt.

Sitingareasforoysterreef constructionmaypresentsometrade-off issuesintheHREstudyarea.Forinstance,themost

suitableareasforoysterreefsmayalreadysupportothershellfishspecies(e.g.,hardclams,Mercenariamercenaria).Oyster

reef restorationprojectscanbeplacedinareasnearexistingshellfishpopulations,butshouldnotaffectothershellfish

species.Anotherpotentialissuewithconstructinganartificialoysterreef throughtheadditionof hard-surfacesubstrate

isreplacingexistingsoftbottomhabitatandmodifyingthecompositionof thesurroundingcommunity.However,reefsare

thoughttobenefitthebenthiccommunity,wheretheproximityof hardandsoft-bottomsubstratesincreasesthediversity

of substrate,changeswatervelocitiesandflow,andimprovesthediversityandabundanceof preyitems(Grabowskietal.

2005).

Anothertrade-off issueconcernsareaswithexistingcommerciallyfishedshellfishpopulations.AccordingtotheNewJersey

Departmentof EnvironmentalProtection(NJDEP),shellfishinginNewJerseyisa$700millionperyearindustryandcouldbe

jeopardizedbypotentialpublichealthconcernsresultingfromillegaloysterharvestinclosedwaters.

DuringtheTECWorkshop,stateregulatoryagenciesrecommendconductingpilotprojects,notlarge-scaleprojects,dueto

habitattrade-off issuesandpublichealthconcerns.Thesepilotprojectsandtheirassociatedmonitoringprogramswillhelp

todeterminewhetherthecreationof largerreefsmaybepossibleandwillhelptoincreasethelikelihoodforsuccessof

futurerestorationefforts.Pilotoysterreef restorationprojectsshouldbeconductedatappropriatelocationsasdetermined

bydetailedfeasibilityinvestigations,preferablywithinwatersopentoshellfishharvesting,withinexistingenforcementareas

inclosedwaters,orwithincarefullyselectedareaswithoptimalwaterqualitythatareclosedtoharvesting.

Additionally,theNYSDEChasrequestedthatrestorationpractitionersandprojectsponsorsconsiderthefollowingwhen

preparinganoysterrestorationproposalinNewYorkwaters:

• Pilotscaleprojectsprovidethebenefitof communityinvolvement

• Proposalsforlarge-scaleprojectsneedtodiscusshabitatexchangeissues

• Riskmanagementstrategiesshouldbediscussed

• ShellsshouldbefromNewYork.Out-of-StateshellsmayrequiretreatmentpriortouseinNewYorkwaters.

• SpatshouldonlybefromNewYorkandnorthernstatesbecauseof diseaseconcerns.

• Protectionof WatersandCoastalZoneConsistencypermitswillberequiredforoysterrestorationprojects

• SuggestcoordinationwiththeFoodandDrugAdministration(FDA)andtheInterstateShellfishSanitation

Conference.

AlthoughtheNJDEPhasnotprovidedaformalsetof guidelinestobefollowedwhenplanningoysterrestorationprojectsin

NewJerseywaters,theydonotrecommendrestorationprojectsforcommerciallyharvestedshellfishinprohibitedorspecial

restrictedwaters(i.e.closedtoshellfishing).Becausetheyareconcernedwithillegalharvestof oystersandassociated

healthrisks,theNJDEPandNYSDECrecommendconsideringtherestorationof shellfishspeciesthathavenocommercial

valueinthesewaters.Presentlyeffortsarebeingmadetocoordinateoysterreef restorationactivitieswithintheexisting

states’permittingframework.Whilethegoalsof theregulationsarequitedefensible(i.e.,avoidingpublicharmwithrespect

tonavigationortheenvironment,protectingpublichealth,etc.),alternativemechanismsforachievingthemarebeing

considered.

Becausethesuccessof oysterreef restorationhasnotbeendemonstratedintheHREstudyarea,andoysterscanbe

consideredan“attractivenuisance”forillegalharvest,itmaybeprudenttoconsiderrestoringshellfishspeciesotherthan

oystersthatprovidesimilarecosystemservices,suchashardclams,softshellclams,bluemussesandribbedmussels.

Althoughtheecologicalbenefitsof thesespeciesarenotassubstantialasthoseof oysterreefs,therisksassociatedwith

restorationmaymaketheseprojectsmoreattractive.

• Hardclams(Mercenariamercenaria)–AlsoknownasNorthernquahogs,arethemostwidelydistributed

commercialclamintheUnitedStates,andareabundantintheRaritanandSandyHookbays(StanleyandDewitt

1983).Hardclamsobtainfoodparticlesbyverticallyextendingasiphonuptothesediment-waterinterface,and

thereforemaynotbeasefficientinfilteringtheoverlyingwatercolumnasoystersormussels,bothof whichgrowin

verydenseaggregationsontheseafloororasepiphytesonsubmergedhardstructures.Whilehardclambedsmay

providesomedegreeof structuralheterogeneityincomparisontobaresandflatormudflat,mostof thebiomass

islocatedbelowthesediment-waterinterface;thethree-dimensionalstructuralattributesof oysterormusselbeds

thatprovidecriticalhabitatarenotpresentinclambeds.Besidesbeingaharvestedspecies,anotherdrawbackto

creatingadditionalhardclambedsisthattheQuahogParasiteUnknown(QPX),asingle-celledmicroscopicparasite

causingdiseaseandoccasionallydeathof hardclams,mayparasitizethem.

• Softshellclams(Myaarenaria)–Alsoknownassteamersorlong-neck,arecommoninintertidalandshallowwater.

Thisspeciescanbepollution-tolerant,butbecauseitiscommerciallyandrecreationallyharvested,numerousbeds

havebeenclosedduetohighbacteriacounts.Reportedlylowpopulationlevelsmaybeindirectlyrelatedtohabitat

lossesof marsh,eelgrass,andlittoralhabitatintheestuary.Similartohardshellclams,softshellclamsarenotas

efficientasoystersinfilteringthewater,andtheyprovidelimitedstructuralhabitat(Yozzoetal.2004).

• Bluemussels(Mytilusedulis)–Bluemusselsarecommoninbothintertidalandshallowsubtidalareasthroughout

theHRE,typicallyattachedtorocks,andshells,pilings,andotherhardsubstrates.Unlikeclams,whichareburied

insand,musselsfiltertheoverlyingwatercolumndirectlythroughtheiropenvalveswithinwhichlaysasiphon,and

gills.Thus,musselsarecapableof filtrationatanypointatwhichtheyoccurinthewatercolumnnotjustatthe

sediment-waterinterface.Whensubmergedwithinshallowsubtidalorfloodedintertidalareas,bluemusselbedsmay

providestructurallycomplexrefugeorforagingareasforsmallfinfishandmotileinvertebratessuchasmudcrabs,

grassshrimpandsandshrimp(Yozzoetal.2004).

• Ribbedmussels(Geukensiademissa)–Ribbedmusselsareacharacteristicshellfishspeciesinsaltmarshes.

Incertainareasof theHRE,suchasJamaicaBay,ribbedmusselsexhibita“clumped’growthform,typically

alongcreekbankedgesof saltmarshes.Wheninundatedbyhightides,thesesubmergedmusselaggregations

mayprovideforageandrefugehabitatforsmallfishandmotileinvertebratesincludingkillifish,gobies,sand

shrimp,grassshrimp,juvenilelobsters,andmudcrabs.Inotherareas,individualribbedmusselsmaybewidely

dispersedacrosstheintertidalmarshsurface,partiallyburiedinthemud.Averycommonmarsh-residentfish,the

mummichog,hasevolvedaspawningstrategywhichinvolvesthedepositionof eggsinemptymusselshellslocated

intheupperintertidalzone,orhighmarsh(Able1984,TaylorandDiMichele1983,Yozzoetal1994).

Theproposedconstructionof ribbedmusselbedswashighlightedasapotentialmeansof improvingwater

qualityconditionsinthePlaNYC2030.Underthisscenario,a20m3musselbedtobecreatedinHendrixCreekis

hypothesizedtobecapableof filteringtheentiredailyeffluentloadfromthe26thWardwastewatertreatmentplant.

RibbedmusselsarenotcommerciallyorrecreationallyharvestedintheHREandtherefore,restorationof this

species,forlocalwaterqualityimprovementandotherecologicalbenefits,poseslittlesafetyrisktohumans.

Data Needs

Acriticalpieceof informationthatcanhelptoguiderestorationeffortsintheHREstudyareaisanunderstandingof the

hydrodynamicsthatwilldeterminelarvaltransportandsettlement.Settlinglarvaerequireasuitablehardsubstratefor

survival.Strategicplacementof reefswillbenecessarytoformsustainableoysterbeds.TheHRFrecentlyfundedastudy

whereresearchersattheStateUniversityof NewYorkStonyBrookareresearchingtheviability,growth,reproductionof

oystersatseveralsitesintheHRE.Larvalretentiontimesareadriverforpresenceof oysterpopulationsbecausehigh

velocitieswillcarryspat/larvaeouttosea.Forthisreason,theresearchersarealsopreparingamapof retentiontimesand

waterquality(salinity,DO)topredictoptimallocationsforoysterrestoration.

Suggestedparameterstobemonitoredatrestoredreefsinclude:

• Waterquality,withemphasisontotalsuspendedsolids/turbidity

• Hydrodynamic/waveenergycharacteristicsinthevicinityof restoredoysterreef

• Sedimentdeposition

• OysterSpatSettlement,Growth,Fecundity,MortalityandIncidenceof Disease

• Benthicandepiphyticinvertebratecommunities

• Utilizationof ConstructedReefsbyFishandInvertebrateCommunities

3.1.5 Eelgrass Beds Eelgrass(Zosteramarina),isoneof thefewplantsthatoccursalmostexclusivelyinsubtidalwaterswithmarinesalinities,

utilizingthewatercolumnforverticalsupport(Fonseca1992).TheEelgrassBedsTECrepresentsahabitatthatisvertically

andhorizontallycomplex,attractingdenseanddiversecommunitiesof macroinvertebrates,shellfish,andfishes,aswell

asprovidingcriticalnurseryhabitatforimportantfisheryspecieslikebayscallop(Argopectenirradians),summerflounder

(Paralichthysdentatus),Winterflounder(Pseudopleuronectesamericanus),tautog(Tautogaonitis),weakfish(Cynoscion

regalis)andbluecrab(Callinectessapidus;Fonseca1992,Yozzoetal.2003).Althoughfeworganismsfeeddirectlyon

livingeelgrass,theirbedssupportalltrophiclevelsandprovidemanyecosystemservicestotheestuary.

Eelgrassesarewidelydistributedinmarinewaters,rangingasfarnorthastheArcticCircleonbothcoastsof theUnited

States(Fonseca1992).AlongtheAtlanticcoast,eelgrassbedsoccurfromtheCanadianMaritimeProvincessouthtothe

Albemarle-PamlicoSoundinNorthCarolina.IntheHREstudyarea,eelgrassbedswerehistoricallyabundantalongthe

RaritanBayshoreinnorth-centralNewJersey(Bainetal.2007).Awide-ranginginfestationof themarineslimemold

(Labryinthulazosterae)alongwithdecliningwaterqualityinmanycoastalareas,virtuallyeliminatedeelgrassfromtheHRE

andotherAtlanticcoastestuariesduringthe1930s(Bainetal.2007).

Eelgrasscangrowrapidly,producinglargequantitiesof organicmatter(Fonseca1992).Thisprimaryproductionsupports

acomplexfoodwebthatcyclesnutrientsbetweensedimentsandsurfacewaters(Fonseca1992).Inshelteredregions,

eelgrasspatchesspreadtoformlargebedsthatarehighlydynamic,yetpersistentcommunities(Fonseca1992).Movement

of organismsandwaterinandaroundthebedstransportsorganicmattertoadjacenthabitats,helpingtoenrichtheestuary

(Fonseca1992).

Eelgrassbedsalsoprovidephysicalbenefitstotheecosystem.Waveandcurrentenergyisdissipatedthroughthebeds,

reducingerosionandsedimentresuspension,andpreservingsediment-dwellingbacteriaandfungi(Bainetal.2007,

Fonseca1992).Enhancedsedimentstabilityincreasestheaccumulationof organicandinorganicmaterials(Fonseca

1992).Eelgrassplantsproduceoxygenandcanfilternutrientsandcontaminants,improvingthesurroundingwaterquality

(Bainetal.2007).Theimprovedconditionssurroundingeelgrassbedsenhancetheirself-sustainabilitybyprovidingstable

sedimentandoptimalwaterqualityforeelgrassbedexpansion.

Eelgrassbedsareverysensitivetosedimentationandturbidity.Therapidadditionof afewcentimetersof sedimentcan

completelyburyeelgrass.Evensmallreductionsinwaterclaritycandegradeeelgrassbedqualityandcurtailgrowthrates

(Fonseca1992).Forthesereasons,eelgrassesaretypicallyfoundincoarsersubstrateswithmoderatewatervelocities(≤

1meter/second),wherewatermovementgentlyclearsaccumulatingsedimentsbutdoesnotincreaseturbidity(Bainetal.

2007).Althoughmostof theHREstudyareaisthoughttobetooturbidtosustaineelgrassbeds,smallpatchesof eelgrass

persistintheShrewsbury-NavesinkRivers(Bainetal.2007).

