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PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABILITY OF NON MOTORISED
PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN A DEVELOPING CITY
Mamun Muntasir Rahman
Bachelor of Urban & Regional Planning (B.URP)
Master of Urban & Regional Planning (M.URP)
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
School of Civil Engineering and the Built Environment
Science & Engineering Faculty
Queensland University of Technology
2013
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Dedicated to
Maa (Afroza Rahman), Baba (Md. Matiar Rahman)
& My Wife (Zeeshan Rahman)
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KEYWORDS
non motorised transport (NMT), non-motorised public transport (NMPT), motorised transport
(MT), motorised public transport (MPT), sustainable transport, sustainable planning, non
motorised public transport integration, developing city, developing country, developed city,
developed country, Dhaka, integrated multimodal planning framework, planning framework,
decision tool, functional hierarchy, road hierarchy
PPLLAANNNNIINNGG FFOORR SSUUSSTTAAIINNAABBIILLIITTYY OOFF NNOONN MMOOTTOORRIISSEEDD PPUUBBLLIICC TTRRAANNSSPPOORRTT IINN AA DDEEVVEELLOOPPIINNGG CCIITTYY
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ABSTRACT
Most large cities around the world are undergoing rapid transport sector development to cater
for increased urbanization. Subsequently the issues of mobility, access equity, congestion,
operational safety and above all environmental sustainability are becoming increasingly crucial
in transport planning and policy making. The popular response in addressing these issues has
been demand management, through improvement of motorised public transport (MPT) modes
(bus, train, tram) and non-motorized transport (NMT) modes (walk, bicycle); improved fuel
technology.
Relatively little attention has however been given to another readily available and highly
sustainable component of the urban transport system, non-motorized public transport (NMPT)
such as the pedicab that operates on a commercial basis and serves as an NMT taxi; and has
long standing history in many Asian cities; relatively stable in existence in Latin America; and re-
emerging and expanding in Europe, North America and Australia. Consensus at policy level on
the apparent benefits, costs and management approach for NMPT integration has often been a
major transport planning problem. Within this context, this research attempts to provide a
more complete analysis of the current existence rationale and possible future, or otherwise, of
NMPT as a regular public transport system.
The analytical process is divided into three major stages. Stage 1 reviews the status and role
condition of NMPT as regular public transport on a global scale- in developing cities and
developed cities. The review establishes the strong ongoing and future potential role of NMPT
in major developing cities. Stage 2 narrows down the status review to a case study city of a
developing country in order to facilitate deeper role review and status analysis of the mode.
Dhaka, capital city of Bangladesh, has been chosen due to its magnitude of NMPT presence. The
review and analysis reveals the multisectoral and dominant role of NMPT in catering for the
travel need of Dhaka transport users. The review also indicates ad-hoc, disintegrated policy
planning in management of NMPT and the need for a planning framework to facilitate balanced
integration between NMPT and MT in future.
Stage 3 develops an integrated, multimodal planning framework (IMPF), based on a four-step
planning process. This includes defining the purpose and scope of the planning exercise,
determining current deficiencies and preferred characteristics for the proposed IMPF, selection
of suitable techniques to address the deficiencies and needs of the transport network while
PPLLAANNNNIINNGG FFOORR SSUUSSTTAAIINNAABBIILLIITTYY OOFF NNOONN MMOOTTOORRIISSEEDD PPUUBBLLIICC TTRRAANNSSPPOORRTT IINN AA DDEEVVEELLOOPPIINNGG CCIITTYY
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laying out the IMPF and finally, development of a delivery plan for the IMPF based on a selected
layout technique and integration approach. The output of the exercise is a planning instrument
(decision tool) that can be used to assign a road hierarchy in order to allocate appropriate traffic
to appropriate network type, particularly to facilitate the operational balance between MT and
NMT. The instrument is based on a partial restriction approach of motorised transport (MT) and
NMT, structured on the notion of functional hierarchy approach, and distributes/prioritises MT
and NMT such that functional needs of the network category is best complemented.
The planning instrument based on these processes and principles offers a six-level road
hierarchy with a different composition of network-governing attributes and modal priority, for
the current Dhaka transport network, in order to facilitate efficient integration of NMT with MT.
A case study application of the instrument on a small transport network of Dhaka also
demonstrates the utility, flexibility and adoptability of the instrument in logically allocating
corridors with particular positions in the road hierarchy paradigm. Although the tool is useful in
enabling balanced distribution of NMPT with MT at different network levels, further
investigation is required with reference to detailed modal variations, scales and locations of a
network to further generalise the framework application.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Keywords ................................................................................................................................................. ii
Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. iii
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................... v
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................................... ix
List of Tables ......................................................................................................................................... xiii
List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................. xvi
Statement of Original Authorship ......................................................................................................... xx
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................ xxi
Publications from this Research ......................................................................................................... xxiii
SECTION A: INTRODUCTION AND GLOBAL REVIEW OF NON –MOTORISED PUBLIC TRANSPORT
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Research background and problem statement............................................................................ 1
1.2 Research hypothesis .................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Research questions ...................................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Research aims and objectives ...................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Research scopes and limitations .................................................................................................. 6
1.6 Thesis Outline .............................................................................................................................. 8
1.7 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER 2: NON-MOTORIZED PUBLIC TRANSPORT: WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM A GLOBAL
REVIEW? ........................................................................................................................................ 11
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 NMPT status analysis: Perspective on developing cities ............................................................ 13
2.3 NMPT status analysis: Perspective on developed cities ............................................................ 35
2.4 Findings and the way forward ................................................................................................... 49
2.5 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 50
SECTION B: NON –MOTORISED PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN CASE STUDY DHAKA, BANGLADESH
CHAPTER 3: OVERVIEW OF DHAKA CASE STUDY 52
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 52
3.2 General overview of case study: Dhaka, Bangladesh ................................................................ 54
3.3 NMPT history of Dhaka: Evolution and current status .............................................................. 57
3.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 60
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CHAPTER 4: REVIEW OF LITERATURE-ARGUMENTS FAVOURING NMPT IN DHAKA ........................ 61
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 61
4.2 NMPT role review ...................................................................................................................... 61
4.3 Policy and integration initiatives ................................................................................................ 74
4.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 80
CHAPTER 5: REVIEW OF LITERATURE-ARGUMENTS REJECTING NMPT IN DHAKA ........................... 81
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 81
5.2 Insights from research literature ............................................................................................... 81
5.3 Government policy and implementation initiatives to restrict NMPT ....................................... 82
5.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 86
CHAPTER 6: ANALYSIS OF NMPT ROLE AND ASSOCIATED ATTRIBUTES IN DHAKA .......................... 87
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 87
6.2 Social role analysis ..................................................................................................................... 87
6.3 Economic role analysis ............................................................................................................... 90
6.4 Employment role analysis .......................................................................................................... 92
6.5 Environmental role analysis ....................................................................................................... 93
6.6 Analysing transport role ............................................................................................................. 95
6.7 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 118
CHAPTER 7: ANALYSIS OF NMPT INTEGRATION AND RESTRICTION IN DHAKA ............................. 119
7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 119
7.2 Analysing NMPT integration initiatives .................................................................................... 119
7.3 Analysing NMPT restriction initiatives ..................................................................................... 121
7.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 132
CHAPTER 8: STAKEHOLDER VIEWPOINT ON ROLE OF NMPT AND EXPECTED QUALITIES FROM
FUTURE TRANSPORT SYSTEM - DATA COLLECTION & ANALYSIS METHOD .................................... 134
8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 134
8.2 Participants and sample size .................................................................................................... 134
8.3 NMPT operators, drivers and users ......................................................................................... 138
8.4 Procedure and instrument for data collection ......................................................................... 142
8.5 Processing of data .................................................................................................................... 142
8.6 Procedure and tools for data analysis...................................................................................... 143
8.7 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 146
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CHAPTER 9: STAKEHOLDER VIEWPOINT ON ROLE OF NMPT AND EXPECTED QUALITIES FROM
FUTURE TRANSPORT SYSTEM - RESULTS OF ANALYSIS & DISCUSSION ......................................... 148
9.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 148
9.2 Present and future NMPT condition analysis........................................................................... 148
9.3 Preferred characteristics for future Dhaka transport system .................................................. 163
9.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 167
CHAPTER 10: INFERENCES AND RECOMMENDATIONS FROM DHAKA CASE STUDY ANALYSIS .... 169
10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 169
10.2 Inferences from literature review ............................................................................................ 169
10.3 Inference from viewpoint analysis ........................................................................................... 178
10.4 The way forward ...................................................................................................................... 179
10.5 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 180
SECTION C: INTEGRATED PLANNING FRAMEWORK DEVELOPMENT FOR CASE STUDY DHAKA
CHAPTER 11: OVERVIEW OF THE PLANNING FRAMEWORK 181
11.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 181
11.2 Conceptual planning process in deriving IMPF ........................................................................ 183
11.3 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 187
CHAPTER 12: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY RATIONALE……………………………………………………………….188
12.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 188
12.2 Review of broad research approaches..................................................................................... 189
12.3 Review of research methodology literature ............................................................................ 190
12.4 The research framework design .............................................................................................. 192
12.5 Coherence of the preferred approach for research design to standard theoretical inference203
12.6 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 210
CHAPTER 13: APPLICATION OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ......................................................... 212
13.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 212
13.2 Initial planning process for framework development .............................................................. 214
13.3 Building scene for planning framework ................................................................................... 214
13.4 Structure and functioning of the framework ........................................................................... 221
13.5 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 223
CHAPTER 14: BUILDING SCENE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTEGRATED PLANNING FRAMEWORK
..................................................................................................................................................... 224
14.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 224
14.2 Comprehension of desired characteristics for the proposed framework ................................ 225
14.3 Selection of suitable technique to replicate desired features of the framework .................... 243
14.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 247
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CHAPTER 15: INTEGRATED MULTI-MODAL PLANNING FRAMEWORK- CONSTITUTES AND
FUNCTION .................................................................................................................................... 249
15.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 249
15.2 Structure and constituence of the framework ........................................................................ 249
15.3 Application of the framework .................................................................................................. 273
15.4 Implementation strategy to suppport the framework ............................................................ 279
15.5 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 283
SECTION D: CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 16: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION .............................................................................. 285
16.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 285
16.2 Research summary and conclusions ........................................................................................ 285
16.3 Contribution to knowledge ...................................................................................................... 296
16.4 Future research ........................................................................................................................ 298
16.5 Research Close ......................................................................................................................... 299
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................. 300
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................................. 327
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Major available rickshaw types ……………………………………………………………………………….2
Figure 1.2: A conceptual overview of the whole research undertakings…………………………………….7
Figure 1.3: Document map of the research……………………………………………………………………………….9
Figure 2.1: Flowchart of key steps in the NMPT status review process…………………………………….12
Figure 2.2: NMPT Usage in the Streets of developing cities …………………………………………………….14
Figure 2.3 Multifunctional bicitaxis in Bogota………………………………………………………………………….20
Figure 2.4: New Rickshaw Type ‘Soleckshaw’ in India……………………………………………………………..23
Figure 2.5: Use of ITDP Designed Modern Rickshaw in Vrindavan……………………………………………24
Figure 2.6: Elecsha in India …………………………………………………………………………………………………….24
Figure 2.7: Use of Modern Becak in Yogyakarta………………………………………………………………………25
Figure 2.8: Market share of NMPT usage in selected Cities……………………………………………………..34
Figure 2.9: NMPT in developed countries (improved design, traditional look) (New York,
London)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….38
Figure 2.10: NMPT in developed countries (improved design, modern look) (Sydney, Berlin)….38
Figure 2.11: New pedicabs in Japan………………………………………………………………………………………..39
Figure 2.12: Market share of NMPT usage in selected cities……………………………………………………40
Figure 3.1: Flowchart of key steps in the NMPT status review process for Dhaka…………………….53
Figure 3.2: Location of Dhaka in Bangladesh (inset) and location of Dhaka Metropolitan Area
with respect to surroundings………………………………………………………………………………………………….55
Figure 3.3: Location map of DCC area (with major suburbs and road network)………………………..56
Figure 3.4: NMPT usage in the streets of Dhaka ……………………………………………………………………..57
Figure 3.5: NMPT growth trend in Dhaka………………………………………………………………………………..58
Figure 3.6: NMPT fare pattern in Dhaka………………………………………………………………………………….59
Figure 3.7: Comparison of NMPT rental cost versus typical revenue in Dhaka…………………………60
Figure 4.1: Contribution of vehicle types to emission in Dhaka………………………………………………..69
Figure 4.2: Vehicular composition in Dhaka…………………………………………………………………………….71
Figure 4.3: Mode share of accidents in Dhaka and Bangladesh………………………………………..........73
Figure 4.4: Suggested NMPT priority location in three areas of Dhaka………………………….............76
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Figure 4.5: Example of staggered crossing (left) and Hook turn (right)…………………………………….78
Figure 5.1: Existing and Proposed NMPT-Free Corridors in Dhaka……………………………………….....85
Figure 6.1: Share of loaded NMPTs used by non-working female travelling alone……………………89
Figure 6.2: Share of loaded NMPTs used by students passengers……………………………………………89
Figure 6.3: Relationship between income level per annum and mode usage…………………………..90
Figure 6.4: Per day gross revenue from NMPT vehicle operation (adjusted to 2011 monetary
unit)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..91
Figure 6.5: Comparative earnings of NMPT drivers compared to other key wage indicators…...91
Figure 6.6: Estimated share of NMPT industry in employment sector of Dhaka……………………….92
Figure6.7:Estimated share of direct dependent population of NMPT industry with
reference to total population of Dhaka…………………………………………………………………93
Figure 6.8: Primary non walk trip share for Dhaka: comparative trend…………………………………….96
Figure6.9: Stop based level of service for NMPT and other available modes………………………….103
Figure6.10: Route based level of service for NMPT and other available modes……………………..107
Figure6.11: System based comparative level of service for NMPT and other available
modes……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….111
Figure 6.12: Comparative total journey time by travel distance of modes……………………………..114
Figure 6.13: Unit travel (user) cost of different modes…………………………………………………………..115
Figure 6.14: Comparative user out of pocket trip cost by travel distance of different modes…115
Figure 7.1: Comparative status of total NMPT to unlicensed NMPTs in operation………………….121
Figure 7.2: Shortest path for NMPT with no NMPT restriction on Corridor 2
(Mirpur Corridor)……………………………………………………………………………………………….128
Figure 7.3: Shortest path for NMPT with alternative route after NMPT restriction on
Corridor 2(Mirpur Road)…………………………………………………………………………………….129
Figure 7.4: Percentage shift from NMPT to different modes after NMPT restriction on Mirpur
Road…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..132
Figure 8.1: Distribution of respondents under government organisations……………………………..137
Figure 8.2: Distribution of respondents under non-government organisations………………………137
Figure 8.3: Application of MCA and AHP to the selection and scoring of criteria…………………….146
Figure 9.1: Assessment regarding current NMPT role in transport system of Dhaka………………149
Figure 9.2: NMPT dependency level of Dhaka transport users for regular trips………………………151
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Figure 9.3: Functionality of existing restriction of NMPT in Dhaka…………………………………………153
Figure 9.4: Future service role perception of NMPT in Dhaka transport system…………………….155
Figure 9.5: Preferred control level for NMPT in future Dhaka transport system…………………….157
Figure 9.6: Suggestions of NMPT stakeholders for future management improvement of the
mode…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………159
Figure 9.7: Suggestions of NMPT stakeholders for future policy and planning improvement of
the mode……………………………………………………………………………………………………………161
Figure 9.8: Overall status of quality preference in future transport system of Dhaka……………..163
Figure 9.9: Comparative quality preference by stakeholder category in future transport system
of Dhaka…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….165
Figure 10.1: Process towards the decision on development of an integrated planning
framework………………………………………………………………………………………………………179
Figure 11.1: Flowchart of key steps in the IMPF development process for Dhaka………………….182
Figure 11.2: The conceptual planning process as the platform for developing the IMPF………..186
Figure 12.1: The research framework design and link to case study application…………………….189
Figure 12.2: Inter-linkage among elements of enquiry and derivation of research approach and
design process from these elements………………………………………………………………..204
Figure 12.3: Inter-linkage among elements of inquiry, derived research approach and design
process……………………………………………………………………………………………………………210
Figure 13.1: Key methodological stages in framework development process………………………..213
Figure 13.2: The study area with selected corridors for land use-traffic interactivity
analysis……………………………………………………………………………………………………………216
Figure 14.1: Study area network with different attributes…………………………………………………….218
Figurer15.1: Broader arrangement for mode-road functional hierarchy framework………………251
Figurer15.2: Breakdown of broader arrangement of mode-road functional hierarchy
framework……………………………………………………………………………………………………..252
Figurer15.3: Conceptual approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity
decision for individual corridors in Dhaka transport system………………………………262
Figurer15.4: Approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision for
Primary Road type I……………………………………………………………………………………….263
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Figurer15.5: Approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision for
Primary Road type II………………………………………………………………………………………264
Figurer15.6: Approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision for
Secondary Road…………………………………………………………………………………………….265
Figurer15.7: Approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision for
Collector Road………………………………………………………………………………………………266
Figurer15.8: Approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision for Local
Road……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..267
Figurer15.9: Approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision for
Narrow Road…………………………………………………………………………………………………268
Figure15.10: An easy to use diagram for determining desired network governing characteristics
and their intensity for the proposed road hierarchy in accordance to the planning
framework…………………………………………………………………………………………………….269
Figure15.11: An easy to use diagram for determining desired network mode distribution and
their intensity for the proposed road hierarchy in accordance to the planning
framework…………………………………………………………………………………………………….270
Figure15.12: Test network with current road hierarchy and traffic composition……………………274
Figure15.13: Test network with proposed road hierarchy and traffic composition in accordance
with framework tool……………………………………………………………………………………..275
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Trend in NMPT activity and policy in selected cities……………………………………………….27
Table 2.2: Key arguments rejecting NMPT and responsible major city governments……………….30
Table 2.3: Degree of and shift in NMPT usage in selected cities………………………………………………33
Table 2.4: Degree of and shift in NMPT usage in selected cities………………………………………………40
Table 2.5: Trend in NMPT activity and policy in selected cities………………………………………………..43
Table 2.6: Selected major cities with NMPT relevant regulations…………………………………………….44
Table 2.7: Summary of NMPT condition and future needs in developed cities…………………………48
Table 2.8: Summary of NMPT condition and future needs in developing cities………………………..49
Table 4.1: Maximum passenger flow using different modes…………………………………………………..72
Table 6.1: Travel characteristics of market segments in Dhaka and corresponding mode
preferences………………………………………………………………………………………………………….88
Table 6.2: Transport modes in Dhaka City (excluding walk) based on mode share, mechanics and
fuel usage…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….94
Table 6.3: Per annum growth trend of vehicular composition of NMPT in Dhaka compared to
other available modes………………………………………………………………………………………….95
Table 6.4: Comparative per annum work output of NMPT to other major modes in Dhaka……..96
Table 6.5: Average road space per vehicle and per passenger for NMPT compared to other
modes………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….97
Table 6.6: Transit Quality of Service Framework for Dhaka modes – Primary measures…………..98
Table 6.7: Level of service guideline for service frequency…………………………………………………….100
Table 6.8: Level of service for service frequency in Dhaka……………………………………………………..101
Table 6.9: Level of service guideline for passenger loads……………………………………………………….102
Table 6.10: Level of service for passenger loads in Dhaka……………………………………………………..102
Table 6.11: Level of service guideline for hours of service……………………………………………………..104
Table 6.12: Level of service for hours of service in Dhaka………………………………………………………105
Table 6.13: Level of service guideline for reliability (on-time performance)……………………………106
Table 6.14: Level of service for reliability in Dhaka………………………………………………………………..107
Table 6.15: Level of service guideline for service coverage…………………………………………………….109
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Table 6.16: Level of service for service coverage in Dhaka…………………………………………………….109
Table 6.17: Level of service guideline for safety and security…………………………………………………110
Table 6.18: Level of service for safety and security in Dhaka………………………………………………….111
Table 6.19: LOS guideline for travel time difference of a mode in comparison to auto…………..113
Table 6.20: Level of service for travel time difference between auto car and other modes in
Dhaka for a 3 km trip length……………………………………………………………………………….114
Table 6.21: Operational performance of different modes in Dhaka based on level of service…116
Table 7.1: Summary of roads made NMPT free in Dhaka before 2002…………………………………..122
Table 7.2: Summary of roads made NMPT free in Dhaka under DUTP Phase II, between 2002
and 2010……………………………………………………………………………………………………………123
Table 7.3: Summary of roads made NMPT free in Dhaka in 2011 under DUTP Phase II, and future
direction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….124
Table 7.4: Summary of roads proposed to be made NMPT free in Dhaka in future………………..125
Table 7.5: Comparative directness (distance) of the NMPT route………………………………………….129
Table 7.6: Comparison of travel time for motorised transport in Mirpur Corridor………………….130
Table 7.7: Comparison of travel time for bus in Mirpur Corridor……………………………………………130
Table 7.8: Road space temporal occupancy impacts of DUTP on Mirpur Demonstration
Road……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………131
Table 8.1: Characteristics of sample GO & NGO stakeholders……………………………………………….136
Table 8.2: Distribution of sample NMPT operators………………………………………………………………..139
Table 8.3: Distribution of sample NMPT drivers…………………………………………………………………….140
Table 9.1: Stakeholder category based perception on current NMPT role in transport system of
Dhaka…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....149
Table 9.2: Difference in preference on current NMPT role by stakeholder group…………………..150
Table 9.3: Stakeholder category based perception on NMPT dependency level of Dhaka
transport users for daily trips……………………………………………………………………………..151
Table 9.4: Difference in preference on NMPT dependency level by different stakeholders……152
Table 9.5: Stakeholder category based perception on existing restriction functionality of NMPT
in Dhaka transport system………………………………………………………………………………….153
Table 9.6: Difference in preference on existing restriction functionality of NMPT by different
stakeholders…………………………………………………………………………………………………......154
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Table 9.7: Stakeholder category based perception on future service role perception of NMPT in
Dhaka transport system……………………………………………………………………………………..155
Table 9.8: Difference in preference on future service role of NMPT by different stakeholders.156
Table 9.9: Stakeholder category based perception on future preferred control level of NMPT in
Dhaka transport system……………………………………………………………………………………..157
Table 9.10: Difference in preference on future preferred control level of NMPT by different
stakeholders………………………………………………………………………………………………………158
Table 9.11: Stakeholder suggestions on future operation and management improvement for
NMPT…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………159
Table 9.12: Stakeholder category based suggestion on future NMPT management
improvement…………………………………………………………………………………………………….160
Table 9.13: Stakeholder suggestions on future policy and planning improvement for NMPT…161
Table 9.14: Stakeholder category based suggestion on future NMPT management
improvement…………………………………………………………………………………………………….162
Table 9.15: Quality preference hierarchy by stakeholder groups for future transport system of
Dhaka…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………164
Table 9.16: Difference in opinion between stakeholder groups on preferred quality for future
Dhaka transport system……………………………………………………………………………………..166
Table 10.1: Comparative advantages and disadvantages of NMPT as a mode in Dhaka…………170
Table 10.2: Comparative advantages and disadvantages of NMPT restriction in Dhaka…………175
Table 10.3: Advantages and disadvantages of current NMPT management proposal
in Dhaka…………………………………………………………………………………………………………...177
Table 13.1: Continuous Fuzzy Set with scale division and corresponding scores…………………….218
Table 14.1: Land use- traffic interactivity for different road categories………………………………….230
Table 14.2: The alternative transport strategies with NMPT restrictions and suitability result.235
Table 14.3: Desired performance level of major governing attributes across road network
levels……………………………………………………………………………………………………………......237
Table 15.1: Proposed framework road hierarchy/integration layer and its comparison to the
existing scheme………………………………………………………………………………………………….253
Table 15.2: Implementation strategy to support the planning framework for Dhaka……………..280
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviation Description
ADB Asian Development Bank
AFP Agence France-Presse
AHP Analytical Hierarchy Process
AM Access and Mobility
ANOVA Analysis of Variance
AUD Australian Dollar
BBS Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics
BIDC Bangladesh Rickshaw Industry Company
BRT Bus Rapid Transit
BRTA Bangladesh Road Transport Authority
BUET Bangladesh University of engineering and Technology
CBN Cost of Basic Needs
CIA Central Intelligence agency
CMERI Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute
CSIR Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
DAP Detailed Area Plan
DCC Dhaka City Corporation
DHUTS Dhaka Urban Transport Network Development Study
DITS Greater Dhaka Metropolitan Area Integrated Transport
Study
DMA Dhaka Metropolitan Area
DMP Dhaka Metropolitan Police
DTCB Dhaka Transport Coordination Board
DTMR Department of Transport and Main Roads
DTRS
DUTP
Commonwealth Department of Transport & Regional Services
Dhaka Urban Transport Project
ELECSHA Electric Rickshaw
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Abbreviation Description
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
ES Environmental Sustainability
FCD Focus Group Discussion
FR Full Restriction
GDA Greater Dhaka Area
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GEF Global Environment Fund
GHG Greenhouse gas
GMU Gadjah Mada University
GO Government Organisation
Gt Billion Tons
GTZ Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (German Agency for
Development Cooperation)
HDRC Human Development Research Centre
IMPF Integrated Multimodal Planning Framework
IMPRA Improved Pedal Cycle Rickshaw
IMTP Integrated Multi-Modal Transport Policy
INSTRANS Institute of Transportation Studies
IP Intellectual Property
ITDP Institute of Transportation and Development Policy
JICA Japan international Cooperation Agency
LOS Level of Service
MADM Multi-Attribute Decision Making
MAPRA Motor Assisted Pedal Rickshaw
MAWTS Mirpur Agricultural Workshop and Technical School
MI Modern City Image
MPT Motorised Public Transport
MRT Mass Rapid Transit
MS Microsoft
MT Motorised Transport
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Abbreviation
Description
MPT Motorised Public Transport
MRT Mass Rapid Transit
MS Microsoft
MT Motorised Transport
NARI Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute
NGO Non-Government Organisation
NLTP National Land Transport Policy
NMT Non-Motorised Transport
NMPT Non-Motorised Public Transport
NR No Restriction
O-D Origin-Destination
OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
PCE Passenger Car Equivalent
PCSE Passenger Car Space Equivalent
PR Partial Restriction
PR(E) Partial Restriction (Existing)
PT Public transport
PTV Planung Transport Verkehr
PUSTRAL Centre for Transportation and Logistic Studies
QBL Quadruple Bottom Line
QUT Queensland University of Technology
RAJUK Rajdhani Unnayan Katripakhkha
RETA Regional Technical Assistance
ROD Rickshaw Oriented Development
ROW Right of Way
SE Social Equity
SPM Solid Particulate Matter
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Scientist
STP Strategic Transport Plan
TAZ Traffic analysis Zone
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Abbreviation
Description
STP Strategic Transport Plan
TAZ Traffic analysis Zone
TBL Triple Bottom Line
TCQSM Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual
TE Traffic Operational Efficiency
TfL Transport for London
Tk Bangladesh Taka
TT Tourist Transport
UK United Kingdom
UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme
UNCRD United Nations Centre for Regional Development
UNFCC United Nations Framework on Climate Change
USA United States of America
WB Work Bank
WBB Working for Better Bangladesh Trust
WCED World Commission on Environment and Development
STATEMENT OF O
The work contained in thi
an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and
belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except
where due reference is made.
Signature:
Date: 07/01/2013
PPLLAANNNNIINNGG FFOORR SSUUSSTTAAIINNAABBIILLIITTYY OOFF NNOONN MMOOTTOORRIISSEEDD PPUUBBLLIICC TT
ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet requirements for
an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and
belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except
where due reference is made.
07/01/2013
TTRRAANNSSPPOORRTT IINN AA DDEEVVEELLOOPPIINNGG CCIITTYY
Page xx
s thesis has not been previously submitted to meet requirements for
an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and
belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except
PPLLAANNNNIINNGG FFOORR SSUUSSTTAAIINNAABBIILLIITTYY OOFF NNOONN MMOOTTOORRIISSEEDD PPUUBBLLIICC TTRRAANNSSPPOORRTT IINN AA DDEEVVEELLOOPPIINNGG CCIITTYY
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First of all, I acknowledge my principal supervisor Associate Prof. Dr Jonathan Bunker for his
guidance, knowledge and contribution, all of which have enabled me to achieve this piece of
work. I would also like to acknowledge the contribution and valuable guideline of my external
supervisor Prof. Glen D’Este, associate supervisors Prof. Simon Washington and Dr Zuduo Zheng
in realising this work.
I am grateful to the Australian Government for providing me with the prestigious International
Postgraduate Research Scholarship. I also acknowledge with gratitude the Science and
Engineering Faculty for supporting me with scholarship funding and additional resources for
conducting this research, especially the data collection process.
I am thankful to Dhaka City Corporation, Dhaka Transport Coordination Board, Bangladesh Road
Transport authority, Capital Development Authority (RAJUK), Dhaka Metropolitan Police, World
Bank- Bangladesh, Asian Development Bank- Bangladesh, Japan International Cooperation
Agency - Bangladesh and Working for Better Bangladesh Trust, for their cooperation and
support during data collection process. My gratitude to Md. Matiar Rahman, Executive Director,
Concord, Dhaka and Mr. M. Jahangir Kabir, Managing Director, Insights & Ideas Ltd., Dhaka for
their kind support during the data collection process. I am also grateful to the operators, drivers
and users of different transport services in Dhaka who shared their valuable time and
experience during the field interview process.
I am thankful to Mr. Darmaning Tyas, Izzul Waro of Institute of Transportation Studies
(INSTRANS) & the transport research group at Centre for Transportation and Logistic Studies
(PUSTRAL)- Gadjah Mada University (GMU), Indonesia; and Mr. David Burgin, Mr. Steve Kenway
and other staff of Greencabs, Brisbane, Australia for their valuable insight during data collection
in Indonesia and Australia respectively.
My thanks to Mr. Mike Hyslop, Prof. Edward Chung and Dr. M. Alauddin for providing me with a
comfortable working environment which has allowed me to balance my work and research
commitments.
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I thank my fellow postgraduate students at Queensland University of Technology (QUT),
colleagues at Planung Transport Verkehr (PTV) - Asia Pacific and all my friends in Bangladesh
and Australia for making this journey a pleasant one.
I am indebted to my parents (Afroza Rahman and Md. Matiar Rahman), and my siblings (Mahin,
Moin and Anika) for their continuous love, faith and encouragement. Last but not least, I am
thankful to my wife Zeeshan Rahman for being a constant source of support and
encouragement during the whole tenure of my PhD candidature.
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PUBLICATIONS FROM THIS RESEARCH
Refereed conference papers
Rahman, M.M, D’Este, G. and Bunker, J. (2008). Problems and prospects of non-motorized
public transport integration in developing cities. In proceedings of the 30th Conference of the
Australasian Institute of Transport Research, Perth, Australia, December 10 -12.
Rahman, M.M, G.D’Este and Bunker, J. (2009). Non-motorized public transport development:
present scenario and future approach in developing cities. In proceedings of the 3rd Smart
Systems Postgraduate Student Conference. Brisbane, Australia, September 29 – October 1.
Rahman, M.M, D’Este, G. and Bunker, J. (2009). Is there a future for non-motorized public
transport in Asia? In proceedings of the 8th International Conference of the Eastern Asia Society
for Transportation Studies. Surabaya, Indonesia, November 16 - 19.
Rahman, M.M, D’Este, G. and Bunker, J. (2010).Non-motorized public transport: A global review
and analysis of trends and issues. In proceedings of the 12th World Conference on Transport
Research. Lisbon, Portugal, July 11 - 15.
Rahman, M.M, D’Este, G. and Bunker, J. (2010).Non-motorized public transport: The past, the
present, the future. In proceedings of the 33rd International Conference of the Australasian
Transport Research Forum. Canberra, Australia, September 29 – October 1.
Rahman, M.M, D’Este, G. and Bunker, J. (2011).Implication of policy restriction on non-
motorized public transport performance in Dhaka: An analytical discourse. In proceedings of the
1st International Postgraduate Conference on Engineering, Designing and Developing the Built
Environment for Sustainable Wellbeing. Brisbane, Australia, April 27 - 29.
Conference presentation
Rahman, M.M, Bunker, J. and D’Este, G. (2011). Policy restriction impact on non-motorised
public transport performance in Dhaka. 4th
PTV Vision Asia-Pacific User Group Meeting,
Brisbane, Australia, November 17.
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SECTION A: INTRODUCTION AND GLOBAL REVIEW OF
NON –MOTORISED PUBLIC TRANSPORT
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Sustainable transport systems encompass comprehensive integration of policy, system
development and management to achieve a diverse and balanced mix of transport modes
(motorised and non-motorised) while enabling social equity, cost effectiveness, energy
conservation and mobility (Replogle, 1991a). This research focuses on achieving such equity
among transport modes within a mixed traffic environment, with emphasis on operational
optimization of non-motorized transport (NMT), more specifically non-motorised public
transport. Section A introduces the research and provides a global review of the NMPT status.
This chapter (Chapter 1) outlines the background and problem context of the research, the
underlying hypothesis stemming from the problem statement, relevant research questions to
investigate the hypothesis, subsequent aims and objectives to achieve those research
questions, and also delineates the scope and limitations within which the study is conducted.
Finally, it concludes with an outline of how the whole thesis is structured to meet these needs
and boundaries.
1.1 Research background and problem statement
This section provides a brief introduction to the common needs in place within the transport
system of cities in the global context and the possible problem areas in which such need
indicates address, in order to attain transport sustainability. Such background and problem
identification set the scene for the research study.
Over the last few decades, most large cities around the world have been experiencing rapid and
sometimes imbalanced transport sector development induced by high automobile dependency.
This has resulted in severe congestion, resulting in poor level of service and environmental
degradation. In fact, emissions from the transport sector represent the fastest source of
greenhouse gas (GHG) emission (Wright & Fulton, 2005). Realising the severity of the problem,
transport sector policies have been re-oriented to make them more sustainable for the future.
The most common response under these circumstances has been to focus on better planning,
development and management of public transport (PT) modes and on better traffic control
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measures. Public transport development approaches have usually focused on higher cost
approaches- mass transit systems. These include prototype buses, trains and sophisticated new
generations of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) and rail-based Mass Rapid Transit (MRT). But, on a
relevant spectrum there is another paradigm of traditional, low-cost transport systems that can
also add to the initiative towards a sustainable transport future for cities; emission-free, non-
motorised transport (Replogle, 1991a). In particular, the NMT mode that is similar in service
type and operating character to that of motorised public transport (MPT) is three-wheeler, cycle
rickshaws. This paid category of NMT, henceforth termed as non-motorised public transport
(NMPT) can be another potential mode towards facilitating the sustainable transport future of
cities, meeting in various ways and with varying success, the mobility needs of human
communities(Replogle, 1991c). However, it is important here to distinguish between two
possible categories of NMPT/rickshaw mode available, cycle rickshaws (peddle-powered three-
wheeler) and human-pulled rickshaws (human-pulled three-wheeler) as depicted in Figure 1.1.
Note that this research supports the banning of human-pulled rickshaws, due to the crude
nature of their operation (pulling of the vehicle by a person on foot) and specifically excludes
them from the category of NMPT.
Figure 1.1: Major available rickshaw types (Left: Cycle rickshaw, right: Human-pulled rickshaw )
Source: Gupta (2005); Fotosearch (2011)
The benefits and costs of NMPT have long been a major transport planning problem in most
major developing cities and appear as a concern in a considerable number of major developed
cities. NMPTs are perceived to have an important role in many major developing cities of Asia
and Latin America due to their long-lasting history, substantial fleet size and popular demand.