TEC Guidance

Seagrassrestorationisaninternationalscience,withmanyU.S.researchersandagenciesdevelopingsuccessfulseagrass

restorationprograms,throughoutthemid-AtlanticandsoutheasternstatesandinthePacificNorthwestandpartsof

southernCalifornia.Thetechniques,successes,andlessonslearnedfromdecadesof implementationarewell-documented

andshouldserveasguidelinesforrestorationintheHREstudyarea(Fonsecaetal.1998,Thom1990,Pickerelletal.

2005).Piloteelgrassrestorationprojectsandtheirassociatedmonitoringwillhelptodeterminewhetherthecreationof

largereelgrassbedsmaybepossibleandwillhelptoincreasethelikelihoodforsuccessof futurerestorationefforts.

Eelgrassrestorationprogramstypicallyhavevaryingdegreesof successand,occasionally,unexpectedoutcomes.Eelgrass

growthandrecruitmentseemstobedependentuponabalancebetweenwaveactionandambientwaterqualityconditions.

Additionally,itmaynotbepossibletouseknownlocationsof historiceelgrassbedsasasitecriteriabecausevesseltraffic,

bathymetry,shorelineconditions,andfreshwaterinputshavelikelychangedinthelast40ormoreyears.Eelgrassmay

havealsoexistedindeeperwaters,butwaslessvisibleandmaynothavebeendocumentedinhistoricrecords.Forthese

reasons,itisimportanttoselectpilotprojectsitesthatspanarangeof conditionswithintheknownhabitatrequirementsfor

eelgrass,whichcanoftenbeaccomplishedwithinarelativelysmallarea.Withinseveralmetersof ashoreline,thevariation

indepth,lightpenetration,wavetolerance,andsedimenttexture(e.g.,grainsize,silt/clay)canbeconsiderable.Thisnatural

variationwillhelpdeterminethemostsuitableconditionsandrefinecriteriaforlarger-scalerestorationprogramsinthat

waterbody.

Designconsiderationsof particularimportanceforeelgrassbedsincludetransplantspacing,lightattenuation,andpatterns

of currentflowinthevicinityof thetransplantsite.Carefulattentionmustbepaidtothespacingof individualplantingunits

inordertoachievesuccess.Anappropriatecurrentregimeiscriticalforeelgrasstransplantsuccess.If currentvelocitiesare

toohighinthevicinityof thetransplantsite,transplantsuccesswillbepoorduetolossof transplantunits,andcoalescence

mayneveroccur.Conversely,inlow-energyareas,developingbedsmaybesubjecttopoorwaterqualityandsuffocationby

finesediments,epiphytes(i.e.,plantsgrowingonplants)anddriftingmacroalgae.Depthandwaterclarityexerttheprimary

controlsovereelgrasszonationandthedegreeof colonizationbyepiphytes.

Avarietyof plantingandseedingtechniquesshouldbeemployedduringthepilotprojectstodeterminethemosteffective

methods.Theseincludeplantingindividualstakenfromhealthydonorbedsorseedlingsrearedunderlaboratoryconditions.

Plantingshouldoccurduringtheperiodwhentheeelgrassplantsaredormant,whichgenerallyoccursfrommid-September

toNovemberwhenwatertemperaturesintheHREareatorlessthan22°C.Althoughlesscommonlyemployedthan

transplanttechniques,eelgrasscanbepropagatedinestuarinewatersbydirectapplicationof seeds.InChesapeakeBay,

eelgrassseedshavesimplybeenbroadcastbyhandoff smallmotorboats(Orthetal.1994).“Seedbuoys”havebeenused

successfullytobroadcasteelgrassseedsinNewYorkwatersof LongIslandSoundandinthesouthshorebaysof Long

Island(Pickerelletal.2005).Theeffortandcostsassociatedwiththesetechniquesvaries,ascanthelevelof success.

Whereapplicable,experimentationwithseeding/plantingunitdensityanddonorsitesfortransplantsshouldbeconducted.

Thiscanincreasetheefficiencyandsuccessof largerscaleinitiatives.

Severalabioticandbioticfactorscouldadverselyaffecteelgrassseedpropagationandshootdevelopment,resulting

infailureof experimentalbedstosurvive.Theseincludeeutrophication,macroalgalblooms,bioturbation,waterquality

degradation,increasedturbidity,andwaveenergy.Manyof thesefactorsareinterconnected.Forinstance,eutrophication

decreaseswaterqualityandclaritybyincreasingthefrequencyandmagnitudeof algalandphytoplanktonblooms,which

increaseslightattenuation.Lackingsufficientlight,eelgrassbedproductivityandspatialcoveragedecreases.Under

sustainedorchroniclowlightconditions,eelgrasswilleventuallydieoff altogether.

GrazingrepresentsapotentialproblemforplantingeelgrassinJamaicaBay.Ducksandgeesemayeatthenewlyplanted

shootsandleavesinrestoredeelgrassbeds.Itmaybenecessarytodeployexclusionnetsandcagestoprotectthenew

transplantsfromdirectgrazingbywaterfowlandotheranimals,includinggreencrabs(Carcinusmaenus)andhermitcrabs

(Paguruspollicaris)whichareknowntopreyonneweelgrassshootsandseeds,respectively.

ShouldtheHREstudyareaproveunsuitableforlarge-scaleeelgrassrestoration,plantingapolyhaline(i.e.,brackish-water)

speciesof submergedaquaticvegetation(SAV),widgeongrass(Ruppiamaritima)isapotentialalternative.Widgeongrass

ismoreadaptedtowarmerclimatesthaneelgrassandhasalessrestrictedrangeof physicalhabitatrequirements,

includingsalinityandtemperature.Becausewidgeongrassismoretolerant,itisapioneerspecies,andcanquickly

becomeestablished.Theecologicalfunctionsassociatedwithwidgeongrasshavenotbeenasextensivelystudiedasthose

associatedwitheelgrass,andwidgeongrassmayprovidefewerecologicalbenefitsascomparedtoeelgrass.

Theremaybesomeusergroupconflictsorhabitattradeoffsassociatedwitheelgrassrestoration.Recreationalboaters

andfishermencanberesistanttoeelgrassrestoration,asthelong,slenderleavescanbecomeentangledinoutboard

motorpropellers.Theboatpropellersthemselvescancausesubstantialdamagetoeelgrassbeds,leavingbehindtelltale

“propscars,”whichmaypersistformonths,oryears(Zieman1976).Theremayalsobeconflictstoeelgrassrestoration

innearshorewaterswherecoastaldevelopmentisoccurring.Publicresistancecouldbecurbedthroughapublicoutreach

campaignfocusedonthebenefitsof restoringeelgrasswithintheHREstudyarea.Additionally,eelgrassrestorationshould

notoccurinareaswhereshellfishingoccurs,particularlyinoradjacenttohardclamand/orscallopbeds.

Thefutureof eelgrassrestorationintheHREstudyareamaybeadvancedthroughtheimplementationof thefollowingnear-

termactions.

• Managersneedtobeinvolvedintheresearch/restorationprocesssotheybetterunderstandandsupporteelgrass

researchandmonitoring.

• Theimportanceof post-restorationmonitoringandsharing/implementinglessonslearnedshouldbeemphasized.

Monitoringwillrefinethesuitabilitycriteriaandimprovesubsequentrestorationprograms.

• Itisnecessarytodeveloparestorationplanforeelgrassthatshiftsawayfromopportunisticrestorationandmoves

towarddevelopingastrategicplanthatfocusesonrestorationinsuitablelocationsthroughouttheestuary.This

planshouldsetachievabletargets.Itmaybebeneficialtousestructuralversusfunctionaltargetswhenevaluating

restorationsuccess.

• Proponentsforeelgrassrestorationamongtheagenciesandenvironmentalgroupsshouldbeidentified.

Data Needs

Pilotprojectswillprovidecriticalinformationtoassistwiththeimplementationof theEelgrassTEC.Detailedstudieson

habitatpreferencewillhelptoselectlocationsformoreexpansiverestorationprojects.Estuary-widesubstrateandsediment

grainsizedatasetswouldbeusefultohelpselectsitesforlarge-scalerestorationefforts.Itmustbeemphasizedthatmany

interactingfactorsdriveasite’ssuitability,andtheGISanalysisprovidedinCRPVolumeIisnotabletocapturethesedynamic

processesatthisscale.

Monitoringof eelgrasstransplantorseedingprojectsfocusesonquantitativelyestimatingthedegreeof plantingsuccess.A

secondaryobjectiveof aneelgrass-monitoringprogramistoascertaintherecoveryof ecosystemfunctionandcommunity

structurethathasbeenachieved.Thistypicallyinvolvescollectingdataonwaterquality/nutrientswithinthebeds,

colonizationof thebedbyepiphyticandbenthicorganisms,anduseof thebedbyfisheryspecies(Thayeretal.1975,

Homziaketal.1982,Smithetal1989;Fonsecaetal.1990).

Suggestedparameterstobemonitoredatrestoredeelgrassbedsandreferencesitesinclude:

• Waterquality,withemphasisonTSS/turbidity

• Hydrodynamic/waveenergycharacteristicsinthevicinityof theeelgrasspilotbeds,pre-andpost-restoration

• Sedimentcharacterization(e.g.,organiccontent,grainsize,toxicity,accretionrates)

• Transplantsurvival,aerialcoverage,andnumberof shoots

• Epiphytecommunitycompositionandbiomass

• Fishcommunities

• Incidenceof disease

3.2 Habitat ComplexesTwoof theTECsfocusonensuringtheconnectivityof differenthabitattypestoprovidehabitatcomplexesforspeciesthat

requiremorethanonehabitatduringtheirlifecycle.Thesehabitatcomplexesareimportantfororganismsthatmove

betweenhabitatstoforageorspawn.Lossof theconnectivityof thesehabitatsdecreasestheiroverallvalue.Thefollowing

sectionsdescribethesehabitatcomplexes,theobjectivesfortheTECs,potentialrestorationopportunitieswithintheHRE

studyarea,dataneedsandmonitoringparametersforeachTEC.

3.2.1 Shorelines and ShallowsTheShorelinesandShallowsTECaddressesimportantphysical,chemical,andbiologicalservicestothenearshorehabitats

of estuariesbycreatingnaturalslopingshorelineswiththreecontiguoushabitattypes.Thesehabitattypesgenerallyare

comprisedof (1)littoralzonesthatremaininundatedwithshallowwater,(2)intertidalareasthatareregularlysubmerged

duringhightides,and(3)riparianzonesthatareimportanttransitionalhabitatsbetweenlandandwater.ThisTECtargets

habitatsof fourmetersorlessmeanlowwater,basedupontheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency’s(USEPA)working

definitionof shallowwaters,where“criticalfunctionssuchasbiologicalproductivityandecologicalbalancemustbe

reconciledwithhumanactivities”(Reillyetal.1996).

Littoralzonestypicallysupporthighdensitiesof organismsandhighspeciesdiversity,particularlywhenvegetated.Because

of thehighdensitiesof invertebrates,slowercurrentvelocities,andavailablerefuge,littoralzonessupportresident

populationsof smallfishandcrustaceansandprovidecriticalnurseryhabitatareasfortransientspecies.Largerfishtendto

remainindeeperwaterhabitat,ontheoutskirtsof littoralareas,feedingonmacroinvertebratesandsmallfishesthatmaybe

carriedoutwardbytidalcurrents(Findlayetal.2006).

Intertidalareasrepresentadynamictransitionzonebetweenfullyaquaticandterrestrialshorelinehabitats.Someplants

andanimalshaveevolvedadaptationstolifeinintertidalenvironmentsthatarealternatelyfloodedanddrainedtwicedaily.

Althoughdiversityof intertidalareasisreducedincomparisontomostshallowsubtidalhabitats,characteristicspecies

assemblagespersistintheintertidalzone.Duringhightides,mobileaquaticspeciesmoveintofloodedintertidalareasto

feedoravoidpredators,andretreatduringlowtides.Duringfallingtides,shorebirdsandterrestrialpredatorsmoveonto

theexposedmudorsandflatstofeedonworms,mollusks,buriedcrabs,andfishtrappedinshallowintertidalpools.

IntheHREstudyarea,manynaturalshorelineshavebeenreplacedwithbulkheads,revetments,anddock/pierinfrastructure.

Theseshorelinestructureshaveeliminatedtransitionalintertidalandlittoralareas.Hardenedshorelinesamplifywave

energy,whichcanincreaseerosionanddeepennearshorewaters,affectingwaterquality/clarityandhabitatavailability.Pier

constructioncanreducechannelwidth,reducecurrentvelocities,andincreasesedimentation.Thesestructuresmaydirectly

andindirectlyimpactgrowth,survival,andrecruitmentof fishandotherestuarinemacrofauna(AbleandDuffy-Anderson

2006).Increasedsedimentationreducesavailablewatercolumnhabitatandburiesexisting,naturalhardsubstrates.

Shadingimpactsof shorelinestructuresonaquaticfloraandfaunaareincreasinglybeingrecognizedinaquaticresource

assessments,andrecentresearchconductedwithintheHREstudyareahasdocumentedfewerspecies,lowerabundances,

andfewerfeedingopportunitiesunderneathlargeover-waterstructuresincomparisontoopenwater,pilefields,oredge

habitat(AbleandDuffy-Anderson2006).