The demand of the mode is observed to be multi-sectoral. The mode has preference and
acceptability by significant market segments (e.g. women, children and the elderly); favoured by
non-car owners for relative cost effectiveness compared to paratransit and private vehicles, and
have significant employment generation effect. In addition, the mode is claimed to be suitable
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for short trips (2-3km); occupy lower road space compared to private vehicles; is more
appropriate in narrow network structure, has operating flexibility; and most significantly, offers
zero GHG emission .These operating attributes are said to have instigated the re-emergence
and popularity of the mode in the major developed cities of Europe, North America and
Australia in the last decade.
But at decision level MPT is often preferred over NMPT as a preferable mode for addressing the
travel demand and for future transport network planning. In developing cities, the non-
preference is based on the notion of NMPT being inefficient and backward; an impediment to
progress; and inconsistent with a modern urban image. Further criticisms of the mode have
included their slow operating speed, congestion-generating character as a vehicle, and for the
drivers a sense that they are undertaking an ‘inhuman’ profession. As a result, policy measures
to restrict or eliminate NMPT from urban arterials and other feeder networks have been
implemented in cities as diverse as Dhaka, Delhi, Bangkok, Jakarta, Manila, Surabaya and Beijing
with mixed success. In developed cities such as New York, Seattle and London there are also
disputes among transport professionals and policy makers on the degree of acceptability for the
mode, its need rationale and the extent of its possible role within the transport system.
Given the international significance of the problem and the scarcity of studies focused on it, the
present research will attempt to provide a more complete analysis of the current existence
rationale and future possible role or otherwise of NMPT in the transport system, using Dhaka as
a case study. The lessons learned regarding the negative implications of pro-motorised
transport policies on quality of life and the growing emphasis for a sustainable transport future
as argued by Wright & Fulton (2005) also demands a rigorous investigation of the suitability of
NMPT as a sustainable transport alternative for the future. This research may provide the
necessary information and guideline for a fundamental rethink of policy and planning practice
towards NMPT in developing and developed cities.
1.2 Research hypothesis
Based on the problem statement, the hotly contested paradigms of existence or elimination of
NMPT were therefore considered as a constructive basis towards developing the hypothesis of
this research. The endeavour is towards developing a ‘balanced transport system’ providing
good accessibility, satisfactory mobility and greater connectivity to the majority of its users
while ensuring operational improvement, safety, economic efficiency and eco-sustainability. In
this light, the research investigated these aspects by setting up and analysing the following
hypothesis-
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‘There is an ongoing significant role of NMPT as a regular public transport and it can effectively
contribute towards sustainable transport with respect to social equity, economic independence,
environmental security and traffic operational efficiency, if integrated appropriately into the
transport system’.
1.3 Research questions
This study has attempted to investigate the following four questions so that they can lead
towards resolution of the hypothesis.
1. What is the present state of NMPT in the urban transport system, focusing primarily on
developing cities and to a lesser extent on developed cities?
Research question 1 leads to the following key issues, to be addressed in resolving the posed
hypothesis,
a. What are the degrees and patterns of use of NMPT in the overall transport system of these
cities with emphasis on Dhaka?
b. Does such use indicate a significant contribution and therefore rationale for continuation of
NMPT as a regular public transport mode in these cities, with emphasis on Dhaka?
c. What has been tried in the past regarding planning and management of NMTs especially
NMPTs in these cities with emphasis on Dhaka and what are the end results?
2. What should be the future role of NMPT in the urban transport system, focusing primarily on
developing cities and to a lesser extent on developed cities?
Research question 2 leads to the following key issues, to be addressed in resolving the posed
hypothesis,
a. If there is ongoing future role for NMPT as a regular public transport mode, then what should
be that role, with emphasis on Dhaka?
3. How can NMPT best perform a continuing role as a regular public transport mode in the
present and future context of a developing city such as Dhaka?
4. How can NMPT contribute to sustainable transport in the present and future context of a
developing city such as Dhaka?
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Research questions 3 and 4 lead to the following key question and associated issues for address
in resolving the posed hypothesis,
How to design a framework that can optimise the sustainable coexistence of NMPT as a regular
public transport mode with motorised transport (MT) in Dhaka?
a. What are the necessary characteristics of a framework or decision tool to achieve integration
of NMPT with MT so that it can be applied to address current network deficiencies, using the
case study of Dhaka?
b. What technique(s) best suit development of the tool, so that it can achieve integration using
the case study of Dhaka?
1.4 Research aims and objectives
The aforementioned research questions posed are expected to be addressed by structuring the
research around the following aims and objectives in the course of the study.
1.4.1 Research aims
The research aims to investigate the role of NMPT as a mode within the transport spectrum of
major cities of developing and developed nations in response to the research hypothesis and to
formulate an appropriate methodology for its efficient incorporation within a mixed traffic
environment, if the contribution of the mode is found to be justified and significant.
1.4.2 Research objectives
The objectives are-
1. To analyse and define the current role and future suitability of NMPT in the transport system
context, primarily in developing cities and to a lesser extent in developed cities (addressing
research question1, 2).
2. To analyse and define the current role and future suitability of NMPT in the transport system
context, using the Dhaka case study (addressing research question1, 2).
3. To evaluate and determine the suitable network environment for integration of NMPT with
other modes (addressing research question 3, 4).
4. To examine and select appropriate techniques for development of an integrated multimodal
decision tool (addressing research question 3, 4).
5. To develop a functional framework for the proposed decision tool to facilitate sustainable
NMPT coexistence with MT (addressing research question 3, 4).
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1.5 Research scope and limitations
It is known that the operational performance evaluation for a network involves analysing each
mode’s contribution to the transport task in terms of role, impact, opportunities and
constraints. The scope of this research is focused more towards evaluating the impact of the
NMPT as a regular public transport in the performance of a transport network in response to
conjecture regarding its possible suitability and significance from multiple viewpoints (social,
economic, environmental, political; traffic and lane use/transport interaction); and if NMPT
contribution is found to be justifiable but non-cohesive with other motorised modes, it is then
also preferable to develop an integration method that best enhances multimode coexistence. It
is understood that such process can involve planning solutions as well as design guidelines. This
research however, has chosen to emphasise development of a planning oriented integration
framework due to its broader strategic implications. Due to time and resource constraints, the
research has been prioritised to focus on developing the framework for a most vulnerable city,
Dhaka, rather than for multiple major cities which might also have requirements for integration
frameworks. However, to minimize the limitation, the framework is proposed as being arranged
such that it is flexible to be adopted in other traffic environments. Figure 1.2 illustrates the
process of the whole research undertaking.
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Figure 1.2: Conceptual overview of research undertaking
What is the status of
NMPT in urban transport
system?
Primary focus:
Developing cities
Secondary focus:
Developed cities
Lessons learned
Is NMPT significant
as a regular public
transport mode?
Y
Is there any
satisfactory framework
for incorporating
NMPT into mixed
traffic system?
N
Investigation Ends
Develop planning
framework that can
facilitate coexistence of
NMPT with MT and
adoptable elsewhere
Does that
framework meet
its needs?
Does it enable balanced
distribution of NMPT and
MT across network?
Is it applicable to other
cities?
Y
Y
Investigation Ends
N
Investigation
continues
Focus on a case
city: Dhaka
Investigation required
on shortcomings
N
Y
N
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1.6 Thesis Outline
The thesis is organized into sixteen chapters, divided into four sections corresponding to
research aim and set objectives. Section A (Chapters 1 and 2) introduces the research and
presents a global review of NMPT. Section B (Chapters 3 to 10) provides a detailed review and
analysis of NMPT in case study Dhaka. Section C (Chapters 11 to 15) presents the integrated
planning framework development process for case study Dhaka. Section D (Chapter 16) outlines
the concluding remarks for the research.
Chapter 1 describes the background and underlying problems, relevant hypothesis, research
questions, aims and objectives and scopes and limitations of the research. Chapter 2
investigates the status of NMPT in a global perspective by examining the arguments for and
against the mode with primary focus on developing cities; identifies key learning and determine
gaps that need to be addressed. Based on these understandings and recommendations,
Chapters 3 to 9 provide a detailed overview of the mode for the case study of Dhaka, the capital
city of Bangladesh and arguably the most NMPT intensive city in the world. Chapter 3 provides
an overview of NMPT status in Dhaka. Chapters 4 and 5 report the literature arguments on
NMPT, for and against the mode respectively. Chapters 6 and 7 provide in-depth analyses based
on these reviews. Chapters 8 and 9 discuss the NMPT stakeholder viewpoints on the current
role of NMPT, the future desired coexistence pattern of NMPT with MT and the preferred
attributes for a future Dhaka transport system. The inference from the discussion of Chapters 3
to 9 is summarised in Chapter 10. The discourse also leads to the role definition of NMPT in
Dhaka, identification of deficiencies that demand addressing and the need for a planning
framework for future of Dhaka.
Chapters 11 to 15 describe the planning framework development process for case study Dhaka.
Chapter 11 provides an overview of the planning framework including the desired outcome,
directions and planning steps. The methodology for development of the framework tool is
presented in Chapter 13, preceded by methodology rationale in Chapter 12. The tool
development process is elaborated across Chapter 14 and 15. Chapter 14 discusses the
selection of a suitable network environment, and layout tool for the framework. The desired
attributes expected from the framework are also derived in this chapter. The structure and
functioning of the framework is elaborated in Chapter15. Chapter 16 outlines the conclusions
from the study and identifies scope for future research. The layout of the thesis is illustrated in
Figure 1.3 in the form of a document map.
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Figure 1.3: Document map of the research
CHAPTER 1
Research inception
and structure
CHAPTER 2
NMPT Status analysis:
Global review
CHAPTER 3
NMPT overview in
case study Dhaka
CHAPTER 4
Review of arguments
favouring NMPT
CHAPTER 5
Review of arguments
rejecting NMPT
CHAPTER 6
Analysis of NMPT
role in Dhaka
CHAPTER 7
Analysis of NMPT policy-
planning in Dhaka
CHAPTER 8
Stakeholder viewpoint:
Analysis methodology
CHAPTER 9
Stakeholder viewpoint:
Analysis results
CHAPTER 10
Inference and
recommendations
CHAPTER 11
Overview of
planning framework
CHAPTER 12
Research
methodology rationale
CHAPTER 13
Application of
methodology
CHAPTER 14
Building scene for
framework development
CHAPTER 15
Framework constituents
and function
CHAPTER 16
Discussion and
Conclusion Section A: Introduction &
global review of NMPT
Section B: NMPT in case
study Dhaka
Section C: Planning framework
development for Dhaka
Section D: Conclusion
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1.7 Summary
This chapter presented the preliminary background to formulation of the research, the
subsequent problem statement and hypothesis development to analyse the validity of the
concerns. Three major research questions were formulated in this regard to further assist in
resolution of the posed hypothesis. The first research question was formulated to investigate
the current status of NMPT as a regular mode of public transport. The second research question
was formulated to examine the future potential role of NMPT as regular public transport,
assuming the present status of the mode is proved significant. The last research question was
devised to investigate and develop a suitable methodology for integration of NMPT and MT
within a mixed traffic environment, assuming the first two research questions satisfied the
hypothesis.
Research aims and objectives corresponding to resolving the research questions were then
developed. The scopes and limitations of the study were also defined to clarify the extent of the
research. The chapter concluded with an illustrative representation of the structure of the
whole thesis and the inter-linkage between chapters. With this research backdrop and in
accordance with the document map (Figure 1.3), the following chapter explores the global
status of NMPT as a mode of transport and its other relevant aspects.
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2CHAPTER 2: NON-MOTORIZED PUBLIC TRANSPORT: WHAT CAN WE
LEARN FROM A GLOBAL REVIEW?
2.1 Introduction
“Motorised transport and non-motorised transport are not separate alternative
transport modes. Rather, both of them, including public transport, should be dealt with
together. Certainly, the numbers of automobiles will inevitably increase in most
countries, but it should be pointed out that even with highly motorised societies, a
certain percentage of person trips in urban areas would be done by walking, cycling and
riding buses.”
(Kubota & Kidokoro, 1996)
Chapter 1 has set the scene and the need for a comprehensive status analysis of non-motorised
public transport (NMPT) for future urban transport system planning. This chapter focuses on
determining the global condition on NMPT as a mode of transport. The review is initiated by
developing city context (Section 2.2) and then continues with reference to developed city
scenarios (Section 2.3). Within each category of analysis, arguments favouring and rejecting the
existence of NMPT are presented. The research literature, development trend, policy
approaches and planning initiatives in the management of the mode are discussed in this
regard. Such benefits and cost analyses allows us to portray an unbiased view on the need for
this mode, or otherwise. This investigation is followed by key lessons learned from the literature
and the gaps yet to be addressed (Section 2.5).It should be noted that though the term NMPT
will be generally applied to express the cycle rickshaw in this research (as referred in Section
1.1), this Chapter will use the country specific names of the mode as well, while using relevant
discussions and quotes from different sources.
This discourse is an initiative towards a two-tier status review of the mode and its potential
suitability analysis within the urban transport spectrum, especially as a regular public transport
form. Chapters 3 to 10 provide the scenario for the Dhaka perspective as a part of the detailed
condition analysis of developing cities. The output from such analysis is expected to address
research questions 1 and 2 and indicate whether research question 3 is required to be
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addressed or not. A flowchart of the key steps within the status analysis process is presented in
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.1: Flowchart of key steps in the NMPT status review process
Primary focus:
Developing cities
Secondary focus:
Developed cities
Lessons learned Lessons learned
SECTION A: Status analysis of NMPT:
Global condition review and learning
Y
SECTION B:
Gaps to address
Detailed status analysis
of developing cities
with Dhaka case study-
Lessons learned
Gaps to address
How to address it?
Way forward for research
Why Dhaka?
What is NMPT status?
Analyse the reasons
and suggest rational
alternative mode
Y
N
N
Hypothesis test
Is NMPT significant
as a regular public
transport mode?
Analyse the reasons
and suggest rational
alternative mode
Hypothesis test
Is NMPT significant
as a regular public
transport mode?
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2.2 NMPT status analysis: Perspective on developing cities
The transport system in developing countries’ cities can be classified into two broad categories,
namely motorised transport and non-motorised transport. The motorised category includes
public transport, paratransit and private transport. The non-motorised transports (NMTs) have
two distinct patterns, private NMTs and public NMTs. According to World Bank (2002), the two
major modes of NMTs in developing cities are walking, and various forms of cycling, which can
be personal or public transport. NMPT has long been a major transport planning problem in
developing cities (Replogle, 1991b). Particularly, the debate on its suitability to continue or
otherwise has been hotly contested and has gained greater significance in recent years with a
new perspective of the transport sector as a key component of sustainable development and
poverty eradication (Whitelegg & Williams ,2005).With this backdrop, a review of NMPT status
is presented in the following sections, describing its strengths and weaknesses to enable an
understanding of the need or otherwise of the mode as regular public transport. The current
status of relevant management initiatives in place is also discussed.
2.2.1 Concept and evolution of NMPT
Because of the long lasting and continuous history of existence of NMPT until today, it is
considered necessary to show preliminary background on the concept and evolution of the
mode to set the scene for its status analysis.
Concept of NMT and NMPT
Non-motorised transport is a transport form that is fossil-fuel free and uses human labour as a
direct driving force in movement operation. Guitink, Sussane and Lebo (1994) has defined non-
motorised transport (NMT) as any form of transportation that provides personal or goods
mobility by methods other than the combustion motor. The NMTs in developing cities can
broadly be divided into two major forms namely private NMTs such as bicycle and walking, and
public NMTs such as cycle-rickshaws.
The word ‘rickshaw’ comes from the Japanese jin riki sha, which means literally ‘man-powered
vehicle’. The name was originally given to the hand-pulled rickshaws which thronged Asian
cities in the late 19th and early 20th centuries but later it was also applied to the cycle-rickshaws
as known in India and Bangladesh (Gallagher, 1992) These vehicles are also known as trishaw
(China), pedicabs (Philippines), samlor (Tahiland), cyclos (Cambodia and Vietnam), becak
(Indonesia), saika (Myanmar), pinyin (Malaysia), bicitaxi (Columbia, Chile) and ecologico
(Mexico) . They come in many different designs, with two wheels, either in front or back, but
developed from the same penny-farthing bicycle concept applied to early tricycles of late 19th
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century. They are capable of carrying a driver and two to four passengers or freight loads of up
to 250 kg at speeds of 5 to 12 km/hr over distances of up to 40 km (Replogle, 1991b).
Conceptually, NMPT offers a high degree of individualised service, in a relatively cost-efficient
manner, using renewable energy with no adverse environmental impacts (STP, 2005a). They are
effectively a non-motorised taxi operating as a hail-and-ride system, providing door-to-door
service for which passengers pay (Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2: NMPT Usage in the Streets of developing cities (Left: Yogyakarta, right: Mexico City
Source: Rahman (2009), Rickshawforum (2009)
Evolution of NMPT
The rickshaws initially introduced in developing cities were hand pulled, first observed in Japan
in 1869 (Warren, 1986). This concept was then used in other cities such as Yokohama, Peiking,
Shanghai, Hong Kong, Canton, Singapore, Rangoon and Calcutta (Warren, 1986; Fung,
2005).The NMPTs were first introduced in Singapore in 1886 known as the Upton Park
passenger tricycle ( Flower,1984).
However the NMPTs were not widely prevalent in these parts until around 1929 when they
were first used on a large scale in Singapore (Warren, 1986). NMPT was then onwardly seen to
be used as popular public transport in Calcutta (around 1930), Jakarta (1936), Dhaka (1938),
Hong Kong (mid 1940s) and Canton (1946). By 1950 cycle-rickshaws had spread to every
country in South and East Asia and their growth picked up during the 1960’s and 1970’s (Rashid,
1986; Rimmer, 1986; Gallagher, 1992). NMPTs are still observed in large numbers in the
transport system of many major cities in developing countries, servicing daily trips (Hook, 2005).
2.2.2 Arguments in favour of NMPT
There has been increasing consciousness over the last decade on the significance of inclusion of
NMT mode forms within the mainstream transport policy and planning of cities around the
world, based on sustainability grounds. According to Kalthier (2002):
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“Urban transport policy and planning over the last few decades has been anything but
sustainable in most of the developing countries. Following the example set by the
industrialised countries, developments have been biased towards promoting the
motorised private transport ….. Non-motorised transport (footpaths, bicycles,
rickshaws, etc.), which accounts for more than 50 percent of the total traffic volume in
cities with more than a million inhabitants, especially in Asia and Africa, was hardly
considered in communal transport infrastructure planning.”
This section analyses the arguments in support of NMPT as a transport mode. The discussion
commences with a significant linkage of the mode to the notion of sustainable development
and transport sustainability as revealed in different literature. This is followed by a discussion of
research supporting NMPT. A review of global trends and policy initiatives in place towards
management of the mode is then conducted.
Linkage between urban transport sustainability and non-motorised public transport
In line with the notions of sustainable development and transport sustainability (See Appendix
A for details on these notions), Replogle (1991c), World Bank (2002), Whitelegg and Williams
(2005) argued that the concept of urban transport sustainability does not call for new
technologies or massive new projects. Instead it demands emphasis on achieving a balanced
mix of non-motorised and motorised transport modes to ensure sustenance in mobility needs,
while attaining social equity, economic independence and environmental sustainability.
Kalthier’s (2002) and Efroymson and Rahman (2005) added that the mobility solutions in
developing cities should include issues regarding minimum energy consumption, safety and
poverty reduction.
NMPT is the primary means of transport and source of employment for people in many
developing countries and accordingly is essential in the design of urban transportation systems
(Guitink et al., 1994). World Bank (2002) highlighted the social and economic strength of NMT
including NMPT in transport sustainability, arguing that in many cities of the developing world,
non-motorised transport is the main mode for the general masses and in some cases a
significant source of income for them. This sector therefore has a very important impact on
poverty reduction. Where NMPT is the main transport mode for work journeys of the poor, it is
also critical for the economic sustenance of the city. Replogle (1991c), Whitelegg and Williams
(2005) and Wright and Fulton (2005) argued that the rising fuel price globally has made
NMT/NMPT even more viable economically and the need for NMT/NMPT stating that
developing countries still have a chance to avoid the mistakes made by many industrial
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countries in developing inefficient urban forms and creating reliance on expensive transport
systems that require imported and ultimately scarce fuels. Moreover, recognising the
environmental impact, World Bank-Global Environment Fund (GEF) (2003) recommended a
modal shift in developing countries to low emission, less polluting vehicles like NMT/NMPT.
These pervading linkages of NMT/NMPT with key sustainability measures of triple bottom line
(TBL) demand consideration in the overall transport system. Moreover, in developing countries,
where the majority of modal shares in urban areas are a mixture of private NMT (walk and
bicycle) and in many cases NMPT (cycle rickshaws), such integration together with strong
political commitments and good governance can be crucial in meeting quadruple bottom line
(QBL) sustainability notions. However, finding the right combination of local public transport
mix (motorised public transport and NMPT) to optimise the diverging targets for the system as a
whole is a challenge that urban transport and traffic planning in developing cities has to address
(GTZ, 2002).
Insights from the research literature
A considerable amount of research work has been conducted emphasising the role of NMT as a
key component of sustainable transport systems, focusing on the bicycle. However, outside
Asia, few of these works have focused on NMPT. The thematic discourse of the research
insights are discussed below, as initiated by the global viewpoint and then concentrating on
some country-specific studies.
Global viewpoint
Warren (1986), Rimmer (1986) and Gallagher (1992) have published extensive works relevant to
NMPT. Each of these has examined a specific case study, with Warren focussing on Singapore,
Rimmer on South Asia and Gallagher on Bangladesh. They all share a common outlook towards
the suitability and rationale of the mode, from its very early days. Warren (1986) suggested that
NMPT became popular in Singapore since it offered convenient service and cheap fares to the
public at large, particularly on journeys of up to two miles Rimmer (1986) highlighted that
NMPT is suitable in South Asian cities and cities with similar socio-economic, physical network
character, as a convenient, readily available and low cost transportation mode for short
distance trips. Gallagher (1992) further argued on the future suitability of the mode for
developing cities, pointing to their low fare compared to comparative available modes
(motorised paratransits) and economic efficiency in catering for the demand for multi-
destination passenger/goods travel.
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Replogle has conducted extensive research on NMT and its sustainability and transport policy
planning for Asian cities. He has consistently emphasised the notion of planned integration of
NMTs in the mixed traffic environment of Asian cities and other developing cities with similar
traffic conditions, for maximising functionality. Replogle (1991b) provided an overview of the
then current use of NMTs in Asian cities, the characteristics of NMTs and facilities that serve
them and policies that influence their use. The research also identified conditions under which
NMT use should be encouraged for urban transport, obstacles to the development of NMTs,
and suggested steps that might be taken to develop an NMT Strategy for a city or region, in Asia
and other parts of the world. Replogle (1991a, 1991c) highlighted the sustainability implications
of NMTs, especially for NMPTs in comparison to MTs, and has been one of the pioneers in
promoting the notion of inter-modal integration of motorised and non-motorised modes.
Policies, adopted across much of Asia, that promoted rapid motorisation and repression of
economically and environmentally sustainable low-cost non-motorised transport modes have
been analysed in a later research by Hook and Replogle (1996). The research has also identified
how the influence of foreign investment and deficient policy planning of Governments can lead
to systematic elimination of NMTs in Asian cities with China, Japan and Indonesia as case
studies. Highlighting the environmental implications that NMPT removal could make, Hook
(2000) used a case study of Agra, India. Using Chilean-specific emission data he concluded that if
all NMPT trips were reallocated to highly polluting, two-stroke internal combustion (IC) engines
(e.g. the auto-rickshaw) then the annual totals of pollutants in Agra would increase by 11
tonnes of lead, 4,000 tonnes of particulates, 20,000 tonnes of carbon monoxide and 150 tonnes
of NOx. Taking from the lessons of his previous studies, Hook (2002, 2005), Replogle
emphasised the need to have an integrated approach towards the planning, infrastructure
design and development of NMTs and NMPTS in developing cities.
Hook (2005) further provided a broad guideline on the major steps to be considered as a part of
rational planning approaches to ensure that NMT improvement interventions are realised in a
systematic order and investments are prioritised for the necessary facilities. The key steps
recommended include establishment of a non-motorised task force, selection of areas to be
improved upon, an inventory of existing regulations and conditions, development and
prioritisation of planned improvements, selection and design of facilities and testing of facilities
after implementation. However, he highlighted the fact that application of these steps, in
particular selection and design of NMT facilities for each location would depend on the local
environment and other relevant factors, and needs to be different for NMPTs than for NMTs.
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Guitink in his research on NMTs has focused on the mobility contribution and emphasised its
improvement. Guitink et al. (1994) showed the mobility significance of NMTs, emphasising its
improvement and how it can be an effective tool towards confronting poverty. This research
further argued that it is essential for NMTs to be considered in the design and modernisation of
transportation systems in developing cities. As a continuation of this research, other research
works followed, among which Guitink (1996) is noteworthy. This study explicitly set out policy
goals and strategies for an NMT model for ensuring that the benefits which they can bring to
the transport scene are realised, particularly by concentrating at different organisation levels,
and stresses the importance of solid financial backing. In line with Replogle and Guitink, Kubota
and Kidokoro (1996) also emphasised these dimensions, stating that although the number of
motorised vehicles will inevitably increase in most Asian cities, they cannot be treated as a
separate alternative to NMT. Rather, both of them should be treated together for balanced
system development.
Wheeler and l'Anson (1998) have provided a more vivid portrayal of NMPT heritage in Asian
cities, highlighting its existence and functional sphere with reference to 12 key NMPT-dominant
cities of Asia in their monograph on NMPT. The cities under discussion included Agra, Calcutta,
Hanoi, Macau, Penang, Singapore, Beijing, Dhaka, Hong Kong, Manila, Rangoon, and Yogykarta.
They have explained the history of the NMPT, why it remains such a popular and omnipresent
form of Asian transport, and how it varies from country to country with reference to case study
cities. The great diversity in vehicle configuration, design, vehicular ownership and operating
custom, issues of licensing, and regulatory and institutional deficiencies in managing the mode
have also been described.
World Bank (2002) in its publications ‘Cities on the Move’ has recognised the global significance
of NMTs (walk, cycle and NMPT) for mobility, economy, social equity and eco-sustainability; and
emphasised the need for infrastructure investment, traffic management and financial measures
to make them safer and more attractive.
A similar school of thought has been echoed by GEF, a trust fund of World Bank and United
Nations. World Bank-GEF (2003) in its operational program, suggested a global strategy for
modal shift to more efficient and less polluting forms of public and freight transport, one of
which is towards preserving and expanding the NMT options (walk, cycle and NMPT). The
functionality and role of NMPT and other paratransits as feeder services to the traditional public
transport system has also been highlighted in this research, further reinforced by Laquian
(2005) and Shima (2009). In particular, these later efforts have highlighted the fact that such an
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approach can be a great strategy for upgrading informal settlements in Asian Cities where
sometimes provision of traditional public transport has proved to be less productive as well as
impractical.
Studies by Sperling and Clausen (2002) and Gwilliams (2003) explored a different dimension of
this role debate of NMTs. They have tried to compare the traffic scenarios between developed
and developing cities to investigate the question on NMT requirements in developing cities.
Both have concluded that rapid motorisation has actually become a problem in both developed
and developing cities. In developing countries where the NMTs already exist as a core transport
option, transport policies should look forward to their systematic incorporation in the transport
system rather their elimination. More precisely, Sperling and Clausen (2002) stated that the
government investment mechanism, technical support, policy planning and capacity building
should be in favour of sound NMT industry development. Gwilliams (2003) blamed weak policy
and poor institutionalization behind traffic congestion in developing cities instead of NMT
existence; and reinforced the notion that concerted effort towards NMT improvement is
needed.
Recognising the aspect of road safety to promote an NMT friendly transport environment has
been the core of the research by Mohan (2002), who used the Asian cities as his case study. The
research emphasised for intelligent separation of NMTs from MTs for safety and sustainability,
without much detail on how to administer such segregation. In this regard, some road
infrastructure design guidelines for mixed traffic stream, incorporating pedestrian, bicycle and
cycle-rickshaw, are recommended by Tiwari (2002) as outlined later in the discussion.
In a similar manner, Hidalgo (2002) showed significant strategic insights towards utilising NMTs
in converting the automobile-based transport system of Bogota and other Latin American major
cities into safe, sustainable, environmentally-friendly transport environments. Hook (2003)
suggested that the introduction of bicycle-taxi or bicitaxi (Colombian version of NMPT) as a
feeder to TransMilenio (bus rapid transit) has proven to be very effective in Bogota. Britton
(2010) and Ceaser (2010) have however highlighted that the deficiencies in proper regulatory
frameworks and operational planning guidelines have led to sub-optimal utilisation of the mode
as a feeder to TransMilenio. They have also emphasised the requirement for a better service
performance from NMPT bicitaxis. Figure 2.3 shows the multi-purpose usage of the bicitaxi in
Bogota.
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Photo 2.3a: Passenger bicitaxi in Bogota
Photo 2.3b: Goods bicitaxi in Bogota
Figure 2.3 Multifunctional bicitaxis in Bogota
Source: In Bogota (2011)
Research conducted by Tiwari (2002), and Laquian (2005, 2008) strongly recommended that
introduction of a rapid transit system alone will not be the ultimate solution towards developing
an integrated transport system in developing cities, particularly those places where people are
more inclined towards walking, bicycling and using NMPT. Rather, the usage of these modes
together with rapid transit (bus/ train) in an intelligent, integrated manner would cater to a
more efficient solution to the issues of cost effective, sustainable, user friendly public transport
system development. Pardo (2005) further emphasised the potential significance of
technologically improved NMPT as a feeder service to public transport in the future for
developing and developed cities.
Country specific case studies
India, Bangladesh and Indonesia are worth examining in detail due to their considerable
number of NMPTs and the active interest of researchers. The discussion on Bangladesh with
reference to the capital city Dhaka is elaborated in Chapter 3. India has the largest number of
users of NMTs especially NMPT cycle rickshaws, exceeding Bangladesh. According to Replogle
(1991b), a projection of the Indian Planning Commission indicated the number of NMPT was
estimated as growing to 2.2 million in 2001 from 1.3 million in 1979. The research by Rajvanshi
(2002) estimated it to be around two million, corresponding to the growth expectation of the
commission. The latest statistics reveal the figure to be about seven million [Roche, 2009;
United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT), 2010].Delhi can be termed as
the NMPT capital of India with a fleet size of over 500,000 and a total dependant population of
five to six million in the industry (Page, 2007). All of these figures are quite demanding and as
expected, some significant research has been made in India on this sector and its future. Tiwari
(1999) argued how planned incorporation of NMTs (bicycles and NMPT) through traffic
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management and appropriate road design can increase traffic capacity, reduce congestion,
increase safety and reduce pollution.
Design improvement insights have been provided in another research by Tiwari (2002), though
that is primarily limited to physical segregation proposals and separate lanes for MTs and NMTs.
Delhi has been used as a case study in both research studies. Brar and Chopra (2008) also
emphasised this factor and suggested some road design guidelines such as the use of separate
lanes and the dimension and location preferred for those lanes. Research works by Whitelegg
and Williams (2005), Centre for Science and Environment (2006) and Sinha (2008) portrayed the
overall NMPT scenario in different cities of India, criticised their movement restrictions and
subsequent implications by highlighting the significant role it imparts on the overall system and
providing policy proposals towards their integration in the transport system in a holistic
manner.
Moving to Indonesia, Parikesit (1999) and Parikesit and Djarwoningrum (2002) in their research
provided condition analysis on NMPT becak in different Indonesian cities including Yogyakarta.
They have highlighted the issues such as positive user perspective, increasing demand, eco-
friendly character, improved safety offered by the mode for student population, necessity for
suitable management and regulatory frameworks in place for sustainable future development
of the mode. The later research also promoted the use of NMPT in the city centre to reduce
traffic pollution, and enhance traffic safety while maintaining mobility and accessibility. The
research monograph by Kartodirdjo (1981) argued that NMPT provided an effective and
possibly long term, low cost transport solution to the mobility problem of Yogyakarta According
to him:
“For a few years after its invention the becak was well adopted to performing its
function, i.e. to provide transportation between residential areas and other sections
and residential areas and places of work in medium size cities. There was plenty of
manpower to operate the becak. The cost of such passenger transportation is relatively
low. It’s faster than walking and relatively comfortable. Such becak transport is better
than anything the city had had before to solve the problem of travel over distances too
great for walking. It has made a substantial contribution to the solution of the intra-city
transportation problem of a medium-sized city.”
In addition, Joewono and Kubota (2005) argued that NMPT provides mobility for women,
students, low-income users, and a job opportunity for people with limited skills and education.
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According to these researchers, NMPTs are still highly accepted by the community in medium
sized cities such as Bandung and large cities such as Surabaya.
General outlook and policy initiatives on NMPT
Outlook towards current and future role
In addition to the findings of research literature, the general attitudes towards NMPT are
positive among a majority of the transport users, and non-government organisations including
donor agencies. Even in their early days, in cities like Singapore and Canton, NMPTs were the
most popular ways to commute, make social rounds and move around the markets (Warren,
1986; Fung, 2005). NMPT still continues to be a substantial component of traffic composition in
many developing cities. Becaks in prominent Indonesian cities (e.g. Yogyakarta, Bandung,
Surabaya ), pedicabs in many cities in the Philippines (e.g. Laguna, Los Banos), and cyclos in
most Cambodian cities and some parts of Vietnam are examples of places in East Asia where
NMPT continues to have a historically significant role in the urban transport system (Crossing
Cambodia, 2006; Chakravarty, 2008; Rahman, D’Este & Bunker, 2008; 2009a; 2009b). Many
parts of India (Calcutta in West Bengal, Matheran in Maharastra, Agra in Uttar Pradesh, Madras
in Tamilnadu, states of Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) also have a large population of
cycle-rickshaws which serve as a major mode of travel (Gadepalli, 2008). The transport system
of all major cities and urban centres of Bangladesh, including the capital city Dhaka, comprises
NMPT cycle-rickshaws. According to Wipperman and Sowula (2007), NMPTs are the most
common form of transport to move around the cities of Bangladesh. Although comprehensive
statistics are difficult to obtain, it is estimated that there are currently more than 20 million
NMPT drivers in Asia, estimated based on UN-HABITAT (2010) and Alam (2011). Public demand,
lack of feeder services to reach conventional public transport, absence of short distance travel
alternatives and the poor conditions of traditional public transport system (privacy, comfort,
safety) particularly for vulnerable social groups including the elderly, women and children, have
further enhanced the potential of this mode in catering for future travel demands (Gallagher
1992; Hossain & Susilo, 2011).
In Latin America, NMPT has been operating for at least 40 years and has a moderate but
growing role in the transport system for both day-to-day trips by residents and for tourist trips
(Rahman, D’Este & Bunker, 2010b). Countries including Columbia, Mexico, Costa Rica and Cuba
have persisted with their local version of the NMPT bicitaxi, and pedicabs operate in most parts
of these countries including the capital cities of Bogota (Columbia), Mexico City (Mexico), San
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Jose (Costa Rica) and Havana (Cuba) (Urban Thinking, Urban Policy, & Translating Policy into
Law, 2009).Gallagher (1992) estimated a total of more than 0.3 million goods tricycles being in
use in Latin America. At present, there is no sign of them or their passenger version
disappearing in near future. In fact, they are flourishing in cities such as Bogota, where
according to a recent statistics by Britton (2010):
“More than 5,000 bicitaxis are manoeuvring in the city streets of Bogota compared to
450 in 2004. Today there is a bicitaxi for every three buses and a bicitaxi for every nine
taxis.”
Policy and integration initiatives
With increased recognition of the sustainability implication of NMPT and its potential to reduce
GHG, government and non-government organisations in various cities have taken initiatives to
improve the mode, primarily its operating technology to suit future needs. One such new form
of rickshaw is called ‘solecshaw’, developed in India by the state-run Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) that started operating from October, 2008 (Singh, 2008; Prakash,
2009, AFP, 2008 & Roche, 2009) (Figure 2.4).