TEC Guidance

Shorelinerestorationcanoccurinanyof theplanningregionsof theHREstudyarea,andwouldbeespeciallydesirable

wherecreatinglonger,continuousnaturalshorelineswithmoreexpansiveuplandbuffersispossible.Projectswithinthe

LowerHudsonRiver,UpperBay,andHarlemRiver/EastRiver/LongIslandSoundplanningregionsof theHREstudyarea

shouldbetargetedforrestorationbecausetheseareashavethehighestpercentageof hardenedshoreline.Althoughmany

optionsexistwhenconsideringshorelineandshallow-waterrestoration,creatinggraduallyslopingshorelineswithupland

andlittoralhabitatshouldtakeprecedenceintheHREstudyarea,particularlyinplanningregionsdominatedbyhardened

shorelines.

Inmostcases,aShorelinesandShallowsrestorationopportunityshouldincludeareasthathavebothhardenedshorelines

andadjacentundevelopedorvegetateduplands,butnotnecessarilythepresence/absenceof intertidalorlittoralhabitats.

Removinghardenedshorelinesshouldbethefocusof thisTECandwillnotbepossibleif thereisnearshoredevelopment.

However,intertidalandlittoralhabitatcanbecreatedduringrestorationprojectsandshouldnotbeviewedaspre-requisites

forsite-suitability.

Inworkingwaterfrontswithanabundanceof permanent,hardenedshorelines,installationof habitatenhancementfeatures

suchasmodularartificialreef structureswouldimproveaquatichabitatinareasthatwerepreviouslyderelictorsuffering

fromimpairedhabitatquality.Manyattributesthatdeterminehabitatqualityalongshorelinesareinterrelatedandinclude:

• Waterdepth,

• Bottomtopography,

• Substrates/sedimenttype,

• Currentvelocity,

• Sedimentationrates,

• Lightregime,

• Waveenergyregime,and

• Surfacearea,volumeandtextureof in-waterstructures.

Newwaterfrontfeaturesorreconstructedshorelinesshouldbeplannedtominimizesedimentaccumulationandscour,

therebyretainingoriginalbottomtopographyandwaterdepths.Itisalsopossibletoimproveexistingfacilitiesbyinstalling

site-appropriatestructures,suchasunderwaterbafflesortrainingwallstoredirectflowsandmaintaindesirabledepths

andexposedsubstrates.Increasingtheheightof piersabovewateranddecreasingtheirwidthmayprovidemorelightto

shadedwaters(AbleandDuffy-Anderson2006).Light-transmittingpierdesignsmadeof fiberglassorcomparablematerials

orconventionalpiersretrofittedwithglass“windows”areunderdevelopmentandmaybeaviabledesignoptioninthe

future(ShaeferandLundin1999).Physicalcomplexitycanbeincreasedbymodifyingoraddingstructuralelements,such

astexturizedbulkheads,flutedorterracedpilings,andindividualreef elements,likereef ballsorstackedhollowcubesalong

ashoreline.Thesestructuralelementscanprovidegeneralhabitatenhancementortargetindividualspeciesbyvarying

thesizeof crevicesandstructuralmaterials(e.g.,fillinghollowareaswithoystershell,and/orcreatingstructureswith

OysterKrete–biologicallyenhancedmaterialtostimulateoystergrowth).

Habitattradeoff issueswilllikelyarisethroughtheimplementationof theShorelinesandShallowsTEC.Underthecurrent

regulatoryclimate,creatingshallowwaterhabitatindeepwatersisoftenviewedasahabitatloss.However,demonstrating

successthroughpilotprojectswouldreducetheperceivedriskincurredfromlosingdeep-waterhabitat.Therefore,pilot

projects,suchasbulkheadremovaloraddinghabitatvaluetobulkheadorpierrestorationprojects,arerecommendedin

thenearterm.ThroughouttheHREstudyarea,manywaterfrontdevelopmentprojectsarebeingplannedanddesigned

toprovideincreasedwaterfrontaccesstoresidents.Manyof thesearelarge-scaleprojects,incorporatingseveral

typesof accesspoints(e.g.,fishingpiers,kayak/boatlaunches)andviewsalongmilesof shoreline.Theseprojects

provideexceptionalopportunitiestocreateintertidal,naturalslopingshorelines,todemonstrateshorelinesofteningand

enhancementtechniques,andtogarnerpublicsupportforrestorationwithintheHREstudyarea.

Establisheddesigncriteriashouldserveasguidelineswhenimplementingshorelineandshallowwaterrestorationinthe

HRE.Toprovideadequatestormwaterprotection,theuplandbufferzoneshouldbeaminimumof 100ftfromtheshoreline,

althoughitisrecognizedthatthismaynotbepossibleinthemosturbanregionsof theHREstudyarea,liketheHarlem

River,EastRiver,andWesternLongIslandSound,LowerHudsonRiver,andUpperBayplanningregions.Wherepossible,

larger,morecomplexvegetatedbufferzonesorwetlandareascouldberestoredtoprovideadditionalecologicalbenefits.

Becausetheestuaryisaturbidenvironment,theilluminatedlittoralzonewouldbelessthanfourmetersindepth,buteven

shallowwaterareasbelowthedepthatwhichlightpenetratescanprovideimportantshellfish,invertebrate,andnursery

habitat.Otherdesigncriteria,suchasuplandvegetativecoverorshorelinegradients,aresite-specificandshouldbe

determinedonaproject-by-projectbasis.

Thesizeof shorelinerestorationprojectswilltypicallybedeterminedbylanduse,landownership,andtheproximityof

navigationinfrastructure,suchasnavigationchannels,wharfs,andpiers.Largerprojectscanprovideadditionalecological

benefits,throughgreaternumbersof potentialhabitats,improvedbiodiversity,andhigherspeciesrecruitment.Althoughno

minimumacreagelimitsarespecifiedforthisTEC,projectsshouldbedesignedtomaximizeecologicalbenefitforthearea

restored.Smallerprojectswouldlikelyincurmaintenanceormonitoringcoststhatmaybecost-prohibitiveinrelationto

projectsize.

Linkingaquaticandterrestrialhabitatscreatesopportunitiestorestoreadditionalhabitatsonavailableuplandandaquatic

areas.Availableterrestrialareascouldbeconsideredforconstructionof maritimeforests,wetlandcommunities,or

otheruplandhabitattypes.Inthecoreof theHRE,whereshorelinesarepredominantlyhardened,shorelinerestoration

opportunitiesexistalongislands.Someof theseislandsareinhabitedalmostsolelybywadingbirdsandcouldbefurther

restoredbyimplementingrestorationtechniquesintheWaterbirdsTEC.Manyphysicalandchemicalcharacteristicsthat

makeanareadesirableforslopingshorelinesandshallowwaterhabitatarealsoappropriateforestablishingaquatic

vegetationorreefs.

Baselinemonitoringof shorelinesandshallowwaterareasslatedforrestorationprovidesdetailedinformationaboutthe

conditionsof thesiteandmayassistintheselectionandprioritizationof measurestobestrestoreanarea’shabitatquality

andecologicalfunction.Monitoringmayincludetopographicsurveys,characterizationof sediments(includingcontamination

issues),nearshorehydrodynamicsurveys,assessmentof subtidal,intertidalanduplandvegetationcommunities,benthic

andepiphytic(e.g.,organismslivingonplants)communitysurveys,nearshorefish/macrocrustaceansurveys,anduseof

nearshoreareasbybirdsandotherwildlife.

Suggestedparameterstobemonitoredatrestoredshorelinesandreferencesites(if available)include:

• Changesinnearshorebottomcontoursandintertidal/uplandtopographyresultingfrombothnaturaldepositional/

erosionalprocesses,andtheimplementationof restorationactivities,pre-andpost-restoration

• Nearshorewaterquality,withemphasisonTSS/turbidity

• Hydrodynamic/waveenergycharacteristicsalongtheshoreline,pre-andpost-restoration,asameansof gauging

thebenefitsof shorelinere-contouring,re-vegetationandremovalof in-waterandover-waterstructuresand/or

debris

• Stormsurgeorfloodhazardwithinthefloodplain

• Sedimentcharacterization(e.g.,totalorganiccarbon,grainsize,toxicity)

• Fishcommunities

• Useof shorelinesandshallowsbythehumancommunity

3.2.2 Habitat for Fish, Crabs, and Lobsters ThisTECensuresthatsuitesof habitatswillbecreatedtobenefitmanylifestagesforarangeof resident,transient,and

migratoryspecies(Bainetal.2007).Itcallsfortherestorationordevelopmentof amosaicof diverse,qualityhabitats

intermixedthroughouttheestuaryforsustainingfish,crab,andlobsterpopulations.Manyimportantestuarineandmarine

speciesareinlowordecliningabundancethroughouttheHREstudyarea,andtherelationshipsamongthesehabitatsare

importantfortargetspeciestocompletetheirlifehistory.Thisprovision(i.e.,suitesof habitats)focusesonthespatial

arrangementof andrelationshipsamonghabitatstoincludeareaslikeoysterreefs,eelgrassbeds,andtidalmarshes,which

arecomponentsof otherTECs,aswellasnon-TEChabitatslikesoft-bottom,unvegetatedshallowsorspongeandamphipod

beds(Bainetal.2007).

Fishandcrustaceanpopulationsareagaugeof anestuary’sconditionintermsof waterqualityandecosystemfunction

(Steinbergetal.2004).Lowabundancesmayindicatealackof suitablehabitat.Manyrecreationalorcommercialfishery

speciesarealsoecologicallyimportantaspredatorsandbenthic(i.e.,seafloor)feedersthatcyclecarbonandnutrientsto

othertrophiclevelsintheestuary(Bainetal.2007).Eachspecieshasspecifichabitatneeds,especiallyduringspawningor

earlydevelopment,whichoftenrequiresspecificsubstratesorstructuralelements.Forinstance,vegetatedorstructurally

complexareasproviderefugefrompredators,whereasbroad,sandyflatsmaybeidealforagingareas(Bainetal.2007).

Over100speciesof fish,crab,andlobsterrelyonhabitatsof theHREstudyareaforatleastsomeportionof theirlife

history(USFWS1997).However,thesepopulationsarethreatenedbylocalizedpoorwaterquality,sedimentcontamination,

absenceof littoralstructure,blockagestomigratoryroutes,andoverfishing.Manyhabitatimpairmentsareexacerbated

bythelackof intertidalandlittoralhabitat,aresultof historicbulkheadingandshorelinefilling.Americaneels(Anguilla

rostrata)havedeclinedsteadilyintheestuarysincetheearly1990s;thismaybeduetoagradualreductionof habitat

qualityandoverfishing(Steinbergetal.2004).BluecrabsintheHREstudyareaexhibithighannualvariation,whichmay

indicateirregularrecruitmentpatterns(Steinbergetal.2004).TheAtlanticstockof stripedbasshasfullyrecoveredfrom

overfishinginthe1980s(Mayoetal.2006),butstripedbassintheHREstudyareaarestillthreatenedbycontamination

andpoorhabitatquality.Increasedabundanceof thesouthernNewEnglandstockof Americanlobsterhasbeenmetwith

increasedharvest(Mayoetal.2006).Otherstocks,likesummerandwinterflounder,arenotasabundantduetooverfishing

andshowvariablecatchratesintheHREstudyarea,attributedtodegradationof subtidalareasand/orfishingpressure

ontheadultpopulation(Mayoetal.2006,Steinburgetal.2004).Themosteffectivewaytosustainorincreasefish

populationsintheHREmaybetorestoreand/orcreatemosaicsof criticalhabitatstoprovidewhathabitatwashistorically

lost,suchasintertidalwetlands,eelgrassbeds,andoysterreefsamongothers.

TentargetspecieswereidentifiedintheTECReport,representingselectdemersalorbenthicfishandlargecrustaceans

(Bainetal.2007).ThesespeciesandthehabitatsthatarecriticaltotheirlifestagesareprovidedinCRPVolumeI,Table

3-5,Section3.2.2.Thetargetspeciesareeitherabundantoreconomicallyimportant,andallarewell-studied.Targeting

habitatrestorationforthesespeciesshouldalsobenefitotherspeciesintheHREstudyarea.

TEC Guidance

Theuseof ahabitatvariesbyaquaticspeciesbasedonphysicalandbiologicalrequirements,andtherolehabitatsfulfillin

species’lifestagescandifferdependingontheirpositioninthelandscape(e.g.,anoysterreef wouldbeuseddifferently

if adjacenttoalargesandflatasopposedtoamphipodmats).Eighteenspecifichabitatsetsconsistingof twoormore

functionallyrelatedhabitatswereidentifiedintheTECReport,withsuggestionsforscaleof andspacingamonghabitats

(Bainetal.2007).Usingthislistforguidanceandnotasacomprehensivecompilation,habitatsetsshouldbechosenfor

restorationbasedonthetargetspecies’requirementsandregionalgoalsforthatspecies.

Thedistancebetweenhabitats,thesizeof habitats,andthetimeittakesforrecruitmentof speciesshouldbeconsidered

whenplanningrestorationprojects.Habitatsizeandmanyof therelationshipsamonghabitatswillbedeterminedbased

onsite-specific,existingconditionsof thehabitats.Theseincludehabitatquality,presenceof contamination,andhabitat

tradeoff issues(Bainetal.2007).Recruitmenttorecentlyrestoredornewhabitatsisgenerallyspecies-specificand

dependsonthelifehistory,populationsize,mobility,andhabitatneedsof thespecies.However,certainsite-specific

characteristics,suchashydrodynamicsandwaterquality,canalsorestrictthenumberof individualsandspeciesabletouse

ahabitat.Restorationprojectsshouldconsiderthevariouslifehistoryattributesandspecifichabitatrequirementsof the

targetspecieswhendevelopingprojectgoalsandmonitoringcriteria.