Figure 2.4: New Rickshaw Type ‘Soleckshaw’ in India
Source: Roche (2009) ; Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute (CMERI) (2011)
Even before that, since 2002 the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP)
under its Indian Cycle Rickshaw Improvement Program had successfully initiated and introduced
modernised NMPTs with technological upgrades in more than ten cities across India. Presently
over 300,000 modernised NMPTs are operating in nine of India’s major cities, including Delhi,
Agra, Bharatpur, Brindavan, Mathura, Jaipur and Chandigarh (Gadepalli, 2008) (Figure 2.5)
.
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Figure 2.5: Use of ITDP Designed Modern Rickshaw in Vrindavan
Source: Gadepalli (2006)
Hook (2000) and Gadepalli (2006, 2008) clearly demonstrated the significant results of the
program especially improvements in speed, convenience in pedal by addition of a multi-gear
system; and reduction in physical labour by more than 30 percent.
These in turn enhanced operational efficiency and together with successful market integration
and optimum re-utilisation of the existing fleets have gained acceptance even among anti-
rickshaw communities. A recent research project by Rajvanshi (2002) argued the utility of a new
type of cycle-rickshaw which, instead of eliminating existing rickshaw fleets, should be added to
that as replacement for pollution-generating, auto-rickshaws. The research centred on the use
of electric cycle rickshaw of three new varieties namely a) Improved pedal cycle rickshaw
(IMPRA); b) Motor assisted pedal rickshaw (MAPRA); and c) a completely battery-driven
rickshaw called ELECSHA (Figure 2.6).
Figure 2.6: Elecsha in India (Left: old version, right: new version)
Source: Rajvanshi (2002); Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute (NARI) (2011)
The latest improvement to these efforts has been the development of the electric-motor
assisted pedal-driven tricycle by the Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute (CMERI),
Durgapur, India. Maji, Banerjee, Banerjee and Maity (2010) argued that the combination of
pedal and electric motor reduces the drudgery of rickshaw drivers, minimises the utilisation of
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electric energy and produces almost zero GHG. These are touted to provide a non-polluting,
energy efficient, cost effective and silent transport system for urban and rural areas of India,
demonstrating the ongoing and potential of the mode for future.
There are a few other instances of NMPT encouragement initiatives in cities like Phnom Phen,
Cambodia and Yogyokarta, Indonesia. The cyclos in Phnom Phen have no movement restriction
(Crossing Cambodia, 2006). Initiatives are more proactive and holistic in Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Realising the significance of NMPT in city transport, the Yogyakarta City Council has undertaken
a comprehensive legal/regulatory framework for becak operational improvement. This includes
setting requirements for vehicle and driving permits at regular intervals, annual inspections,
operating safety requirements, traffic enforcement measures, design improvements to upgrade
driver ergonomics and provision for its routing, parking and safe operation (City of Yogyakarta,
2009). The design improvements were initiated by ITDP following its success in India and under
the project known as Yogyakarta Becak Improvement Project with Gadjah Madah University
(GMU), Centre for Tourism Studies, Yogyakarta as executing agency and ITDP as the technical
support organisation. The key focus areas were improvements to weight, manoeuvrability, and
passenger and operator comfort (PUSTRAL UGM, 2002) (Utz & Petersen, 2003). The
implementation of this initiative commenced in 2004 and continues successfully. More than
12,000 modern rickshaws are currently plying their trade in the streets of the city (City of
Yogyakarta, 2009) (Figure 2.7).
Figure 2.7: Use of Modern Becak in Yogyakarta
SourceHook (2003); Zudianto and Parikesit, (2006)
Zudianto and Parikesit (2005) demonstrate the substantial positive implication of air quality
improvement (SO2, HC, PB and CO reduction) in Yogyakarta as a result of Becak policy
promotion and design improvement initiatives through their study during the period 2002-
2006. The city government has future plans to restrict becak numbers based on market demand
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analysis and development of an integrated transport planning framework for becak and bicycle
operation, linking them with transit services. An ADB funded study is already in progress to
realise the process [Regional Technical Assistance (RETA), 2011].
Bogota, Columbia is another example where policy initiatives have been undertaken to
integrate NMTs and NMPTs into the transport system, particularly as a feeder service to the Bus
Rapid Transit, TransMilenio (Hidalgo, 2002; Bari & Efroymson, 2007). It has 350 kilometres of
bikeway, the largest dedicated bikeway in the developing world (Penalosa, 2005; Ho, 2007).
Hook (2002) indicated that the bikeways were designed so that they are wide enough to
accommodate both bicycles and bicitaxis. Such strategies have promoted social equity and
improved the environment for the city.
This literature review has revealed that, at a transport user level and more commonly at non-
government agency level, NMPT is becoming favoured and promoted due to its cross sectoral
utility and sustainability. The promotions were however more limited to regulatory framework
development and vehicle technology improvement. It has also been observed that the least
active stakeholder in this process is commonly the relevant government agency. It is therefore
necessary to understand the reasoning behind their reluctant approach, to have a better
comprehension of the whole NMPT scenario.
2.2.3 Arguments rejecting NMPT
Converse to the above arguments, it is often observed that the existence and operation of
NMPT has historically been seen as a nuisance by the policy makers and regulators. Particularly,
several authorities have found NMPT to be an inappropriate mode in major cities and have
taken a strong stance to control this mode, compared to bicycle and other motorised traffic
modes. According to Hook (2005):
“Cycle rickshaws in their various forms, by contrast to bicycles, have been subjected to
particularly tight restrictions on their access to certain streets or certain zones of
various cities.”
Table 2.1 provides a historical trend of NMPT activity and inactive/restrictive policy initiatives in
selected cities.
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Table 2.1: Trend in NMPT activity and policy in selected cities
Bogota Rickshaw
Growth started
Slow Growth.
Not very supportive and not well integrated.
Not much policy support.
Partially Integrated in
2002
Neutral since 2006
Growth continues
Havana Rickshaw
Growth started
Slow Growth.
Not very congenial and not well integrated.
Not much policy planning
Dhaka
Introduced 1938
Early growth
Positive Policy
Cycle Rickshaw growth started and
continued steadily
Positive Policy
Rapid Growth
Adverse Policy and Measures
Rickshaw Ban on
Main roads in 2002
Growth continues
Delhi
Introduced 1947
Growth started
Positive Policy
Steady growth continued
Rapid Growth
Negative Policy and several phases
of bans until 2008
Ban lifted in some
areas.
Growth continue
Calcutta
Introduced
before 1947
Positive Policy
Steady growth
Policy initiatives to restrict rickshaws
from 1976
Growth
Continues.
Negative Policy.
Hand-pulled
rickshaws
banned in 2007
Cycle rickshaw
continues.
Growth continues.
Jakarta
Introduced in
1940
Positive Policy
Steady growth continued Negative Policy
Banned in 1988
Ban lifted in 1998 but
reversed immediately
Manila Rickshaws
Banned
Some re-
emergence
before banning
again
Hanoi Rickshaws introduced in 1939
Slow growth
Banned from main
roads in 2008
Singapore
Introduced 1929,
positive policy
Restricted since
1936
Slow growth
Slow growth
continued
Almost
disappeared
Hong Kong
Introduced in
mid 1940s
Positive policy
Growth decline
after 1945
Decline in
growth
No new license
since 1975
Beijing Rickshaw
Banned in 1949
Karachi Rickshaws
Present
Rickshaw
Banned in 1962
Bangkok Rickshaws
Present
Rickshaw
Banned in 1960
Kuala Lumpur Rickshaws Present.
Steady growth Banned in 1970
Phnom Penh Rickshaw present and steady growth
Government Policy inactive
1950 and earlier 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
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Most of the bans or restrictions on NMPT movement have been based on common underlying
reasoning. It is therefore necessary to understand these arguments to have a clear picture of
the NMPT condition in developing cities .Singapore was the first country to limit NMPTs and in
1936 a maximum allowable limit of 7000 was set on the fleet size (Warren, 1986).The growth
then onwards was slow until 1960s after which they almost disappeared (Wheeler & I’Anson
1998). India also considered the abolition of the mode as early as 1945. A Labour Investigation
Committee set up by the colonial government recommended such a proposal for both hand-
pulled and cycle-rickshaws in favour of motorised rickshaws (Gallagher, 1992). Manila banned
them initially in the 1950s but some of them re-emerged after the economic crisis in the 1990s
on local streets before complete reimposition in 1998 (Bari & Efroymson, 2005a). Karachi
banned them in 1960 and Bangkok in 1962. Hong Kong has stopped the issue of NMPT licenses
since 1975 and they are almost extinct now, replaced by high quality public transit mechanisms
(Vittacchi, 1998). In Chinese cities such as Canton, pedicab movement has been restricted since
the 1970s (Fung, 2005).
Indonesia followed suit. In Jakarta, abolition started in 1970 when there were around 150,000
NMPT becaks. The manufacture of new NMPT was prohibited and existing NMPTs were given
different colours and each restricted to a particular colour zone. In 1972, they were restricted to
the city centres, high-class residential areas and finally banned in 1988 (Gallagher, 1992). The
decision was lifted briefly in 1998 before reversal (Whitelegg & Williams, 2005). They were
primarily replaced by motorised three-wheelers such as baby-taxis. In Surabaya, Bandung,
Semerang and Ujung Pendang (Indonesia’s third, fifth and seventh largest cities respectively),
abolition was actively pursued from the 1970s onward (Gallagher, 1992).They are restricted
from selected major arterials and highways through specific decrees (Hook, 2002; ITDP, 2009).
In Malaysia, Penang’s local government in 1980 was reducing NMPT trishaws through natural
wastage (Rimmer, 1980). Moreover, in Kuala Trengganu the government introduced a pilot
project in 1979 to replace some of the 1400 trishaws with motorised three-wheelers (Rimmer,
1986).
Among Indian cities, Delhi forbade NMPTs to operate anywhere apart from within the Old City
controlled by the Municipal Corporation of Delhi and their numbers are capped at 5200
(Gallagher, 1992; Sarkar, 2002).The plying allowance was also revoked in 2007, though this has
not been enforced (ITDP, 2009). In Madurai, Tamil Nadu’s second largest city, a ceiling of 2100
licenses was imposed in 1980. In Madras, a ceiling was fixed on NMPT licenses in 1958 at 1004
and in 1970 it was recommended they be abolished altogether (Gallagher, 1992). Presently, the
status remains unchanged in these places. They are also banned in Ahmedabad, Mumbai and
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Bangalore (ITDP, 2009). Similar restrictive approaches have been adopted by city authorities in
African cities, such as Dakar, the major Vietnamese city of Ho Chi Minh City in the 1990s and in
2008 NMPTs were delimited from manoeuvring on most major streets of Hanoi (Hook, 2002;
Chakravorty, 2008). Chinese cities such as Shenyang, Guangzhou, have followed this trend.
However, an interesting regulatory situation is observed in many of these cities (ITDP, 2009):
“In China and Vietnam, cycle rickshaws generally operate in a legal limbo. They are not
strictly legal or regulated in many cities, but they exist and are tolerated to varying
degree by local police following no particular logic.”
Restriction policy on NMPT movement on major arterials and some other secondary streets has
existed in the capital city of Bangladesh, Dhaka, since 2002 (Efroymson & Bari, 2005b).
According to the policy makers of these cities, the bans and/or stringent controls of NMPT
movements are attributable to several reasons. These include slow speed of the vehicle and the
subsequent implication for traffic congestion; poor discipline of the peddlers that aggravates
traffic chaos and poses safety hazards , inhumane nature of the profession and the negative
image of a backward transport system that this portrays to the outside world (Warren, 1986;
Rimmer, 1986; Fung 2005; Chakaravorty, 2008; ITDP, 2009; Gozun & Guillen, 2010). The
argument of the Indonesian authorities, as explained by Rimmer (1986), that is behind NMPT
restriction, summarises the perspective of most city authorities:
“Pedicabs were considered…to be inefficient, incompatible with other traffic, and
inhumane. They were the cause of traffic congestion because of low cruising speed (10-
15kph), low acceleration rates and the poor discipline of pedallers. The pedallers were
difficult to police because any attempt at enforcement of regulations would have
triggered social tensions…Also pedalling was considered to be a humiliating occupation
which created an image of ‘underdevelopment’.”
In addition to these objections, NMPT has also been considered to be a nuisance when not
operating on the streets due to ‘obstruction’ and ‘loitering’ (Gallagher, 1992). These problems
have been highlighted to make NMPT appear inefficient and incompatible with motorised
transport, thus needing to be removed in order to achieve better transport network efficiency.
A tabular representation of the key arguments against NMPT, with responsible major city
governments are summarised in Table 2.2.
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Table 2.2: Key arguments disfavouring NMPT and responsible major city governments
Reasons for disfavouring NMPT Responsible governments of selected major cities
Slow moving, uneconomical and hazardous Singapore (Singapore)
Inhumane, portrays poor city image and a painful
remnant of semi colonial past of China
Beijing, Canton, Shenyang, Guangzhou (China)
Slow moving, uneconomical and hazardous Hong Kong (Hong Kong)
Inefficient and incompatible with other traffic,
inhumane, portrays poor city image
Jakarta ,Surabaya, Bendang, Ujung Pendang
(Indonesia)
Primary contributor to traffic congestion, traffic
chaos and poor city image
Manilla (Philippines)
Slow moving and primary congestion contributor Bangkok (Thailand)
Slow moving and primary contributor to traffic
congestion, poor city image
Penang, Kuala Terengganu(Malaysia)
Slow moving, road space inefficient, primary
contributor to congestion and low occupancy
Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi (Vietnam)
Primary contributor to traffic congestion Delhi, Madras, Madurai, Ahmadabad, Bangalore,
Mumbai (India)
Slow moving, road space inefficient, primary
congestion stimulator, expensive, unsafe, poor city,
inhumane and image
Dhaka (Bangladesh)
Slow moving and congestion generator Dakar (Senegal)
Source: Derived by the author based on previous discussions
The above discussion reveals the common interest and logic of several cities’ authorities
towards pursuing a transport system that is ‘modern’ and ‘fast’; by trading off NMPT as a
solution to address the traffic congestion and associated transport problems.
2.2.4 Inference from the discourse
Amidst such debate for and against the existence of NMPT a number of questions still remain. Is
the reasoning behind NMPT restriction valid enough? Have efforts of policy makers to limit
NMPT or blanket ban their movement been successful in improving traffic performance and
overall network mobility?
The common grounds for restriction of NMPT have always been its slow speed and congestion
implication, poor operational discipline, the inhumane character of the riding profession and
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the mode’s representation of a backward city image. The issue of slow speed is a relative factor.
Whether a vehicle is considered slow or fast depends on trip distance. If the trip distance is
relatively long for most of the travel demand spectrum, a mode like NMPT with average speed
of 10-15 km/hour might be considered relatively slow. However, in developing country cities
where most of the trips are predominantly short, around 60 percent of the trip lengths are less
than 3 km (Hook, 2002), and NMPT ought not to be considered as a slow moving vehicle mode.
Low speed might become an issue in high speed corridors such as arterials, however this can
either be addressed through traffic management measures or if deemed necessary, NMTs can
be diverted based on circumstances with appropriate alternative route options rather than
pursuing blanket bans (ITDP, 2009).
From the viewpoint of road space utilisation, NMPTs are the second most efficient transport
form after motorised public transit vehicles (e.g. bus, train, tram) (Gallagher, 1992).They take
lower passenger-to road-occupancy than private car, taxi, auto-rickshaw or other paratransit
modes. As a result, we can observe a productivity of 14,000 passengers/hour on arterials of
motorised Taipei, compared to 24,000 passengers/hour on the arterials of motorised transport
(MT)-NMT mixed Kunming Hook (2002) argued:
“While fully occupied public transit vehicles are the most efficient users of road space,
bicyclists use less than a third of the road space used by private motor vehicles…even
cycle rickshaws use considerably less road space per passenger than motorised taxis
and single occupancy vehicles.”
Rimmer (1986) indicated the ineffectiveness of eliminating becak on alleviation of traffic
congestion in Jakarta. According to him, NMPT removal did not reduce congestion in central
areas of Jakarta as private cars created new levels of traffic overcrowding. Half a century ago,
similar efforts and outcomes were also observed in Singapore. NMPTs were being discouraged
from plying trade on major roads, and literally forced off their own streets. But nothing was
done to make motorised traffic avoid the NMPT areas after 1920 despite the fact that cars and
trucks caused most of the accidents and traffic congestion on Singapore’s roads (Warren, 1986).
Singapore’s NMPT were eventually removed in the 1970s. The key reason for their success in
removing NMPT were long-term replacement of the mode with a good quality public transit
system including mass rapid transit and relatively low sizes of the NMPT fleets (around 7000).
Considering the disorderly nature of vehicular operation, it cannot only be attributable to NMPT
alone, rather it is a common feature applicable to all modes of developing cities (Gallagher,
1992). So it is quite unreasonable to accept that limiting NMPT alone can alleviate traffic
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congestion. The requirement is more towards effective lane control-based traffic management,
associated planning measures, improved design standard and tighter enforcement measures to
enable more orderly traffic flow (ITDP, 2009).
The notions of inhumane character and image modernisation are also controversial. Where a
considerable proportion of the population lives well under the poverty level with increasing
unemployment, and where NMPT generates significant non-skilled employment, the rationale
of displacing this cohort of the low-income society without any better alternative must be
questioned (Whitelegg & Willams,2005)
Moreover, with technological innovation, efforts such as those administered for the
modernisation of NMPT in India and Indonesia have made these vehicles much lighter,
relatively easy to manoeuvre and thereby reduced labour intensiveness of the driving process.
These technological innovations are also being realised very rapidly. The old notion of inhumane
character labelled to this profession may lose ground, especially when combined with the socio-
economic condition of these cities and the prevalence of more labour intensive professions
such as pulling hand-pull rickshaws, push carts and day labouring (Bari & Efroymson, 2006).
Similarly, when developed cities are embracing the sustainability need of NMTs and moving
away from car dependency, it is quite illogical of developing cities’ governments to encourage
and assist in pursuing transport policies linked to the notion of modernisation, based on
automobile dependency (Guitkin, 1996; Whiltelegg & Williams, 2005).
It is therefore not surprising to observe that most cities such as Dhaka, Delhi, Bangkok, Jakarta,
Surabaya, Manilla, Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi, which imposed NMT bans, were unable to solve
traffic problems by doing so (Bari & Efroymson, 2005b). This is particularly applicable with
reference to overall traffic congestion, accessibility problems of the common users and GHG
emission. In most cases the situation has worsened as NMTs were replaced by pollution-
generating motorcycles and motorised three wheelers. The modal share of these vehicles in
many of the developing cities in Asia accounts for 35 to 70 percent of the total vehicles (Bari and
Efroymson, 2007), which is more or less similar to that of NMPT in Dhaka (41 percent). However
such motorised capital cities like Delhi, Bangkok, Jakarta, Manilla and Hanoi are notorious for
traffic congestion and pollution (GTZ, 2003; Bari & Efroymson, 2005b). A recent study by Apte et
al. (2011) demonstrated the continuing air quality degradation of ambient and micro-transport
environment in low income cities such as Delhi, due to rapid increase of motorised transport.
Moreover, in places where blanket bans on NMPT persist, the sense of dissatisfaction amongst
transport users often prevails, e.g. Delhi, Jakarta (Hook, 2005).
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In Manilla, even after the official curbing of NMPT, it is still observed as a popular transport
mode. According to Guillen (2000), there are more pedicabs in highly urbanised areas such as
Manilla than in urbanised localities like Los Banos, Laguna, a town 63 km to the southeast.
Moreover, pedicabs are found in city roads that lead to commercial or business districts (e.g.
shopping malls) and used as feeder services to cater for the mobility needs of inhabitants.
Similar situations are also observed in Indonesian cities such as Surabaya, Bandung, Ujung
Pandung (presently known as Makassar), Indian cities such as Madras, Nagpur, Madurai and
Delhi and Chinese cities such as Shanyan and Beijing. In these cities, NMPTs could not be
abolished, nor could their restrictive ceilings be maintained due to their demand and lack of
appropriate alternatives. Continuous and long-term stringent measures to remove them from
entire cities or zones have resulted in their reduced operation in some places and change in
market share (e.g. Hanoi, Chiang Mai, Beijing ), but they have remained strong and dominant in
a number of other cities (e.g. Dhaka, Delhi, Calcutta, Yogyakarta, Ho Chih Minh City, Havana).
Table 2.3 shows current usage pattern of NMPT and Figure 2.8 portrays market share of the
mode in selected major cities encountered by restrictions, based on aforementioned literature
review and relevant analysis.
Table 2.3: Degree of and shift in NMPT usage in selected cities
Source: Developed by the author from literature review;
Relative level of usage: � Low � Medium � High; Usage Shift Indicator: �
Location Degree of Usage Shift in Usage
Country Major Cities
Tourist
Transport (TT)
Public
Transport (PT)
TT �
PT
PT �
TT
No
Change
Mexico Mexico City and other major cities � � -
Cuba Havana and other major cities � � -
Costa Rica San Jose and other major cities � � -
Colombia Bogota and other major cities � � -
Bangladesh Dhaka and other major cities ���� ���� -
India Delhi, Calcutta Chandigarh, etc. � � -
Thailand Chiang Mai � � �
China Beijing, Shanyan � � �
Indonesia Surabaya, Yogyakarta, Bandung � -
Jakarta � -
Malaysia All Cities � �
Vietnam Hanoi � � � -
Ho Chi Minh City � � �
Philippines Manila � �
Cambodia Phnom Penh � � -
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Figure 2.8: Market share of NMPT usage in selected Cities
Source: Developed by the author from literature review
Failure to realise the expected benefits in congestion reduction and operational efficiency, and
reversals of decisions that now allow NMPT have been observed in cities as TraVinh, Vietnam
(Chakaravorty, 2008) and Surabaya, Indonesia (Bari & Efroymson, 2005b). A recent instance
involves the Government of India, which has reintroduced NMPT in Chandni Chowk of Old Delhi
in 2008, realising its importance as a sustainable mode of transport and with the backdrop to
improve the local environment, after being declared India’s most polluted residential area. But
the revamp process is not keeping pace with demand (Singh, 2008).
The analysis thus far, clearly establishes the role of integrated NMPT as a regular form of public
transport as well as its utility and the need for it to be retained as a part of sustainable transport
systems in many cities of developing countries. Wright and Fulton (2005) observed:
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“ Most developing-nation cities still possess the basis for a more sustainable future.
Public transport and non-motorised transport still command a dominant share of travel
in developing cities. Thus, a central principle behind a more efficient and sustainable
transport future in developing cities must be the preservation of existing mode shares
of public transport and non-motorised options.”
But despite such importance of NMPT, the previous discussions showed lack of initiatives in
including the mode in formal transport planning process. The strategic approaches and policies
undertaken so far in managing the mode have been mostly biased and ad-hoc. Biased, because
the objective of the regulators was to get rid of the mode and stemmed from some wrongly
perceived assumption on its operating character and appearance; supplemented with NMPT
replacement by pollution-generating, motorised private vehicles, which has proved to be
greater nuisance in generating traffic congestion, road accidents and health hazards. Yet, their
operation has never since been confiscated or limited and an imbalance in treatment of modal
distribution is therefore in existence (e.g. Dhaka, Delhi, Surabaya, Manilla). Ad-hoc, as no
integrated planning, based on sound demand-supply analysis of the transport system, and
suitable to local travel character and network pattern, was undertaken in any of the cities under
discussion while managing the mode. It is understood that a few initiatives exist in integrating
NMPT such as those of Indonesia or India. But these are more limited to design improvement of
the mode (e.g. Yogyakarta, Chandigarh) and development of some broad regulations to manage
their operation (e.g. Yogyakarta). An integrated planning framework to enable efficient co-
existence of NMPT with MT is not available.
2.3 NMPT status analysis: Perspective on developed cities
The compositions of traffic mixes in developed country cities are fundamentally different from
those in developing country cities. Traditionally, the transport systems in developed cities are
primarily divided into three distinct classifications; private transport, public transport and active
transport (bicycle, walking). But in the last few years, a new form of transport has emerged in
these cities which can be categorised under the public transport class, being NMPT pedicabs.
Though their spread and service extent is small compared to the scenario in developing cities,
they have caught the eye of numerous government transport agencies and professionals due to
their growing popularity. There is also growing debate that NMPT can play an important role in
attaining the integrated, sustainable transport spectrum for which developed cities are striving
(Replogle, 1991b). This argument is becoming stronger with the drive of developed cities to shift
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away from their established culture of automobile dependent societies to more sustainable
transport alternatives (Wright & Fulton, 2005).
With these influences in mind, it is felt necessary that an overview of the arguments favouring
the rise of the mode and the problems encountered in incorporating it be made, to have an
understanding of its current suitability, future potential and management status. This overview
would also assist in completing the global status summary of this mode.
2.3.1 Evolution of NMPT
Though NMPTs have attracted widespread attention in the last decade or so, their existence is
not new in developed country cities. In fact, Japan was the pioneer of the hand pulled rickshaws
of the late 19th century as already discussed in Section 2.2.1. Even the cycle-rickshaw that is the
focus of this research, is also said to have been invented there and first appeared in developed
cities elsewhere. Gallagher(1992) stated:
“In 1696 a magazine in Amsterdam showed what was probably the world’s first
pedicab. It was described as a ‘horseless carriage’ and attributed to Dr. Elie Richards of
La Rochelle, France. One was seen in Paris, but it was very cumbersome, and
presumably never got beyond the experimental stage.”
It was not until the 1860s when the first operable form of NMPTs truly appeared and continued.
These were goods tricycles based on the improvements made to the Draisiennes’ (the first
working bicycle built in 1817) pedals and front wheels by two Frenchmen, Pierre and Ernest
Michaux. These early NMPTs are known as ‘velocipedes’ or ‘boneshakers’ and were used in
France, USA and Britain (Gallagher, 1992). Later, they were technologically developed to
‘penny-farthing’ bicycles, some of which were made into tricycles and there were attempts to
introduce them as NMPT in both England and Asia (Gallagher, 1992).”
Britain then pioneered the design and engineering of NMPTs. In late 1870s, James Starley in
England developed a more compact tricycle with a crude cycle chain, better wheel design to
make it stronger yet lighter, and a differential (which allowed the wheels to turn at different
speeds when cornering).This was followed by second generation tricycles known as Humber
Cripper (1885), and the third generation equipped with steel tubes, ball bearings and pneumatic
tyres in 1892 (Retro Pedal Cars, 2011). Gallagher (1992) pointed out that the tricycle
innovations and design improvements made at that time in Europe, Britain in particular,
remained as the base technology for most of the NMPTs plying in developing cities today.
Though goods NMPTs were used in Europe, passenger NMPTs never caught on during that
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period or until a considerable time afterwards. Gallagher (1992) explained the reasoning behind
such non-pursuance of NMPT, attributable to a higher living standard, better public transport,
higher wage level among labourers and lower employment level.
After a long break they re-emerged on the scene in the 1980s in cities such as London, England
and San Francisco and USA. In Australia, it was in Cairns, North Queensland, Australia, as tourist
transport (Gallagher, 1992; Merlin Coast Pedicab, 2002). Since the late 1990s and early parts of
this century, their operation has become noticeable. They are most commonly known as
pedicabs in Australasia, North America and some parts of Europe e.g. United Kingdom (UK),
Denmark and Netherlands. They are also called as velotaxi or curt fitzler in Germany and trixi in
Spain. NMPTs are currently a common occurrence, in the transport system across many
developed country cities.
2.3.2 Arguments in favour of NMPT
As already stated, there is a growing endeavour in achieving global sustainability. The emphasis
and responsibilities are vested more on developed country cities due to their century-old
industrial activity and resultant emission of GHG in the atmosphere. A milestone commitment
to this end has already been demonstrated by the developed cities through the Kyoto Protocol
under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) in 1997. But the
proportion of transport generated emissions is still rising (Vinnot & Coussey, 2009).
Transport sectors of developed city countries belonging to the Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD) are considered as the second highest emitting sector
following energy, an amount of more than 4 billion tons (Gt) compared to the total sectoral
emission of 7 Gt. in 2005(International Energy Agency, 2008). The transport authorities in these
cities have understandably extended their efforts to reduce dependency on the automobile
and encourage use of sustainable transport, such as NMTs. The re-emergence and increasing
popularity of NMPT in the same era is therefore not surprising; rather it demonstrates the
common orientation of the developed cities to move towards more sustainable transport. This
section discusses the general outlook and policy initiatives undertaken towards the
development of the mode.
General outlook and policy initiatives
Outlook towards current and future role
Active non-motorized modes like the bicycle are widely used in the developed world and are
increasingly incorporated as an integral part of the overall transportation system. Especially in
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Western European countries such as the Netherlands (Amsterdam, Delft), Germany (Berlin),
France (Paris and Lyon) and Austria; North American cities such as Portland, Oregon and
Edmonton, Alberta; and Asian cities such as Tokyo, bicycles are used widely for work and non-
work purposes. In this continuation of the pro-NMT transport environment, NMPT has re-
emerged and gained popularity since the late 1990s in the form of pedicabs. Companies like
Orient Express Rickshaw, Manhattan Rickshaws, Portland Cascadia Pedicabs (USA); Velotaxi
(Germany); and Bugbug (England) have sprung up across Europe, Australia, the Middle East,
Asia and the Americas, offering an environmentally friendly way to sightsee, go shopping, avoid
traffic, deliver packages, and return home after an evening out (Figure 2.9,2.10).
Figure 2.9: NMPT in developed countries (improved design, traditional look) (New York, London)
Source:Rickshawforum (2009)
Figure 2.10: NMPT in developed countries (improved design, modern look) (Sydney, Berlin)
Source: Keseling (2008); Rahman et al. (2010b)
Exact and up-to-date figures for NMPT use are difficult to obtain, but in many cities there is a
definite upward trend. NMPT velo-taxis started operating in Berlin in 1997, and by 2007 the
market had grown to a fleet size of around 200 vehicles with passenger carriage of some
250,000 trips per year (Westall, 2007). In London, NMPTs started operation in 1998 and by the
end of 2005, the UK fleet had grown to an estimated 500 vehicles and marketed more than a
million journeys per year in London (UK Parliament, 2005). Epstein (2009), Grynbaum (2009a;
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2009b) estimate that there are currently around 1,000 NMPT pedicabs cruising New York City.
There are also growing numbers of NMPTs in major cities in Europe (Paris, Amsterdam,
Barcelona, Budapest, Edinburgh, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Copenhagen, Milan, Rome and Dublin),
Australasia (Brisbane, Sydney, Auckland, Wellington) and North America (Boston, Charleston,
Chicago, Oklahoma City, Philadelphia, San Diego, Seattle, Vancouver, Washington D.C.,
Massachusetts) [United Nations Centre for Regional Development (UNCRD), 2005; Rahman et
al., 2010b; Wellington NZ, 2008; Huntington Beach Marketing Visitors Bureau, 2008; Ibike,
2009; RickshawForum, 2009 ]. A more recent growth country has been Japan, the originator of
the rickshaw mode (see Figure 2.11).
Figure 2.11: New pedicabs in Japan
Source: RickshawForum (2009)
According to Japan for Sustainability (2006), NMPT services have been adopted in 13 major
cities in Japan, starting with Kyoto in 2002 and including Tokyo, Matsumoto, Osaka, Nara, Naha,
Hiroshima, Kitakata, Sendai, Nagoya, Miyazaki, Kurashiki, and Kobe, as well as in the town of
Ioujima in Nagasaki and Fukuoka city in 2006. There were also proposals to allow NMPT to
operate in areas which had restrictions or bans on motorized traffic during the London Olympics
2012, (Chandran, 2009) following the application of the same at the Vancouver Winter Olympic
Games 2010 (Vancouver Organizing Committee, 2010).
In most of these developed cities, NMPTs are used predominantly as a tourist and recreation
mode, where the NMPT trip is seen as an experience itself. However this situation is gradually
changing, especially in larger cities, such as Berlin, Frankfurt, London and New York, where
NMPTs have a small but increasing role as public transport for city dwellers taking normal day-
to-day trips (Pommereau, 2005; Kugler, 2006;Rebling, 2011; Milefaster, 2011). Table 2.4 shows
the usage pattern of NMPT while Figure 2.12 depicts the market share of the mode, based on
the aforementioned literature review and relevant analysis.
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Table 2.4: Degree of and shift in NMPT usage in selected cities
Location Degree of Usage Shift in Usage
Country Major Cities
Tourist
Transport
Public
Transport
TT �
PT
PT �
TT
No
Change
Australia Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane � -
New Zealand Auckland, Wellington
Germany Berlin, Frankfurt, Hamburg etc. � � �
England London � � �
Netherlands Amsterdam � -
Other parts of
Europe
Madrid, Milan, Paris, Dublin etc � -
USA New York, San Francisco, San Diego � � �
Canada Vancouver, Ottawa � -
Japan Kyoto, Nagoya, Osaka � � �
Singapore Singapore � -
Taiwan Kaohsiung � -
Source: Developed by the Author from Literature Review;
Relative Level of Usage: � Low � Medium � High Usage Shift Indicator: �
Figure 2.12: Market share of NMPT usage in selected cities Source: Developed by the author from literature review
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In either case, NMPT is highly suitable for short distance trips and where it is catering for a trip
that would have otherwise been made by a motorised mode (whether for visitor trip or
resident), it delivers sustainability benefits from reduced fuel use and pollution. Emphasising the
benefit and application suitability of NMPT for developed cities, Replogle (1991b) commented:
“Even in high income motor-vehicle dependent cities, there are opportunities for
appropriate use of cycle-rickshaws for short distance person and goods movement and
as the basis for microenterprises providing goods and services at dispersed
locations…they will find greatest utility in dense pedestrian oriented neighbourhoods or
central areas with slow traffic speeds, in large factories and shopping districts, and
areas where private vehicles are restricted.”
It is not surprising therefore, to observe that in cities such as New York, San Diego, San
Francisco, London and Berlin where NMPT may have been seen as an obsolete mode
previously, it is currently maintaining its growth as a tourist NMT mode; and with potential for
further growth due to its unique operating attributes and the dynamics it adds to the urban
fabric.
Policy and integration initiatives
The emerging popularity of NMPT in these regions has led to new transport policy/planning
initiatives for their regulation, operation, integration and management (Rahman et al., 2010b).
In many cities in USA, Europe and Australia, the introduction of NMPT and their subsequent
growth has taken place without regulations. For instance New York has had pedicabs since the
1990s, mostly used for tourist travel, but they became noticeable to the city authorities around
the early-to-middle 2000s due to their growing market demand, shift of use as a regular
passenger transport and for small scale goods delivery. These, together with emerging
operational issues, requirements of passenger and driver safety and subsequent enforcement
due to accident occurrence, led to the formulation of NMPT regulation in 2007, later amended
and improved in 2009 (Rahman, D’Este & Bunker, 2010a). The regulation ( Section 20-259, local
law no. 19) ( New York City Council, 2007) has clearly defined NMPT as a vehicle similar to a
bicycle (therefore required to abide by all bicycle laws) with restrictive coverage area due to
service character; outlining operating and safety requirements including vehicle permit, driver
skill requirement and liability insurance requirements. There are also punitive measures for
violations. These regulations have made NMPT operation much safer in New York City.
When introduced into London in 1998, NMPT could legally ply for hire as stage carriages under
the Metropolitan Public Carriage Act 1869 without the need for a street trading licence required
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by motorised modes providing a similar service (London Assembly, 2005). This exemption was
subsequently tested in court and upheld. An NMPT-related module had later been incorporated
into the National Cycling Standard Level 3 in 2005 for operational regulation (Selection
Committee on Committee on the London Local Authorities and Transport for London Bill
Minutes of Evidence, Section 80-99 2005) (United Kingdom Parliament, 2005).At present a
number of initiatives are in process to regulate and incorporate NMPTs within a regulatory
regime.