Habitatarrangementscanbeparticularlyimportantintidalsystems.Inestuaries,theneedforadjacenthabitatsismore

apparentbecauseconstantlychangingwaterlevelscandeterminehabitatavailability.Tidalfluctuationsshouldbeconsidered

whendesigninghabitatsetsunderthisTEC;somespeciesmoveamongintertidalandsubtidalhabitatsasdeterminedby

predationpressureoravailabilityof preyresources.Severalrecommendedhabitatsetsconsistof intertidalareasbecause

thesearetypicallyproductivehabitats,providingphysicalstructureandtrophicresourcesandbenefitingthespeciesandlife

stagesabletoexploitthem.

Eachrestorationprojectshouldtakeintoconsiderationthehabitattypesthattargetspeciesrelyonandincorporate

thesehabitatsintothedesign.Sometimes,intactandderelictshorelinestructurescanserveashabitatforspeciesthat

relyonstructureforfeedingand/orprotectionfromwaterflow,suchastautogandblackseabass.Theseareascanalso

concentratefishandareoftenhighlysoughtafterbyfishermen.However,becauseof thepotentialhazardstoindividualand

navigationalsafety,itmaybenecessarytoremovederelictstructuresbeforepiecesaredislodgedorbreakoff.

WhilerestoringhabitatforotherTECs,ausefulmethodforachievingthetargetsof theFish,Crabs,andLobstersTECcould

beconsideringwhatcomplementaryhabitatscanberestorednearby.Adjacencyamonghabitatswouldencouragetheuse

of multiplehabitatsbyspecies,ultimatelymakingotherTEChabitatsmoresuccessfulbyfacilitatingrecruitmentandspecies

use.Also,newTECsshouldbebuiltnearexisting,complementaryhabitatsif possible(e.g.,buildingoysterreefsneartidal

creeks).Developingrestorationprojectsbyfirstevaluatinglandscapecharacteristicsandissueswillultimatelyleadtomore

successfulandsustainablehabitats.Somehabitats,wheninproximity,canenhanceeachotherbyattenuatingwaveenergy

ormediatingnutrientloadings(e.g.,oystersreefsandeelgrass,oysterreefsandsaltmarshes;CoenandLuckenbach2000).

EssentialFishHabitat(EFH)shouldbeconsideredwhenidentifyingsitesforhabitatrestoration.Recognizedbythe

Magnuson-StevensFisheryConservationandManagementActof 1996,EFHinU.S.watersisdesignatedbyregionalFishery

ManagementCouncilsandisdefinedas“thosewatersandsubstratenecessarytofishforspawning,breeding,feeding,or

growthtomaturity.”EFHdesignationsareintendedtoprotectlifestage-specifichabitatcomplexesforFederallymanaged

species,suchas,flatfishes,skates,andmackerels,andaremanagedinvariousjurisdictionsbyNOAA’sFisheryService,

regionalFisheryManagementCouncils,andstatenaturalresourceagencies.HabitatAreasof ParticularConcern(HAPC)are

discretesubsetsof EFHthatprovideextremelyimportantecologicalfunctionsorareespeciallyvulnerabletodegradation.

ApproachingthisTECfromanEFHorHAPCperspectivemaybeeffectiveasitwouldprovideguidelinesforwhichhabitats,

orassemblagesof habitats,torestore.Moreover,proposalsbenefitingEFHorHAPCmayinitiallyhavemoresupportfrom

governingagencies.BecausethisapproachmayexcludeimportanthabitatsnotdesignatedasEFHorHAPC,anyhabitat

thatcanbeconsideredessentialtoatargetspecies’lifestage,whetherornotitisdesignatedassuch,shouldbeconsidered

forrestorationunderthisTEC.

Baselinemonitoringof estuarinehabitatcomplexesslatedforrestorationprovidesdetailedinformationabouttheconditions

of thesiteandmayassistintheselectionandprioritizationof measurestobestrestoreanarea’shabitatqualityand

ecologicalfunction.Monitoringmayincludetopographic/bathymetricsurveys,characterizationof sediments(including

contaminationissues),hydrodynamicsurveys,assessmentof existingsubtidal,andintertidalvegetationcommunities,benthic

andepiphyticcommunitysurveys,targetfish/macrocrustaceansurveys,anduseof estuarinehabitatsorhabitatcomplexes

bybirdsandotherwildlife.

Suggestedparameterstobemonitoredatrestoredestuarinehabitatcomplexesandreferencesitesinclude:

• Changesinshallow-waterbottomcontoursandintertidaltopographyresultingfrombothnaturaldepositional/

erosionalprocesses,andtheimplementationof restorationactivities,pre-andpost-restoration

• Waterquality,withemphasisonTSS/turbidity

• Hydrodynamic/waveenergycharacteristicsinthevicinityof thedesiredhabitatcomplex,pre-andpost-restoration,

asameansof gaugingthebenefitsof bathymetricre-contouring,plantingsubmergedoremergentvegetation,and

creationof hardsubstrate,suchasoysterreefs

• Sedimentcharacterization(e.g.,totalorganiccarbon,grainsize,toxicity)

• Fishcommunities

• Parametersforindividualhabitatsrestoredwithinthesecomplexes(i.e.,eelgrass,coastalwetlands,etc.)

3.3 Environmental Support StructuresTwoof theTECsfocusonrepairingtheenvironmentaldegradationassociatedwithinfrastructurethatrestrictstheflowof

water.TheHREstudyareacontainsmanydamsthatservetostorewaterforavarietyof functions,suchasdrinkingwater

reservoirsorrecreationalponds.OtherstructuresthatarecommonintheHREstudyareaweredesignedtoallowthe

passageof water,suchasculvertsunderbridgesandroadways.Thesestructurescanrestrictthemovementof fishand

canchangethenaturalcirculationordrainageroutesandcanresultinenvironmentaldegradation.Thefollowingsections

describetheenvironmentalissuesassociatedwiththesesupportstructures,theobjectivesfortheTECs,andpotential

restorationopportunitieswithintheHREstudyarea.

3.3.1 Tributary Connections Thepurposeof thisTECistoreconnectstreamstotheestuarytoprovidearangeof qualityhabitatstoaquaticorganisms.

ThisTECfocusesonrestoringconnectionsbetweenandcorridorswithinstreams,includingbutnotlimitedtorestorationof

naturalstreamchannels,adjacentfreshwaterwetlands,riparianuplands,andtributaryconnectionsthroughbarrierremoval

orfishpassageconstruction.

Tidally-influencedstreamsandcreeksprovidethruwaysforfishtoaccesshabitatsacrossagradientof abioticfactors(i.e.,

salinity,depth,temperature,dissolvedoxygen,sedimenttype).Manymigratoryorhighlymobilefishspeciesrequireaccess

totheseupstreamareastospawnbecauseeggsorlarvaehavespecificlifehistoryrequirementsthatareverydifferent

fromjuvenileoradultlifestages.Inadditiontobenefitingnativemigratoryspecies,likeAmericanshad(Alosasapidissima),

alewife(A.pseudoharengus),bluebackherring(A.aestivalis),stripedbass(Moronesaxatilis),andAmericaneel(Anguilla

rostrata),re-establishingtributaryconnectionsmayalsobenefitresidentfishandinvertebratepopulationsbyproviding

greateraccesstofeeding,spawning,andrefugehabitats.Severalfreshwatermusselspeciesmayalsobenefitfromimproved

fishpassage,astheyaredependentuponfishmovementtocompletetheirlifehistory(Peckarskyetal.1990).

Barriers,whichcanlooselybedefinedas“filters”thatrestrictpassage,canbeman-madeornatural,“habitat”barriers.

Man-madebarrierstofishpassageareoftentheeasiesttodefine,suchasdams,tidegates,androadculverts.The

characteristicsthatmakeabarrierimpassablecanbespecifictoaspeciesorgroupof species.Forexample,low-height

damsorstructuralbarriersmaybeimpassabletocertainspecieswhichlacktheabilitytoascendgradients(e.g.,alosids);

however,strong-swimmingspecies(e.g.,salmonids)maybecapableof ascendingthebarriertoreachupstreamhabitats.

Eelshavetheabilitytowriggleupdamfaces,ascendingbarriersthatarecompletelyimpassibletootherfishspecies.

LowdamsweretypicallybuiltintheHREstudyareatosupportearlyAmericanindustryandagriculture(Bainetal.2007).

Today,manyof thesesmalldamsarecurrentlyinoperativeornolongerneeded.However,somedamsprovidelocal

communitieswithwatersupply,recreation,utilities,orhaveaesthetic/historicvalue(Bainetal.2007).Damsaretypically

impassablebyfishduetotheheightdifferencebetweenthedownstreamwaterandtheupstreamwater.IntheHRE

studyarea,atleast92impoundmentsexist,manyonmajorwaterwaysliketheNavesink,Passaic,andHackensackrivers.

Reconnectingestuary-tributarypathwayscanbeaccomplishedbyremovingderelictorunnecessarybarriers,modifying

barrierstopromotefishpassage(e.g.,breaching,notching),orconstructingfishpassagestructures(e.g.,fishladders,

bypasschannels).Possiblecandidatedamsforretro-fittingwithpassagestructuresincludethosethatcurrentlyprovidea

water-supplyorsafetyfunction,orsmall,historicdamsthatmayberegardedasimportanthistoricalorculturalresources.

Themostcommonfishpassagestructuresaresteeppass,denil,andpool-and-weirfishways.Typicallyconstructedof

concrete,wood,oraluminum,thesestructuresgenerallyconsistof aseriesof graduallyinclinedstepswithrestingpools

locatedatregularintervals.Theseprovidefishwithameansof migrationthatsimulatesnaturalstreamconditions.If

engineeredproperlywithregardtotheswimmingabilityof thetargetspecies,fishladders/fishwaysrepresentaviableoption

forrestoringconnectivity.Inafewspecialcases,mechanizedfishliftsorelevatorshavebeeninstalledtoactivelytransport

fishupandoverdamsforaccesstoupstreamspawningareas.Itisunlikelythatthistypeof technologywouldberequired

torestorefishpassageatknownbarriersintheHREstudyarea.However,stockingof adultsandjuvenilesasameansof

supplementingdwindlingstocksortoreintroducefishinsystemsinwhichtheyhavebeencompletelyextirpated,maybe

worthyof consideration.Recently,alewifehavebeenintroducedinthelowerBronxRiverbyNYCDPR’sNaturalResources

Group,alongwithinstallationof fishpassagestructuresatseveralbarriers,inanattempttoreinstatetheformerhistoricrun.

Whetherpartiallyorcompletelyclosed,tidegatesarebarrierstoallupstreamfishmigration.Partiallyopenedgatescan

createhighvelocities.Evenwhenfullyopened,tidegatescanbeabarrierbecausetheymightnotopenfarenoughor

frequentlyenoughtoallowfishpassage.Thecontrolscheduleof existingtidegatescanbemodifiedsothatgatesremain

completelyopenduringupstreamfishrunsandduringdownstreamjuvenilemigrations.New,self-regulatingtidegatescan

beinstalledinplaceof conventionalgates.Theseallownormalamplitudetidestoenterandexit,butaredesignedtoclose

intheeventof atypicalstormtides,preventingfloodingof homes,roads,andotherinfrastructure.

Culvertsunderroadsorrailbedscanrepresentmigrationbarriersduetoanexcessdropattheculvertoutlet,highvelocity

orturbulencewithintheculvertbarrel,inadequatewaterdepthswithintheculvertbarrel,ordebris/sedimentaccumulation

attheculvertinletorwithinthebarrel.Recentawarenessof theproblemculvertsposetofishpassageandstream

degradationhaspromptedtheinstallationof culvertbridgesorarchedpipeswithflatbottoms,althoughthesearenot

commonlyfoundintheHREstudyarea(Gibbonsetal.2005).Other“habitat”barriersrelatetophysicalqualitiesorthe

conditionof thewaterthatmaydetercertainfishfromenteringthearea.Thesebarrierscanbeduetocertainconditionsof

salinity,watertemperature,watervelocity,waterdepth,ordissolvedoxygen;orinteractionsof theseparameters,outsideof

thesuitablerangeforaspeciesorgroupof species.

Naturalbarrierstofishpassagecanberockledges,beaverdams,debrisdams,orsedimentedchannels.Wherenaturalfalls

exist,upstreamreacheshavehistoricallybeenseparatedfromdownstreamcommunities/speciesandmayhavedeveloped

distinctpopulationsthatcouldbeharmedthroughthe“introduction”of downstreampopulations.Whilesomenatural

barrierscanbemadepassable,itisrecommendedthatnaturalfallsnotbemadepassabletoprotectupstreampopulations.

Barriersalsoaffectin-streamandriparianhabitat,creatinganeedtoimprovetributariesonasystem-level.Forinstance,a

damremovalprojectmayalterin-streamhabitatandriparianzonesadjacenttowherethewaterwaspreviouslyimpounded.

Habitatrestorationshouldbeinclusiveof in-streamhabitatrequirementsandriparianhabitatqualityforallbiota.In-stream

habitatfeatures,includinglogs,boulders,root-wads,gravelbars,riffles,andpools,providediversephysicalandbiological

conditionsandtypicallyrepresentareasof highspeciesdiversity.Riparianhabitatstabilizesstreams,protectsagainst

runoff,controlsstreamtemperatures,andprovidesnutrientinputsthatnourishandsustainbenthiccommunities.