For instance, voluntary registration has been in effect since 2009 by Westminster City Council in
consultation with the NMPT industry. Under this scheme, NMPT operators sign up to a
voluntary code of practice to which they and their riders must adhere. This covers driver
background checks, cycle training (including the Highway Code), agreement of fares in advance
and keeping rider records. In return, those within the scheme were given permit access to
pedicab parking bays located across the City of Westminster. The London Local Authorities and
Transport for London (TfL) (No. 2) Bill , which is in the process of approval, would allow for more
effective enforcement of moving traffic offences and parking contraventions against NMPTs by
treating them as “motor vehicles” for the purposes of these contraventions (Rahman et al.,
2010a).
The growth in NMPT activity in many other cities across Europe, North America and Australasia
has also reached a point where it has come to the attention of planners and regulators. Major
cities in Germany (Berlin, Frankfurt, Hamburg for instance) have formal annual registration,
licensing, safety inspection and operating standards for NMPT, similar to that for any motorised
vehicles since 2004 (Pommereau, 2005; Velotaxi, 2010). NMPT specific regulations have also
been promulgated in USA cities such as San Francisco (1986 and amended in 2010), Austin
(1992), Ashland (2003), Boston (2007), Phoenix (2008),San Diego (2010), and Washington D.C.
(2010) (City and County of San Francisco, 2010; City of Austin, 1992; City of Ashland, 2003;
Boston Police Department, 2007; City of Phoenix, 2008; New York City Council 2007; 2009; City
of San Diego, 2009; Austin Pedicab Alliance, 2010; Roth, 2010; Neibauer, 2010); and in Canadian
cities such as Ottowa (2002), Vancouver (2009), Toronto (2010) (City of Ottowa, 2011; City of
Vancouver, 2011; City of Toronto, 2011 ).
All these regulatory systems typically require annual registration, renewal and safety inspection
for vehicles, licensing of pedicab drivers, requirements for public liability insurance including
provision for personal injury and property damage; detailed rider operating and vehicular safety
rules; loading requirements; sanitary requirements; agreed upon and public display of fare
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schedules; provision of punitive measures, and in some cases limits on the number of pedicab
licenses (San Francisco for instance). Other major USA cities such as Seattle and Portland are
also considering/ processing measures to introduce regulatory regimes for NMPTs (Anderson,
2009; Maus, 2009; City of Portland, 2010). Australian cities such as Perth, Brisbane, Gold Coast
and Melbourne have followed suit with modified application of bicycle regulations for NMPT
control. These include Road Traffic Code 2000 and Road Traffic (Bicycles) Regulations 2002 in
Western Australia (since 2002)(Department of Transport, 2002), Local Law No. 11 (Road and
malls) 2008 Subordinate Local Law No. 11.1 (Interference with a Road) 2008 in Gold Coast (since
2008) (GCC, 2009), Queensland Transport Operations (Road User Management-Road Rules)
Regulation 1999 in Brisbane (since 2009) (State of Queensland, 2009) and Road Safety Road
Rules 2009 Part 15 in Victoria (since 2009) (VicRoads, 2009). These moves to regulate NMPTs
can be seen as a positive approach in incorporating the mode within the formal transport
planning process. Table 2.4 summarises the policy trend and Table 2.5 provides a brief of major
cities with completed formalised NMPT relevant legislations, or cities in the process of achieving
the same.
Table 2.5: Trend in NMPT activity and policy in selected cities
1950 and earlier 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Brisbane Started
1988 Disappeared
Re-emerged 2008
Growth increase
Positive policy
Auckland Positive policy
Berlin Started in
1997
Growth increase
Positive policy
Regulated
London Started in
1998
Growth increase
Supportive
Moves to Regulate
Amsterdam Started in late
1990s
Generally
Supportive
Barcelona, Milan,
etc.
Started late
1990s
Generally
supportive
New York Started in
1996
Growth increase
Positive policy
Regulated
Ottawa Started 1992 Growth increase
Positive policy
Regulated
Kyoto Started in 2002
Positive Policy
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Table 2.6: Selected major cities with NMPT relevant regulations
Major cities with pedicab regulation Year of introduction
Berlin, Frankfurt, Hamburg (Germany) Since 2004
San Francisco, Austin, Ashland, Boston, Phoenix,
New York, San Diego, Washington D.C. (USA)
1986 (amended in 2010), 1992,2003,2007, 2008,
2007 (amended in 2009), 2010, 2010
Ottowa, Vancouver, Toronto (Canada) 2002, 2009, 2010
London (England) In process
Seattle, Portland (USA) In process
Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne (Australia); pedicab
regulated through bicycle regulations
2000,2008, 2009
In addition to legal initiatives, another positive aspect of this region is the technological
integration of the mode. These are modern in makeover and operating technology including
hydraulic brakes, suspension, complete lighting systems, seat belts, full weather canopies, steel
frames and fibreglass bodies (Modianot-Fox, 2007).(Figure 2.9, 2.10).
The review so far demonstrates the growing presence of NMPT, its increased popularity among
users across a wide variety of developed cities and longer sustenance of the mode compared to
its first appearance in the 19th century. The analysis also reveals the relatively early response of
the city authorities in regulating and integrating the mode. Yet, there continue to be concerns
about future incorporation and management of the mode among the policy makers. An
understanding of these is therefore necessary in obtaining a clearer picture of the overall NMPT
status.
2.3.3 Difficulties of blending NMPT
As explained, in Europe, North America and Australia, a number of legal and management
initiatives are underway or already in place to incorporate NMPT within a regulatory regime.
But mostly they are incomplete. Epstein (2009) observed:
“…there remain significant legal, planning and enforcement issues that require
addressing such as the need for and type of regulatory and enforcement measures,
suitable coverage areas for the mode, whether pedicab number to be capped or leave
to be self regulated by market force and its interaction with existing modes such as taxi,
bus, car, bicycle etc.”
Pressure to fully address these issues is becoming more acute in resolving the existing conflicts,
as the mode is gradually becoming prominent. But the responses are not entirely
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comprehensive as can be observed by revisiting the implementation difficulties of key NMPT
cities. Referring back to the New York NMPT regulation, there are issues that still demand more
close examination. For example, NMPT capping is fixed to 325 at any given time according to
Section 20-251, Local Law no. 19 (New York City Council, 2007), inconsistent with the current
market demand and existing fleet size of around 1000. This causes illegal operations; conflicts
between the operators and city authorities; loss of council revenue; and pressure on the
regulators to increase the cap limit. The Local Law no. 19 (Section 20-259) also allows for
officials to restrict NMPTs in ‘unusually heavy pedestrian or vehicular traffic’. This means that
NMPTs, which are vehicles under the law, are subject to removal while other vehicular traffic is
permitted to remain, creating unequal plying facilities. Epstein (2009) further argued that the
effect of such measures together with high end safety and insurance regulations might be to
drive the economic competitors to cabs, buses and livery services off the street, NMPTs in
particular. The issues of parking, fare, planned movement and interfacing with other vehicles
are also not well defined. Rahman et al. (2010b) observed that this is leading to traffic chaos
when incorporated with fast moving vehicles; illegal occupancy and conflict for parking area
with private vehicles and taxi services; obstruction of on-street vehicular traffic movements due
to undesignated loading/unloading of passengers. The allegation of charging unfairly in some
instances is also prevalent due to unclear regulatory directives on fare structure.
With relation to the Transport for London (No.2) Bill, the Bill only deals with traffic
enforcement issues and does not itself set up a licensing or registration scheme for NMPTs. This
issue has been examined by TfL and they suggested that neither a stage carriage nor a hackney
carriage licensing regime is appropriate for the NMPT industry, especially when service public
transport characteristics are considered for the former while compliance and enforcement costs
are taken into account for the latter. TfL suggested to Government that it should determine
necessary safety and licensing standards for NMPTs as it does for other passenger carrying
vehicles including formulation of primary legislation for NMPTs (TfL, 2009).This eventually led to
a complex and confusing situation regarding the place of the mode within the transport
spectrum, leading to illegal operation for a large portion of the fleet as they would be without
any registration/licensing and subsequent operational safety implications. On safety grounds
due to the vehicular classification confusion, there are no passenger limitations, obligation for
seat belts, or third party insurance to cover accident injuries, posing a threat to passengers and
drivers. In addition, the number of and coverage area for NMPT operations still remains an
unsolved issue, creating confusion and chaos on traffic management.
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Similar operational and management concerns to those of New York or London or a
combination of some issues from each, might emerge with future growth of the mode in other
cities that already have NMPT regulation (e.g. Ashland) or cities with bicycle regulations applied
for pedicab management (e.g. Brisbane);and not comprehensive enough to suit public transport
movement needs. An interview with Green Cabs, a Brisbane NMPT operator, revealed critical
enforcement problems on licensing and registration, and allegations of plying inequality in
comparison to other public transport such as taxi,bus and NMT like bicycle (Green Cabs, 2010).
2.3.4 Inference from the discourse
The review has indicated positive intention at both user and policy levels towards NMPT due to
commitment of these cities in achieving future transport sustainability and fuel free nature of
NMPT to facilitate this end. Moreover, there is no doubt that NMPT is conducive to further
growth with a certain character that many of these cities possess, including relatively flat
topography (in at least part of the city); receptive community; densely built up inner city areas;
high levels of tourism; pro-sustainable transport strategy; and the possibility of future
restrictions on car use in central areas. The early response of the decision makers in these cities,
in regularising the mode and the attempt to bring the industry under a more systematic
regulatory regime demonstrates the positive intent. On the contrary, the discourse also
revealed the practical difficulties and deficiencies in effective implementation of the process to
incorporate the mode, especially in situations where they are expanding their activity and
extent of operation without clear legislative framework; and when their interaction needs to be
managed with other NMTs, MTs and under highly congested motorised environment.
If we accept based on the current situation and international case studies that NMPT has a
small but emerging trend primarily as a tourist transport, it is critical for decision makers to
decide on the role pattern they would like the mode to cater (keep as a tourist transport or
expand to cater as formal public transport), and the measures to tackle its implementation
difficulties as currently encountered. The review of the current situation, together with
international case studies, has highlighted a range of general issues likely to be associated with
the expansion of NMPT activity:
• The most important of these is the necessity to look ahead and decide early
about defining the future major role of NMPT in the city transport system,
whether as regular or a tourist mode of transport, and to bring the industry under
a more consistent and inclusive regulatory regime in accordance with this
definition. In many cities (such as London and New York), NMPT has emerged as a
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significant mode under the regulatory radar and officials have been playing catch-
up in developing a suitable policy, planning and regulatory framework.
• This leads to the second major issues which is a comprehensive legal framework
to ensure that NMPT operates within the law and is consistent with community
expectations. NMPT uses streets and carries passengers, which suggests
consideration of guidelines on vehicular classification for NMPTs; and the
corresponding set up of registration and, licensing requirement; vehicular and
operational safety standards; rider skill requirement, insurance level and extent;
acceptable fare structure; and enforcement provision in case of non-compliance.
The debate as to whether the NMPT industry should be allowed to be self-
regulated or not, such as that arising in Chicago and New York, should also be
scrutinised before regulatory decisions are finalised.
• The issues of consistency in implementing the policy and managing the transition
from current situation are also crucial in addressing the provision of suitable
infrastructure supply, including but not limited to, dedicated lane provisions;
designate routing; appropriate signage and signals; parking and waiting facilities,
backed up by integrated planning and road network hierarchy if required. An
interesting issue is the extent to which NMPT should be allowed in pedestrian
precincts and bicycle paths, transit lanes and other mode-specific infrastructure.
• Focus should also be provided on continuous improvement in design standards
and technological upgrades to facilitate safety, operational ease and sustainable
ergonomics.
2.4 Findings and the way forward
The status review suggests that just 15-20 years ago, the outlook for NMPT would have been
poor in developed cities. It played little or no role, having never existed or having disappeared
long ago. The situation since then has gradually changed and it has established its place as a
prominent tourist, non-motorised transport, in major cities of Europe and North America. The
popularity of the same is also growing in Australia and New Zealand. The status review
however, found a small shift of NMPT usage to also serve as a regular public transport in some
selected cities (e.g. New York, London, Berlin), this being insignificant in scale.
Irrespective of magnitude of operation, in all these cities where NMPT are present, a need to
incorporate them as a part of formal transport planning process is commonly felt amidst rising
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operational and legislative conflicts between the NMPT and other motorised modes. A number
of response measures have already been undertaken by city authorities in this regard, including
adoption of a regulatory framework and introduction of ergonomically improved vehicles. The
need for more integrated planning framework is revealed, a) to better balance operational
distribution and coordination of NMPT in a highly motorised and congested road environment;
and b) to better manage interaction between NMPT and other non-motorised modes (walking,
cycling). A summary of NMPT condition and future needs are depicted in following table.
Table 2.7: Summary of NMPT condition and future needs in developed cities
City name &
category
Role of NMPT Corresponding features Challenges
New York,
London, Berlin
Significant as
tourist NMT with
small incline to as
regular public
transport
-Short history of sustenance
and user demand
-Initiated as tourist transport;
currently also used as regular
public transport on a small
scale
-Low market share but rising
-High growth of trips
A clear and integrated planning
framework for,
-managing pedicab operation in highly
motorised and congested road
environment
-managing interaction between NMPT,
other NMT and MT
-
Boston, San
Diego,
Vancouver,
Amsterdam,
Brisbane, Kyoto
Moderate as
tourist NMT with
incline in
popularity
-Short history of sustenance
and user demand
-Initiated as tourist transport
maintaining the trend
-Low, steady market share
-Moderate growth of trips
A clear and integrated planning
framework for,
-managing pedicab operation in highly
motorised and congested road
environment
-managing interaction between NMPT,
other NMT and MT
Source: Developed by the author based on status review of Section 2.3
On the contrary, developing cities’ findings suggest that NMPT has long been sustained as a
significant part of the regular public transport system for several of the cities. Yet most often it
has been a neglected mode of transport to the city regulators, many cities having already
banned NMPT or taken active steps to discourage them. The perceived reasons are many and
varied, including rickshaws being considered inhumane and inconsistent with the image of a
modern city, and having been accused of creating congestion and safety hazard. However the
discussion of Section 2.2 has demonstrated the inappropriateness of these views compared to
the ongoing and potential future benefits that NMPT can offer as a daily public transport.
The status review also suggested that even though due to continuous policy adversity, the
significance level of NMPT as a regular public transport has declined in some cities (e.g.
Surabaya, Hanoi), it still is dominant in market share, trip growth and usage pattern in many
other cities (e.g. Dhaka, Delhi, Calcutta, Yogyakarta, Bogota). The ongoing and future necessity
of the mode in catering day-to-day trips in these cities is therefore undeniable. The analysis
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thereby brings forward two distinct aspects. Firstly instead of dying, NMPTs are maintaining or
increasing their role significance as a regular public transport in a number of major cities of
developing countries; and secondly, there is strong future potential of the mode in catering
day-to-day public transport service in these cities. The first part of the hypothesis in Section 1.2
is thereby validated and research questions 1, 2 (Section 1.3) thus answered.
Another interesting dimension revealed from the NMPT status review on developing cities is
that there is no formal decision mechanism developed by the city authorities for orderly
management and operation. The approach practiced instead is based on disaggregated
decisions. These led to increased conflict between MT and NMPT irrespective of the degree and
pattern of their usage and raised the requirement of an integrated planning framework. A
framework that can optimise the coexistence of NMPT with other motorised transports, by
enabling their balanced distribution and rationale prioritisation, achieves better overall network
efficiency. A summary of NMPT condition and future needs are depicted in Table.2.8.
Table 2.8: Summary of NMPT condition and future needs in developing cities
City name &
category
Role of NMPT Corresponding features Challenges
Dhaka,
Chittagong
Delhi,
Calcutta,
Chandigarh
Critical as
regular public
transport
-Long history of sustenance and user
demand
-City wide, extensive usage as public
transport
-High market share
-Moderate to low growth of trips
-A clear and integrated planning
framework for efficiently managing
high level interaction between
NMPT, other NMT and MT
-Supported by regulations and
technology improvement
Yogyakarta,
Surabaya,
Phnom Phen,
Bogota,
Havana, Agra,
Madurai,
Significant as
regular public
transport
-Long history of sustenance and user
demand
-Considerable level of usage as public
transport in most city parts
-Significant to moderate market share
-Moderate growth of trips
-A clear and integrated planning
framework for efficiently managing
high level interaction between
NMPT, other NMT and MT
-Supported by regulations and
technology improvement
Hanoi, Ho Chi
Minh City,
Shanyan,
Moderate
significance as
regular public
transport with
gradual decline
in trend
-Long history of sustenance and user
demand
-Used as public transport in back streets
-Low market share
-Low growth of trips
A clear and integrated planning
framework for,
-efficiently managing moderate level
interaction between NMPT, other
NMT and MT
-assist in managing possible transition
to less NMPT dominant situation
Beijing,
Jakarta
Kualalampur
Primary tourist
role
-Completely ban and no sign of
resurgence
-Infrequently used as a tourist transport
-No market share
-Negative growth of trips
A clear and integrated planning
framework for,
-managing pedicab operation in
highly motorised and congested road
environment
-managing interaction between
NMPT, other NMT and MT
Source: Developed by the author based on status review of Section 2.2
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The status review further revealed that despite the need for such an integrated planning
framework, the major share of the research on NMT industry has been on determining internal
and external problem factors to consider utilising non-motorised vehicles particularly bicycles.
The studies specifically focusing on NMPTs were mostly on signifying its location and sector
specific importance and formulating strategic arguments on their incorporation in an existing
system in the best possible way. Very few research works towards NMPT integration in
countries like India and Indonesia have been done. They however have focused only on the
design improvement of the fleet itself, on their marketing aspect and the necessity of their
physical separation from MTs through design guidelines. None of these has developed any
framework that can be adopted or applied as a tool to determine the best location and priority
for MT and NMPT operation across network.
To summarise, the above discussions clearly indicate the need to develop an integrated
planning mechanism that can provide support as a decision tool for efficient integration of
NMPT with motorised transport; complementing the process of relevant regulatory framework
development and design measures implementation. Understandably, due to time and resource
constraints and considering the detailed background examination required to ensure
applicability of the proposed framework, it is tenable to narrow down the focus of the proposed
framework to a specific case study.
Developing cities with long lasting, dominant current and future NMPT role significance as a
regular public transport are therefore believed to be more suitable in administering the exercise
and better corresponding to the set hypothesis. There are a number of candidate cities in this
regard. But following the same principle of priority needs based on criticality of the current
situation and scale of the problem, Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh, is assumed to be most
suitable. It should be noted that the case study chosen, has to go through the process of status
review and hypothesis testing to validate the suitability of the selection, before an attempt can
be made to develop an integrated planning framework.
2.5 Summary
This chapter described the status of NMPT industry with reference to cities in developing and
developed countries. The focus was on analysing the suitability and role contribution or
otherwise of the mode in a global context and determining the relationship of the inference
from such investigation to the set hypothesis and research questions. The condition analysis
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began with developing cities, followed by developed cities. Arguments favouring and rejecting
the mode were presented in order to derive an objective conclusion on the status of the mode.
In developing the city status analysis section, the review started with arguments that favoured
NMPT operation. The arguments were studied with reference to the concepts of sustainable
development and transport sustainability, followed by the perspectives of previous research
literature and their findings, and concluded with a general outlook towards the mode, and
policy initiatives undertaken to integrate the same. The reasons for rejecting the mode were
then presented with reference to the perspectives of previous research literature and the
viewpoint of the city regulators. Detailed examination of these arguments with in-practice
scenario found negligible validity of this reasoning and rather, importance of the mode as a
regular public transport under an adverse policy environment, in many major cities. The review
also found the need for an integrated planning framework to better manage this mode, to
improve its operational efficiency and to minimise its conflicts with other available modes.
In developed city status analysis section, the arguments favouring NMPT were analysed with
reference to their general role status in the transport system and policy initiatives undertaken in
accommodating it. The difficulties and challenges of blending NMPT within such a highly
motorised traffic environment were then discussed. The review revealed the primary role of the
mode as a tourist transport and not such a significant contribution as a daily travel mode. But
the analysis agreed on one underlying fact i.e. the need to have a well-integrated planning
framework to improve the interaction of NMPT with MTs and other NMTs. It was also clearly
seen from the discussion that, in order to realise the endeavour to formulate a detailed
planning framework, a case study approach would be preferable under time and resource
limitations. Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh, was chosen in this regard. The forthcoming
section (Section 3 to 10) presents the review and analysis of NMPT in the Dhaka context. As a
start to the process, the next chapter (Chapter 3) provides an overview of the Dhaka case study.
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3SECTION B: NON –MOTORISED PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN
CASE STUDY DHAKA, BANGLADESH
CHAPTER 3: OVERVIEW OF DHAKA
CASE STUDY
3.1 Introduction
“Dhaka’s transport system is dominated by the rickshaw. In 1988 there were twice as
many rickshaws as all motor vehicles put together. They carried about two-thirds of all
passengers in the city, and accounted for over one-third of the total transport outputs.”
(Gallagher, 1992)
Is the condition similar today? Section A, Chapter 2 established the significance of non-
motorised public transport (NMPT) as a regular public transport mode with reference to
developing cities. The chapter also emphasised the need for an integrated planning framework
to optimise the role of NMPT and the necessity to focus on a case study city from a developing
country to assist in formulating a practice-oriented planning framework. Dhaka was identified
as a preferable case choice. This Chapter and the following five Chapters (Chapters 4 to 9) focus
on the rationale of such selection and the lessons revealed through condition analysis of NMPT
with reference to Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh. The discussion begins with an overview
of the mode (this chapter), followed by review of relevant literature (Chapters 4, 5) and analysis
of literature (Chapters 6, 7). The stakeholder viewpoint on the role of NMPT and expected
benefits from the future transport system of Dhaka are also analysed (Chapters 8, 9). Inference
and recommendation on NMPT of case study Dhaka are presented in Chapter 10. This discourse
is the closing thread to the two-tier status review on current condition, future role and policy
planning situation of the mode. The objectives are to comprehend the significance or otherwise
of the mode as a regular public transport in Dhaka; and to determine whether any relevant
deficiencies in management of the mode exist and require addressing. It should be noted that
the term NMPT will be used throughout this chapter and the following ones, to express cycle-
rickshaw, but the term rickshaw or cycle rickshaw will be kept unchanged when in quotes that
are used from different literature.
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The discussion of this chapter is focused on reporting a brief understanding on the evolution,
growth and current status of NMPT industry in Dhaka to portray a historical perspective of the
mode. The endeavour is to set the scene for status review of the mode in the chapters to
follow. The key steps followed in NMPT status review process for Dhaka (this section) and its
link to the forthcoming Section of the thesis is presented in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Flowchart of key steps in the NMPT status review process for Dhaka
SECTION B
Status analysis of NMPT:
Dhaka condition review
Gaps to address
How to address it?
Way forward for research
Hypothesis test
Is NMPT significant
as a regular public
transport mode?
Analyse reasons and
suggest rational
alternative mode
provisions
Y
Inference & lessons learned
Review and analysis
of literature
NMPT Stakeholders’
viewpoint analysis
Review of arguments
in favour and against
NMPT
Analysis and
insights from
literature
Data collection
and analysis
methodology
Results of analysis
and discussion
CHAPTER 3 to 7 CHAPTER 8, 9
CHAPTER 10
SECTION C
Planning Framework
Development
Overview on
Dhaka case
study
N
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3.2 General overview of case study: Dhaka, Bangladesh
Dhaka is the capital and the largest metropolitan city of Bangladesh. It is located in central
Bangladesh at 23°42′0″N and 90°22′30″E. According to the definition of the Capital
Development Authority (RAJUK), the principal city planning authority of Dhaka, Dhaka
Metropolitan Area (DMA) comprises an area of 1529 square kilometres, with a total
approximate population of around 14.5 million in 2010 (BBS, 2011). The DMA comprises 24
thanas (subdistricts) of Dhaka, four subdistricts of Narayanganj andtwo2 subdistricts of Gazipur.
This was the study area of the previous major transport planning studies of Dhaka including
Strategic Transport Plan (STP) 2005 and Dhaka Urban Transport Network Development Study
(DHUTS) 2010. Since these studies are major secondary data sources for literature review in the
current research, particularly for multi-sectoral role evaluation of NMPT, DMA data is adopted
for convenience of relevant comparative review and analysis.
For review and analysis of NMPT policy and integration initiatives, primary data-based
stakeholder viewpoint analysis and the forthcoming section-Section C’s - planning framework
development (given the need for the same arises), the area focus has been narrowed to a
specific portion of DMA, Dhaka City Corporation (DCC) area and its surroundings. This area
comprises 366 square kilometres; a population of approximately 7 million; surrounded by the
Turag River to the west, Buriganga River to the south and Balu River to the east; and is known as
Greater Dhaka Area (GDA) (STP, 2005c; DHUTS, 2010).Such selection is used as rationale since
GDA has been the centre of focus for all recent transport planning strategies attributable to its
functional significance as the key socio-economic and traffic generator of the region; fastest
growing nature in terms of population; and due to the hub of every NMPT restriction relevant
transport policy decisions in last four decades (DHUTS, 2010). Figure 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4, shows
location of the case study area.
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Figure3.2: Location of Dhaka in Bangladesh (inset) and location of Dhaka Metropolitan Area with respect to surroundings
Source: Source: GraphicMaps (2011) (inset image); STP (2005c)
GDA /DCC
DMA
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Figure 3.3: Location map of DCC area (with major suburbs and road network)
Source: DCC (2009)
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3.3 NMPT history of Dhaka: Evolution and current status
Hand pulled rickshaws were the original version of the rickshaw mode, first introduced in Japan
in 1870 (see Chapter 2 for details). Gallagher (1992) argued that they were, however, never
common in Dhaka, though some were used briefly in Chittagong and Rangpur. The rickshaw
form that has always been widely used in Bangladesh, including Dhaka, is NMPT (cycle-
rickshaws). In Bangladesh, NMPT appeared first in Mymesingh and then Narayanganj in the
early 1930’s, before being introduced on the streets of Dhaka in the later part of the decade.
According to Rashid (1986):
“In 1938 a Bengali zamindar of Sutrapur and a Marwari gentleman of Wari purchased
about six rickshaws each and attempted to introduce them in Dhaka City. It is not clear
why, but Dhaka was the third city…to introduce rickshaws. Both Mymensingh and
Narayanganj had rickshaws before Dhaka, which is surprising because Dhaka was a
bigger city than either of them.”
The earlier NMPTs were imported from Calcutta and were different to today’s models; with
wider seat space, a khaki canvas hood and the pipe iron frame, painted green or black. The
NMPTs of Dhaka had their present look and vehicular design by around the 1950’s with local
manufacturing in process (Figure 3.5). According to Gallagher (1992):
“It was not until the 1950’s that colourful decorations were added. It was easy to see
where the design had come from. It was a marriage between a hand-pulled rickshaw
and a bicycle. Soon the blacksmiths and mysteries (mechanics) in Dhaka were copying
it, though a few changes occurred in the process: for example, an angled iron replaced
steel pipe in the frame, and mild steel replaced high carbon steel in the springs.”
Figure 3.4a: NMPT as Passenger Carriage Figure 3.4b: NMPT as Freight Carriage
Figure 3.4: NMPT usage in the streets of Dhaka (Left: passenger carriage, right: freight carriage
Source: Fotosearch (2011)
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The NMPT population in Dhaka has grown gradually at its early stage of arrival and then at a
high rate in the last three to four decades. The city had only 37 NMPT in 1941 and 181 in 1947
(Banglapedia, 2006). The NMPTs have gradually displaced the horse-drawn carriages to become
a more efficient, popular form of regular public transport since the late 1950’s. In 1972 the total
number of NMPT in Dhaka increased to 14,667 which gradually doubled to 28,703 in 1982, but
thereafter increased rapidly to reach the figure of around 200,000 in 1988 (Gallagher, 1992).
Gallagher (1992) forecasted the NMPT numbers in Dhaka to reach the figure of around 300,000
in 2000. This was quite close to the original scenario at that time. The growth trend
corresponded to the countrywide rise where the NMPT fleet was estimated to have grown from
two-thirds of a million in 1988 to over one million by 2000. According to the latest available
statistics, there are around 2.04 million NMPT in Bangladesh (Bose & Rahman, 2009).
The bulk of NMPT growth is in Dhaka. ITDP (2005) and STP (2005) suggested the estimated
NMPT fleet size of Dhaka to be around 500,000 in 2005 in addition to around 5,000 NMPT vans
that were used exclusively for freight carriage. The most current official statistics sourced from
Dhaka Metropolitan Police (DMP) suggests the NMPT figure has escalated to 1,100,000 in 2011.
(Alam, 2011).This historical growth of NMPT in Dhaka is illustrated by Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.5: NMPT growth trend in Dhaka
Source: Derived by author after Gallagher (1992); DITS (1994a); DUTP (1996a),;STP (2005b) & Alam (2011)
In Dhaka, NMPTs are operated with Wheel Tax Draft Bye-laws under sections 118 and 119 of
the DCC Administration Ordinance 193, 1983 (STP, 2005b). The Wheel Tax Draft Bye-laws (DCC,
2011) set guideline for required structural attributes of the vehicle, its licensing, operational,
and safety requirement. See Appendix B for detailed description of the Draft Bye-laws.
0
200000
400000
600000
800000
1000000
1200000
1941 1947 1952 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005 2011
NM
PT
fle
et
size
Year
NMPT growth trend
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A total of 86,000 NMPTs are presently licensed to operate and this official ceiling has been fixed
for NMPT since 1986 (Alam, 2011). The length of NMPT trips varies between 1 km and 5 km
with an average trip length of 2.3 km (STP, 2005c). The average trip served by a NMPT is 26 per
day [Greater Dhaka Metropolitan Area Integrated Transport Study (DITS), 1994] and distance
traversed by an NMPT is around 117 passenger/km per day (Ahmed, 2005; Hoque, Ahsan,
Salam & Hossain, 2006). The fares for using a NMPT in Dhaka are presented in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.6: NMPT fare pattern in Dhaka
Source: Derived by author after STP (2005c)
It is observed from the above figure that NMPT charges around Bangladesh Taka (Tk) 5
[Australian Dollar (AUD) 0.10] for 1 km of travel, Tk8 (AUD 0.16) for 2 km of travel, and then
approximately Tk2 (AUD 0.04) for each additional kilometre. Based upon this rate structure, the
total fare for a trip of 5 kilometres is estimated to be Tk14 (AUD 0.29).Note that there is no
formal fare structure in effect for NMPT in Dhaka (Field interview, 2009; Field survey, 2009).
Only 5 percent of the NMPT drivers own their vehicles. This is due to the cost of the vehicle
which is around Tk8,000 (AUD 165) for a new one while that is around Tk6,000 (AUD 124) for
the NMPT van. The larger proportion, about 95 percent, is owned by different investors, a
majority of which are influential people in society. The daily operation of NMPT usually takes
place on an 8 hour shift or a 16 hour shift, i.e. rented to a driver for the mentioned time period
(Gallagher, 1992; STP, 2005c).There are no statistics to indicate the proportion of drivers
undertaking a shift type, but usually the greater proportion of drivers prefer 8 hour shifts (Field
survey, 2009). Figure 3.7 shows the shift-wise comparison of rental cost to typical revenue for
NMPT.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
1 2 3 4 5
Fa
re (
in T
ak
a)
Trip length (km) Total fare
AUD 0.00
AUD 0.04
AUD 0.08
AUD 0.12
AUD 0.16
AUD 0.20
AUD 0.24
AUD 0.28
AUD 0.32
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Figure 3.7: Comparison of NMPT rental cost versus typical revenue in Dhaka
Source: Derived by author after STP (2005b, 2005c)
It is observed that the normal rental charge that a driver/non-owner pays to the owner for the
use of an NMPT for an entire workday (about 16 hours) is generally fixed and ranges between
Tk60 and Tk80 (AUD 1.23 to AUD 1.65). For an 8 hour shift, the rental charge of is about Tk40
(AUD 0.84).The typical revenue (excluding rent cost) per NMPT for these shifts was estimated to
be around Tk143 (AUD 2.95) and 287(AUD 5.92) respectively (see Appendix C.1 for calculation
details). Significant numbers of people, apart from the owners and drivers, are employed in
NMPT related activities such as repairs, manufacture, sales, spare parts (STP, 2005c)
.
3.4 Summary
This chapter provided an overview of the NMPT industry in case study Dhaka. The review
revealed around eight decades of NMPT presence as a regular public transport mode. The
development trend of NMP indicated a two-phase growth situation, with gradual increase in its
first four decades since evolution in Dhaka and a steep rise during the last four decades. The
review also presented some other key aspects of NMPT industry such as the regulation in effect
for operational control of the mode, usual trip length and daily productivity of NMPT, fare
structure, ownership and rental practices in place, operating hours and typical revenue from the
mode. The discourse set the scene for in-depth review and analysis of the industry and
assessment of the status of NMPT from a multidimensional perspective. The next chapter
presents the arguments favouring NMPT existence in Dhaka, with reference to the literature
review.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
8 hour shift (per day) 16 hour shift (per day)
Am
ou
nt
(T
ak
a)
NMPT operating pattern (by driver engagement)Rental cost Typical revenue (excluding rent cost)
AUD 0.00
AUD 3.09
AUD 4.12
AUD 5.15
AUD 1.03
AUD 2.06
AUD 6.18
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4CHAPTER 4: REVIEW OF LITERATURE-ARGUMENTS FAVOURING NMPT
IN DHAKA
4.1 Introduction
Chapter 3 presented an overview on the non-motorised public transport (NMPT) industry of
Dhaka, both in historical perspective and with reference to key features of the industry.
Literature has often suggested that NMPT has been occupying a prominent share of Dhaka’s
traffic composition for decades (Wipperman and Sowula (2007).
“Buses, auto-rickshaws and taxis are the most common motorised transport forms.
Bicycles, cycle-rickshaws, rickshaw-vans and push-carts are common forms of non
motorised transport observed in the traffic composition of Dhaka, in addition to the
most basic mode, walking. Among them, rickshaws are the most common non-
motorised form and one of the primary public transport modes in the traffic
environment of Dhaka.”
It is therefore not surprising that NMPTs were suggested to be included as a part of the formal
transport planning system of Dhaka over a long period (Quium, 1994). This claim is based on its
perceived multidimensional contribution to the current and future transport system. In
alignment with this notion, this chapter reports the arguments favouring the need of NMPT
according to different literature sources. The chapter discussion is divided into two major
sections. In the first segment of Section 4.2, insights of relevant key research and transport
planning studies are reviewed to understand the generic role of NMPT. This is followed by a
sector-specific, detailed review of the contributions in the later part of the section. The major
integration initiatives proposed and practised so far to facilitate NMPT management are
discussed in Section 4.3.The endeavour is to ensure comprehensive discussion of the issue.
4.2 NMPT role review
Extensive research conducted in the field of NMPT has demonstrated positive views towards
the current and future utility of the mode for Dhaka. The major studies highlighting the role
contribution of the mode are covered in the NMPT role review.
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4.2.1 General role review
Perspective of major research studies
A number of studies have examined the overall role contribution of rickshaws in Dhaka. Rashid
(1986) has made a preliminary condition analysis of the NMPT industry in Dhaka city including
its historical evolution, sector-wise contribution, policy initiatives to manage the industry and
the future of the mode in Dhaka. The research was primarily oriented towards developing a
working database for the NMPT industry and to provide an informed assessment of the
situation for the same. The study concluded with strong emphasis on the ongoing and continual
significance of the mode in the transport sector of Dhaka.
In his study on NMPTs, Gallagher (1992) has conducted a holistic investigation of Bangladesh
rickshaw transport in its technological, economic, social and political context. The research has
focused more on developing a database of NMPT industry, providing generic outlining of the
then-existent problems and providing broad guidelines in addressing the identified issues. The
research has addressed all facets of NMPT in the Bangladesh context, ranging from the
sociology and economics of NMPT industry to its licensing mechanisms; changing and
competing technology issues to regulatory policies and institutional involvement. The various
factors relevant to NMPT sector- users, manufacturers and repairers, decorative artists ,
investors, owners, policy makers and regulators, workers (the ‘drivers’) and their unions and
cooperatives have been reviewed as well. The research suggested that role significance of the
mode be accepted by the policy levels; and improvements in operating condition and policy
planning in favour of this industry be made, due to its indispensable place in the transport
system of Dhaka, rather than trying to eliminate them.
The general role and importance of non-motorised transport (NMT) and NMPT in the social,
economic and travel facades of daily life in Dhaka are depicted in the research works of
Relplogle (1991a; 1992a). Both studies highlighted the large scale influence NMPT has in
supporting the livelihood of the poor, in balancing the travel demand and travel quality needs of
lower and middle income population, and in catering for the typical small freight movement
requirements. The studies argued that such employment and travel dependencies are not
readily replaceable due to an already overburdened employment structure and the poor mode
alternatives (e.g. overcrowded buses) of Dhaka. The studies also criticised the bias of
regulations and policies, including higher taxes and import duties for NMPT spare parts
compared to motorised vehicles, and the unplanned approach of city authorities to restrict
NMPT licensing and registration procedure. The studies concluded by suggesting the future
potential of the mode in countries like Bangladesh.
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Wheeler and I’Anson (1998) in their study found that the dominance and influence of the
rickshaw in the city system of Dhaka is undeniable, particularly as local traffic compared to
other public modes such as auto-rickshaw, taxi or bus. Recent research by Hodgkinson and
Walton-Ellery (2008) stated the problems of urbanisation in Bangladesh, particularly in Dhaka,
and highlighted the characteristics and advantages of NMPT that can contribute to addressing
such situations. The study discussed issues of pollution, congestion and traffic accidents, health
problems, accessibility and mobility problems, safety and security concerns and the potential of
NMPT in tackling these deficiencies in Dhaka and other rapidly growing urban centres of
Bangladesh.
The survey findings on NMPT users of Dhaka by Hossain and Susilo (2011) showed the possible
future role impact of NMPT removal. The results suggested that in the case of an NMPT free
scenario, 84 percent of females suggested that it would be difficult to make work trips without
NMPT, while 92 percent of students, of which 77 percent were female, also suggested that it
would be difficult to undertake work or study-related travel. For social trips, 56 percent of the
respondents, out of which 70 percent was female, suggested possible difficulty if NMPT was not
available. As well, 72 percent of elders (45 and above) using NMPT predicted similar concerns.
In the case of prospective mode shift trend under an NMPT free scenario, the results showed
that most modal shifts would move towards auto-rickshaw or taxi (68 percent) due to their
door-to-door service nature and better level of service compared to public transport. The bus
share was least preferred and would be reduced to 14 percent. Explaining the implication of
such possible trend in choice, the authors explained:
“…rickshaw would be replaced mainly by its motorised rival the auto-rickshaw or
taxicab but not bus; thus resulting in more environmental pollution, probably resulting
in unchanged or increased level of congestion. Although the rickshaw policies
implemented by the transport authority in Dhaka were intended to reduce the
congestion.”
Perspective of major transport planning studies
The first comprehensive transport study for Dhaka, Greater Dhaka Metropolitan Area
Integrated Transport Study (DITS) (1994a) has acknowledged an ongoing and possible future
role contribution of NMPT in the transport system of Dhaka. The study has opposed the anti-
rickshaw sentiment and ad-hoc decisions of the government to restrict NMPT from time to time
and has criticised the notion of the government to promote a blanket ban on NMPT in the long
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term. Rather, the study advised putting greater emphasis on public transport improvement,
both motorised and non-motorised.
Phase 1 of Dhaka Urban Transport Project (DUTP) (1996b), the implementation project of DITS,
has also accepted the importance of NMPT in Dhaka and emphasised the need for supporting
facilities to improve their operation. According to DUTP (1996b),
The main vehicular mode in Dhaka is however rickshaw with 47% of all vehicular trips
and moving some 1.6 million passengers per day… rickshaw is not only the traffic mode
for movement of passenger but also for movement of goods, and the combination of
both. They together with a fleet of rickshaw vans and pushcarts assure the distribution
of goods from the wholesale to the retail markets and shops…but hardly any facilities
exist especially for the NMT in general and the rickshaw especially.
The Strategic Transport Plan (STP) 2005, developed as a part of Phase 3 of DUTP has also found
the similar significance of NMPT in Dhaka in both the current context and future perspective .
According to STP (2005b),
Rickshaws are a very significant mode of transport in Dhaka. In addition, rickshaws
represent an important source of employment and income. Conceptually, rickshaws
offer a high degree of individualized service, in a relatively cost efficient manner, using
renewable energy with no adverse environmental impacts.
Other relevant studies such Detailed Area Plan Preparation for Dhaka Metropolitan Area (DAP)
(2008); the NMT policy component of the Draft Integrated Multi-Modal Transport Policy (IMTP)
(2008) and Dhaka Urban Transport Network Development Study (DHUTS) (2010) have also
given acknowledgement of the overall socio-economic and traffic dependency of the Dhaka
population on NMPT.
4.2.2 Issue specific role review
Social equity and poverty alleviation
The majority of the research and transport studies have shed light on the sector-specific
contribution of NMPT in Dhaka’s transport system. A detailed review in this regard, in light of
the available research is described below.
2
Research literature by Gupta (1981), Rashid (1986), Gallagher (1992), Replogle (1991b) DITS
(1994a), STP (2005b) and DHUTS (2010) have emphasised the key social role of NMPT.
According to these authors, NMPTs are the preferable travel mode by a majority of the
vulnerable social groups - women, children and the elderly – due to cultural practice (limited
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bicycle riding), multi-destination trip character, goods carriage convenience; safety, security and
comfort of NMPT compared to other comparable alternatives (e.g. auto-rickshaw, human
hauler and bus). Replogle (1991b) reported:
“Depending on location, between 8 and 18 percent of rickshaws carried passengers
with small children. Nearly one-third of all cycle rickshaws carried female passengers,
with nearly one-fifth carrying females alone. Many of the remaining share of trips were
by males travelling as passengers without goods, often for short distance trips on
irregular routes.”
STP (2005a) found that nearly 40 percent of the loaded NMPTs in Dhaka are being used by
women and children. Another 30 percent are used by its student population. Recent statistics
by DHUTS (2010) suggest this figure to be 52 percent.
Explaining the social and cultural issues hindering the use of shared public transport and
appropriateness of NMPT for this vulnerable social group, Kabir (2006) stated that:
“it is socially difficult for women to share crowded buses with mainly male riders
because of the religious seclusion of women. Furthermore, women also encounter
difficulties boarding moving buses, and not getting seats due to the very limited
number of seats reserved for women, some of which are taken by men. Whilst, it can
be argued that such safety which is provided by rickshaw can also be provided by auto-
rickshaw or taxi as well, these motorised vehicles are not as cheap as rickshaws and
therefore may not be preferred by many housewives in Dhaka city.”
A recent study by Hossain and Susilo (2011) explored the social role of NMPT and the possible
impacts that may occur if the NMPTs were banned from Dhaka city. Descriptive and
multivariate (binomial and multinomial logit models) analyses were applied to explore the social
impacts of NMPT on various population groups. The study suggested that NMPT is playing a
crucial role in the Dhaka transport system, particularly in catering for the need of females,
students and people from low and middle income groups, echoing the deductions of
aforementioned studies. The study also suggested that if NMPT is removed most of the modal
shift would be forced towards more costly auto-rickshaw and taxi cabs, limiting the mobility of
these social groups.
The role of NMPT and bicycle in reducing poverty and achieving social equity for Dhaka and
other urban parts of Bangladesh has been emphasised through a number of studies. These
studies have focused on the equity contribution of NMPT industry from perspectives of people
connected to NMPT trading. The study by Efroymson and Rahman (2005) suggested that any
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major decrease in rickshaw would mean a huge increase in poverty and likely crime (as people
have no choice but to turn to theft to replace their lost income
Begum and Sen (2005) stated that as a livelihood, the importance of NMPT driving has
increased over the past decade in Dhaka. According to them, the poverty line in Dhaka has
increased by around 6 percent in the last decade with reference to daily capability of food
intake and Cost of Basic Needs (CBN) affordability perspective. NMPT industry has provided
reasonable earning to a large portion of the poor in the city. Wipperman and Sowula (2007)
argued the crucial importance of NMPT in supporting the livelihood of highly vulnerable and
marginalised social groups- the NMPT drivers, repair workers and their dependents - who are
characterised by low human capital, low or no education and low skill level. The authors
concluded that the industry is enabling better social balance compared to ‘without NMPT’
condition. Similar significance of NMPT in social equity preservation of NMPT traders is reported
by Rashid (1986), Gallagher (1992) and Whitelegg and Williams (2005).
Contribution to economic improvement
Gupta (1981) provided an economic impact analysis of NMPT in Dhaka, particularly its effect on
employment and the financial market of Dhaka, to demonstrate the importance of the mode
from economic role contribution perspective. The role of rickshaw as a component part of the
informal financial market in Bangladesh was investigated by Masum (1988).The study identified
NMPT to be a significant sector of the non-crop, rural economy, after poultry farming, fish
farming, livestock farming etc. and suggested its potential as a major future economic
contributor. The study conducted by Ali and Islam (2005) suggested substantial, continuously
growing contribution of NMPT industry to the informal urban economy and emphasised better
investment support and capacity building to improve future conditions of the industry.
Gallagher (1992) reported that NMPTs contribute 34 percent of the total value added from the
transport sector in Bangladesh, or approximately Bangladesh Taka (Tk) 9840 million [Australian
Dollar (AUD) 203 million]. According to him, this is more than double the contribution of all
motorised modes, 12 times the contribution of Bangladesh Railway and 12.5 times the
contribution of Bangladesh Biman, the national airlines. Ali and Islam (2005) have estimated
that 6 percent of Bangladesh’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) can be accounted for by NMPT
driving. In Dhaka alone, around Tk20 million (AUD 0.413 million) is transferred between NMPT
drivers and passengers per day. Demonstrating the sensitivity of NMPT industry to the macro-
economic improvement of Dhaka, DITS (1994a) estimated that a 10 percent improvement in
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NMPT operational performance due to design improvement can add Tk3 million daily (AUD
0.062 million) or Tk1100 million annually (AUD 22.91 million) to the city’s economy.
Efroymson and Rahman (2005) argued that from a micro-economic perspective of Dhaka, the
cash flow generated by the NMPT industry to the individual drivers is significant in maintaining a
livelihood which otherwise would have subject to starvation and helplessness. The study
showed an average income decrease of 15 percent for a job shift from NMPT driving. The
authors inferred from their study that NMPT not only provides a regular earning source to the
low skilled, marginalised urban population of Dhaka but also offers higher total revenue
compared to other professions such as day labouring, hawking etc. A recent Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA) study, DHUTS (2010) revealed an average monthly earning of
Tk6,300 (AUD105) for a person driving NMPT for six-to-eight hours per day with maximum 35
percent earning between Tk5000 and Tk7000 (AUD 83-AUD 117) while peak 8 percent earning
is over Tk10,000 (AUD167). The study further suggested that this average wage is comparatively
better than the monthly wage of an average garment worker of Tk1662.50 (AUD 28), a major
formal sector of employment in Dhaka; and is greater than many other wage services such as
that of police constables or second-tier government officers. According to Sultana (2009):
“The study demolishes the myth that the rickshaw pullers are one of the lowest earning
working groups in the city, regularly portrayed as “oppressed” and “deprived” people in
the country’s popular media.”
Contribution to employment generation
Gallagher (1992) has suggested that, directly and indirectly, NMPTs support 5 million people in
Bangladesh (4.5 percent of the population of Bangladesh at that time). The latest available
statistics as reported in literature suggest that there are around two million NMPT pullers across
Bangladesh (Ali & Islam, 2005) and that around 19.6 million (14 percent of the Bangladeshi
population at that time) relied indirectly on NMPT pulling for their livelihoods (their families,
manufacturers, garage owners, painters, repair men) (Wipperman & Sowula, 2007).
According to Whitelegg and Williams (2005), NMPTs are one of the most important sectors of
Dhaka’s as well as Bangladesh’s economy and provide a means of subsistence for groups of
people for whom there are quite literally no alternatives. Ubaidur, Kabir and Mutahara (2005)
reported that 65 percent of the population of Dhaka exists in an informal economy with a
number of other studies noting that the most important informal economy occupation held by
migrants to Dhaka from rural areas is that of NMPT pulling (Siddiqui, Ahmed, Awal & Ahmed,
2000; Begum, 1997).Replogle (1991b) stated that NMPT pullers and those employed in ancillary
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services related to NMPT, account for almost 25 percent of all employment in metropolitan
Dhaka. Gallagher (1992) puts the figure at 23 percent. DITS (1994a) estimated about 0.375
million people (18-20 percent of Dhaka’s working population) to be engaged in NMPT industry.
Kabir (2006) estimated a total engagement of 800,000 NMPT drivers in this industry, with 3.2
million people dependent on the NMPT pulling profession. The study further reported that
survival of more than 5 million people are directly dependent on this industry if rickshaw
owners, mechanics, spare parts traders and their families are included.
According to Wipperman and Sowula (2007), 20 percent of Dhaka’s population relies on NMPT
pulling, directly or indirectly. This amounts to about 2.5 million people. It should be noted here
that statistical discrepancies are found in the reporting of the literatures on NMPT dependence
figures in Dhaka. This is believed to be due to the absence of specific data on this industry, for
which individual studies have assumed different figures while estimating the NMPT population,
and their scale of engagement.
Better environment and NMPT
The environment friendly character of NMPT mode for Dhaka has been depicted by Melden
(2005) and Rahman (2006). The latter research has reinforced the promotion of NMTs (bicycle
and NMPT) as a key measure in reducing the emissions from mobile resources of Dhaka. The
study has signified the need for NMPT inclusion in national transport policy planning, in
achieving environmental improvements. Begum, Rumana and Ali (2010) on the other hand
analysed the potential of NMPT as an energy-efficient measure to curb the effect and impact of
non-renewable energy consumption and emissions. The study concluded by noting that greater
NMPT usage can save the environment of Dhaka from more air pollution and can assist in
developing a healthy quality of life.
Studies by Paul and Quader (2002), Nasir (2006) and Begum et al. (2010) have portrayed the
progressively degrading environmental condition of Dhaka, particularly through air pollution,
attributed to transport sector emission and its impact on human health. Paul and Quader(2002)
stated
Air pollution particularly by transport mode has been identified as the major source of
air pollution in Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh. Pollution standard in Dhaka has
been exceeded comparing to the pollution standard decided for Dhaka by the USEPA
(United States Environmental Protection Agency) and WHO (World Health
Organization)
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According to Nasir (2006), among different vehicular mixes in Dhaka, there are 300,000
motorised vehicles that primarily contribute to the deterioration of Dhaka’s air quality. An
estimated 200,000 tonnes of air pollutant is emitted per annum from these motor vehicles
alone. Among these, diesel exhaust emissions are considered a probable human carcinogen.
Gaseous pollutant concentration (CO, NOx etc.) could also become a problem in the future if
not managed. Figure 4.1 demonstrates the contribution of different vehicles to air pollution in
Dhaka.
Figure 4.1: Contribution of vehicle types to emission in Dhaka
Source: Nasir (2006)
*Others include covered vans and human haulers
Begum et al. (2010) added:
“Dhaka city’s SPM levels are about two times higher than the accepted standard of 200
microgram/m3 in residential areas and ten times higher than the WHO guidelines of 120
microgram/m3 (24 hours) in commercial areas…the density of lead in the air of Dhaka
city in the dry season reaches 463 nanograms per cubic meter, the highest in the world
in comparison to 383 and 360 nanograms in Mexico City and Mumbai respectively.”
Highlighting the health impact of such pollution, Nasir (2006) and Begum et al. (2010) stated
that public exposure to air pollution in Dhaka city is estimated to cause 15,000 premature
deaths and several million cases of illness every year. Moreover, the economic cost of such
illness and premature death, according to Begum et al. (2010) could reach around AUD 608.16
million per year. Under such circumstances, Nasir (2006), Hodgkinson and Walton-Ellery (2008)
and Begum et al. (2010) have suggested strategic guidelines for reducing human exposure to
vehicular pollution, including better technology for vehicles, better emission control standards
and promotion of sustainable transport such as bicycle and NMTPs.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Bus/Truck Car/Vans Auto-Rickshaw Others*
Sh
are
(%
)
Mode
CO
HC
NOx
PM
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Travel demand, trip share and other utilities
Travel demand character and NMPT
The short distance trip character, operational flexibility in service and other attributes of NMPT
is highlighted by a substantial number of studies . DITS (1994a) and STP (2005a) reported that
most trips in Dhaka are short (1-5km) and scattered, however the public transport modes are
more fixed in their routes of operation (bus, human hauler). Paratransits (auto-rickshaw, taxi)
are relatively flexible, but are often reluctant to travel shorter distances (Gallagher, 1992;
Begum et al., 2010). NMPT, on the contrary, are characterised by short trip lengths, offering
flexibility by which passengers can choose a specific route and time along with door-to-door
service [Human Development Research Centre (HDRC), 2004].The studies have inferred that
NMPT is more convenient, cost and time efficient to cater for the trip character of Dhaka.
Emphasising a similar argument, Hossain and Susilo (2011) stated that three-quarters of total
trips in Dhaka are short and local; and the number of people travelling together is generally
small. As a result, for short trips and trips that are scattered, NMPT is often preferred as it is
economical in time as well as money. It should be noted that Gallagher (1992) found average
trip length of NMPT to be 2.5 km while STP (2005c) reported the value to be 3.4 km.
Hoque (1997) and Aftabuzzaman, Muromachi, Harata and Ohta (2001) have depicted how
selected travel and associated attributes of NMPT such as short distance suitability, easy
availability, comparatively lower cost and door-to-door service characteristics makes it
attractive to users and how these influence users’ relative behaviour to other competing
modes, from the perspective of mode choice modelling. Other major research that has
highlighted the utility of NMPT in catering the travel demand character and mobility needs,
particularly for short distance trips, includes Bari (2004; 2008), Hoque ,Khondokar and Alam
(2005), Bari and Efroymson (2007) and Hodgkinson and Walton-Ellery (2008).
Passenger travel and goods movement
Quium (1994) has recognised the crucial role of NMPT in catering certain passenger trip
demands in the Dhaka transport system, particularly its role in filling the gap left by inadequate
and poor transit systems:
“…Rickshaws are the backbone of the system, fill the gap left by inadequate and poor
transit system, serve the needs that any transit system cannot effectively meet, and act
as a bridge between personal travel modes and transit modes.”
DITS (1994a) reported that 54 percent of total non
(2005c) estimated it to be 40 percent. The latest DHUTS (2010) study revealed that considering
total trip demand (walk and non
catering for more than one
million trips. The following
Gallagher (1998) found that a typical NMPT in Dhaka ma
shifts per day, with a daily output of approximately 117 passenger kilometres per day. Replogle
(1991b) showed that each
goods movement. DUTP (1996) found approximately 14 percent of NMPT trips are goods trips
that is, 600,000 trips per day. Research by Hoque et al. (2006) found a share of 22 percent for
NMPT primarily carrying freight (with passenger or without passengers) at
Road space utility
The road space efficiency of NMPT compared to other comparable modes such as baby taxi
(three wheeler autorickshaw)
using the passenger car space equi
These researches indicated the benefit of better road space utilisation of NMPT compared to
these modes. Gallagher (1992)
based on observation.
BusAuto-rickshaw/Auto TempoNMPT*Motorcycle
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DITS (1994a) reported that 54 percent of total non-walk trips in Dhaka are made
) estimated it to be 40 percent. The latest DHUTS (2010) study revealed that considering
total trip demand (walk and non-walk), NMPTs are the most dominant travel mode in Dhaka
catering for more than one-third (38 percent) of the total daily trips, which is approximately 21
. The following figure provides the current vehicular composition in Dhaka.
Figure 4.2: Vehicular composition in Dhaka
Source: BRTA (2011);*Alam (2011)
Gallagher (1998) found that a typical NMPT in Dhaka makes about 14 to 15 trips per shift in two
shifts per day, with a daily output of approximately 117 passenger kilometres per day. Replogle
) showed that each NMPT in Dhaka annually accounts for around
. DUTP (1996) found approximately 14 percent of NMPT trips are goods trips
600,000 trips per day. Research by Hoque et al. (2006) found a share of 22 percent for
NMPT primarily carrying freight (with passenger or without passengers) at
The road space efficiency of NMPT compared to other comparable modes such as baby taxi
(three wheeler autorickshaw) and cars under different traffic composition are demonstrated,
using the passenger car space equivalent (PCSE) concept, in the studies by Bari (2005a
These researches indicated the benefit of better road space utilisation of NMPT compared to
Gallagher (1992) provided maximum passenger flows of major
17,770 34,558 16,18210,682
1,100,000
232,135
249,707
Truckrickshaw/Auto Tempo Taxi
Car and other private 4 wheelersMotorcycle
NNTTSS FFAAVVOOUURRIINNGG NNMMPPTT IINN DDHHAAKKAA
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walk trips in Dhaka are made by NMPT. STP
) estimated it to be 40 percent. The latest DHUTS (2010) study revealed that considering
walk), NMPTs are the most dominant travel mode in Dhaka
, which is approximately 21
provides the current vehicular composition in Dhaka.
kes about 14 to 15 trips per shift in two
shifts per day, with a daily output of approximately 117 passenger kilometres per day. Replogle
NMPT in Dhaka annually accounts for around 190 Net-tonne-km of
. DUTP (1996) found approximately 14 percent of NMPT trips are goods trips,
600,000 trips per day. Research by Hoque et al. (2006) found a share of 22 percent for
any given instance.
The road space efficiency of NMPT compared to other comparable modes such as baby taxi
and cars under different traffic composition are demonstrated,
valent (PCSE) concept, in the studies by Bari (2005a; 2005b ).
These researches indicated the benefit of better road space utilisation of NMPT compared to
major modes on road,
Car and other private 4 wheelers
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Table 4.1: Maximum passenger flow using different modes
Vehicle Operating speed (kph) Persons(per metre width of road space per hour)
Bus in mixed traffic 10-15 2700
Bus in separate bus lane 35-40 6600
Rickshaw* in a rickshaw lane 8-12 1000
Car^ in mixed traffic 15-25 370
Car on a one-way street 15-25 470
Pedestrian 4 3600
Source: Gallagher (1992); Occupancy- *1.6, ^2.2
Based on the comparative passenger flow, Gallagher emphasised the better road space utility of
NMPT compared to vehicles such as the car in the crowded urban streets of Dhaka. He
suggested that because cars are often prioritised over NMPT, it is logical to highlight the
comparative status of NMPT with cars to better demonstrate the road space utility of former.
Similarly, the Hoque et al.(2006) study stated that NMPT occupies 38 percent of total road
space compared to cars’ 34 percent while carrying a much higher passenger share.
Serving of narrow networks
The appropriateness of the mode in catering for mobility and accessibility on the narrow
network structures of Dhaka is also worth mentioning. Habib (2002) stated:
“There are areas in Dhaka where most roads are very narrow, on such lanes hardly one
car can move but two rickshaws can operate from opposite directions quite efficiently.”
Particularly for the older parts of Dhaka and other areas that are characterised by very narrow
street patterns and rights of way, usually varying between 3m-3.6m width, NMPT probably
serves need best due to its relatively lower physical dimension and greater manoeuvrability
(Gallagher, 1998). STP (2005c) reveals an average traffic volume of 1,250 veh/h on roads in
other sections of Dhaka while that is doubled to around 2,500 veh/h in older parts of the city.
During the hours of highest volume (peak hour), volumes of 2,000 to 4,000 NMPT/hour are
common in these parts. The document suggested that the requirement of small headway and
greater flexibility in operation enabled the catering of heavy demands in Old Dhaka by NMPT.
Saito (1993) added, 85 percent of all vehicular traffic in this part of the city constitutes NMPT.
Feeder to public transport
Karim and Mannan (2002) has highlighted the feeder service functionality of NMPT to mass
transit, such as existing railway facilities in addressing the transport problems of Dhaka. STP
(2005c) has suggested consideration of mass rapid transit (train) to be introduced as part of the
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20 year master plan (2005-2025) in primary recommendation no.3, section 8.5 on integrated
mass rapid transit system. DHUTS (2010) has an ongoing feasibility study in this regard. Both
studies have clearly suggested the high significance of NMPT as a feeder mode of transport to
succeed the proposed mass transit initiative. Other recent studies such as Bari and Efroymson
(2007), DAP (2008) and Shima (2009) emphasised the usefulness of NMPT as a support mode
for feeding commuters to and from the proposed transit facilities to be developed.
Miscellaneous utilities
Other utilities of NMPT as found from literature include its usage round the year and under
special situations i.e. during flood and strikes (Gallagher, 1992; Manchetti, 2005).
Safety and NMPT
A number of studies have explored the comparable safety of NMPT, with reference to accident
involvement. Gallagher (1992) showed:
“Rickshaws are not the main source of accidents. In almost 90% of road accidents
causing death, a bus, truck or minibus was involved… rickshaws are not the most risky
mode of transportation in Dhaka and that risks that do pertain to rickshaws are related
to the motorised traffic with which they share the roads.”
DMP (1996) statistics suggest 90 percent of the road deaths in Dhaka involve a bus, truck or
minibus ,which accounts for 4 percent of total vehicles. More recent statistics by Maniruzzaman
and Mitra (2005) on road accident share by modes in Dhaka are presented in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3: Mode share of accidents in Dhaka and Bangladesh
Source: Maniruzzaman and Mitra (2005)
0
5
10
15
20
25
Min
i Bu
s
Ca
r
Bu
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He
avy
Tru
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Oth
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Ric
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p V
an
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us
Jee
p
Mo
tor
Cyc
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Ba
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Ta
xi
Tru
ck
Bic
ycle
Pu
sh c
art
Te
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o
Tra
cto
rPe
rce
nta
ge
of
tota
l a
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Mode
Bangladesh
Dhaka
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The authors suggested from above graphical analysis that minibus, car, bus, and trucks are the
top four contributors to modal share of accidents in Dhaka with an involvement of 19.9 percent,
17 percent, 16.8 percent and 13.5 percent respectively, accumulating a total of 67 percent
accidents. NMPTs were the sixth contributor to this share with 6.7 percent (Figure 3.13).
In terms of fatalities, Binnie Partners (1994) found that motorcycles are the most vulnerable
vehicles prone to accidents, accounting for 0.17 fatalities per million-passengers and this is
followed by NMPT passengers. These findings also correlate to the NMPT users’ survey result
conducted by Hossain and Susilo (2011). According to the study finding, safety was considered
as one of the main reasons for using NMPT yielding more than 50 percent of the responses.
The insights from the role review of NMPT in Dhaka can be summarised by the statement of
Whitelegg and Williams (2005):
“There is no replacement of rickshaw in much of Dhaka...rickshaws are cheap, reliable,
and consumer friendly, providing flexible, door-to-door service with many route
options. Rickshaws operate in all weather and at all times of day and night. They are
particularly useful for women, the elderly, frail, disabled, and children; they provide
safe and reliable transport to school, every trip by rickshaw means not travelling by a
polluting vehicle, and means providing employment to the poorest.”
4.3 Policy and integration initiatives
In recognition of the need of NMPT in Dhaka’s transport system, a number of policy and
integration initiatives have been proposed, in research literature and transport plans of Dhaka,
over the recent few decades. They are described below.
4.3.1 Proposed recommendations: From research literature
Gallagher (1992) suggested broad improvement guidelines in four major dimensions for better
integration of NMPT. Firstly, he provided strategic guidelines for reforming the NMPT licensing
system e.g. the need to revisit the ceiling approach on NMPT numbers to make it adoptable to
market demand; and necessity for new legislations to ensure NMPT’s operating safety, and
enforceability. Secondly, he recommended the need for improvement of regulatory and traffic
management measures such as design of NMPT lanes and a need for their separate routes. He
provided a generalised traffic management design for a road junction in Dhaka with cars, NMPT
and buses to illustrate his concept. Thirdly, he recommended detailed guidelines on the specific
technological faults that can be amended to improve its ergonomics. Finally, he suggested
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specific measures such as improvement in ownership pattern, provision for pension schemes
and formation of cooperatives, to improve the condition of the people engaged in the NMPT
industry, in particular the NMPT pullers.
Quium (1994) proposed some specific operational guidelines in facilitating the integration of
NMPT with motorised transport (MT). The study suggested segregation of the whole
metropolitan area into a suitable number of traffic cells bounded by physical barriers, restriction
of NMPT movement within these cells and allowance of inter-cell movement at designated
crossing points across arterials to facilitate proper interactivity between NMPT and other
motorised transports. He also suggested the need for a mixed-use, multi-centred, land-use
planning approach in enabling the success of such an integration initiative.
Akhtar and Yordphol (1999) investigated the speed impact that NMPT have on other vehicles in
Dhaka using a speed-density-flow relationship and emphasised the planned segregation of
NMPT from MT to enhance better operational efficiency. Bari and Efroymson (2005a) suggested
unrestricted NMPT movement across all city roads and the need for their balanced integration
with other sustainable transports such as bus and bicycle, through providing some a generalised
lane allocation guideline. The study also recommended restriction on car movements, on the
grounds of its road space inefficiency and greater contribution to traffic congestion.
Wipperman and Sowula (2007) have proposed a comprehensive nationalisation and
rationalisation of NMPT industries for Dhaka and other major urban centres of Bangladesh. The
study argued that such a formalisation process would raise the social and economic status of
NMPT dependent workforces, leading to wide-scale poverty alleviation and progressive social
changes. The strategies in achieving the target sustainability of this industry included proper
licensing arrangements, facilitating a better earning environment, improving the quality of
supportive infrastructure, including NMPT within formal transport planning processes and
creating new public agencies to acquire, manage and run infrastructure and economy of the
NMPT industry.
Hodgkinson and Walton-Ellery (2008) suggested prioritising NMPT and closing MT in selected
streets of three sections of Dhaka, namely Motijheel, Gulshan and the area around Moghbazar
through to Minto Road. For Motijheel, three street segments were selected that are
commercial in nature and here it was suggested that MT operation be closed off. The NMPT
priority was recommended because it a highly congested zone and the measures would reduce
congestion, noise and pollution of those streets. In Gulshan, one street segment was selected to
be prioritised for NMPT and a segregated lane was suggested for essential MTs, e.g. delivery
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vans and emergency vehicles. The NMPT priority was made as it is an affluent area, and the
measure would add higher social value to the NMPT pullers. For the third section, four streets
between Panthapath and Moghbazar, that create an enclave, were designated to NMPT only
traffic. This section was selected for NMPT priority because it is the focal point of international
business travellers and it would showcase the use of NMPT as an environmentally sound
transport mode, an indigenous and decorative symbol of city life to a wider, international
community. Figure 4.4 shows the suggested locations in Dhaka map.
Figure 4.4: Suggested NMPT priority location in three areas of Dhaka
Source: Derived by author after Hodgkinson and Walton-Ellery (2008)
Gulshan section
Section between
Panthapath &
Moghbazar
Motijheel
section
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Shima (2009) suggested the development of Rickshaw Oriented Districts (ROD) for narrow
network parts of Dhaka and other Asian cities as an approach to upgrade informal settlements.
The research recommended the need for NMPT stands at the centre of the ROD, supported by
walk-based primary movement and a coherent socio-economic network to realise the concept.
4.3.2 Proposed recommendations: From transport sector studies
Recommendations of Task Force Report on Traffic and Transport Problems of
Bangladesh 1991
The Task Force Report on Traffic and Transport Problems of Bangladesh (1991) urged that a
more adaptive approach be taken to the sustenance of NMPT amidst its wider socio-economic,
environmental and transport roles, rather than elimination. Volume 3 of the report suggested:
“In view of the inadequacy of mechanised road vehicles, their harmful effect on human
body and atmosphere, deprivation of the rickshaw-pullers of the earning for their
sustenance, the Task Force recommends retention of rickshaws in the less busy roads
and streets avoiding the main through fare and…constructing separate lanes for such
slow moving vehicles where feasible.”
Recommendation of DITS 1994
DITS (1994b) recommended NMPT supportive infrastructure development and network
planning for integration of NMPT in the transport system. The study provided four key
directions:
• Firstly, the greatest priority should not be the withdrawal of NMPTs, but the
creation of bus-only lanes and reduction of less road space-efficient vehicles such
as cars to better accommodate NMPTs and buses.
• Secondly, if it is felt necessary to restrict non-motorised traffic on some roads,
then this should be done based on detailed demand supply analysis and as flexibly
as possible; with due consideration to the needs of the diverted traffic. In
particular, the study recommended that adopting simple traffic management
measures based on pre-studied evidence, such as the diversion of NMPTs from
busy intersections with proper diversion routes, limiting their right-hand turn in
places and restricting them at certain sections in busy peak hours, might be better
rationale than their complete ban from a road block.
• Thirdly, segregation of NMPTs from motor traffic by means of special NMPT lanes
where appropriate, to safeguard the operation of both vehicle forms.
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• Finally, the decision to limit or change people’s right to use certain roads, by
delimiting NMPT, should be subject to wide consultation. The guideline suggested
the formation of road users’ consultative groups and the development of a special
working party including the NMPT trade unions and owner representatives, to
investigate different restriction options before any measures to control NMPTs
were undertaken.
Recommendation of DUTP 1996
DUTP (1996a), has developed an NMPT route network strategy under ‘component e’ of the
DITS immediate action plan (IAP) for some sections of Dhaka city. The proposal mostly
corresponded to those outlined in DITS (1994a) and focused on developing different design
standards for NMPT facilities at links (lane width, lane separation elements) and at nodes (e.g.
crossing types, support infrastructure); suggested traffic management measures such as
avoiding busy intersections to minimise intermodal conflicts, provision for satisfactory diversion
routes for NMPT to maintain the continuity of the mode across the city, application of different
turning measures at junctions such as staggered crossing at ‘T’ junctions or hook turns at four
legged junctions for right turning NMPTs (Figure 4.5). Some intersection-specific treatments for
traffic control (e.g. Mohakhali intersection, Moghbazar intersection, Tejgaon intersection) were
also proposed to facilitate NMPT movement at these locations.
Figure 4.5: Example of staggered crossing (left) and Hook turn (right)
Source: DUTP (1996a)
The document also prescribed that NMPT restrictions in future should be replaced by
alternative route options before the restrictions were made. The alternative route is advised to
Minor road
Major road
MT
Minor road
Minor road
NMT
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be less than 1.3 times in distance of the original one and be well connected with major
generators (e.g. educational institution, retail centres, offices etc).
Recommendation of STP 2005
The following long-term strategy for the urban transport sector of Dhaka, STP (2005b), has
recommended a number of strategies (key strategies 16-21 under ‘Urban Transport Policy’) to
improve operations of NMPT. In support of these strategies, a ‘Draft Rickshaw Policy’ was
developed. The key suggestions are,
• No cap be made on the number of NMPT licenses issued and the size of the fleet
should be allowed to adjust to fit the market and the travel demand
• Separation of NMPT from motorised traffic at major arterials and provision for
suitable alternative diversion routes where required, to facilitate operational
efficiency (corresponding key policy #17).
• Provision of proper licensing for both vehicles and drivers, including provision for
smart chip-embedded, non-forgeable and legal licenses; regular inspection to
ensure road worthiness of the vehicles and driver training-based licensing to
ensure road safety for all (corresponding key policies #18 to 20).
• Improved maintenance of NMPTs through micro-finance, grant-based
development of communal workshops.
• Financial assistance for development of improved NMPTs (corresponding key
policy #16)
• Proper fare structure and passenger limit per vehicle
• Provision of appropriate waiting and parking areas from NMPTs.