Restoringin-streamhabitatupstreamordownstreamof abarrierandriparianhabitat,suchasforestedfloodplainsand

freshwaterwetlands,couldfulfillthistarget.Wherepossible,projectsshouldattempttoincludemultiplecomponents

(i.e.,in-streamhabitat,riparianhabitat,barrierremoval)toincreasethenumberof functionalbenefitsandtheecological

contributionof thetributarytotheestuary.Althoughprojectswithmultiplecomponentsareencouraged,smallprojectsthat

aimtorestoreevenonecomponentalsoprovidesubstantialbenefitsandshouldbeconducted.

StreamlengthandriparianacreagerestoredcouldbeappropriatemetricsfortheTECgoalstatement.Forrestoringhabitat

underthisTEC,thefollowingguidelinesshouldbefollowed:

• Habitatrestorationshouldfocusonriparianhabitatthatisoroncewasconnectedtotheestuary.

• Tributarieswithhigherstreamordersthatareproximaltoanestuarybodyshouldbetargetedforrestoration.

Thesecanbefreshwaterareaswithnotidalinfluence.

• Projectswithfishpassagecomponentsshouldfocusonimpediments,whichwhenremovedmakeseveralmilesof

streampassable.

TEC Guidance

Thesequencewithwhichrestorationof multiplecomponentsonatributaryareundertakenisanimportantplanning

considerationforthisTEC.Whenaprojectcontainsabarrierremovalcomponent,theimpedimentshouldberemoved

beforerestorationof theotherdownstreamorupstreamcomponentsoccurs.Shorelinestabilizationandnativespecies

plantingsareoftennecessaryintheseprojectstoreduceerosionandminimizeinvasivespeciescolonization.Additionally,on

tributarieswithmultipleimpediments,themostdownstreamimpedimentshouldbemadepassableandmonitoredtoconfirm

usageratesbeforeadditionalfishpassageprojectsonthattributaryareplanned.

AlthoughthereareseveralcomponentstothisTEC,improvingfishpassagetorestoremigratoryfishrunsintheHREstudy

areashouldstillbeapriority.Whenplanningafishpassageproject,whetheritentailsanimpedimentremovalorfish

ladderconstruction,restorationpractitionersshouldalsoplantorestoreorenhanceothercomponentsof thetributary,

asissuggestedbythisTEC.Restoringhabitatupstreamof abarriershouldbeconsideredif thetributaryisbiologically

connectedtotheestuary(e.g.,viaafishladder),otherwisethebenefitsof theenhancedupstreamhabitatwouldnotbe

accessibletoestuarineorganisms.Additionally,fishpassageprojectsshouldfocusontributarieswithhistoricfishrunsof

herringsorAmericaneelsorlocationswherethesespeciesarefoundcongregatingbelowabarrier.

Ahabitattradeoff issuemayoccurwithbeaversandwiththerecreationalandecologicalvalueof slowmovingwater.Beaver

damsareanaturalstreambarrier,formingimpoundments,andmaybecomeafactoraffectingfishpassagerestorationin

theHREstudyarea.ThefirstbeaversitinginNewYorkCityinalmost200yearsoccurredduring2007intheBronxRiver.

BeaverpopulationsthroughoutNewYorkStatehavebeenincreasing,anditislikelythatbeaverdamsintheHREstudyarea

willbecomemorecommon.Althoughbeaverdamsmayprecludeupstreampassageof smallfish,thesenaturalbarriers

provideecologicalbenefits(e.g.,wetlandcreation)andarenotrecommendedforremovalunlesstheypresenteconomicor

safetyhazards.

Athoroughevaluationof theupstreamenvironmentshouldbeconductedtodeterminetheimpactsof barrierremoval.

Theslow-movingwaterfoundupstreamof impoundments,whethernaturalorman-made,typicallysupportsdifferent

fishcommunitiesandshorelinevegetationandcanbehighlyvalued.If theseimpoundedwatersproviderecreational

sportfishingopportunitiestonearbyresidents,itmaybeextremelydifficulttogainsupportforabarrierremovalproject.

Additionally,theshorelinevegetationmayincluderegulatedwetlandcommunitiesthatcouldbeimpactedbyabarrier

removal.Inscenarioslikethese,itisimportanttogainpublicsupportduringpreliminaryplanningstages.

Data Needs

Withsomanypotentialcomponents(e.g.,in-streamhabitat,riparianhabitat,barrierremoval),projectsinitiatedunderthis

TECcanbeextremelycomplex,incorporatingengineering,design,andconstructionaspects,andaddressingeconomicand

politicalconcerns.Reconnaissancesurveysandevaluationsof baselineconditionsinthevicinityof plannedtributaryre-

connectionprojectsareessentialcomponentsof therestorationplanningprocess.Theseareconductedto:1)determinethe

feasibilityof asitepriortoin-depthrestorationplanningand2)developsuccesscriteriaforindividualprojects.Forexample,

initialmonitoringof atributarystreamforremovalorbreachingof alow-headdammightrevealthepresenceof vulnerable

infrastructure(e.g.,bridges,roadabutments,utilities)thatmayrequireremoval,relocation,orshorelinereinforcementprior

toprojectimplementation.BaselineInformationneedsassociatedwithaplannedtributaryre-connectionprojectinclude:

• Landownership

• Bridges/utilitiespossiblyaffected

• Barrierownership

• Communityinterest/willingness

• Presenceof culturalresources(oftenthedamitself)

• Hydraulics,streamchannelmorphology

• Sedimentload/transport

• Presenceof contaminatedsedimentsbehindabarrier

• Biologicalimpacts(e.g.,presenceof musselsbedsdownstream,orspreadof invasivespeciesviabarrierremoval)

• Waterqualityupstreamanddownstreamof thebarrier

• Fishconsumptionadvisories(openingtributariestomigratoryfishfrompolluteddownstreamareasof theharbor

mayresultinstricterconsumptionadvisories)

• Presenceof historicfishruns

• Currentfishpresencebelowthebarrier,andsize/ageclassdistributionof targetspecies,if present

• Identificationof non-targetspecieslikelytobeaffectedbybarrierremoval,upstreamanddownstream

• Projectlongevity(fishladderconstructionrequireslong-termconsiderationsformaintenanceandlogisticsupport)

Itisespeciallyimportanttodeterminetheamount,type,andcontaminantlevelof sedimentbehinddamsduring

reconnaissancesurveys.Largevolumesof sedimentupstreamof adamcouldmakeadamremovalprojectcost-prohibitive,

andfindingalternativeusesordisposalsitesforsedimentcanbedifficult,especiallyif thematerialiscontaminated.The

typeof sedimentcanalsoaffectremovalcosts,requiringtheuseof largemachineryandmonitoringsedimentremoval/

re-suspensiontoadheretostateandFederalregulations.Occasionallycleansedimentscanbeusedtostabilize/re-grade

shorelines,savingontransportanddisposalcosts.Thegreatestconcernoverdamremovalprojectsisthepresenceof

contaminatedsediments.Thisisdue,inpart,toanegativeperceptionbroughtaboutbyeventsassociatedwithaveryearly

damremovalprojectontheUpperHudsonRiver–theFortEdwardsDam,located54milesnorthof Albany,NY.Project

proponentsfailedtoconductpre-removalsedimentcharacterizationstudiesupstreamof thedam,andwhenthedamwas

removedin1973,severaltonsof PCB-ladensedimentswerereleaseddownstream.Thisresultedinthetemporaryclosure

of theHudsonRiverforfishingandthedeclarationof aportionof theupperHudsondownstreamof FortEdwardasa

FederalSuperfundsite.Topreventrepeatingthesedamagingevents,itisimperativetoinvestigatehistoricandcurrent

upstreamlandusesduringreconnaissancesurveystodetermineif hazardousmaterialsorbyproductswereintroducedinto

thetributary.Sedimenttestingshouldalsobeconductedtoquantifythetypeandextentof contamination.

Duringthepost-constructionmonitoringphase,resourcesshouldbecarefullyallocatedtoallowforanadequatedurationand

scopeof assessment.Inareaswhereconnectivityhasbeenrestored,responsesof migratoryfishpopulations,suchasthe

numberof fishannuallymigratingupstreamorthenumberof youngfishfoundinreconnectedwaters,shouldbeevaluated

toprovideanadditionalmetricof success(Bainetal.2007).Performanceof theTECshouldbemeasuredasthenumberof

habitattypesreconnectedandthenumberof reconnectionstoestuarineopenwatersmadeintheHREstudyarea(Bainet

al.2007).

Techniquesformonitoringfishatdamremovalsitesorfishpassagestructuresmayincludeconventionalvisualidentification

andcounts,orpresence/absencesurveysconductedbothupstreamanddownstreamof theformerbarrier.Techniques

mighteitherincludeavarietyof activeorpassivenetgearsorelectro-fishing,eitherfromaboatindeeperwatersor

backpackshockerforshallowerareas.

Asanalternative,orsupplementtoconventionalsamplingtechniques,theadventof high-resolutionvideoorhydroacoustic

imagingtechnology(e.g.,DIDSON)offerstheabilitytoprovideconsistent,long-termmonitoringof fishpassageatdam

breachesorthroughfishways.JuvenileandadultmigrantscanbecapturedandtaggedwithPassiveIntegratedTransponders

(PITtags).Successivepassageof theindividualsthroughtheformerbarrier(oratupstreamordownstreamlocations)can

beascertainedbyinstallingascanningdevicealongabottleneckinthepassagewayorbyrecaptureandanalysisusinga

hand-heldscanningdevice.Traditionalmark-and-recapturetechniques(e.g.,finclipping,marking,internalanchortags)may

alsobeappliedtoestimatetheefficacyof tributaryre-connectioneffortsinrestoringmigratorypathways.

Inadditiontomonitoringof thetargetspeciesorcommunities,anadditionalsetof environmentalparametersshould

bemonitoredinassociationwithtributaryconnectionprojectsinvolvingtheremovalof anobstructionorimpedimentto

migration.Theseinclude:

• Documentationof theformationof shoalsdownstreamof aformerimpediment.

• Channelscour/bankerosion(maybetemporaryorpersistent).

• Changesinparticlesizedistributionwithindownstreamareas.

• Loweringof groundwaterlevelsinthevicinityof aformerimpediment.

• Integrityof wetlandsandothershallowaquatichabitatsupstreamof formerimpediments.

• Sedimentation/turbidityeffectsondownstreamgravelbars,musselbeds,SAV,wetlands,etc.followingtributaryre-

connection.

• Changesinstreambenthicinvertebratecommunitiesinresponsetoalteredhydrodynamicsandsubstratetype.

• Changesinfloodingpotential,particularlytonearbyproperties

3.3.2 Enclosed and Confined Waters TheEnclosedandConfinedWatersTECfocusesonpoorlyflushed,enclosed,constricted,andover-dredgedsubtidalareasof

theHREstudyareathatexhibitperiodicorcontinuouspoorwaterquality.Examplesof enclosedandconfinedwaterbodies

occurringintheHREstudyareaincludetidalcreeks,enclosedbasins,andbathymetricdepressionswithpoorcirculation.

Thesewaterbodiesareoftencharacterizedbyahostof degradedconditions,includingcontaminatedsediments,hypoxic/

anoxicwatermasses,noxiousodors,hardenedshorelines,accumulationof finesediments,andlittleornovegetatedbuffers,

creatinglowqualityhabitatthatisof limiteduseforforaging,nursery,orrefugebyestuarineorganisms.

Dead-endtidalcreeksareremnantnaturaltidaldrainagefeaturesthathavebeencutoff fromtheirheadwatersandpartially

filled.Historically,manytidalcreekswerepresentthroughouttheHREstudyarea,asdrainagefeaturesassociatedwith

intertidalwetlands.Astheestuarybecameincreasinglypopulatedanddeveloped,thesewaterbodiesweresuccessively

straightenedand/ordivertedthroughculverts,orfilledthroughouttheirlength.Thelowersectionsof thesecreeks,near

theconfluencewiththeestuary,weresometimesdredgedforfillmaterialortoprovidenavigationaccessforneighborhood

industriesandrecreationalvessels.Thiscreatednarrow,linearchannelswithhardenedshorelinesandsingleoutlets(Bain

etal.2007).Theseconfinedwaterwaysoftenexhibitimpairedtidalflow,havelimitedflushing,andaredredgedtodepths

greaterthanthesurroundingestuary,promotingpoorwatercirculationandstratification(Yozzoetal.2001,Bainetal.

2007).Avariationof thesedead-endtidalcreeksarethehead-endof basinsandbaysthatcanalsohavepoorwater

qualityduetopoorcirculationcombinedwithlanduse,CSOinputs,andmarinas.

Man-madebathymetricdepressionsaredeepholesthatwerecreatedbyremovingsedimentforon-landconstruction(i.e.,

borrowpits).SomenaturaldepressionsexistintheHREstudyarea(e.g.,LowerBay)thatdonothavepoorcirculationand

offerqualitybenthichabitat.However,artificialdepressionsarecharacterizedbyimpairedwatercirculation,fineorganic

sediments,andverticallystratifiedtemperatureanddissolvedoxygenconcentrationsthatcanbeaslowas4°Cand0-1

milligrams/liter,respectively,inthedeepestpitsof JamaicaBay(Vittor&Associates2005).Thesebathymetricdepressions

mayalsocontaindebris,suchasderelictvessels/vehicles,constructionmaterials,andpilings.