4.3.3 Practiced recommendation: NMPT design improvement projects
Some initiatives have been undertaken in the past to improve NMPT technology. These include
the NMPTs designed by the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) in
1979-80 and the cycle rickshaw design improvement project conducted by the Canadian non-
government organisation, Inter Pares, in 1985 (Gallagher, 1992). At the same time, other efforts
undertaken in this regard include the alternative NMPT designs by Mirpur Agricultural
Workshop and Technical School (MAWTS) and Bangladesh Rickshaw Industry Company (BIDC)
(DITS, 1994a). Agence France-Presse (AFP) (2008) reported that Bangladesh Diesel Plant, an
agricultural farm tool manufacturer owned by the country's army, was developing and planning
to launch electric NMPTs in Dhaka in the near future.
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4.4 Summary
This chapter reported the arguments favouring NMPT existence in Dhaka, based on a review of
the literature. The general role review was reported with reference to the viewpoints of
selected individual researchers and to that of previous transport sector studies and plans of
Dhaka. Issue-specific role review was reported with reference to social, economic, employment,
environmental, transport and safety viewpoints of the mode as found by different studies, both
at an individual research level and by the transport plans. The research highlighted the large
scale influence NMPT has in supporting the livelihood of the poor and in their economic self-
reliance, in sustaining the environment, in balancing the travel demand and travel quality needs
of lower and middle income populations and in catering the typical small freight movement
requirements. The literature also highlighted road space utility of NMPT in relation to
comparable other modes such as auto-rickshaw or taxi, suitability to narrow network structures
of the city, potential as a feeder to public transport services and its better safety record
compared to the other major transport modes. The discussion was completed with reporting of
policy and integration proposals put forward for NMPT at individual research levels and by the
transport plans, to facilitate its effective co-existence with other modes. The regulatory, traffic
management and vehicular design improvement guidelines proposed and practiced in this
regard were reported. The next chapter discusses the argument rejecting NMPT existence.
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5CHAPTER 5: REVIEW OF LITERATURE-ARGUMENTS REJECTING NMPT IN
DHAKA
5.1 Introduction
Chapter 4 discussed the potentials and contributions of non-motorised public transport (NMPT)
in the Dhaka transport system according to different literature. But over the years, literature on
the Dhaka transport system and NMPT also identified several reasons rejecting the operation
and continuity rationale of the mode, of different degrees and scale. A number of restriction
measures were undertaken, by the DCC and the DMP, to control NMPT operation on city
streets. This chapter reports the arguments behind the restriction on NMPT in Dhaka in light of
available literature. The discussion is divided into two major sections. Section 5.2 presents the
perspective of relevant key individual research. Section 5.3 presents the perspective of
government behind the restriction of NMPT, the policies formulated in this regard and the
implementation strategies in place. The endeavour is to enable a comprehensive status
portrayal from this aspect of the argument.
5.2 Insights from research literature
Habib (2002) promoted the campaign of banning NMPTs from the streets of Dhaka by depicting
its disutility. In his research, he compared five alternative planning options (including
elimination of rickshaws from main urban roadways) for alleviating traffic congestion and to
improve air pollution in Dhaka. Based on the output of analysis, he recommended that removal
of NMPTs can best alleviate traffic congestion of Dhaka by reducing total travel demand i.e.
vehicle-hour of travel. The study also delineated that NMPT elimination can have some
contribution to indirect pollution impact by reducing the CO emission rate of other motorised
vehicles, though it also noted that the pollution improvement would be least with this
alternative, compared to others.
Similar proposals on NMPT removal from major roadways, because of its slow speed and
congestion contribution, have been depicted by Habib and Alam (2003a; 2003b). Hossain (1996)
suggested that NMPT removal from major traffic corridors can substantially improve motorised
vehicle operation by reducing travel time, increasing passenger capacity and road space.
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Research by Begum and Sen (2004; 2005) determined the health impact of NMPT driving on the
NMPT drivers of Dhaka. Survey findings by Begum and Sen (2004) on NMPT drivers of Dhaka
revealed that, on average about 60 percent of the sample NMPT drivers ‘feel good’ about their
current health status; 20 percent feel ‘not so good’ and another 20 percent feel outright ‘bad’.
The study also revealed physical weakness and fatigue being the two key reasons for perceived
bad health of the drivers. Begum and Sen (2005) found that the perception towards own health
by drivers becomes gradually negative with their years of engagement in the profession and is
worst for the group engaged for more than 15 years. With these contexts in mind, the studies
advocated gradual shift of profession from NMPT driving, on the grounds of its long term,
detrimental health impact and the inhumane nature of the profession.
5.3 Government policy and implementation initiatives to restrict
NMPT
Some of the major government documents and transport studies related to Dhaka have
demonstrated consistency in their viewpoint on restricting NMPTs and have put forward a
number of key reasons similar to those aforementioned.
.
5.3.1 Government policy and recommendations
Recommendation by Second Five Year Plan and Third Five Year Plan
During the Second Five Year Plan (1980-85), considering the detrimental role of NMPT and with
the objective of removing them eventually, none of the 300 transport projects within the plan
had NMPT management or infrastructure improvement provisions (Gallagher, 1992).
The concept of phasing out of NMPT from the city streets of Dhaka was first introduced in the
Third Five Year Plan. Dismissing the role of NMPTs, the Third Five Year Plan (1985-90) (Planning
Commission, 1985) suggested the gradual elimination of slow moving vehicles such as pedal-
rickshaws and pulling carts through development of automotive vehicles; and training of
existing operators for such vehicles.
Recommendation by Special Committee on Traffic Problems of Dhaka
In 1985, the Martial Law Government constituted a special committee comprising
representatives from all major institutions with transport responsibilities in Dhaka, to
investigate the traffic problems of Dhaka city. Though not all of their recommendations were
implemented, the Committee’s report is considered one of the most important policy
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guidelines followed in management of NMPTs in Dhaka (DITS, 1994a). A summary of the
recommendations of this committee included,
• No further NMPT license to be issued
• Strengthening the NMPT driver testing procedure
• Restricting NMPTs to one of the three zones in Dhaka
• Banning NMPTs from some main roads
• NMPT lanes in some places
• Replacing the withdrawn NMPTs with auto-rickshaws, tempos and buses.
DITS (1994a) suggested that all of these proposals have been widely supported in government
circles since their formulation and except for the third recommendation all others have been
applied in combination or separately. This is true of the current practice on NMPT management
in Dhaka, which actively applies the first and last three recommendations.
Recommendation by Fourth Five Year Plan
Following suit with the 1985 report and the preceding plans, The Fourth Five Year Plan (1990-
95) (Planning Commission, 1995) suggested a similar stance and called for measures for gradual
elimination of slow-moving vehicles by stages.
Recommendation by DUTP 1996, Land Transport Policy 2004 and DAP 2008
DUTP (1996c) Phase 2 developed detailed engineering design and guidelines for future
transport development of Dhaka, and recommended the phasing out of NMPT from arterials
and major roads of Dhaka. Explaining the objective of the initiative, Bari and Efroymson (2005a)
stated:
“The aim was to improve traffic flow by making more space for motorised transport
since rickshaws are considered to be slow moving vehicles that occupy much road
space and create congestion.”
National Land Transport Policy (NLTP) (2004) emphasised gradual reduction of NMPT from all
parts of the country on grounds of its inefficiency and inhumane nature. Policy no.9.2.4 of the
document suggested the reduction of NMPT trips by 50 percent by 2014 and advised relevant
agencies to take necessary steps in realising this target. DAP (2008) provided further
recommendations to impose NMPT restriction on some other parts of the Dhaka network.
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5.3.2 Implementation strategies
Licensing control
The Government started to curb NMPTs, initially through licensing control, between the 1950’s
and the early 1980’s (Rashid, 1986). Describing the situation Gallagher (1992) stated:
“There has been restriction in rickshaws in Dhaka for nearly as long as there have been
rickshaws …4000 rickshaw licenses were issued in up to 1952, but after that the
authorities stopped issuing new licenses altogether…in 1969, the number stabilised at
14,407 … meanwhile, throughout the 1970’s, Dhaka’s authorities carried out regular
crackdowns and elimination campaigns to restrict rickshaws…the new ceiling of 14,407
licenses remained in force up till 1982.”
In this process, the last official licensing ceiling was set at 86,000 in 1986 (Replogle, 1991b; DITS,
1994a; STP, 2005a). The status has remained unchanged until the present time.
Rise in import duties for spare parts
By the early 1980’s, the Government started to impose high duties on bicycle component parts
such as mild steel wire, mild steel strips, mild steel seamless pipe, brass wire and electroplating
chemicals, also used for NMPT manufacturing (DITS,1994a). According to Gallagher (1992),
most of the bicycle and NMPT components were taxed at 50 percent, greater than that of baby-
taxi, tempo or bus. Since 1987, the tyres were taxed at 150 percent, compared to that of baby
taxi (35 percent), bus (50 percent) and cars (100 percent).
Physical restriction measures
The first NMPT restriction in Dhaka was imposed in 1980 near Kakrail Mosque towards Baily
Road, but withdrawn later due to the detrimental effects (e.g. detours or NMPT congestion on
other roads or unavailability of transport for passengers). Similar initiative with likewise result
was observed for Motijheel Commercial Area (Dainik Bangla to Bangladesh Bank), DIT Avenue
(Bangabhaban to Naya Paltan) and Gulistan (Fulbaria to Vetinary Hospital) (DITS, 1994a). In April
1987, Dhaka Municipal Corporation announced plans to ban NMPT from city on safety grounds.
This ban did not materialise for political reasons and due to public opposition (Replogle,1991c).
2
Until 2002, the Government was able to make five roads NMPT free including New Airport
Road, Hare Road, Abdul Gani Road, Crescent Lake Road and Tongi Diversion Road (Mohakhali to
Moghbazar) (DITS,1994a; STP,2005a).Following the trend and In line with the recommendations
of DUTP (1996c) and NLTP (2004), DCC (the city Government) in 2002 adopted a plan to phase
out NMPTs from 11 major arterials of Dhaka, comprising a total of 120 km (Figure 5.1).
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Figure 5.1: Existing and Proposed NMPT-Free Corridors in Dhaka
Source: DCC (2009)
The vacuum created by NMPT removal and need for extra public transport was filled by
minibuses that operate on a stop-and-go service. These minibuses offer stop-and-go service
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whereby passengers can request to stop at any point along the corridor where NMPT is
restricted. The car numbers also grew on the roads where NMPT was restricted. (HDRC, 2004).
Gallagher (1992) indicated that policy makers at the decision level discouraged NMPTs on the
grounds that they were a symbol of underdevelopment that tarnished the city’s image to the
outside world, as ‘inhuman’, ‘unhealthful and degrading’; costly and space inefficient. DITS
(1994a) and Sarker (2005) also purported similar reasoning when explaining the government
decision on NMPT restriction measures and approaches. The ultimate endeavours of NMPT
restrictive policies were to improve traffic flow and better replicate the city image to outside
world (Manchetti, 2005). However, due to various concerns and political sensitivity associated
with the removal of NMPT from major roads, DCC has periodically adjusted target dates to
complete the process in phase (STP, 2005c) (Figure 3.9).This NMPT phase out process has
continued to the present.
5.4 Summary
This chapter reported the arguments rejecting NMPT existence in Dhaka, based on literature
review. The review was made with reference to individual research studies and government
policies made to control NMPT. The literature revealed key underlying reasons such as slow
speed, road space inefficiency, congestion contribution, poor city image and inhumane nature
of the profession behind rejecting the mode, and need for its restriction. The government policy
recommendations to control NMPT were then reviewed, with reference to different key
document and plans. The Second and Third Five Year Plans suggested complete removal of
NMPT, the Special Committee Report and Fourth Five Year Plan suggested their removal from
major roads and restriction to some specific zones, DUTP Phase 2 suggested removal of NMPT
from 11 major arterials of the city encompassing 120 km of roadway and National Land
Transport Policy encouraged nationwide reduction of NMPT trips by half by 2014.
The review was completed with reporting of the implementation strategies in place for
management of NMPT. Licensing control was found to be the first approach applied to curb
NMPTs and has been in effect since 1950s. The rise of import duties on spare parts of cycles and
NMPT was applied in the early 1980s and has continued. Physical restrictions on NMPT
operation were introduced in the 1980s as well and have been more rigorous in practice since
2002. The literature review also found it to be the primary restriction strategy in effect for
controlling Dhaka NMPT movement. The next chapter analyses the literature reviewed with
reference to the NMPT multi-sectoral role in order to ascertain an in-depth understanding of
relevant NMPT status.
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6CHAPTER 6: ANALYSIS OF NMPT ROLE AND ASSOCIATED ATTRIBUTES
IN DHAKA
6.1 Introduction
Chapters 3 to 5 presented a comprehensive review of literature relevant to non-motorised
public transport (NMPT) engagement, operation and management in the Dhaka transport
system. Chapters 6 and 7 provide a more detailed analysis of the literature to have a greater
comprehension of the already reported information and present new relevant information on
NMPT status. This chapter presents detailed analyses of the NMPT role with reference to the
reviewed multi-sectoral attributes of the mode.
The Chapter discussion is divided into five major sections. Section 6.2 analyses the social role of
NMPT. This is followed by economic role analysis (Section 6.3), employment role analysis
(Section 6.4) and environmental role analysis (Section 6.5).The process concludes with transport
role analysis (Section 6.6).
6.2 Social role analysis
The literature review in Chapter 4 revealed that NMPT has a social role in catering for the
multidimensional trip market of Dhaka. Based on this finding, it is rational to have more in-
depth analysis of the travel characteristics, modal preference and usage pattern of different
sub-markets of Dhaka to better understand conditions. Table 6.1 summarises the general travel
characteristics of market segments in Dhaka and their relationship to the associated factors.
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Table 6.1: Travel characteristics of market segments in Dhaka and corresponding mode preferences
Market Segments Modes Type Use Dominant Mode Usual Trip
Destination
Trip Length*
Commuter Train (proposed),
Bus, Human hauler Employment
centres/ CBD Long
Intra-city working
population
Train (proposed),
Bus, Human hauler
NMPT, Auto
rickshaw, Taxi,
Car, Motorbike
Local and regional
employment
centres/ CBD
Variable
(short -long)
Student population
NMPT
Bus,
Car
Educational
institutions
Variable
(short -
medium)
Non-working
female travelling
alone or with pre-
school children
NMPT
Auto rickshaw
Car
local and regional
centres &
residential areas
Short to
medium
Elderly Population NMPT,
Auto rickshaw
Car
local and regional
centres &
residential areas
short
Unemployed
Bus, Human hauler,
NMPT
local and regional
centres
variable
(short -
medium)
Source: Developed by author based on STP (2005c)
Legend:
Public Transport (Metro Train, Bus, Human Hauler, CNG Auto rickshaw, NMPT (Rickshaw) & Taxi)
Private transport- (Car, Motorbike)
*Note: Based on DITS (1994a) and STP (2005a) trip lengths of up to 3km are defined as short, trip lengths
between 3 to 5 km are defined as medium and trip lengths greater than 5 km are defined as long .
From Table 6.1 it can be seen that the general trip character and modal preference in Dhaka is
diverse. No one conventional public transport (e.g. bus or NMPT) can cater for the demands of
the range of sub-markets; rather, a balanced mix of them is required. The table reveals that for
short-to-medium distance trips and for particular sub-markets (represented with shaded rows
in the table- students, females, elderly). NMPT has a modal advantage over other public
transport modes, echoing the findings of the literature from Chapter 4. Trend analysis of NMPT
usage by this submarket is presented in Figures 6.1 and 6.2.
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Figure 6.1: Share of loaded NMPTs used by non-working female travelling alone
or with pre-school children
Source: Developed by author after Gallagher (1992); DITS (1994a); STP (2005c)
Figure 6.2: Share of loaded NMPTs used by students passengers
Source: Developed by author after Gallagher (1992); STP (2005c); DHUTS (2010)
Figure 6.1 suggests that the trend of NMPT usage by the female population has been
considerable for a long time (since early 1990s) and a gradual increase of 10 percent in this
trend has been observed over the most recent, 13 year analysis period. The acceptance of the
mode has escalated rapidly for students compared to its modest share in the early 1990s
(Figure 6.2). An increase of 400 percent has occurred and currently this market is the most
dominant cohort (52 percent) in the loaded NMPT share. There are no statistics available to
suggest the trend of elderly population, but on the evidence of poor conditions of bus and
32
28
40
0 10 20 30 40 50
1992
1994
2005
Percentage share
Ye
ar
Female travelling alone
or accompanying
children
12
30
52
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
1992
2005
2010
Percentage share
Ye
ar
Students as
NMPTpassengers
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human hauler, and higher total travel cost aspects of taxi and auto-rickshaws, it is possible that
there has been a corresponding increase of NMPT mode usage by the elderly population.
The aspect of affordability was also found to be an influencing factor, according to the literature
review, which encourages people with earning constraints to choose NMPT. An analysis of the
relationship between income level and primary non -walk mode split of Dhaka population is
presented to understand this social aspect, in Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3: Relationship between income level per annum and mode usage
Source: Developed by author after STP (2005a)
*Non-transit includes auto-rickshaw, taxi, car, motorcycle
NMPT is used as a primary non-walk travel mode by more than one-third of the low income
population. This is almost double the non-transit mode share and quite close to the public
transit share. Among the middle income population, it holds a higher share than transit and is
comparable to the non-transit mode share. It should be noted that NMPT is a door-to-door
service provider and transit is not. Therefore, if we consider the door-to-door service scenario
by mode, the transit mode-based trips are expected to have multiple segments i.e. use of
feeder modes such as walk and NMPT to reach to bus stops. From this perspective, it can be
inferred that the total share of NMPT would be higher compared to the transit mode share as
displayed.
6.3 Economic role analysis
The literature review of Chapter 4 showed that NMPT has contributed to the macro and micro
economy of Dhaka. On a macro-economic perspective, the gross revenue was found to be
substantial. An analysis of this revenue scale and growth trend is presented in Figure 6.4. For
this analysis, gross revenue means the per day revenue from NMPT vehicle operation
0
20
40
60
80
100
Low <Tk12,500 Medium Tk12,500-
Tk55,000
High >Tk55,000
Sh
are
in
pe
rce
nta
ge
Income class
NMPT Transit Motorised (Non-transit*)
AUD <260 AUD >1140 AUD 260-AUD 1140
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Figure 6.4: Per day gross revenue from NMPT vehicle operation
(revenue in “real terms” adjusted to 2011 values)
Source: Estimated by author based in DITS (1994a), STP (2005a) and DHUTS (2010)
The figure shows that gross revenue from NMPT industry is substantial and inclining. The
growth has been rapid during the analysis period and 211 percent growth rise occurred during
the last five years. The present annual revenue is estimated to be around Bangladesh Taka (Tk)
3720 million [Australian Dollar (AUD) 45.93 million) (see Appendix C.2 for calculation detail).
From a micro-economic perspective, the review suggested better economic self-reliance of
people engaged in the NMPT industry compared to some other key formal and informal sector
professions. Figure 6.5 and its following discussion presents the comparative per capita monthly
earning of the NMPT drivers compared key economic indicators such as average per capita GDP,
national income of Bangladesh and average urban income to better understand this scenario.
Figure 6.5: Comparative earnings of NMPT drivers compared to other key wage indicators
Source: Derived by author after DHUTS (2010); BBS (2005)
155
1910
3720
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
1994 2005 2010
Mil
lio
n t
ak
a
Year Revenue
5145
69756300
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
National
income
Urban
income
NMPT drivers
income
Am
ou
nt/
mo
nth
Items of comparison Monthly wage level
AUD 12 million
AUD 24 million
AUD 36 million
AUD 48 million
AUD 0 million
AUD 50
AUD 50
AUD 75
AUD 100
AUD 0
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Bangladesh’s per capita GDP was United States Dollar (USD) 620 (AUD 720) in 2009-2010
financial year or nearly Tk3600 (AUD 60) per month (Sultana, 2009). Figure 6.5 highlights that
average monthly earning of an NMPT driver is nearly twice the average per capita national GDP
of the country. The earnings of NMPT drivers are also reasonable compared to the latest official
statistics on urban average earning per earner of Tk6,975 (AUD 116) per month and are higher
by 23 percent than the national average earning per earner of Tk5,145 (AUD 86) per month.
.
6.4 Employment role analysis
Reporting of literature depicted NMPT as a contributor to employment generation in Dhaka.
Within this context, the share and trend of NMPT employment (NMPT drivers, owners and
people engaged in ancillary activities) and their dependence (family members of the NMPT
trading personnel) is analysed and presented in Figure 6.6 and 6.7.
Figure 6.6: Estimated share of NMPT industry in employment sector of Dhaka
Source: Derived by author after DITS (1994b); BBS (2005); DHUTS (2010); Alam (2011) and BBS (2011)
The figure shows continuous growth in share of the NMPT industry within the employment
sector of Dhaka. More than 700,000 new jobs were created between 1994 and 2005. This is a
12 percent rise in total employment share of Dhaka by NMPT industry during analysis period
and annual employment growth rate of 17 percent for the industry compared to annual
population growth rate of 4.2 percent (STP, 2005c). The total engagement of NMPT industry
was 1.11 million people at 2005. The total NMPT industry employment has almost doubled, to
around 2.31 million between 2005 to 2011, and currently more than half of the employment in
Dhaka is provided by this industry [estimates for 2005 and 2011 employment share are based
on statistics of STP, 2005c; DHUTS, 2010; BBS, 2005; BBS, 2011, Central Intelligence agency (CIA)
18
30
50
0 20 40 60
1994
2005
2011
Percentage share of NMPT industry in total Dhaka employment
sector
Ye
ar
Empoyment by
NMPT industry
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2011 & Alam, 2011] [see Appendix C.3 for relevant calculation details].This relates to a rise in
total NMPT employment share of 22 percent since 2005 with annual employment growth rate
of 18 percent for the industry, compared with similar population growth rate in 2005, of around
4 percent (DHUTS, 2010).
Figure 6.7: Estimated share of direct dependent population of NMPT industry with reference to total
population of Dhaka
Source: Derived by author after DITS (1994b), BBS (2005), DHUTS (2010), Alam (2011) and BBS (2011)
If we consider the gross dependence of the NMPT sector, the total number of family members
of the NMPT traders, the figure stands at 7.44 million or 52 percent of Dhaka population at
present compared to 1.43 million (share 24 percent) in 1994 (see Appendix C.3 for calculation
details). This dependence figure is a rise of more than twice and 1.5 times, compared to those
of 1994 and 2005 respectively.
6.5 Environmental role analysis
The literature review found that the least debatable of all roles of NMPT has been its emission-
free operating nature and positive contribution to a cleaner environment. Some of the
literature also argued the advantage of NMPT in carrying a substantial portion of Dhaka’s trips
without having any direct impact on the environment. This aspect therefore demands deeper
analysis. Table 6.2 presents the relationships between mode share and fuel usage pattern of
available modes.
24
31
52
0 20 40 60
1994
2005
2011
Percentage share of direct dependence on NMPT industry
Ye
ar
Direct dependence on
NMPT industry
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Table 6.2:Transport modes in Dhaka (excluding walk) based on mode share, mechanics and fuel
usage
Travel
Mode
Mode
share
Type Fuel Usage Pollution
role
Motorised Non-
motorised
Fuel Dependent Fuel
Free
Fossil Fuel
(other
than CNG)
Natural
Gas
Hybrid
Bus
46*
� � � � Emits 83% &
44% of total
NOx & SPM
pollutant
respectively
Human
hauler � �
Auto
rickshaw
6*
� � �
Emits 50% of
total HC
pollutant
Taxi � � � Emits 63% of
total CO
pollutant Car
� � �
Motorbike Data not
available � �
Data not
available
Bicycle Data not
available � �
None
NMPT 48* � � None
Source: Developed by author after STP (2005c), Nasir (2006) and DHUTS (2010)
*Of available data
The table demonstrates that NMPT caters for almost half of the total non-walk trip shares of
Dhaka without any fuel requirements and thereby is free from emissions and from human
waste which would occur without NMPT. The table also shows motorised modes share the
other half of the trips, but are responsible for the transport sector’s emissions. Buses and
human haulers contribute mostly to NOx and solid particulate matter (SPM) emission, cars and
similar vehicles to CO emission and auto-rickshaw to HC emission.
The literature review also found the detrimental health impact of MT on general population and
ambient concentration. Such impact, if analysed in depth and compared to the mode specific
pollution role of Table 6.2, shows that it is likely that due to the unenclosed nature of NMPT, the
NMPT drivers and users are most vulnerable to pollutant exposure and are thereby subject to
greater health risks, compared to their minimum or no contribution in generating the same.
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6.6 Analysing transport role
The literature review on transport sector role of NMPT in Chapter 4 provided an understanding
of NMPT as a mode in the vehicular composition, trip share and travel demand spectrum of
Dhaka. This discussion analyses these aspects in more detail to yield deeper insight on the place
of NMPT within the transport system spectrum of Dhaka.
6.6.1 Vehicle composition, trip share and work output
The literature review found NMPT to have a fleet size of 1.1 million and non-walk trip share of
48 percent. More detailed trend analyses are presented in this context in Table 6.3 and Figure
6.8. The growth trend of NMPT with reference to different vehicles of Dhaka is presented in
Table 6.3.
Table 6.3: Per annum growth trend of vehicular composition of NMPT in Dhaka compared to other
available modes
Mode Type 2005 2011 Growth rate per
annum
(percentage)
Bus (including human
hauler)
12,067 17,770 7.9
Truck 22,883 34,558 8.5
Auto-rickshaw/Auto
tempo
13,170 16,182 3.8
Taxi 9,901 10,682 1.3
NMPT 500,000* 1,100,000^ 20
Car and other private
4 wheelers
136,041 232,135 11.8
Motorcycle 140,050 249,707 13
Source: Derived by author after *STP (2005c), ^Alam (2011); and BRTA (2011)
The table depicts that the size and growth rate of NMPT has been substantial during the
analysis period and is higher than all other modes. They have grown 7 percent per annum more
than motorcycles and 8.2 percent more than cars. The population growth rate of Dhaka in the
same period was around 4 percent (DHUTS, 2010).
The non-walk trip share trend of NMPT in comparison to other major modes is shown in Figure
6.8.
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Figure 6.8: Primary non walk trip share for Dhaka: comparative trend
Source: Derived by author after DITS (1994a); DUTP (1996b); STP (2005c) and DHUTS (2010)
Note: *included car and other 4 wheeler private vehicles, motorcycle, auto-rickshaw and taxi; DHUTS
(2010) study did not include motorcycles in the trip statistics
^ includes bus and human hauler; ^^ NMPT share estimated based on total fleet size of 500,000
The trend demonstrates that NMPT had the highest trip share during most of the analysis
period and currently holds the highest trip share in Dhaka. It is also found that transit modes
(bus, human hauler) have a steadier incline in their combined share during the analysis period.
The total work output (passenger-km) served by NMPT daily, with reference to other major
passenger modes of travel is depicted in Table 6.4.
Table 6.4: Comparative per day work output of NMPT to other major modes in Dhaka
Mode Type Work output
(passenger-km)
Share (%) Work output
(person-trip)
Share (%)
Bus * 2,648,608,740 96.6 278,800,920 93.9
Auto-rickshaw 26,583,504 0.97 3,127,471 1
NMPT^ 48,155,260 2 12,672,437 4.3
Car , other private 4 wheelers and taxi 19,931,133 0.73 2,344,839 0.8
Source: Derived by author after STP (2005a); STP (2005c) and DHUTS (2010)
^the trip statistics is derived from DHUTS study which made trip calculation based on NMPT fleet of
500,000
Note: Trip statistics for human hauler and motorcycle are not available
The analysis shows that NMPT has better productivity than its comparable modes, auto-
rickshaw, or taxi, and is second to buses. With reference to passenger-km of travel, the NMPT
13
22
6
31
40
46
54
38
48
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1998 2005 2010
Sh
are
(%
)
Year
Non-transit*
Transit^
NMPT^^
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work output is 45 percent higher than auto-rickshaw and 59 percent higher than cars and taxis.
With reference to person-trips, the NMPT work output is 75 percent higher than auto-rickshaw
and 82 percent higher than cars and taxis (see Appendix C.4 for calculation details of mode
specific work). It should be noted here that NMPT has more than a double share of work output
in person trips than passenger-km of travel. This is because NMPT is predominantly a short
distance travel mode and therefore though their distances of travel are less, and passenger
carriage is comparatively higher.
6.6.2 Road space utilisation
The literature review in Chapter 4 claimed that NMPT is a space efficient vehicle compared to its
competitive modes such as auto-rickshaw, taxi or car. A more detailed analysis is presented in
Table 6.5. The table shows the average road space per vehicle in passenger car equivalent (PCE)
and road space per passenger to provide better insight on the situation.
Table 6.5: Average road space per vehicle and per passenger for NMPT compared to other modes
Mode Type PCE Value *(average road
space over time per
vehicle)
Average no. of
passengers per vehicle ^
Average road space
over time per
passenger
Bus 1.8 45 0.04
Auto-rickshaw 0.8 2.3 0.35
Taxi 1 2.2 0.45
NMPT 0.18 1.6 0.12
Car 1 2.2 0.58
Motorcycle 0.5 1.2 0.42
Source: Derived by author after STP (2005b); Bari (2005), Ali (2005), and DUTP (1996b)
*The PCE values were taken from PhD research of Ali (2005) which is the latest research that analysed and
estimated the space impact of different vehicles under the mixed mode road traffic condition of Dhaka.
^ Estimated based on STP (2005 b) & DUTP (1996b)
Note: PCE value for human hauler is not available
The analysis shows that after bus, NMPT has the least impact on road space use over time.
According to the table, the average NMPT passenger uses 66 percent less space than an auto-
rickshaw passenger and almost 75 percent less space than a taxi passenger. A car passenger
uses 80 percent more road space than a NMPT passenger. The author estimated that with
eightfold trip numbers per day to that of car, NMPTs occupy less road space (32 percent) than
that of cars (38 percent) (see Appendix C.5 for calculation details).
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6.6.3 Comparative mode operational characteristics
The discussion literature on NMPT has suggested short distance suitability of the mode, its
service flexibility, accessibility, time effectiveness, comfort etc on a broader perspective. A more
detailed analysis of the key NMPT operating attributes is given in this section, in comparison to
other available modes.
According to the Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual (TCQSM) 2003 (Kittelson and
Associates, KFH Group, Parsons Brinkerhoff ,Quade and Douglas Inc and Hunter-Zaworski, 2003)
, there are different viewpoints on the evaluation of public transport performance including
operator point of view, vehicle point of view and passenger point of view, more commonly
known as quality of service. This later quality of service approach was chosen for this analysis
because the objective is to measure passengers’ perception on the availability, comfort, and
convenience of NMPT. In addition, this approach has established and accepted performance
measures which can be used as reference to derive level of service (LOS) for NMPT and
compare the same with other vehicles. Since different levels of transport network require
different performance measures, the analyses were divided into three categories as
recommended in TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003): at stop level, at route
segment level and at system level. Stop level measured availability and convenience at a single
location. Route level measured availability and convenience at multiple locations along a route.
System level measured availability and convenience along different city parts and routes of
travel. Among the different performance measures recommended by the manual for assessing
service quality of a mode, this research chose the following measures (henceforth termed as
service measures) to develop its quality of service framework for modes.
Table 6.6: Transit Quality of Service Framework for Dhaka modes – Primary measures
Category of
performance measures Service elements and measures
Stop Route segment System
Accessibility Frequency Hours of service Service coverage
Quality Passenger loads Reliability Safety and security
Total journey time
Source: Derived by author after TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003) and local condition
analysis
The service measures were chosen within the preferred measures of TCQSM 2003. The
selection of specific service measures were based on the general recommendation put forward
by the manual for performance measures which best reflects passenger perception, the
availability of LOS reference values set in the manual and the availability of relevant local data.
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The analysis thus included quantitative and qualitative approaches. For example, it was not
possible to collect or estimate data for system-based measures, service coverage due to
unavailability of secondary data. The safety and security was also very difficult to quantify, but
was found important to large travel markets of Dhaka based on field discussion with transport
users, the literature review previously presented and the local experience of the researcher. So
for these service measures, a qualitative approach was adopted and LOS was derived
accordingly. One additional quantitative service measure, total door-to-door travel time was
assessed at system level, to have a more complete picture of the service quality dimension of
the modes. Quantitative approach and TCQSM 2003 LOS was followed for journey time LOS
measurement and for all service measures at stop and route levels.
The following section describes the process of analysis and derivation of LOS for each service
measure. The analysis is presented according to three predefined service elements for the
modes. However, because of the different characteristics of the modes, different measures
were used to define LOS for each service type, as described in TCQSM 2003(Kittelson &
Associates et al., 2003) .Conventional public transport such as bus and human hauler were
assessed against the LOS set for fixed routes, as recommended by the TCQSM 2003. NMPT and
other demand responsive public transport, termed as paratransit in the manual, were assessed
against the LOS set for non-fixed route paratransit, as recommended by the TCQSM 2003.
Private vehicles were assessed based on the LOS values assigned for either paratransit as
deemed rational or LOS values recommended by TCQSM 2003 for comparison of all other
modes. Descriptive LOS values were commonly applied to defined system level performance
analyses for all modes.
Stop level analysis
Frequency
From a user’s perspective, frequency determines the number of times during an hour when a
user has access to a public transport mode. It also measures the convenience of service to the
choice rider and is one component of overall trip time. For fixed route, scheduled transit
services such as bus and human hauler, headway was used as LOS measure of frequency
according to the manual. For non-fixed route public transports such as NMPT, auto-rickshaw
and taxi, access time to reach these modes and start a journey from the point of origin was used
as LOS measure of frequency. Note that this is a variation from the manual guideline, which
suggests access time to be the minimum amount of time from when a passenger first requests a
service to the time a pick-up can be guaranteed. The variation was necessary in Dhaka, as none
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of these modes has such pick-up service. Taxis have the option, but that is rarely practised as
found from the local use of transport services in Dhaka by the researcher. For private transport
such as car, motorcycle and bicycle, their service frequency LOS was measured with reference
to the access time indicator. This was found rational as availability to these personalised modes
is better represented by access time than headway. The LOS threshold values recommended by
TCQSM 2003(Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003) for service frequency measurement are
presented in Table 6.7.
Table 6.7: Level of service guideline for service frequency
LOS Headway (min) for
fixed route scheduled
transit service
Comment Access time (hour)
for paratransit
services
Comment
A <10 Passengers do not need
schedule
0-0.5 Fairly prompt access
B 10-14 Frequent service 0.6-1.0 Acceptable access
period
C 15-20 Maximum desirable time
to wait if bus/train
missed
1.1-2.0 Tolerable access
period
D 21-30 Service unattractive to
choice riders 2.1-4.0 Poor access, may
require advance
planning
E 31-60 Service available during
hours 4.1-24.0 Require advance
planning
F >60 Service unattractive to
all riders >24.0 Service not offered
every weekday or at
all
Source: TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003)
The headway value for bus and human hauler was derived based on morning peak hour
(6.30am to 9am) survey results of STP (2005b) for major routes passing through Asad Gate,
Mohammadpur suburb and Rampur Bridge, Rampura suburb. The access time for-NMPT, auto-
rickshaw and taxi was assessed based on general walk and wait time to reach these modes, as
found from field observation and consultation with users of these modes in three randomly
selected suburbs of Dhaka, namely Dhanmondi to the west, Uttara to the north and Old Dhaka
to the south. For car, motorcycle and bicycle, the access time was assumed to be less than 10
minutes. This time was found reasonable after consultation with some owners of these
vehicles, randomly chosen from the aforementioned three suburbs. The results of the indicators
and corresponding LOS are presented in Table 6.8.
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Table 6.8: Level of service for service frequency in Dhaka
Mode type Service Frequency measures LOS
Headway (min) Access time (hour)
Bus 10 Not applicable B
Human hauler 11 Not applicable B
Auto rickshaw Not applicable 10-20 A
Taxi Not applicable 20-30 A
NMPT Not applicable 5-10 A
Car Not applicable 1-10 A
Motorcycle Not applicable 1-10 A
Bicycle Not applicable 1-10 A
Source: Derived by author after literature analysis, survey data analyses and Table 6.7
The tabular analysis reveals that the frequency of service is satisfactory for the fixed route
public transport services. Buses have LOS B and are frequent. Human hauler is marginally less
frequent compared to buses. Access to all the demand-responsive public transports were found
to be fairly prompt (LOS A) with NMPT being the most accessible mode and taxi least accessible.