EnclosedandconfinedwatersintheHREstudyareaoftenhaveextremelypoorwaterqualityduetoyearsof unregulated

dumpinganddischarge(Yozzoetal.2001).Becausethesebasinshavebeencutoff fromtheirhistoriccreeksandthereis

limitedtidalflushingfromtheestuary,majorinputstoenclosedandconfinedwatersoftenincludestormwaterrunoff coupled

withhumanandindustrialwastesfromCSOs,vessels,andshorelinefacilities(Bainetal.2007).Thecombinationof poor

circulationandhighratesof organicmatterdecompositionleadstoperiodicorchronichypoxicoranoxicconditions(Yozzo

etal.2001).Confinedwaterstypicallyexhibitlowspeciesdiversityandabundance,aredominatedbyafewopportunistic

species.Inthemostextremecases,extensivematsof sulfurbacteriaandbloomsof dinoflagellates,cyanobacteriaand

macroalgaemaydevelopinenclosedandconfinedbasins(Yozzoetal.2001,Bainetal.2007).Becausetheseareasmix

slowlywithadjacentwaterways,theytendtoretainandconcentratematerialsandcontaminantsfromrunoff,groundwater,

andsewageoutfalls,oftenresultinginconsiderablesedimentdegradation(Bainetal.2007).

TEC Guidance

TheCleanWaterActrequiresthatallstatesareresponsibleforestablishingandmeetingappropriateusesforsurfacewaters

withintheirjurisdiction.These‘designateduses’of surfacewatersconsiderthepublicuseandvalueof thewaterbody

basedonwaterqualitycriteriaforparametersof concern(i.e.,pathogens,contaminants,dissolvedoxygen).Thewater

qualitycriteriaspecifysafelimitsforthe‘bestuse’of thatwaterbody(e.g.,fishing,recreation,navigation,etc.).TheStateof

NewJerseydesignatesfourclassesandNewYorkStatedesignatesfiveclassesforsurfacewateruseinestuaries.Bestuses

areclassifiedforlargerwaterbodies,wheresmallertributariesandbasinsareoftennotdesignatedseparatelyfromtheir

receivingwaters.Whensmallertributariesorbasinsaredesignated,theirreceivingwatersmayhaveahigheruseclassthan

thebasinbecauseof circulationissuesintheconfinedwaterway.

Thedesignateduseclassificationsareevaluatedthroughstatewidewaterqualityassessmentprograms,asrequiredby

Section303(d)of theCWA.Thelistof waterbodiesnotattainingtheirdesignateduseareplacedonthestate’sImpaired

WaterBodyList(i.e.,Section303(d)List).Forimpairedwaterbodies,statestypicallyconsiderdevelopingaTotalMaximum

DailyLoad(TMDL)programorotherstrategytoreducesourceinputs,therebyreturningthewaterbodytoitsdesignated

use.ForNewYorkState,TMDLprogramsarenotrequiredtobecreatedforsomewaterbodies,suchasthosewherethe

impairmentistheresultof historicconditionsratherthanapollutantthatcouldbecontrolledviaaTMDLprogram.

Unfortunately,notallwaterbodiesaremonitoredbythesewaterqualityassessmentprograms,especiallysmallerwater

bodieslikeconfinedbasins.Thus,therearewaterbodiesintheHREstudyareathatdonotmeettheiruseclassifications

butarenotincludedonthe303(d)List.Moreover,theassessmentprogramsarerestrictedtotraditionalparametersand

long-termmonitoringlocationsandmaynotconsiderwaterqualityissuesrelatedtodeepbathymetricdepressionswithpoor

circulation.Itmaybebeneficialtoincreasethescopeof statewidewaterqualitymonitoringtoincludesmallconfinedbasins

ordeepbathymetricdepressionsnotcurrentlymonitoredunderexistingprograms.

Eachconfinedbasin,degradedtidalcreek,orbathymetricdepressionwithpoorcirculationwilllikelyhavedifferentsetsof

impairments,requiringthedevelopmentof site-specificactionstorestorethewater,sediment,andhabitatquality.Site

modificationstoimprovewaterandhabitatqualityof enclosedbasins,tidalcreeks,andbathymetricdepressionswithpoor

circulationinclude:

Shorelinesoftening.Manyconfinedwaterwaysarehardenedbybulkheading;thesefeaturesmaybeconvertedtonaturally

vegetatedshorelines.Bycreatingwetlandsoruplandforestedhabitatalongestuarineshorelines,thevolumeof sediments

andnutrientsenteringthewatershedasrunoff fromroadsandotherimpervioussurfacesmaybereducedthrough

interceptionandsequestration.Softenedshorelinesalsoprovidefeedingandrefugeareasforbiotaandcanimprove

microclimaticconditionsbyshadingsurfacewaters.Alongwithshorelinemodifications,itmaybebeneficialtostabilizethe

bottomof basinshavingCSOinputs.InbasinswithlargeCSOs,solidsaccumulatedown-gradientof thedischargeoutlet,

resultinginextremelysoftandflocculentsubstrates.Duringheavyrainevents,thismaterialisscouredandsolidsare

washedintoreceivingwaters,potentiallydegradingwaterquality.

Debrisremoval.Debriscancollectalongtheshorelineof enclosedbasins,smotheringshorelinevegetationandshallow

subtidalhabitats.Althoughshorelinedebriscanprovidesomeprotectionagainsterosion,inmostcasesshorelinedebris

shouldberemovedsothatshorelinevegetationandsoft-bottombenthichabitatcanbecomeestablished.TheNYSDECand

NJDEParelocalsponsorsforaUSACEprogramtocontrolfloatablesintheHREstudyareabyremovingpotentialsourcesof

drift,suchasabandonedpiers,wharfs,derelictvessels,anddebris.Todate,atotalof 21reacheswithinNewJersey(16

reaches)andNewYork(5)havebeenclearedof debris,andsixreachesarecontinuingtobecleared.

Dredgingcontaminatedsediments.Becausethereislimitedflushinginmanyof theconfinedbasins,theytendtobecome

depositionalareas,concentratingcontaminants.Althoughtherearesomecurrentsourcesof contamination,persistent,

legacychemicalsfromseveraldecadestoacenturyagopresentthelargestthreatthatcontinuetocontaminatetheHRE

studyareawhenoverlyingsedimentsaredisturbed.OutputfromtheCARPmodelsuggestssedimentremovalastheoptimal

restorationmeasureforseverecontamination.

Combinedseweroverflow(CSO)treatmentorabatement.Hundredsof CSOsarelocatedthroughouttheHREstudyareaand

areachroniccontributortopoorwaterqualityconditions.Manyof theseCSOsarelocatedatdeadendsof enclosedbasins

andtidalcreeks.TheNewYorkCityCSOabatementprogramincludesprovisionsforinstallinglarge,undergroundstorage

facilitiestoholdwastewateroverflows,thensubsequentlypumpingthewastewaterbacktothetreatmentplant.These

in-linestoragetanksimprovedissolvedoxygenconcentrationsandreducehydrogensulfide(H2S)emissionsbecausethe

solidssettleinthebottomof thetankanddonotenterthereceivingwaterbody.Othercomponentsof theCSOabatement

programincludesewercleaning,in-streamaeration,floatablesbooms/skimmerboats,andstructuralimprovementsto

achieveuseattainmentstandardsof receivingwaters,suchaswetweatheroptimizationandregulatorimprovements

(GibbonsandYuhas2005).NJDEP’sDivisionof WaterQualityalsohasaCSOabatementprogramwho’smissionisto

upgradeorreducethecurrentnumberof CSOs.

Restoringwatercirculationpatterns.Existingwatercirculationpatternscanbealteredtoimprovewaterqualityinselected

areas.Re-contouringdeepbasinspromotescirculationandde-stratificationof thewatercolumn(Yozzoetal.2001).It

canbedifficultandcostlytoimprovewatercirculationindead-endbasins.However,oneof themoreeffectivemethodsisto

redirectflowfromthereceivingwatertotheendof theupstreambasin,creatingcontinuouscirculationthroughthebasin.

Thismethodiscost-effectivewhenunder/over-groundpipingfromthereceivingwaterstotheendof thebasinisalready

inplace(e.g.,GowanusCanal).Althoughfrequentlypromotedasameansof improvinglocalhydrodynamics,removing

breakwatersoraccumulatedsedimentsatthemouthsof dead-endwaterwaystypicallydoesnotdramaticallyimprove

flushingorreducesedimentationinthesebasins.Re-contouringentrancechannelsedimentsmaynotnecessarilyworkasa

stand-alonemeasure,andshouldbecombinedwithotherrestorationmeasurestoachievemeasurableincreasesinflushing.

Additionally,alterationstothewatershedsof tidalcreekshaveresultedinmeasurableimpactstoreceivingwaterbodies.For

instance,inJamaicaBayfreshwaterinputsfromthetidalcreekshistoricallyresultedinadistinctsalinitygradientfromthe

mouthof thebaytoitsperiphery.Currently,thelackof continuousfreshwaterinputsfromthecreeksandtheredirectionof

freshwaterflowthroughmunicipalwastewateroutfallstothemiddleof thebayhavenegativelyimpactedwatercirculation

andresultedinahighlysalinewaterbody.Becausealmostnofreshwatercurrentlyentersthebayattheshorelinesor

throughthetidalcreeks,itmaybelimitinghabitatforspeciesneedinglesssalinewateroragradientbetweensaltwaterand

freshwater(e.g.,oysters,juvenilefish).Thus,theremaybeanopportunitytorestoresalinitygradientstosurfacewaters

withinwaterbodieslikeJamaicaBay,creatingmoresuitablehabitatandbenefitingestuarinespecies.

Baselinemonitoringof confinedwaterwaysprovidesdetailedinformationabouttheconditionsof thewaterwayandassistsin

theselectionandprioritizationof measurestobestrestoreanarea’swaterqualityandecologicalfunction.Monitoringmay

includebathymetricsurveys,characterizinglocalcontaminantinputs,hydrodynamicsurveys,calculationof tidalprisms(e.g.,

changeinwatervolumecoveringanareabetweenhighandlowtides),sedimentcharacterization(e.g.,SedimentProfile

Imaging[SPI]cameras),dissolvedoxygen/temperatureprofiles,benthiccommunitysurveys,andpossiblyfishsurveys.

Suggestedparameterstobemonitoredatrestorationandreferencesitesinclude:

• Changesinestuarinebottomcontoursresultingfrombothnaturaldepositional/erosionalprocesses,andthe

implementationof restorationactivities,pre-andpost-restoration.

• Waterquality,withemphasisonidentificationof thedistributionof hypoxia/anoxiainspaceandtime.

• Hydrodynamiccharacteristicsof thewaterway,pre-andpost-restoration,asameansof gaugingthebenefitsof

remedialdredging,bathymetricre-contouring,andremovalof structuressuchasbreakwaters,berms,derelict

vessels,etc.

• Sedimentcharacterization(e.g.,totalorganiccarbon[TOC],grainsize,contamination,toxicity).

• Fishcommunities

• Useof enclosedandconfinedbasinsbythepublic

3.4 Contamination IssuesCenturiesof urbanizationhaveresultedinextensivecontaminationissuesthroughouttheHREstudyarea.Oneof theTECs

focusesoncontaminationissuesbyestablishingobjectivestoremoveorisolatecontaminationandtorestoreconditionsto

preventthefutureaccumulationof contaminants.Thefollowingsectionsdescribethesecontaminationissues,theobjectives

fortheTECs,andpotentialrestorationopportunitieswithintheHREstudyarea.

3.4.1 Sediment ContaminationSedimentqualitycharacteristicsarecriticaltotheestuarineecosystem,tothesuccessof otherTECs,tohumanhealthand

safety,andtotheport’seconomicviability(Bainetal.2007).ManyareaswithintheHREexhibitsedimentcontaminationto

varyingdegrees,broughtaboutbyhistoricalindustrialdischarges,municipalpointandnon-pointsourcepollution,andinputs

fromtheupperreachesof theHudsonRiverEstuary(upstreamof theHREStudyarea).Animportantgoalof Federaland

state(NYandNJ)naturalresourceagencies,andestuarymanagementprograms(i.e.,TheNY/NJHarborEstuaryProgram

[HEP])hasbeentoundertakeeffortstoreducethedegreeof contaminationwithinsedimentsof theHRE.Byreducing

contaminantconcentrationsinthesediment,thepotentialforbioaccumulationof contaminantsinestuarineorganismsand

thespreadof contaminationtorelativelycleanareasmayalsobereduced(Bainetal.2007).Specifically,thereareseveral

HEPworkgroupsassociatedwithsedimentcontaminationintheHRE:1)RegionalSedimentManagement;2)Contaminant

AssessmentandReductionProgramand3)Toxics.TheRegionalSedimentManagementWorkGroupwillbethegroupto

focusonthisTECinthefuture.

Sedimentsof theHREstudyareaarealong-termrepositoryof contaminantsincludingPCBs,dioxins,mercury,pesticides

suchasDDT,andpolycyclicaromatichydrocarbons(PAHs).Althoughproductionandusesof manyof thesechemicalshave

beenbannedintheU.S.formanydecades,theyhavepersistedinthebenthicenvironmentandwithinaquaticorganismsBain

etal.2007).