Private transport modes were better accessible than other modes, with reference to time, and
have LOS A, because of their ready availability for personal usage at the origin of the trip.
Passenger loads
From a passenger’s perspective, passenger loads reflect the comfort level of the on-board
vehicle portion of the trip – both in terms of being able to find a seat, carriage of luggage and in
overall crowding levels within the vehicle. For public transports, passenger load often affects
travel time and service reliability. For all modes, passenger load LOS was measured using the
load factor i.e. passenger per seat condition. This was recommended as a suitable option by
TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003) in the case of making a comparative comfort
level and crowdedness condition analysis of different modes with reference to buses. The LOS
threshold values recommended by the manual for passenger loading measurements are
presented in Table 6.9.
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Table 6.9: Level of service guideline for passenger loads
LOS Passenger per seat Comment
A 0.00-0.50 No passenger need to seat next to other
/high comfort level and very low crowding
B 0.51-0.75 Passengers can choose where to seat/reasonable
comfort level and low crowding
C 0.76-1.00 All passengers can sit/ not much space for luggage
D 1.01-1.25 Acceptable standing load if vehicle design permits/
crowded condition
E 1.26-1.50 Maximum load
F >1.50 Crush load
Source: TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003)
Passenger load factors for all the vehicles were derived based on occupancy values of respective
modes, found from STP (2005a), cross-examined by Field Survey in 2009; and average seat
capacity of the vehicles as published in STP (2005c) (see Appendix C.6 for calculation ). The
results of the indicators and corresponding LOS are presented in Table 6.10.
Table 6.10: Level of service for passenger loads in Dhaka
Mode type Passenger per seat LOS
Bus 1.60 F
Human hauler 0.89 C
Auto rickshaw 0.77 C
Taxi 0.75 B
NMPT 0.75 B
Car 0.55 B
Motorcycle 0.8 C
Bicycle 1.0 C
Source: Derived by author after literature analysis, survey data analyses and Table 6.9
The tabular analysis shows that LOS is poor for fixed route public transport modes. Bus has the
lowest LOS (LOS F). Most buses operate at crush load and remain highly crowded. Human
hauler has a comparatively lower loading (LOS C) and passengers usually have the opportunity
of a seat. Non-fixed route public transport modes (auto rickshaw, taxi, NMPT,) have better
comfort levels than bus or human hauler. Auto rickshaw has LOS C but better load factor than
human hauler. Taxi and NMPT have higher LOS (LOS B) .The general loading condition and
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comfort levels for these three modes were very close to each other. Private car and motorcycle
were found to have the best on-board comfort level. It was interesting to find that bicycles had
a higher load factor to other private modes, attributable to being a one-seater vehicle. Figure
6.9 provides a combined picture of the LOS status found for different modes at stop level.
Figure6.9: Stop based level of service for NMPT and other available modes
Source: Derived by author after Table 6.7 to 6.10
Figure 6.9 reveals that for a single location, the car has better availability and comfort level
compared to other modes. NMPT was found to be most accessible and comfortable among the
public transport modes, followed by auto rickshaw and taxi. Bus was found to have lowest
overall LOS at stop level, followed by human hauler. These two modes had frequent peak
period services similar to other public modes, but on-board comfort was poorer than others.
Buses were found to be mostly operating at crushing load and therefore were always very
crowded. For human haulers, though the loading was reasonable, local experience of the users
suggested that because of the very tight design inside the vehicle, passengers were often not
comfortable, particularly female passengers and passengers accompanying luggage.
F
E
D
C
B
A
F E D C B A
Passenger loads
Se
rvic
e f
req
ue
ncy
Bus Human
Hauler
Car Motor
cycle
NMPT
Taxi
Auto rickshaw
Bicycle
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Route level analysis
Hours of service
Hours of service, also known as service span, is the number of hours during the day when
service is provided by a public transport mode along a route, a segment of a route, or between
two locations. It plays an important role as frequency and service coverage in determining
availability of a mode to users. In the following TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al.,
2003), for fixed route services such as bus and human hauler, LOS is measured based on the
number of hours per day in which the service is provided at least once an hour. For non-fixed
route public transports such as NMPT, auto-rickshaw and taxi, LOS is based on the number of
hours per day the service is provided. For private transport such as car, motorcycle and bicycle,
LOS is also measured based the number hours per day the vehicle is available to provide service.
The LOS threshold values recommended by TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003)
for hours of service measurement are presented in Table 6.11.
Table 6.11: Level of service guideline for hours of service
LOS Hours per day Comment
A 19-24 Services provided throughout day and night
B 17-18 Day time and late evening services provided
C 14-16 Day time and early evening services provided
D 12-13 Day services provided
E 4-11 Peak hour service/limited midday service
F 0-3 Very limited or no services
Source: TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003)
Common hours of service for buses and human haulers were derived based on STP (2005b) and
cross-examined by field survey with operators in 2009. Service hours for NMPT were derived
based on general field survey and interview of NMPT operators, drivers and users. Service hours
for taxi and auto rickshaw were derived from STP (2005c) and cross-examined by discussion
with operators during field survey in 2009. Due to the personalised nature of ownership, private
vehicles were found to be available all day to the owner, as revealed by random consultation
with the owners of these vehicle categories, and LOS is measured accordingly. The results of the
indicators and corresponding LOS are presented in Table 6.12.
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Table 6.12: Level of service for hours of service in Dhaka
Mode type Hours of service/Schedule LOS
Bus 14-16 C
Human hauler 14-16 C
Auto rickshaw 12-14 C/D
Taxi 12-14 C/D
NMPT 17-18 B
Car 19-24 A
Motorcycle 19-24 A
Bicycle 19-24 A
Source: Derived by author after literature analysis, survey data analyses and Table 6.11
The tabular analysis suggests that among public transports, NMPT has highest availability (LOS
B) while auto rickshaw and taxi has lowest availability (LOS C/D). Fixed route services such as
bus and human haulers were also reasonably available (LOS C). Common hours of service for
NMPT were found to be 17 to 18 hours based on field survey 2009. The operating hours
spanned between 6am and 12 midnight. The usual operating hours for bus and human hauler
were found to be between 6 am to 10pm.The total service hours of auto rickshaw and taxi were
found to be 12 to 14 hours, spanning between 8 am to 10 pm. Private vehicles were found to be
available at all times of the day and night (LOS A).
Reliability
Several different measures of reliability are used by transit systems. According to TCQSM 2003
(Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003), the most common of these is on-time performance. For
fixed route services such as bus and human hauler, reliability of LOS considers on-time to be a
departure of 0 to 5 minutes after the expected scheduled time for the departure, or an arrival at
the end of the route no more than 5 minutes after the scheduled time. The condition applies to
routes with vehicle headways greater than 10 minutes. No published schedule was available for
most of the buses in Dhaka which include 5000 plus minibuses and 250 plus large buses almost
operated by the private sector (STP, 2005c). The response of on-time percentage was therefore
derived based on assumption of the researcher’s local knowledge of buses and human haulers’
usage and limited user survey on routes with greater than 10 minutes headway. For non-fixed
route services such as NMPT, auto rickshaw and taxi, reliability LOS considered on-time to be
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the possibility of starting a journey within 20 minutes of looking for the mode. Note that this is a
variation from the manual guideline that suggested on-time to be arrival within 20 minutes of
scheduled pick-up time. The variation was necessary, since in Dhaka, none of these modes has
such pick-up service. Taxis technically have the option, but this is rarely the practice as found
from local use of transport services in Dhaka by the researcher and in consultation with users of
these transport modes. For private transport such as car, motorcycle and bicycle, on-time is
considered as the opportunity to start a journey upon deciding to do so. The LOS threshold
values recommended by TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003) for on-time
reliability performance measure are presented in Table 6.13.
Table 6.13: Level of service guideline for reliability (on-time performance)
LOS On-time percentage
A 97.5-100%
B 95.0-97.4%
C 90.0-94.9%
D 85.0-89.9%
E 80.0-84.9%
F <80%
Source: TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003)
On-time percentage values for buses and human haulers were, as aforementioned, derived
based on the researcher’s previous experience of using these vehicles on some of the routes
that had headways greater than 10 minutes. These included Mirpur 12 to Gulistan, Nabinagar
to Motijheel and Motijheel to Gazipur. Route based headway information was derived from STP
(2005a). A phone survey was also conducted with 20 regular users who make at least four
round trips within these routes every week. Among them, eight users were from Mirpur 12 to
Gulistan route, six users were from Nabinagar to Motijheel route and six users from Motijheel
to Gazipur route. On-time percentage values for non-fixed route services and private vehicles
were derived from consultation with the same users who were previously interviewed for
receiving access time information for the modes. The results are presented in Table 6.14.
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Table 6.14: Level of service for reliability in Dhaka
Mode type On-time percentage LOS
Bus <80% F
Human hauler <80% F
Auto rickshaw 80.0-84.9% E
Taxi <80% F
NMPT 97.5-100% A
Car 97.5-100% A
Motorcycle 97.5-100% A
Bicycle 97.5-100% A
Source: Derived by author after literature analysis, survey data analyses and Table 6.13
The tabular analysis shows that among public transport options, NMPT has very reliable and
timely service quality with LOS A. This is much higher compared to all other available public
transport modes. The nearest public transport LOS is that for auto rickshaw (LOS E), which
represents considerably lower reliability. The analysis also shows that most of the fixed route
services such as buses and human haulers are consistently late along multiple points along a
single route and at multiple routes. Private vehicles had similar reliability LOS to that of NMPT
due to their ownership by the user. Figure 6.10 provide a combined picture of the LOS status
found for different modes at the route scale.
Figure 6.10: Route based level of service for NMPT and other available modes
Source: Derived by author after Table 6.11 to 6.14
F
E
D
C
B
A
F E D C B A
Reliability
Ho
urs
of
serv
ice
Bus Human Hauler
Car
Motor cycle
NMPT
Taxi Auto
rickshaw
Bicycle
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Figure 6.10 reveals that for a route segment or multiple locations along a route, car, motorcycle
and bicycle have better accessibility and reliability compared to other modes. NMPT was found
to be the most accessible and reliable among the public transport modes, very close to private
transport modes. Among the other non-fixed route transport services, auto rickshaw and taxi
had similar accessibility but the former was found to have greater reliability. Both bus and
human hauler were found to have very low overall LOS at the route level, indicating their poor
quality of service and availability at multi-points of a journey path. An interesting insight from
route level analyses is that greater quality of service differences are observed between NMPT
and other public transport modes at this scale compared to the stop scale.
System level analysis
Service coverage
Service coverage is the measure of the area, covered by transit services. According to TCQSM
2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al.,2003), service coverage LOS is measured by estimating
percentage of transit supportive area covered by public transport service. Note service coverage
is the area within 0.4 km of local bus service and a transit supportive area is one that has
sufficient population and/ or employment density to require service at least once per hour.
2
Theoretically, such an approach to service coverage estimation is based on the assumption that
comprehensive data on households and jobs of a traffic analysis zone (TAZ) level is available to
delineate transit supportive area for that TAZ. It is also assumed that scaled TAZ maps would be
available for estimation of an analysis area. It is further assumed that fixed public transport
stops are available for each locality along a route. In practice, data was inaccessible at TAZ level
and there are very few fixed stops for public transport services in any locality in Dhaka. Most
stops are undesignated or randomly chosen by services for passenger boarding or alighting.
Therefore this approach to LOS measurement was not possible.
A qualitative approach was then used to obtain an idea of the service coverage situation for
different modes. The service coverage for analysis purposes is defined as the spatial extent of a
city area that is possible to be accessed by an individual mode. Service coverage LOS for all
modes is thus designated. The setting up of LOS categorisation as such is descriptive in nature
and derived based on local experience of the researcher as both a transport professional and
user of the transport services of Dhaka. The hierarchy of LOS is structured with the aim of
designating highest service coverage mode with LOS A and sequentially descending to LOS F for
modes that have no or negligible coverage. Table 6.15 presents the threshold for service
coverage LOS.
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Table 6.15: Level of service guideline for service coverage
LOS Service coverage (spatial extent of accessibility by mode)
A All city parts including narrow streets
B All city parts excluding narrow streets
C Major city parts excluding major arterials or narrow streets
D Limited city routes excluding major arterials or narrow streets
E Special areas only
F No or negligible service coverage
Source: Derived by author after local experience and understanding of transport system
Designation of service coverage for each mode was made based on judgement of the
researcher and with reference to a number of aspects. The transport documents and literature
reviewed in previous chapters were considered. The perception of transport users previously
interviewed for stop level and route level regrading degree of accessibility of different modes
operating in Dhaka were taken into consideration. The judgement also relied on field survey of
in-practice accessibility of different modes as observed by the researcher. The results are
presented in Table 6.16.
Table 6.16: Level of service for service coverage in Dhaka
Mode type Service coverage LOS
Bus Limited city parts excluding major arterials or narrow streets D
Human hauler Limited city parts excluding major arterials or narrow streets D
Auto rickshaw All city parts excluding narrow streets B
Taxi All city parts excluding narrow streets B
NMPT Major city parts excluding major arterials or narrow streets C
Car All city parts excluding narrow streets B
Motorcycle All city parts including narrow streets A
Bicycle All city parts including narrow streets A
Source: Derived by author after literature analysis, survey data analyses and Table 6.15
The tabular analysis revealed that among public transport modes, non-fixed route services such
as auto rickshaw and taxi are most accessible to different city parts (LOS B). They are
inaccessible to very narrow streets such in Old Dhaka, due to their dimensions. NMPT has
access to major parts of the city including to narrow streets and alleys. However, due to the
restrictions imposed on the mode at all major arterials and some major streets, its spatial extent
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of coverage has become limited (LOS C). Fixed route services such as bus and human hauler
have the most limited service coverage of all (LOS D). The majority of bus routes are north-
south oriented and most of the human hauler services are east-west oriented (STP, 2005a).
They are also inaccessible to the local streets and narrow network parts. Among private vehicle
types, motorcycles and bicycles have accessibility everywhere and have best coverage of all
modes (LOS A). Cars are accessible to most city parts, but due to vehicle size are inaccessible to
very narrow streets.
Safety and security
Safety reflects personal security on-board a public transport at a stop and during the portion of
the trip. It also reflects personal irritants such as encountering unruly passengers on board on a
regular basis or having to listen to someone else’s radio. No LOS guideline is mentioned for this
service measure. So an ordinal structure of LOS measures was developed to express passenger
on-board safety and the security situation. The structure of the LOS guideline is descriptive in
nature. LOS A indicates a high degree of safety and security on-board transport and sequentially
descends to LOS F for negligible or no safety situation. Table 6.17 presents the threshold for
safety LOS.
Table 6.17: Level of service guideline for safety and security
LOS Safety and security on-board Comment
A Very high level of safety Passengers are completely unworried of any potential
crime or annoyance while travelling
B High level of safety Passengers are unworried of any potential crime or
annoyance; rare incidences possible
C Moderate level of safety Passengers have reasonable concerned on potential
crime or annoyance; incidence sometimes occur
D Low level of safety Passengers often encounter crime or irritation;
alternative choice should be considered
E Very low level of safety Crime or irritations are regular occurrence; alternative
choice recommended
F Negligible or no safety Travel condition is highly risky; alternative choice is
strongly recommended
Source: Derived by author after local experience and understanding of Dhaka’s transport system
Designation of safety and security LOS for each mode was made on the judgement of the
researcher and with reference to a number of aspects. The transport documents and literature
reviewed in previous chapters were considered. The perceptions of transport users previously
interviewed for stop level and route level information were taken into consideration. The
judgement also relied on field survey of different by the researcher to have an understanding of
different on-board safety situations. The results are presented in Table 6.18.
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Table 6.18: Level of service for safety and security in Dhaka
Mode type Safety and security LOS
Bus Very low level of safety E
Human hauler Low level of safety D
Auto rickshaw Moderate level of safety C
Taxi High level of safety B
NMPT High level of safety B
Car Very high level of safety A
Motorcycle Very high level of safety A
Bicycle Very high level of safety A
Source: Derived by author after literature analysis, survey data analyses and Table 6.17
The table shows that fixed route transit services are most unsafe among all public transport
modes. NMPT and taxi are found to be safer and secured due to the infrequent occurrence of
crime when compared to other modes. The chances of irritation by other passengers are also
negligible for these modes since they are mostly used on an individual basis, unlike bus, human
hauler or sometimes auto-rickshaw. Private vehicles, due to their individualised nature, are
most highly rated for safety. Figure 6.11 provides a combined picture of the LOS status found
for different modes at system level.
Figure6.11: System based comparative level of service for NMPT and other available modes
Source: Derived by author after Table 6.15 to 6.18
F
E
D
C
B
A
F E D C B A
Safety and security
Se
rvic
e c
ov
era
ge
Bus Human
Hauler
Car
Motor cycle
NMPT
Taxi Auto
rickshaw
Bicycle
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Figure 6.11 reveals that on a network level, car, motorcycle and bicycle have better coverage
and service quality compared to other modes. Taxi and NMPT were found to be most accessible
and safer among the public transport modes. Among the other non-fixed route public transport
services, auto rickshaw had similar coverage to that of a taxi or car, but the former was found to
have lesser safety and security. Both bus and human hauler were found to have relatively low
overall LOS, indicating their poor safety and coverage at different journey routes. Buses had
poorer safety conditions than the human hauler. One interesting insight from system level
analyses so far is that greater variation in quality of service is observed between modes than
stop or route scale. The other aspect is that NMPT was found to be second best among public
transport services in overall LOS, while it was found to be best in another two levels. The key
reason is its limited movement in recent times, that has made the mobility and accessibility by
this mode relatively restricted when compared to other motorised modes that have no
movement restrictions.
Travel time analysis
The passenger perception on quality of service and choice of a public transport mode on a
regular basis at the system level is often influenced by two other factors in addition to those
discussed; total travel time and associated cost. Particularly, door-to-door travel time is crucial
in evaluating mode specific service quality in multimodal travel environments such as Dhaka.
TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003) suggested that to analyse the travel time,
quality of service for public transport modes, and for comparison with other modes, it is
important to evaluate how much longer a trip would take by public transport compared to by
automobile. The LOS measure recommended is the door- to- door difference between
automobile and public transport travel times, including walking, waiting, and transfer times (if
applicable) for comparative modes. Note that the reason for using the car as a reference
transport in this research is different from that of TCQSM 2003. The TCQSM uses auto (car) as it
the most dominant non-transit mode in North America. In Dhaka, though it is not the most
ubiquitous mode, it is most desirable with reference to other quality of service measures. It is
therefore reasonable to compare and analyse the travel time difference with auto as the
reference mode.
Based on TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003), for fixed route public transport
services such as bus and human hauler, the door to door travel time estimation included walk
time from one’s origin to transit stop, wait time, on-board travel time and walk time from
transit to one’s destination. For non-fixed route public transport services such as NMPT, auto
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rickshaw and taxi, the door-to-door travel time includes access time (walk and wait time) to
these modes and on-board travel time. For private vehicles, the door-to-door travel time
includes on-board travel time. Park time and walk time to destination was not considered since
parking is largely unrestricted in Dhaka and in most cases it is possible to park a vehicle in front
of a destination, on the street for the length of the day. The LOS threshold values
recommended by TCQSM 2003 for door-to-door travel time difference measures are presented
in Table 6.19.
Table 6.19: Level of service guideline for travel time difference of a mode in comparison to auto
LOS Travel time difference
(min) Comment
A <=0 Faster by a mode than by auto
B 1-15 About as fast by a mode as by auto
C 16-30 Tolerable for choice riders
D 31-45 Round-trip at least one hour longer by the comparing mode
E 46-60 Tedious for all non-auto riders
F >60 Unacceptable to most riders
Source: TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003)
In deriving values for fixed route services, walk was considered the most common auxiliary
mode used to reach bus stops as recommended by TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al.,
2003) and revealed from Uddin, Amin and Rahman (2003) study on the Dhaka bus service
system. The walk time is assumed to be 800m or 10 minutes walking time at a walking speed of
5km/h. This is a deviation from the manual guideline of 400m as walking distance to standard
stops, but in line with the walking distance recommended for premium stops such as an express
bus stop. Local experience of the researcher suggests that due to scarce, unplanned locations of
designated public transport stops, this can be considered the acceptable walk distance/time to
reach a bus boarding location. Study by Uddin et al. (2003) also found 10-20 minutes to be the
most common walk time range for bus users to reach a bus stop in Dhaka. Waiting times for bus
and human haulers are assumed as a minimum of 10 minutes and 11 minutes respectively,
based on Alam (2011) and a headway survey of STP (2005a).Onboard travel time is estimated
based on the average operating journey speed of these vehicles; 24 km/h, as found in STP
(2005c).For non-fixed route public transports such as NMPT, auto rickshaw and taxi, the mid
value of the access time range used for service frequency analysis was adopted. On board travel
time is estimated based on the average operating journey speed of these vehicles - 12km/h for
NMPT, 24 km/h for auto-rickshaw and taxi as found in STP (2005c).For private transport modes,
the on-board travel time was based on an average operating journey speed of these vehicles -
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24 km/h for car, 23 km/h for motorcycle (STP, 2005c) and 12 km/h for bicycle (Field survey,
2009).The trip length considered for comparison was 3 km, most common travel distance for
NMPT. The results are presented in Table 6.20.Travel time calculations are in Appendix C.7.
Table 6.20: Level of service for travel time difference between auto car and other modes in Dhaka
for a 3 km trip length
Mode type Total travel time (min) Travel time difference (min) LOS
Car 8
Bus 37.5 29.5 C
Human hauler 38.5 30.5 D
Auto rickshaw 22.5 14.5 B
Taxi 32.5 24.5 B
NMPT 22.5 14.5 B
Motorcycle 8.5 0.5 A
Bicycle 15 7 B
Source: Derived by author after analyses and Table 6.19
The tabular analysis revealed that among public transport modes, maximum door-to-door
travel time is required if bus and human hauler are used for travel. For these modes, around
one hour longer is required than for car on a round trip, while around 36 minutes more is
required than NMPT for a round trip. Auto rickshaw and NMPT require the least time among
public transports (LOS B) and are comparable to auto. Taxis are much slower than auto, NMPT
and auto rickshaw (25 min and 10 min respectively). Among private transport, motorcycles are
as fast as auto cars (LOS A).The trend of door-to door-travel time of NMPT in comparison to
other public transport modes at the mostly observed trip length spectrum of NMPT are
presented in (Figure 6.12).
Figure 6.12: Comparative total journey time by travel distance of modes
Source: Derived by author after STP (2005a; 2005b)
0
10
20
30
40
50
1 2 3 4 5
Jou
rne
y t
ime
(m
inu
tes)
Trip length (km)
Bus
Human hauler
Auto-rickshaw
Taxi
NMPT
Car
Motorcycle
Bicycle
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The figure reveals similar door-to-door journey time trends to that of Table 6.20, that is, car and
motorcycle being faster and bus and human hauler being the slowest. NMPT are the fastest of
all public transport modes for distances of up to 3 km, and beyond that distance they were
observed to be second fastest to auto-rickshaw.
.
Travel cost analysis
An associated important attribute for mode choice is out-of-pocket user cost when travel time
is comparable or marginal in variation and other service measures are similar. The relationship
of mode specific running cost to trip length is analysed to provide a deeper understanding on
this measure for different modes. The results are presented in Figure 6.13 and 6.14.
Figure 6.13: Unit travel (user) cost of different modes
Source: Derived by author after STP (2005a; 2005b) ; Note: Data not available for bicycle
Figure 6.14: Comparative user out of pocket trip cost by travel distance of different modes
Source: Derived by author after STP (2005a; 2005b); Note: Data not available for bicycle
0.00
3.00
6.00
9.00
12.00
Tra
ve
l c
ost
(T
k/k
m)
Mode
<=3km
> 3 km, <=6km
>6km
0
20
40
60
1 2 3 4 5
To
tal
tra
ve
l co
st (
Tk
)
Trip length (km)
Bus Human hauler Auto-rickshaw Taxi
NMPT Private car Motorcycle
AUD 0.0
AUD 0.06
AUD 0.12
AUD 0.18
AUD 0.24
AUD 0.0
AUD 0.41
AUD 0.82
AUD 1.24
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The figures show that among public transport modes, bus and human hauler are the cheapest
travel while taxi is most expensive. NMPT is cheaper than both auto rickshaw and taxi at the trip
lengths it usually serves. Private car is the most expensive mode. It is also revealed that for the
commonly served trip length of NMPT, 3 km, the mode is around 66 percent cheaper than taxi
and 50 percent cheaper than auto-rickshaw, while being three times the cost of using a bus or
human hauler. Another interesting finding is that at distances of over 4 km, NMPT is cheaper
than motorcycle (see Appendix C.8 for calculation details). A summary of the operating
performance of NMPT and other modes, according to the dominant trip length they serve, is
presented in Table 6.21.
Table 6.21: Operational performance of different modes in Dhaka based on level of service
Travel
Mode
General
Trip
length*
Performance measures and status
Stop scale Route scale System scale
Frequency Passenger
loads
Schedule Reliability Service
coverag
e
Safety &
Security
Journey
time**
Private
transport
Car 8.5 A B A A B A Reference
mode
Motor
cycle 8.5 A C A A A A A
Bicycle Data not
available A C A A A A B
Public
transport
Bus 9.5 B F C F D E C
Human
hauler 9.5 B C C F D D D
Auto
rickshaw 8.5 A C C/D E B C B
Taxi 8.5 A B C/D F B B B
NMPT 3.8 A B B A C B B
Source: Developed by author based on STP (2005a) and previous analysis of this section; shading is used for
better tabular representation of the relationship of LOS categories to performance measures and mode types
*STP 2005a
Note: Based on DITS (1994a) and STP (2005b) trip lengths of up to 3km are defined as short, trip lengths
between 3 to 5 km are defined as medium and trip lengths greater than 5 km are defined as long .
** Based on time difference to make a 3km door to door trip by other modes compared to auto car
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The performance report card and other analyses show three distinct trends for NMPT
performance compared to other available modes. NMPT has a better performance level
compared to fixed route public transport services such as bus and human hauler at all levels of
measurement. NMPT is advantageous for its on-board comfort, reliability and on-board safety
and security. It also has considerable time advantage for short-to-medium trips and is suitable
to access more local and narrow streets. The frequency and hours of service for bus and human
hauler are relatively close to that for NMPT. The key advantage of fixed route transport modes
over NMPT is their affordable fare as revealed in Figure 6.14. However, because of the general
NMPT trip length of around 3km and better door-to-door travel time by NMPT at these lengths
(LOS B compared to LOS C for bus, LOS D for human hauler), NMPT is advantageous over bus or
human hauler when making short to medium length trips.
NMPT more closely matches in its service character and operating nature to taxi and auto
rickshaw, all of which are non-fixed route, demand responsive, door-to-door public transport
modes. NMPT is comparable or better in performance levels to auto rickshaw and taxi as the
report card revealed. NMPT has higher LOS than auto rickshaw and taxi for all service measures
except service coverage, which is attributable to the restriction on recent NMPT movements.
NMPT has less overall spatial extent of coverage than taxi or auto rickshaw, but it offers
accessibility to narrow streets and alleys that is not possible by taxi or auto rickshaw. NMPT is
advantageous over taxi due to its longer hours of service and greater reliability. In the case of
frequency and door-to-door journey time, taxi and NMPT both sit at LOS B. But NMPT
frequency is on the higher end of the band while that is at the lower end of the band. Regarding
journey time, NMPT is around 10 minutes faster than taxi for a 3 km trip most commonly made
by NMPT. The NMPT fare is also substantially lower than that of a taxi as revealed by analysis of
Figure 6.13 and 6.14.
NMPT is advantageous over auto rickshaw on the grounds of better service hours and reliability.
The on-board comfort and safety of auto rickshaw are lower than that of NMPT. With reference
to service frequency, NMPT and auto rickshaw sit within the same LOS class, LOS B. NMPT
however sits on the higher end of the service frequency band while that is at moderate band for
auto rickshaw. NMPT is also considerably cheaper than auto rickshaw based on analysis of
Figure 6.13 and 6.14. Another important aspect to note is that, even with proximity in service
frequency of NMPT to that of taxi or auto rickshaw, the former is advantageous for making
short-to-medium distance trips. This is because of the reluctance of taxi or auto rickshaw drivers
to serve short or medium trip lengths, as found by dominant trip length statistics in Table 6.21.
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NMPT has lower overall performance compared to private transport such as car, motorcycle
and bicycle. NMPT are similar in service measures such as frequency and better in on board
comfort and reliability to that of private modes such as motor cycle or bicycle. But NMPT are
disadvantageous in schedule, service coverage and door-to-door travel time. Note that this is
not of particular concern since NMPT by service type is a public transport mode and judgement
of its performance is rational with respect to other available public transport modes. The
comparison with private transport modes has been made to provide a complete picture of the
transport system of Dhaka.
6.7 Summary
This chapter presented detailed analysis of literature reviewed in Chapter 4, related to
mulltisectoral role attributes of NMPT. The role analysis was conducted with reference to key
issues that were previously reviewed including social, economic, employment, environmental
and transport aspects. Social analyses revealed that for major short-to-medium trip makers e.g.
females, students and elderly, NMPT trip share has increased. The analyses also revealed that
NMPT has a greater share among the low and middle income population. On a macro-economic
perspective, the gross revenue from NMPT was found to increase in last two decades. On a
micro-economic perspective, the analyses suggested higher revenue of the NMPT employees
compared to National GDP and some key formal and informal sector professions. Employment
sector analyses showed that the share of NMPT industry jobs increased significantly in the last
two decades. Environmental sector analyses revealed that motorised modes are contributing to
all transport-sourced pollution in Dhaka while catering almost equal trip share to that of NMPT.
The transport role analyses revealed that NMPT mode has an annual growth rate of 20 percent
in the last five years, highest among all available modes and currently they share around half of
all non-walk trips in Dhaka. NMPT were found to take less road space per passenger compared
to auto-rickshaw, taxi or car but more space than a bus or human hauler. NMPTs were found to
offer better accessibility and service quality compared to bus at different levels of network, stop
level, route level and system level. Similar or better service performance of NMPT was found at
all three system elements to auto-rickshaw and taxi, except for service coverage. NMPT also
showed better performance levels in quality-of-service measures to private vehicles than other
public or paratransit modes. The understanding gleaned from this chapter will provide insight
into the role contribution or otherwise of NMPT in Dhaka. The next chapter presents the
viewpoint of key NMPT stakeholders on the NMPT role and the desired future characteristics of
a future Dhaka transport system.
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7CHAPTER 7: ANALYSIS OF NMPT INTEGRATION AND RESTRICTION IN
DHAKA
7.1 Introduction
Chapters 3 to 5 presented a comprehensive review of literature relevant to non-motorised
public transport (NMPT) engagement, operation and management in Dhaka transport system.
Chapter 6 analysed the literature reviewed in relation to mulltisectoral role of NMPT in Dhaka.
This chapter analyses the literature reviewed regarding NMPT policy planning and integration
initiatives in Dhaka.
The discussion of this chapter is divided into two major sections. Section 7.2 analyses the NMPT
integration initiatives proposed and practised so far in Dhaka to provide better insights on this
issue. Section 7.3 analyses the restriction initiatives undertaken so far to control and manage
NMPT.
7.2 Analysing NMPT integration initiatives
The literature review in Chapter 4 suggested that few planning and integration proposals have
been made in the past to integrate NMPT within the transport system, according to individual
researchers and government. The majority of these have concentrated on developing strategic
policies and guidelines for NMPT operational improvement. Individual research studies include
Gallagher (1992), Bari and Efroymson (2005a), Wippwerman and Sowula (2007) and Shima
(2009). The collaborative initiatives include transport sector detail studies such as DITS (1994b)
and STP (2005b).
Four major studies focused on developing some operational methods for the planning of NMPT.
Among them, two are at an individual level and two are at government level. The individual
level study proposals were put forwards by Quium (1994) and Hodgkinson and Walton-Ellery
(2008). The collaborative proposal at a government level were provided by Special Committee
on Traffic Problems of Dhaka (1985) and DUTP (1996b) consultants. The proposal of the Special
Committee as well as Quium, recommended the planning approach restrict NMPT to certain
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zones and zone-wise colour codes to control their movement and number, thereby reducing
congestion. This initiative was previously attempted in Indonesia (Jakarta and Bandung), but
was unsuccessful (DITS, 1994a). Based on the knowledge of the NMPT industry of Dhaka, a
more detailed analysis of the approach found a number of concerns towards maintaining
operational balance of this mode compared to other vehicles.
• Firstly, enforcement would be extremely difficult. Although NMPT would be
painted a distinctive colour, it would be easy for outside NMPTs, from
neighbouring urban centres such as Tongi or Gazipur, to be brought into the city
and painted to adhere to the colour requirement. Hence the zoning would not
greatly affect overall NMPT fleet size.
• Secondly, wherever the zone boundaries were drawn, there would always be the
problem of cross-boundary trips being impeded. In particular, since 17 percent of
NMPT trips are medium distance (3-5 km) (DITS, 1994a) and 2 percent are long (>
5km), it would cause inconvenience and expense to NMPT passengers.
• Thirdly, general structure and organisation of NMPT in Dhaka is that the NMPTs
are garaged overnight in outlying areas where more vacant land is available (e.g.
Agargaon, Mohakhali, Jatrabari) and brought down into different parts by drivers
for service. Artificial zone boundaries would interfere with this operating pattern
and would impose extra cost on the NMPT sector (e.g. garaging, and travel to work
by the drivers).
The approach of DUTP (1996a) was design measure oriented. The suggestions were towards
suitable infrastructure design for NMPT operation and management as the literature review
found. Analysis of the document suggested that it did provide some area-specific planning
guidelines with reference to flow management of NMPT, at intersection points. The document
can be used as a good reference for infrastructure designs for the mode.
The approach of Hodgkinson and Walton-Ellery (2008) was on prioritisation on NMPT in certain
areas of the city and controlling or closing them for motorised transport (MT). This can be
considered a more flexible approach compared to the zoning control system. In depth analysis
of this approach revealed some concerns. The prioritisation of NMPTs and closing of MTs was
not made based on any common underlying principle or scientific methodology. The selection
rationale of the priority measures in the three enclaves discussed (segments in Motijheel,
Gulshan and south of Hotel Sonargaon) was based on general perception of the areas. The
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functional attributes of the road types and land use character was not analysed. The aspects of
general travel demand such as traffic flow composition was also not considered. The possibility
is that the selection of priorities so derived might be inapplicable in practice or unsuitable to
follow as guiding principles.
7.3 Analysing NMPT restriction initiatives
The literature review in Chapter 5 suggested that DCC, DMP and other relevant transport
authorities of Dhaka have previously attempted to control NMPT operation, primarily with
tools of licensing control and operational restriction. A more detailed analysis of these
measures and their implication is discussed below.
7.3.1 Analysing Licensing control initiative
It was found in Chapter 5 that the official ceiling of NMPT in Dhaka is fixed at 86,000 since 1986,
with the objective of controlling its operation. But the number of NMPT in operation has grown.
Figure 7.1 presents the comparative condition of total NMPT operating in Dhaka to that of
unlicensed NMPTs.
Figure 7.1: Comparative status of total NMPT to unlicensed NMPTs in operation
Source: Derived by author after Gallagher (1992), DITS (1994a), DUTP (1996a), STP (2005b) and Alam
(2011)
The figure suggests that the share of unlicensed NMPT operation has grown in proportion to
the rapid increase of total NMPTs. The growth shows a steep incline because the ceiling has
0
200000
400000
600000
800000
1000000
1200000
1990 1995 2000 2005 2011
NM
PT
nu
mb
er
Year
Total
Unlicensed42.67%
Unlicensed
NMPT share
65.6%
71.33%
82.8%
92.18%
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remained fixed but in the 25 years since the restriction, NMPT has kept growing. Currently 92
percent of NMPTs operating in Dhaka are unlicensed, or a total of around one million vehicles.