PCBsareaclassof organiccompoundsusedintheelectricalindustryasinsulatingfluidsandoilsforindustrialtransformers

andcapacitors,andarecharacterizedbyhighchemicalstability,lowflammabilityandhighresistancetobiological

degradation(NadeauandDavis1976).Theyarepoorlysolubleinwaterandhighlysolubleinfats.PCBsweremanufactured

intheU.S.from1929–1977byMonsantoandsoldunderthetradenameAroclorTM.Althoughfirstidentifiedasan

environmentalhazardin1966,PCBSwerenotwidelyrecognizedasanenvironmentalandhumanhealthhazarduntilthe

mid-1970s.Theprimarysourceof PCBcontaminationintheHRE,aswellastheentiretidalHudsonRiverfromTroytoNew

YorkHarbor,wastheremovalof theFortEdwardDamin1973.

Dioxinsandfuransarechlorinatedorganiccompoundsthatcanbefoundintheenvironmentduetonaturalcombustion

(e.g.,forestfires),butalsothroughwasteincineration,fuelcombustion,andasamanufacturingby-product.Dioxinswere

aby-productof awidelyuseddefoliantinthe1960s(i.e.,AgentOrange),andlargeamountsof dioxinswerereleased

intothelowerPassaicRiver,whichhavesubsequentlyspreadthroughouttheHRE,withhighestconcentrationsclosetothe

lowerPassaicsource,followedbyNewarkBayandportionsof theHackensackRiver,ArthurKill,andKillVanKull.DDT,

oneof thefirstandbest-knownorganicpesticides,wasusedtocontrolinsect-vectordiseasesandasanagricultural

insecticide.PAHsareprimarilycreatedthroughtheincompleteincinerationof organicfuels,andarethereforetightlylinked

toenergyproduction.PAHscanentertheenvironmentthroughpointsources(e.g.,oilspills),andnon-pointsources(e.g.,

atmosphericdepositionandoverlandrunoff).

Avarietyof heavymetalsmaybepresentinHREsediments.Somemetalssuchaslead,arewidelydistributedthroughoutthe

HREstudyarea,asaresultof atmosphericdepositionandothernon-pointsourceinputs.Others,suchascadmium,mercury,

chromiumandcoppermayoccurinveryhighconcentrationsinspecificgeographicareas,asaresultof directpoint-source

inputs.Mercuryisanaturallyoccurringheavymetal,andisaneurotoxinthatcanentertheenvironmentthroughatmospheric

depositionasaby-productof coalcombustionandtheimproperdisposalof industrialorhouseholdproductscontaining

mercury.

AmorerecentconcernintheHREstudyareais”emerging”ornewly-recognizedcontaminantssuchasfluorinatedalkyl

substances,usedin“non-stick”coatings;poly-brominated-diphenyl-ethers(PBDEs),usedindevelopingfireretardant

materials);andpharmaceuticalsubstances,(includinganti-depressants,birth-controldrugs,andcaffeine).Thelattergroup

of chemicalsentertheestuaryprimarilyviatreatedwastewater.Thesecompoundsandtheirmetabolitesarenotcompletely

removedthroughcurrentwastewatertreatmenttechnologiesandhavethepotentialtoaccumulateinsedimentsand

organisms.Thereisstillconsiderableuncertaintyregardingthepotentialandactualrisksof thesecontaminantsandtheir

fateintheenvironment(Strandbergetal.2001,Kolpinetal.2002).

Currently,everyplanningregionof theHREstudyareahasexhibitedsomedegreeof sedimentdegradationdueto

contamination.TheRegionalEnvironmentalMonitoringandAssessmentProgram(REMAP)conductedbytheUSEPAin

1993-1994andagainin1998,foundthatpervasivecontaminationacrosschemicalgroupsintheHREstudyareahad

declined(AdamsandBenyi2003).AreasthatexhibitpersistentdegradedsedimentqualityincludetheNewarkBaybasin,

theArthurKill,andpartsof UpperNewYorkBay(Steinbergetal.2004).ManylocationswithintheHREstudyareahave

beenevaluatedforcontaminantconcentrations,buttheextentof contaminationthroughouttheestuaryhasneverbeen

evaluatedinacomprehensivefashion.Additionally,becausemostof thesechemicalsoriginatedfromacombinationof point

andnon-pointsources,managingandcurtailinginputshasbeendifficult(USACE2004).

Sediment-boundcontaminantsarechemicallychargedmolecules,allowingthemtoadheretothesiltysedimentsof

theestuaryandpersistinfatcellsof livingtissue.Throughabsorption,respiration,andingestionof waterandfood,

benthicorganismscanuptakenon-essentialchemicalsaseasilyasessentialchemicals,makingthemparticularlyproneto

bioaccumulationof sediment-bornecontaminants(Rand1995).Bioaccumulationisanenvironmentalconcernbothbecause

of thecontaminant’seffectsontheorganismandonhighertrophiclevels,likefish,birds,andhumans(i.e.,biomagnification;

Rand1995).

Becausespeciesbioaccumulateandbiotransformchemicalsdifferently,contaminantsmayhavedifferenteffectsonspecies

astheypassthroughoutthefoodweb(Rand1995).Insomecases,highconcentrationsof singlecontaminantscanbe

aslethalaslowconcentrationsof amixtureof contaminants.Mosteffectsaresub-lethal,inthattheeffectsmaymanifest

themselvessinglyorasacombinationof behavioral(e.g.,swimming,feeding,predator-preyinteractions),physiological(e.g.,

growth,reproduction,development),biochemical(e.g.,enzymatic,ionlevels),orhistological(e.g.,immunesystem,genetic,

carcinogenic)modifications(Bainetal.2007).

Contaminationcangreatlyreducetheintrinsicbiologicalandrecreationalvalueof theHREstudyareathroughfish

consumptionadvisories,humanhealthandecologicalrisks,andeconomicimpactsthroughrestrictionsof commercially

harvestedspecies.SedimentcontaminationalsoaffectsnavigationandcommercewithintheHREstudyarea,valued

atanestimated$25billionannuallyanddirectlyorindirectlysupportingapproximately229,000jobs(USACE2008).

Contaminatedsedimentscanincreasethecostof maintainingnavigationchannelsbyasmuchasfourtofivetimesdue

totheaddedcostof transportingandprocessingthematerialfordisposalorreuse(USACE2008).Alternatively,clean

sedimentscanbeusedinhabitatrestorationprojects,uplandconstructionanddevelopment,forremediationattheHistoric

AreaRemediationSite([HARS]apastoceandisposalsitefordredgedmaterialandrefuselocatedintheNYBight,outside

of theHREstudyarea),orforhabitatcreation,enhancement,orrestoration(Yozzoetal.2004,USACE2008).Sediment

classifiedasNon-HARSsuitablematerialwouldbeplaceduplandforbeneficialusethroughsolidification/stabilizationforthe

remediationof brownfieldsites.

HEP’s2008RegionalSedimentManagement(RSM)Planprovidesacoordinatedframeworkforactivitiesrelatedtosediment

quality,contaminatedsedimentquantity,anddredgedmaterialmanagement,andsupportstherestorationobjectivesof this

TEC(HEP2008).TheRSMPlanrecommendedeightobjectives,fourof whichpertaintosedimentquality:

1. Ensurenewsedimentsareclean

2. EnsurenewsedimentsenteringtheHREremainclean

3. Reducedirectexposure

4. Reducetransportof contaminantstootherareas

Apotentiallyvaluabletoolinmanagingsedimentqualitymaybethecategorizationof sedimentsof theHREstudyarea

basedontheirpotentialtoimpairtheestuary.ThefollowingclassificationwasproposedintheRSMPlan.Theseproposed

sedimentcategoriesare:

• Cleansedimentsthatsupportunrestrictedbeneficialuses.

• Sedimentsthatdonotposeanimmediatethreat,becausetheyareeitherdeeplyburiedordonotposeathreatto

ecologicalhealth.Thesehavefewbeneficialuses,butaresuitableforplacementattheHARS.

• Sedimentsthatsignificantlyimpactecologicalhealthandalllevelsof humanuse.Thesehavefewbeneficialuses

andarenotsuitableforplacementattheHARS.

• Sedimentsthatareanongoingsourceof contaminationandrequiredecontamination(includingsolidification/

stabilization)beforebeingusedbeneficially.

Theproposedclassificationsystemwouldallowmanagerstoprioritizeremedialactivities,targetingareasthathavethe

greatestpotentialtocauseharm.Thelastcategoryof sedimentsisimportantbecausetheseareascanactassourcesof

contaminationtootherareaswithinthewatershed.Contaminatedparticlescanbecomeresuspendedduetodisturbance,

tidalcurrents,orflowanddepositedinotherareas,contaminatingcleanorrecentlyrestoredsites.Thisisalsoaneconomic

concernbecausecontaminatedsedimentscanbetransportedtonavigationchannels,therebyincreasingthecostsof

materialdisposal.

Thereareseveralexistingdatasetsthatcanbeusedtoevaluateexistingconditionsandprojectfuturepatternsinsediment

contaminationintheHREstudyarea.Theseare:

CARPModel-TheContaminantAssessmentandRemediationProgram(CARP)offersvaluableinformationonexisting

contaminantlevelsandpredictionsof futureconditionsbasedonchangesincontaminantloadingsandmovementof

contaminantsthroughtheestuary.TheCARPmodelscansimulatetheeffectof knowncontinuingcontaminantinputs(i.e.,

atmospheric,sewagetreatmentplants,CSOs,stormwater,tributaries,runoff,in-placesediments,andocean)andtheeffect

of implementingspecificloadreductionsonconcentrationsinwater,sediment,andbiota.TheCARPmodelsalsoaddressthe

fateandtransportof particularcontaminantsbasedonchangestocontaminantinputsonanestuary-widebasis.Themodel

doesnotaccountforinfluencesof unknownsourcesof contaminationsuchasun-permitteddischargesof pollutantsand

unreportedspills.Apotentiallimitationof theCARPmodelsisthattheyonlyprovideestimatesof contaminationforsurface

sediments,potentiallylimitingtheirapplicationthroughouttheHRE.

USEPARegionalEnvironmentalMonitoringandAssessmentProgram(REMAP)-Underthisgeographicallybroadsampling

program,sedimentswerecollectedthroughouttheHREstudyareaandtheNYBightApexduring1993and1994andagain

during1998,formingthebasisfortheevaluationof sedimentqualityintheregion(AdamsandBenyi2003).Inaddition,

theREMAPdatahavebeenusedasafoundationforcurrentanalysesintheregion,suchastheHealthof theHarborreport

(Steinbergetal.2004).

Site-SpecificSedimentData-ThesedatacanbecompiledfromSuperfundsites(e.g.,Passaic,Hackensack,NewarkBay,

Gowanus,etc.)andfromothersite-specificinvestigationsandprograms,suchasbrownfieldssitesandremediated(capped)

landfillslocatedadjacenttocoastalhabitats.

USACE/USEPAEvaluationof DredgedMaterialProposedforOceanDisposal(“GreenBook”)-Whenchanneldeepeningor

maintenancedredgingprojectsareconductedintheHREstudyarea,compositesamplesof dredgedmaterialaretested

todetermineitssuitabilityforplacementattheHARS(USACE2008).RecentdredgingactivityintheHREhasfocusedon

theArthurKill,KillVanKullandNewarkBaywaterways;however,dredgedmaterialcharacterizationdatawillpotentiallybe

availableHarbor-widethroughoutthedurationof theHREProgram.

LiteratureonSedimentToxicity-Sedimenttoxicitytestscanbeappliedtoallcontaminantsof concern,canprovidedataon

cause-effectrelationships,andareamenabletofieldverification.However,mosttoxicitytestingmeasuresacutelethalityof

contaminatedsediments,whichisusefulinidentifying“hotspots,”butcannotbeextrapolatedtomoderatelycontaminated

areas(Rand1995).Literatureonsite-specificsedimenttoxicityorgeneralfindingscouldbeappliedtoregionsof theHRE

studyarea.

NavigationDredgingBathymetricSurveys-Pre-andpost-dredgingbathymetricsurveysmayyieldvaluableinformation

onpotentialcontaminantsourcesandsinks,asdeterminedbysubaqueousgeomorphology,bathymetry,andsediment

characteristics.

Data Needs

SeveraldataneedshavebeenidentifiedfortheHRE.Focusedstudiestoaddressthesedataneeds/gapswillassistresource

managersindevelopingabetterunderstandingof sedimentcontaminationwithintheHRE,increaseconfidenceof modeling

outputs,andmoreaccuratelyidentifyrestorationopportunities.

• Bathymetry(historicalandcurrent)Animportantconsiderationwhenassessingtheextentof contaminated

sedimentsiswhetheraknowncontaminatedareafunctionsasasourceof contaminationtootherareaswithinthe

watershed.Identificationof depositionalanderosionalzoneswouldprovidesuchinsightonsources(andsinks)of

contamination.

• Hydrodynamicdata-Additionalhydrodynamicdatacollectionmayberequiredtobetterunderstandsediment

transportanddepositionwithinNewarkBayandtheHudsonRiver.Becauseitwouldrequiresubstantialeffort

toidentifysourcesandsinksthroughouttheHREstudyarea,asimpler,althoughcruder,approachwouldbeto

determinetheoverallfluxof contaminants(i.e.,thevolumeof contaminationenteringandleaving)fromeach

PlanningRegionof theHRE.However,thisapproachwouldnotprovidesufficientinformationtodeterminethe

effectsof contaminanttransportonaparticularrestorationopportunity.

• AmbientconditionsintheHREstudyarea-Manyphysical,chemicalandbioticpropertiesof theaquaticenvironment

controlcontaminantfateandtransport(CRPVolume1,Table3-7,Section3.4.1).WhiletheCARPhasevaluated

manyenvironmentalparameters,additionalparametersandinformationwillstrengthenmodelpredictionsand

increasesite-specificforecastingof contaminantretentionandmobility.

• Stormeventrecords-Severestormeventsrepresentanimportantmechanismformobilizingdeeplayersof

contaminatedsediments,throughscourandresuspension.Foranypotentialrestorationproject,itwouldbe

beneficialtolookattheworsteventpriortoimplementation.TheCARPhasforecastedscenariostoinclude

severeevents,butonalimitedspatialscale.Futuredevelopmentof theCARPmodelscouldresultinanenhanced

understandingof theeffectof severestormsonsediment/contaminantdistribution.

• Pointandnon-pointsources(historicalandcurrent)-Legacycontaminantsareamajorsourceof contaminationin

theHREstudyarea,andareasmaybeidentifiedusinghistoricalinformation.Ongoingcontaminationinputsfrom

runoff,stormwater,andhead-of-tideareparticularlyimportantsourcestomonitor.TheCARPhasacknowledgedthe

needtoconductadditionalresearchanddatacollectionof contaminantloadingfromstormwater&CSOstoincrease

theconfidenceinthemodelprojections.

• ListareasunderactiveremedialinvestigationbyUSEPA,NJDEP,orNYSDEC-Anumberof historicallycontaminated

siteswithintheHREarecurrentlyundergoinginvestigationforremediationunderFederal,stateorlocalauthorities,

orthroughpartnershipsamongauthorities/agencies.Itwouldbebeneficialtocompileacomprehensive,up-to-date

inventoryof sitesandassociateddatathathavebeencompleted,areunderway,orareplannedwithintheHRE

studyarea.

• Evaluateimpactof sedimentcontaminationonbiota-TheCARPmodelshaveevaluatedbioaccumulationinbenthic

organismsandage-dependentbioaccumulationinwhiteperchandstripedbass,butadditionaldatacollection

isneededtobetterreconciledifferencesamongfieldandlaboratoryresults(HydroQual2007).Additionaldata

collectionwasrecommendedbyHydroQualtodeterminehowvaryinglevelsof sedimentcontaminationaffect

bioaccumulationandtodeterminefactorscausingsediment-relatedtoxicity.

Baselinemonitoringof contaminatedsitesprovidesdetailedinformationaboutthesedimenttype/texture,bathymetry,

andthenature/extentof contamination.Baselineassessmentsassistintheselectionandprioritizationofmeasuresto

bestremediatesedimentqualityandrestoreecologicalfunction.Monitoringmayincludebathymetricsurveys,identifying

characterizationof localcontaminantinputs,hydrodynamicsurveys,sedimentcharacterization(e.g.,SedimentProfile

Imaging[SPI]cameras),measurementof contaminantconcentrations,benthiccommunitysurveys,andbioassay/

bioaccumulationstudies.

Suggestedparameterstobemonitoredatremediationandreferencesitesinclude:

• Changesinestuarinebottomcontoursresultingfrombothnaturaldepositional/erosionalprocesses,andthe

implementationof restorationactivities,pre-andpost-restoration.

• Hydrodynamiccharacteristicsof thewaterway,pre-andpost-restoration,asameansof gaugingthefeasibilityand

thebenefitsof remedialdredging,bathymetricre-contouring,andcappingwithcleansand.

• Sedimentcharacterization(e.g.,contamination,TOC,grainsize,toxicity).

• Benthicinvertebratecommunities.

• Bioassay/Bioaccumulation.

3.5 Societal ValuesAnimportantcomponentof thisecologicalrestorationplanistorecognizethatpeopleareapartof thisecosystem,and

theplanshouldincorporatefeaturesthatwillbenefitthepublic.OneTECwasdesignedtopromoteaccesstonaturalareas

forthepublic.ThefollowingsectiondescribesthepublicaccessTECanditsobjectives,andpresentspotentialrestoration

opportunitieswithintheHREstudyarea

3.5.1 Public Access AccordingtothePublicTrustDoctrine,publictrustlands,waters,andlivingresourcesinastateareheldbythestatein

trustforthebenefitof allof thepeople.Thedoctrineestablishestherightof thepublictoenjoytheseresourcesforawide

varietyof recognizedpublicuses(NYSDOS2008).Publicaccesstotheestuarymeansprovidingresidentsof theHREstudy

areawithaccessibleroutestonaturalareas,enablingthemtoenjoylocalscenic,natural,cultural,historic,andrecreational

resources(Bainetal.2007).Contactwithnaturecanaffordnumerouspublicbenefitsintheformof educational

experiences,relaxation,andimprovedqualityof life(Bainetal.2007).Publicaccessareasinclude:

1. Directaccess(e.g.,boatlaunching,swimming,recreationalfishing),

2. Indirectaccess(e.g.,waterfrontpromenade),

3. Vistas(e.g.,scenicoverlook),and

4. Uplandaccessroutes(e.g.,pedestrianroute,bikepath;Bainetal.2007).

ThroughouttheHRE’shistory,therehasbeenaconflictof interestconcerningtheuseof thewaterfront.Differingviews

amonggovernment,localcommunities,andprivateindustrieswererarelyabletoreachaconsensuswhendecidingbetween

urbanornaturaluses,orsomecombinationthereof,forthewaterfront.Often,attemptstocreateparklandduringthe19th

centurywererejectedasbeinginconsistentwiththeeconomicgoalsandcommercialopportunitiesforthecity.Bythemid-

20thcentury,viewshadchangedandthefocusbecameurbanrenewal(Bone1997).

Sincethen,waterqualityimprovementshavebeenmatchedbyareanimationof recreationalactivitiesalongthewaterfront

andwithinwaterbodiesof theestuary(Bone1997).Areconnectionwiththeestuaryhasaccompaniedtheseactivities,

resultinginincreasedpopularityandmomentumof community-ledenvironmentalprogramsandrestorationefforts.Through

environmentalimprovementsandincreasedcommunityparticipationintheHREstudyarea,thereasbeenanincreased

demandforrecreationalandoutdooreducationalopportunitiesatparksandnaturalareas.

TEC Guidance

Understandinghowresidentsof theHREareservedatexistingrecreationalareasisvitaltosatisfyingthepublic’sdesiresfor

greenspacesandwaterfrontaccess.Thenumberof visitors,numberof amenities,orthequalityof surroundinghabitatcan

beusedtomeasureaccessquality,butthisinformationdoesnotexistformanyareasof theHRE.Therefore,municipalities

andlocalnon-governmententitiesthataremoreintimatelyconnectedwiththeneedsanddesiresof theirconstituentsmay

bethebestsuitedtoundertakethemajorityof accesscreationandupgradeprojects.

Accessshouldbeappropriateforthelocalcommunityanddesignedtoincludecomplementaryactivitiesandsignagein

multiplelanguages.Peoplestaylongerandvisitapublicareamorefrequentlywhenitoffersmultipleamenities.Topromote

theuseof accesspoints,itwouldbeappropriatetoincludedesignelementssuchasseasonalprogramming,restrooms,

restaurants,fishingpiers,andfloatingdocksfortransientboaters.Businessesalongthewaterfrontoradjacenttoahabitat

complexshouldbeencouragedtoparticipateinthecreationorenhancementof accesspoints.Thesebusinessescan

benefitbyofferingseasonaloutdoorservices.Increasingpublicaccessforresidentsandtouristscanhelpmeetthegrowing

demandforrecreationalopportunitiesandcanprovideeconomicbenefitsonlocalandregionalscales(Bainetal.2007).

CommunityaccesstowaterwaysintheHREisimprovingdespitetheisolationof manyareasfromtheshorelinebyhighways

andindustrialinfrastructure.Directaccesspointsmaybemorechallengingtoconstructandpotentiallyhavemorepublic

resistanceinanurbanizedsetting.However,promotingadirectconnectionbetweencommunitiesandthewaterengages

thepublicinthesurroundingenvironment,strengtheningthesenseof stewardshipandownershipinanarea.Theseaccess

pointswillalsoaffordmoreopportunitiesforactiverecreationintheHRE.

Wherepossible,publicaccesstargetsshouldbecoupledwithhabitatrestorationactivities,incorporatingaccesspoints

andthepublicintoeachproject’sdesign.Newwaterfrontpublicamenitiesareanopportunitytoconnectthepublictothe

estuaryandprovideanopportunitytotelltheCRP’sstorythroughsignageandinterpretiveprograms.Atthesesites,the

publiccanexperiencetheimprovedhabitatsdirectlythroughenhancedanglingandrecreationalopportunities.Areaswith

natural,intertidalshorelinescouldbetargetedforpublicaccessbecausetheseareaestheticallypleasing,offerareasfor

respiteduringlowtide,andcanprovideadditionalcomponentslikeintertidalpoolsthatarebotheducationalandincrease

nearshorehabitatcomplexity.Manysubtidalhabitatrestorationprojectsalsobenefitfishcommunities,suchasoysterreefs

orartificialreef habitat,andcanproviderecreationalfishingopportunitiesnearpiersorfurtheroffshoreforboaters.Habitat

restorationandenhancementisdependentuponitsperceivedbenefit(i.e.,value)toconstituents.Therefore,projectsthat

engagethepublicandareasthatproviderecreationalopportunitiesintheHREwilllikelygaingreaterpoliticalandeconomic

support.

Areaswithdemonstratedcommunityinterestandexistingstewardshipcomponentsmaybeappropriateplacestotarget

publicaccesssites.Communitiesandenvironmentalorganizationscanoftenbeinvolvedintheplanning,design,andpost-

constructionphasesof restorationprojects.Monitoringprogramscanbesupportedbyvolunteerorganizations,providing

publicoutreachandeducationalopportunities.Placinginterpretivesignsalongtrailsandpathwaysalsoofferseducational

opportunitiesandenhancesthepublicperceptionof andstewardshipfortheenvironment.Interpretivesignagecancall

outimportanthabitatsandinhabitantsof aneco-regionalongatrailorwaterway.Moreformalenvironmentaleducation

programmingcanbeincorporatedintorestorationprojects,thoughthesearetypicallyseasonalandrequirestaffing.

ThePublicAccessTECmayencountermorelandusetrade-offsthanotherTECs.Industrialorcommerciallandusescanbe

consideredconflictingif theycreatesafetyissuesfordirectaccessorlackaestheticquality.Accesswillbelimitedaround

airports,portterminalsandothersecureareas.Althoughindustrialactivityandpublicaccessco-existintheHackensack

Meadowlands,NewtownCreek,andtheBronxRiver,activeportsandmaritimeindustriesmaytakeprecedenceovercreating

newpublicaccesspoints.Throughstrategicpartnerships,vacantlotsandbrownfieldscouldberestoredtoofferaccess

opportunities.Similarly,allnaturalareas,exceptforenvironmentallysensitiveareas(e.g.,nestinghabitat),shouldbeviewed

asopportunitiestocreatepublicaccess.Providingaccesstootherareasandhabitatscreatesscenicdestinationsand

peacefulretreatsfromurbanlife.

Data needs

AcomprehensiveplanforpublicaccessTECwillrequireadditionalinformationfromthemunicipalitiesintheHREstudyarea.

Asapartof theirFeasibilityInvestigation,theUSACEwillworkwithHEP’sPublicAccessWorkGrouptogatherlocalplanning

documentstoidentifyplannedandexistingaccesspoints.ThisinformationwillbeusedtocreateanHRE-widedatasetof

pubicaccesslocationsthatincludesite-specificinformation,includingaccesstype,ownership,acreage,amenities,numberof

annualvisitors,andoverallqualityrating.ThisinformationwillbuildupontheMetropolitanWaterfrontAlliancedatabasefor

theexisting436publicaccesspointscurrentlyidentified.

Monitoring

TheinitialbaselineforthisTECcanbemeasuredasthenumberof residentsthathavesomeformof accesswithinashort

walkorpublictransittrip,orthenumberof residentsthatdonotmeetthesespecifications.Thismetriccouldbeapplied

throughouttheperiodof implementationof projectscontributingtotheTECgoals,asameansof gaugingtheincreasein

publicaccessbroughtaboutbythecompletionof newprojects.

Oneadvantageof publicaccessprojectsisthattheresultsarerelativelytangible;increasedpublicuseof asiteiseasily

quantified.Beyondsimplevisitorcounts,thespecificaspectsof publicvisitation/accesscanbeassessedbypolling,or

interviewingrandomortargetedsubsamplesof thevisitorpopulation.Forexample,anglersusingpublicfishingpiersor

otherpubliclyaccessiblefishinglocationscanbeinterviewedusingstandardized,well-establishedprotocols(Malvestuto

1983).Thiscouldbepairedwitheffortstogatherdataonfinfishpopulationsassociatedwithrestoredorenhancedsub-

aquatichabitatfeaturesinthevicinityof fishingpiers,suchasthereef ballfieldrecentlyconstructedinthelowerHudson

Riveroff of Manhattan.Kayakers/canoeistscanbeinterceptedatdesignatedlaunchsitesandqueriedabouttheir

experienceonthewater.Paddlersurveyscouldincludequeriesonlengthof trips,frequencyof trips,otherlocationsvisited,

averagedistancetraveledtolaunchsites,amountof moneyspentpertrip,andsuggestionstoimprovelaunchfacilities.

Similarly,birders,photographers,orthosestrollingorcyclingalongawaterfrontpromenademaybeaskedtoparticipatein

asurveydocumentingaspectsof theirrecreationalexperience,includingdistancetraveled,frequency/durationof visitation,

useof publictransportation,andcostsof equipment/traveltotheaccesssite.

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