7.3.2 Analysing physical restriction initiative
The literature review of Chapter 5 also found that physical restriction was imposed as another
measure to control NMPT operation and its number. The principle for imposing restriction was
that it would be applied to major arterials of the city. A summary of the roads delimited to
NMPT or proposed for the same are presented in Table 7.1 to 7.4. The tables are split according
to the implementation timeline of NMPT restrictions. The summary tables include the corridor
details, associated with the status of NMPT restriction, provision for alternative arrangements
and priority measures for other available modes in those corridors.
Table 7.1: Summary of roads made NMPT free in Dhaka before 2002
Serial
no.
DUTP
Corridor
no.
Name Status of
NMPT
restriction
Alt.
route for
NMPT
Alt. NMPT
priority
measure
Current mode
priority on
NMPT free
corridors
Before 2002
1 3 Airport Road (P.G Hospital to
Cantonment 3rd
Gate)
NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
2 5 Tongi Diversion Road (Mohakhali
to Moghbazar)
NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
3 N/A Hare Road (Hotel Sheraton to
previously denoted Vice-
President’s House)
NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Bus and human
hauler not
allowed
4 N/A Abdul Gani Road/Secretariat
Road (Southside of Secretariat
Building)
NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
5 N/A Crescent Lake Road (North side
of Parliament Building)
NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
6 N/A Bijoy Sarani NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
Source: Derived by author after DITS (1994a), STP (2005a) and Khan (2011)
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Table 7.2: Summary of roads made NMPT free in Dhaka under DUTP Phase II, between 2002 and
2010
Serial
no.
DUTP
Corridor
no.
Name Status of
NMPT
restriction
Alt.
route for
NMPT
Alt. NMPT
priority
measure
Current mode
priority on
NMPT free
corridors
2002 to 2010
(DUTP Phase II directive)
7 1,2 Mirpur Road (Gabtoli to New
Market)
NMPT
Free
Provided Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
8 1 Panthapath (Russel Square to
Sonargaon Hotel)
NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
9 5 Mohakhali to Kakarial Mosque NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
10 8 Shabagh to High Court crossing NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Bus and human
hauler not
allowed
11 8 Science lab to Bata Signal NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
12 5,8,10 Moghbazar to High Court
Crossing via Kakarail Mosque
crossing
NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
13 10 Phoneix Road NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
14 10 Ittefaq crossing to Bangabhaban NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
15 10 Golapshah Mazar to High Court
via Bangabazar crossing
NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
16 11 Kamal Ataturk Avenue NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
17 Added
link
Manik Mia Avenue NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
18 Added
link
Bailey Road to Minto Road NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Bus and human
hauler not
allowed
19 Added
link
Sonargaon Hotel to Moghbazar
crossing
NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
Source: Derived by author after DITS (1994a), STP (2005a) and Khan (2011)
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Table 7.3: Summary of roads made NMPT free in Dhaka in 2011 under DUTP Phase II, and
future direction
Serial
no.
DUTP
Corridor
no.
Name Status of
NMPT
restriction
Alt.
route for
NMPT
Alt. NMPT
priority
measure
Current mode
priority on
NMPT free
corridors
In 2011
(DUTP Phase II directive)
20
4
Khamarbari Road
NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
21 5,10 Rajmoni Cinema Hall to
Rajashaya Bhaban
NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
22 7 Malibagh to Mouchak NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
23 7 Moghbazar to Bangla Motor NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
24 7 Moghbazar to Kamlapur NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
25 8 Doel Chattar to High Court NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
26 8 Matshya Bhaban to Shilpakala
Academy
NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
27 Added
link
Nilkhet to New Market NMPT
Free
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
28 Remaining of the segments
under the 11identified corridors
to be
made
NMPT free
in future
Not
provided
Not
available
Equal priority for
all MT
Source: Derived by author after DITS (1994a), STP (2005a) and Khan (2011)
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Table 7.4: Summary of roads proposed to be made NMPT free in Dhaka in future
Serial
no.
DUTP
Corridor
no.
Name Status of
NMPT
restriction
Alt.
route for
NMPT
Alt. NMPT
priority
measure
Current mode
priority on
NMPT free
corridors
DAP Proposals
29
N/A Biswa Road to Syadabad Proposed
to make
NMPT
Free
No
relevant
proposal
No
relevant
proposal
No relevant
proposal
30 N/A Kakrail to Rajarbag Police
Hospital
Proposed
to make
NMPT
Free
No
relevant
proposal
No
relevant
proposal
No relevant
proposal
31 N/A Dainik Bangla Crossing to
Syadabad
Proposed
to make
NMPT
Free
No
relevant
proposal
No
relevant
proposal
No relevant
proposal
Source: Derived by author after DITS (1994a), STP (2005a) and Khan (2011)
Analysing characteristics of pre-2002 NMPT restrictions
Analysing the pre 2002 physical restriction initiative (Table 7.1), the table shows that a total of
six corridors were made NMPT free. Among them, two were collector roads, namely Hare Road
and Secretariat Road. These two roads and Crescent Lake road were restricted to NMPT
because they are considered to be roads for very important persons (V.I.P.) and labelled
accordingly as V.I.P. roads. Hare Road is adjacent to the Government’s primary guest house for
State level foreign delegates, Crescent Lake Road is adjacent to the Prime Minister’s official
residence and Secretariat Road is adjacent to the National Secretariat of Bangladesh.
The tabular analysis also revealed that no alternative route provision was planned for NMPT
when these roads were restricted to them. Any NMPT priority measures were not undertaken
elsewhere to facilitate their operation. The prescribed guideline suggests planned provision of
route alternatives for each NMPT route diversion action (DUTP, 1996a) Among the six corridors,
five have no particular priority for any MT. Hare Road is restricted to bus and human haulers.
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Analysing characteristics and implication of post-2002 NMPT restrictions
Key Characteristics
Analysing the post 2002 scenario, the Tables 7.2 and 7.3 showed that a number of corridors
among the 11 selected corridors for NMPT removal have considerable non-arterial portions. For
example, most of Corridor 8 has links that function as minor distributor and collector roads for
local access. The road sections between Science Lab and Bata Signal, between Shabagh and
High Court crossing, and between High Court crossing and Doel Chattar(Circle) are similar.
Corridor 10 has a road section between Golapshah Mazar and High Court via Bangabazar
Crossing with similar character.
Another interesting finding from the two tables is that four additional links to those indicated in
the DCC restriction plan were made NMPT free. Among them, two links were local in service
character such as Bailey Road to Minto Road and Nilkhet to New Market. As a result of NMPT
removal from minor distributors and collector roads, there has been continuation of public
protest as reported by different national and international dailies (Lawson, 2002) (Rahman,
2004) (Melden, 2005) (Islam, 2007) (Bari, 2008) (Hummel, 2009) (Khan, 2011). This has delayed
the implementation duration, initially set to be completed by 2005.
A third aspect of the NMPT restrictions approach is that except on Corridor 2, alternative route
provision has not been planned and provided for in other corridors where NMPT has been
removed. No NMPT priority measures were undertaken elsewhere on the network to facilitate
their operation. The original guideline in this regard as prescribed by DUTP (1996a) suggested
for planned provision of route alternatives for each NMPT route diversion action. The guideline
also suggests that an alternative route for NMPT needs to be provided so that they are not
more than 30 percent in distance from the original route from which they are to be diverted.
The directness of the alternative route planned for Corridor 2 by DCC was examined to compare
its condition with regard to this guideline. The detailed procedure in achieving the task is
discussed below.
Directness test for corridor 2 alternative NMPT route
Rationale for selecting analysis platform
The analysis was conducted using the graphical parameter based analytical tools available in the
transport planning software, VISUM. The directness was measured using the tool ‘shortest path’
‘Shortest path’ assessed the comparative shortest distance for a certain NMPT trip that uses
corridor 2 under the pre-NMPT ban, to that for the same trip, but with an alternative NMPT
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route provided by DCC after the restriction was imposed. The VISUM graphical parameter tool
has the capability to demonstrate the directness of a route under free-flow condition and
loaded condition (PTV Vision, 2010). This enables a choice of network environment as required
by the user. The strengths of these tools in demonstrating the desired need of the task had led
to the selection of this software platform.
Spatial extent of the test network
STP (2005c) prepared a transport network model for Dhaka. However, due to the intellectual
property (IP) being owned by the custodian of the project, the base model could not be
collected. The test network for the analysis was therefore coded at 1:1 scale. The spatial extent
of coded network includes a section of Corridor 2 that has the alternative NMPT route (Mirpur
Road between Manik Mia Avenue intersection and Azimpur Road intersection), the alternate
NMPT route (Mirpur side road assigned to NMPT between Dhanmond Road 1 and New Market
Green Market Road) and adjacent major neighbourhoods such as Dhanmond, Zigatola to the
west; Kalabagan, Hatirpool, Science Laboratory to the east; Kalabagan, Pantha Path to the
north; and New Market, Azimpur, Palashi to the south.
Traffic environment of the test network
The next task was to load the network with a trip matrix, but due to data unavailability from the
project custodians it was not possible to obtain a mode-specific trip matrix from the STP model
to load the test network. Moreover, the matrix would not have been very useful since STP has
not considered NMPT mode in any stage of its modelling process. The other possible option
would have been to develop a mode split model and generate the trip origin-destination (O-D)
matrix for different modes based on STP trip generation data. The household interview data
unavailability also hindered that attempt. The primary data collection to generate O-D trip data
would have been a highly time consuming process and was not considered, since this analysis is
a small part of the whole research outcome rather than the focus.
The author then adopted the alternative option, analysing the route directness under a free
flow network i.e. running the tests with a link speed set at 12 km/hour, the usual free flow
travel speed of NMPT. This condition was considered acceptable to satisfy examination of the
principle goal of the analysis, which was to observe the directness of NMPT with alternative
route options, whether in underloaded or unloaded traffic condition. Directness output
(primary measure-distance) also bears no relation to network loading status.
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Directness analysis
For directness comparison, the origin and destination of the trip was set as Dhanmondi Road
12/A, Dhanmondi (west of corridor 2) and BUET, Palashi (east of corridor 2) respectively. These
two points were chosen for analysis as they involve the crossing of Corridor 2; usually uses the
alternative NMPT route, the side road of Mirpur Road under current NMPT restrictions on
Mirpur main corridor and is the shortest distance path for the trip. The shortest path route
choice for the trip is shown in Figure 7.2 and 7.3 and results of the analysis are presented in
Table 7.5.
Figure 7.2:Shortest path for NMPT with no NMPT restriction on Corridor 2 (Mirpur Corridor)
Legend
O-D Point
Shortest Path
Link
Zone
Territory Boundary
Connector
Rickshaw Free Link
Node
Limited access
for Rickshaw
Dhanmondi
Road 12/A
BUET,
Palashi
Mirpur Road
(Corridor 2)
Scale- 1:1
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Figure 7.3: Shortest path for NMPT with alternative route after NMPT restriction on Corridor 2
(Mirpur Road)
Table 7.5: Comparative directness (distance) of the NMPT route
NMPT treatment
corridor Trip path Trip points
Shortest
travel
distance
Change
Corridor 2 (Mirpur
Road)
Dhanmondi Internal
Roads- Mirpur Road-
Azimpur Road –Abdul
Gani Road
Dhanmondi Road
12/A to BUET
,Palashi
5.275
Alternative NMPT route
(Mirpur side Road)
Dhanmondi Internal
Roads- Mirpur Side Road-
New Market Green
Market Road-Pilkhana
Road -Azimpur Road –
Abdul Gani Road
Dhanmondi Road
12/A to BUET
,Palashi
7.353 +39%
Source: Derived by author after shortest path analysis
Legend
O-D Point
Shortest Path
Link
Zone
Territory Boundary
Connector
Rickshaw
Free Link
Node
Limited access
for Rickshaw
Alternative
route (Mirpur side road
& New Market green
market road) planned for
NMPT to avoid Mirpur
Road (Corridor 2)
Dhanmondi
Road 12/A
BUET,
Palashi
Mirpur Road
(Corridor 2)
Scale- 1:1
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The results suggest that under the alternative route provided for Corridor 2, an additional 2.78
km of travel was required to traverse the system for the same trip end. This is an increase in
distance of 39 percent for NMPT trips compared to the original route for the trip that was made
using Corridor 2 before the NMPT restriction was imposed. This revealed what is considered to
be non-compliance with the prescribed guideline for NMPT alternative route provision. It is
worth mentioning that the free flow travel time under the alternative shortest path was found
to be around 44min, 13min more than that required by the original route.
Impact of current NMPT restriction
Based on availability of data, an in-depth analysis is made on the results achieved by the NMPT
restriction initiative. The focus of analysis is Mirpur Demonstration Corridor.
Travel time
The analysis of the travel time aspect is presented with reference to two time periods, year
2000 and year 2005. Year 2000 represents the time before the NMPT ban scenario and year
2005 represents the period after the NMPT ban scenario. The results are presented in Table 7.6
and 7.7.
Table 7.6: Comparison of travel time for motorised transport in Mirpur Corridor
Year Average Speed
(km/h)
Travel Time
(min)
Delay (s) No. of Stops Delay in Stop
(s/stop)
Gabtoli-North South Road
2005 19.9 36.1 717 20 36
2000 19.2 38.3 720 17 42
Difference +3.6% -5.7% -0.4%
Source: Derived by author after DUTP (2007)
Table 7.7: Comparison of travel time for bus in Mirpur Corridor
Bus Line Year Speed
(km/h)
Travel Time
(min)
No. of
Stops
Line 7: Gabtoli to Gulistan Via Nilkhet 2005 13.2 50.2 45.2
2000 17.0 39.8 45.2
Difference -22.4% +26.1%
Source: Derived by author after DUTP (2007)
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The analysis in Table 7.6 shows marginal improvement of speed (3.6 percent) and reduced link
travel time (5.7 percent) for the motorised mode in general. Reduction in stop delay and total
delay is also observed. Table 7.7 reveals that the average speed for buses has declined by 22.4
percent and link travel times have increased by 26.1 percent.
Road space
Comparison of traffic composition to road space occupancy was performed to understand the
road space impact of pre and post NMPT bans for the demonstration corridor. The results for
years 2000 and 2005 are presented in Table 7.8.
Table 7.8: Road space temporal occupancy impacts of DUTP on Mirpur Demonstration Road
Year Attribute Car
(percent)
Buses
(percent)
NMPT
(percent)
2000 % Space on the Main Road Link 29.9 * 5.2 43.5
2000 % Passenger on the Main Road Link 13.6 37.4 30.6
2005 % Space on the Main Road 54.2* 21.3 0.0
2005 % Passengers on the Main Road Link 12.5 79.9 0.0
Source: DUTP (2007)
* Excluding the on-street road space occupied by cars
The table shows that before NMPT restriction, NMPT were the major mode of transport and
had highest passenger as well as road share. After their restriction, major road space was
occupied by cars with a rise in their road space share by almost twice while a slight decrease in
passenger share was noted from 2000. It is also observed that bus share has considerably
improved by around four times and is carrying more than twice the previous passenger
carriage. The analyses of Bari and Efroymson (2007) suggested that, after removal of NMPT on
Corridor 2, the total traffic flow of the corridor has reduced due to a sharp rise of car
composition in the traffic that usually has lower road space occupancy per passenger than
NMPT.
Mode shift and associated aspects
The analysis of the mode shift of NMPT users after the ban on the Mirpur Demonstration
corridor, to make trips of similar need, is presented in Figure 7.4.
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Figure 7.4: Percentage shift from NMPT to different modes after NMPT restriction on Mirpur Road
Source: Derived by author after HDRC (2004)
The illustration reveals that around one-third of the passengers have stayed using their original
mode. But as reported in HDRC (2004), most of the NMPT users who have continued to use the
mode resulted in significant increase in their travel time as the journey changed via side roads
along the corridor that are more circuitous and congested. The highest share of former NMPT
users (who no longer take NMPT) shifted to auto rickshaw and taxicab (30 percent), which
charge significantly higher fares, are reluctant to take short trips, and are not readily available
thus causing higher waiting times and higher costs. Around 20 percent switched to the more
cost effective bus option. But HDRC (2004) suggested that users who shifted to buses conceded
longer waiting times compared to those who shifted to auto rickshaw or taxis. The lowest share
shifted to walking (18 percent) and had to accept an increase in travel time of around 10min/
km. HDRC (2004) suggested that this ban and shift of mode has reduced NMPT drivers’ monthly
income on relevant routes by 34 percent.
Moreover, the literature revealed that a significant portion of demand for extra buses, due to
NMPT ban, was fulfilled by minibuses. This added to gross transport emission.
7.4 Summary
This chapter presented detailed analysis of the literature reviewed in Chapters 4 and 5, related
to NMPT integration initiatives and impact of NMPT restriction initiatives undertaken by
Government. The investigation of integration initiatives analysed the reviewed issues by
classifying them into policy proposals and more operational planning proposals. Both concerns
and potential of the strategies were considered during analyses. The majority of the research
was found to concentrate on developing strategic policies and guidelines for NMPT operational
0
10
20
30
40
Walk Bus NMPT (alternate
route)
Auto rickshaw
and taxicab
Sh
are
(%
)
Shifted mode types from NMPT usage
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improvement. Some operational proposals had strong design guidelines such as DUTP 1996.
The planning proposals were found to be based on zone-centric control of NMPT. The priority
measure for NMPT operation in some selected network parts was proposed by one researcher.
The derivation of priority measures was however random in nature.
In analysing the government restrictions, they were investigated in relation to the key
restriction types that were identified and reviewed previously i.e. analysing licensing control
and physical control. The impact analysis of the former control showed a constant increase of
illegal NMPT share since its official ceiling was fixed in 1986. For the later control, the analysis
was split into two time frames- before 2002, when NMPT physical restriction was less practised
and after 2002, from when onward it was applied on a widespread scale. Pre-2002 analyses
showed mixed results with several failed attempts to restrict NMPT, but the initiatives also
managed to successfully off-limit the mode from six major roads. Post 2002 analyses showed
deviation from the prescribed guideline for NMPT restriction on some links. The analyses also
showed deviation in following the alternative NMPT route provision standards. The impact
analyses of post 2002 NMPT restriction were focused on Mirpur Demonstration Corridor due to
data constraints. The results revealed that gain was achieved in improving link speed and link
travel time of motorised modes in general. The speed and travel time by bus has however
decreased on the same corridor. The impact analyses showed that most of the road space on
the corridor was occupied by private car but bus share has also increased. Another interesting
finding of the impact analyses was that 20 percent of the former NMPT users shifted to buses,
contrary to the expectation of bulk shift to this mode which was split between NMPT, auto-
rickshaw and taxi. The understanding from this chapter would inform the suitability or
otherwise of the current practices for NMPT control. The next chapter presents the viewpoint
of key NMPT stakeholders on the NMPT role and their desired characteristics for the future
Dhaka transport system.
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8CHAPTER 8: STAKEHOLDER VIEWPOINT ON ROLE OF NMPT AND
EXPECTED QUALITIES FROM FUTURE TRANSPORT SYSTEM -
DATA COLLECTION & ANALYSIS METHOD
8.1 Introduction
The first major transport study on Dhaka, DITS (1994b) suggested considering the opinion and
preference of relevant stakeholders before planning and implementation of non-motorised
public transport (NMPT) restriction measures are undertaken. The underlying principle was to
ensure balance in access, mobility and choice for different transport markets. Chapters 3 to 7
reviewed and analysed the status of NMPT in Dhaka from the perspective of available literature.
This Chapter and Chapter 9 present the viewpoint of major NMPT stakeholders, on issues
relevant to the NMPT status in Dhaka and expected qualities from a future transport system of
Dhaka. The analyses are based on primary data.
This chapter describes the methodology for viewpoint analysis. The process is divided into three
major segments. Section 8.2 and 8.3 discusses the key steps followed in the selection of
participant and sampling procedure. Section 8.4 discusses the approach, design and method
used for data collection. Section 8.5 describes the data processing approach. The methodology
discussion concludes with a description of procedures and tools used for administering the
analysis of the data (Section 8.6). Planning of the whole process is so devised that the output
analysis provides better insights on the hypotheses.
8.2 Participants and sample size
A total of five participant groups were selected as target NMPT stakeholders for viewpoint
analysis. They were government and non-government organisations related to NMPT
planning/operation/development and transport sector management in Dhaka, NMPT
operators, NMPT drivers and NMPT users. Each of these participant groups were selected
because they have a significant stake in current operation and future management of the NMPT
industry in Dhaka. They also have important involvement in overall transport planning and
management of Dhaka. These conclusions were reached based on the literature review of
Chapter 3, experience of the researcher as a former transport professional in Dhaka, and as a
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former user of NMPT in Dhaka. A combination of purposeful and random sampling methods
was used for this quantitative study. Detailed description of the participant groups and their
sampling process is provided below.
8.2.1 Government and non-government organisations
Selection and sampling process
This category includes major public, private and donor agencies related to operation, planning
and capacity building of the NMPT industry and transport sector of Dhaka, each of which has a
separate role to play in the NMPT sector. The respondent groups were selected by judgement
sampling as a part of purposive sampling to ensure that best information on NMPT and
transport future of Dhaka is received from the most relevant organisations (Sekaran, 2003).The
government organisations (GO) included Dhaka City Corporation (DCC), Dhaka Transport
Coordination Board (DTCB), Bangladesh Road Transport authority (BRTA), Capital Development
Authority (RAJUK), and Dhaka Metropolitan Police (DMP). The selected non-government
organizations (NGO) included World Bank (WB), Asian Development Bank (ADB) Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and Working for Better Bangladesh Trust (WBB).
DCC is included because it is responsible for NMPT regulation, licensing, planning, and transport
infrastructure development for Dhaka. It is also the custodian for city transport infrastructure
development and planning. DTCB is the principle coordinator and active participant for
transport planning projects undertaken in joint collaboration between local government agency
and foreign donor agencies in Dhaka. BRTA controls the route planning and approval for all
motorised modes in Dhaka. RAJUK is the principal custodian for urban planning and land use
planning in Dhaka. DMP is the sole traffic management and enforcement organisation of Dhaka,
including control of NMPT in city streets. WB, ADB and JICA are included as participants based
on the degree of involvement at present and in recent past with financial and technical support
for transport planning of Dhaka such as DUTP 1996-2005, STP 2005 and DHUTS 2010. A
summary of the organisations, their role and justification for inclusion are presented in Table
8.1.
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Table 8.1: Characteristics of sample GO & NGO stakeholders
Organisations Role Justification for inclusion
Government
Dhaka City Corporation The city government Primary custodian for NMPT regulation,
licensing and planning
Responsible for transport planning and
infrastructure development
Dhaka Transport
Coordination Board The coordinating agency for
transport projects Active involvement in recent major
transport plans
Bangladesh Road
Transport Authority The vehicle route planning
and licensing agency Responsible for route planning and
licensing for all MTs
Future potential for inclusion in route
planning and licensing for NMPT
Capital Development
Authority The metropolitan planning
agency Responsible for urban and land use
planning, small scale transport planning
Dhaka Metropolitan
Police The metropolitan police Responsible for traffic rule enforcement on
city streets including NMPT restrictions
Non-government
World Bank International donor agency Active involved in providing financial and
technical support for transport planning
and NMPT planning of Dhaka
Asian Development Bank International donor agency
Japan International
Cooperation Agency International donor agency
Working for Better
Bangladesh Trust Transport and planning
research institute Active involvement in research, policy
debate and capacity building related to
transport sector and NMPT operation
Source: Field interview (2009) and assessment of the researcher
A total of 25 officials from these organisations were selected as sample respondents, 14 from
GO and 11 from NGO. Background research of these organisations and preliminary
correspondence revealed that at least two relevant personnel were available to be questioned
on the desired subject. Two respondents per organization, were selected as a minimum suitable
sample size, in order to maintain a balance of respondent numbers between different
organisations. Each of the organisations was formally approached and requested to nominate
at least two respondents, related to experience on NMPT planning and/or with overall
transport planning of Dhaka. Because of greater involvement in NMPT operation, more
respondents were chosen from DCC, DTCB and DMP amongst the government organisations.
Among NGOs, ADB and WB have a longer history of engagement with the Dhaka transport
sector and therefore it was preferred that more respondents be included from these
organisations. The objective was fulfilled with WB. However, due to unavailability of relevant
personnel, ADB sample w
respondents based on organisations at the time of information collection.
Figure 8.1
Figure 8.2: Distribution of respondents under non
8.2.2 NMPT operators, drivers and users
This category includes three separate stakeholder groups, more actively engaged with the
NMPT industry. They are the NMPT operators who own the vehicles, NMPT drivers and NMPT
users. For all these groups, target populations are large. There are at least 20,000 NMPT
operators, with an estimation of 50 NMPTs per owner as suggested by
(2007), 1.1million NMPT drivers
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personnel, ADB sample was limited to three. Figure 8.1 and 8.2 shows th
respondents based on organisations at the time of information collection.
.1: Distribution of respondents under government organisations
Source: Field interview (2009)
Figure 8.2: Distribution of respondents under non-government organisations
Source: Field interview (2009)
NMPT operators, drivers and users
This category includes three separate stakeholder groups, more actively engaged with the
T industry. They are the NMPT operators who own the vehicles, NMPT drivers and NMPT
users. For all these groups, target populations are large. There are at least 20,000 NMPT
operators, with an estimation of 50 NMPTs per owner as suggested by Wipperman and
, 1.1million NMPT drivers (Alam, 2011) and 12 million daily users (DHUTS, 2010)
4
33
2
2
Dhaka City Corporation
Dhaka Transport Coordination Board
Dhaka Metropolitan Police
Bangladesh Road Transport Authority
Capital Development Authority
4
3
2
2
World Bank
Asian Development Bank
Japan International Cooperation Agency
Working for Better Bangladesh Trust
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CCOOLLLLEECCTTIIOONN && AANNAALLYYSSIISS MMEETTHHOODD
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shows the distribution of
respondents based on organisations at the time of information collection.
under government organisations
government organisations
This category includes three separate stakeholder groups, more actively engaged with the
T industry. They are the NMPT operators who own the vehicles, NMPT drivers and NMPT
users. For all these groups, target populations are large. There are at least 20,000 NMPT
Wipperman and Sowula
(DHUTS, 2010).
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Since the core endeavour of this study is to have an understanding of the perception of key
NMPT stakeholders on NMPT and on future Dhaka transport system, and due to the large scale
of the target population, a standard sample size was not collected. Rather, a cross section of the
respondents at one time period was selected from each stakeholder category to gain an
understanding of their views and opinions, to classify and evaluate the discrepancies and to
integrate the alternative solutions to a single representation (Leite, 1989). More samples were
taken from NMPT drivers and users compared to NMPT operators as the former two groups
represent a larger target population.
8.2.3 NMPT operators: Selection and sampling
This category includes owners of NMPT garages across the city, who act as investors, managers
and operators of the fleet. An inventory of the operators was collected from the government
database on NMPT operators and drivers (HDRC, 2004; DTCB, 2005). This inventory did not
cover all major areas where NMPT garages are located. Therefore, that knowledge gap was
supplemented by pre-survey consultation with some major NMPT garage owners from the
government inventory. A purposive sampling process was then used for strategic selection of
the suburbs, which the researcher knew from local experience would ensure representation of
most parts of the city while pre-survey consultation ensured that those suburbs covered major
NMPT garage concentrations. NMPT garages were randomly selected for each suburb to ensure
gathering of unbiased viewpoints (Kumar, 2011).
As mentioned, the samples were selected based on the criteria that they represented most
parts of the city and covered major garages. The total sample size of 25 garages is a random
derivation in consultation with the academic mentors of the researcher. The sample was
distributed across 20 suburbs that were found to be most important, with reference to garage
establishments and size across the city. Among the selected suburbs 10 were to the north-east
and south –east of the city and 11 were to the north-west and south – west. An average of one
garage per suburb was selected. Four of these suburbs were allocated with two sample garages
as these areas had multiple large garages (over 70 NMPTs). Table 8.2 shows the distribution
summary of respondents’ garages based on their location. The garage size surveyed ranged
between 20 NMPTs and 230 NMPTs.
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Table 8.2: Distribution of sample NMPT operators
Area NMPT fleet size of sample
garage Sample size
North east and South east Dhaka
Uttara 30 1
Kalachandpur 20 1
Badda 35 1
Malibagh/Moghbazar 90 1
Rampura/Kamlapur 28 1
Nilkhet-Babupura 65 1
Azimpur 170 1
Shahidbagh 230 1
Palashi-Chankhatpole 24 1
Lalbagh 120 2
70
North west and South west Dhaka
Gabtoli 70 1
Kallayanpur 90 1
Agargaon, 85 1
Adabor-Mansurabad Housing 90 2
40
Mohammandpur -Nobodoy Housing 40 2
100
Katasur, 120, 2
60
Dhanmondi 80 1
Tollabagh 75 1
Rayerbazar 60 1
Hazaribagh 50 1
Sobhanbagh 220 1
Source: Field interview (2009)
8.2.4 NMPT drivers: Selection and sampling
This category included the NMPT drivers, who are vital as the enablers of this mode on the road
system and as the largest single sector employee of this industry. Information on common areas
of NMPT operation were gathered from government database on NMPT operators and drivers
(HDRC, 2004; DTCB, 2005), supplemented by pre-survey consultation with NMPT operators and
drivers and local knowledge of the researcher as a former regular NMPT user. The purposive
sampling process was used for strategic selection of the suburbs for data collection (Given,
2008) and to ensure that most city parts were covered. The drivers were randomly selected
from streets of these areas to ensure gathering of unbiased viewpoints (Kumar, 2011).
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The samples were selected based on the criteria that they covered most parts of the city, in
order to ensure that the viewpoints recorded were distributed rather than concentrated. The
total sample size of 50 was distributed across 15 suburbs and the areas were selected based on
their historical trend of NMPT concentration. Among the selected suburbs, seven were to the
north-east and south –east of the city. The remaining eight were to the north-west and south-
west. An average of three sample respondents per suburb was selected. The exceptions were
Dhanmondi, Old Dhaka, Moghbazar/Malibagh where five samples per area were taken due to
their greater NMPT concentration, sourced from informal observation by the researcher and
suggestion of the long term NMPT users. Table 8.3 shows the distribution summary of NMPT
driver sample based on their location of data collection.
Table 8.3: Distribution of sample NMPT drivers
Area Link Sample size
North east and South east Dhaka
Uttara Jasimuddin Road 3
Banani Kamal Ataturk Avenue 3
Badda Ariful Huq Chowdhury Road 3
Mohakhali AK Khondokar Road 3
Farmgate Green Road 3
Moghbazar/Malibagh Outer Circular Road 5
Jatrabari Hatkhola Road 3
North west and South west Dhaka
Mirpur Rokeya Sarani 3
Shamoli Ring Road 3
Mohammadpur Asad Avenue Road 3
Dhanmondi/Zigatola/Hazaribagh Sat Masjid Road, Hazaribagh Road, 5
Azimpur Azimpur Road, 3
Dhaka University area Nilkhet Road, 3
Motijheel Motijheel Road 3
Old Dhaka Lalbagh Road, Nawabpur Road 5
Source: Field interview (2009)
8.2.5 NMPT users: Selection and sampling
This category included the NMPT users, understanding of whose travel needs, access
convenience and mobility are of prime significance for future management of the mode.
Moreover, they are the only source of revenue for the NMPT employees and employers. The
sample size, and distribution and location of the samples were similar to that for NMPT drivers,
because users of NMPT from the same streets were selected for the collection of information.
This is to maintain uniformity in the sampling process and to save resources (time and cost).
However, the sample NMPT users were so selected that they represent a different major
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market niche- female with and without pre-school children, elderly, student and male
population excluding the former sample groups.
8.3 Procedure and instrument for data collection
8.3.1 Data collection method
The task of selecting appropriate data collection methods is crucial to the efficiency of the
overall result. Richardson, Ampt and Meyburg (1995) stated that choice of data collection
method will usually be the result of a compromise among the quality of data, quantity of data
and the available resources. Kumar (2011) added that the choice of a data collection method
depends on the purpose of the study, the resources available, skills of the researcher and the
socioeconomic-demographic characteristics of the study population.
Primary method: Interview
Since the purpose of this data collection is to have an in-depth understanding of the viewpoint
of NMPT stakeholders, the quality of the data collected was significant. Moreover, a
considerable proportion of the sample was of a low education level (NMPT operators and
NMPT drivers) and all stakeholders were diverse in socio-economic background. From local
knowledge and experience of the researcher, the questions for data collection were required to
be explained verbally to groups such as NMPT operators and NMPT drivers to ensure best
information. Therefore, interview was chosen as the preferable data collection method as it is
useful in collecting in-depth information, questions can be explained more thoroughly and the
method has application suitability on a diverse population (Kumar, 2011). Among the major
media of interview i.e. electronic medium based interview, telephone interview and face-to-
face interview, the latter was selected. This is because nature of the respondent would not
allow the use of the former two medium for all but GO and NGO. The need for in-depth
discussion on the topics, also favours a face-to-face interview to a telephone interview (Kothari,
2008). Among key interview types, a semi-structured interview was chosen. This allowed the
researcher to have uniform information that assured comparability of the data. At the same
time, unanticipated response and descriptive information could be accommodated for later
codification and analysis (Kumar, 2011).
Supplementary method: Observation
Methodology researchers have also suggested that it is preferable to substantiate interview
data with data obtained from other methods such as observation (Sommer and Sommer, 2002;
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Yin, 2003). Kumar (2011) suggested that such observation strengthens the possibility of
receiving objective information. An informal observation process was therefore followed during
the interview process, to improve data quality.
8.3.2 Design of instrument
A questionnaire (interview schedule) was prepared as the instrument for recording responses of
the interview. The design of the interview schedule was divided into three major segments. Part
A included questions on respondent personal and professional details. Part B included questions
regarding existing approach and future preferred role of NMPT in Dhaka. Part C included
questions regarding preference criteria for the future Dhaka transport system . Part A and part
B have a combination of close-ended and open-ended questions. Part C questions are all close-
ended. Appendix D.1 explains the detailed design process of the interview schedule while
Appendix D.2 and D.3 presents sample questionnaire forms
8.3.3 Administration of data collection
Based on the designed interview schedule, a detailed face-to-face interview was conducted.
The administration process for data collection included establishing contacts with the
interviewees and collecting their response in accordance to the schedule. The GOs and NGOs
were corresponded with via e-mail beforehand. Those who could not be communicated to by e-
mail were contacted by phone. Contact with BRTA and DMP were established after arrival at
Dhaka. No prior communication was possible or required with other three respondent groups,
due to their random nature of sampling. Appendix D.4 provides detailed description of the
interview administration process.
.
8.4 Processing of data
The data collected from interviews were then edited and coded in preparation for analysis as
suggested by Richardson et al. (1995). The editing and coding for the responses was conducted
immediately after completion of the interview process. Since the data were collected by face to
face interview, the researcher was able to gather response from all 150 samples, most of the
questions being answered by the respondents. The missing data were appropriately coded to
ensure their separation from valid responses. The detailed method for coding and analysis of
the data is presented in Section 8.5 and Appendix D.5, since such methods often depend on the
data type and purpose of analysis (Kumar, 2011).
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8.5 Procedure and tools for data analysis
Depending on the structure of the interview schedule, data type collected and the need of
analysis, the procedure and tools for data analysis are primarily divided into two segments.
They are discussed below.
8.5.1 Non-parametric statistical analysis
Non-parametric statistical analysis was used as the preferred method for analysing the
information collected in Part A and Part B of the interview schedule. The tool to process the
analysis was Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS).
Rationale
The primary objective of this data analysis was to understand the pattern and relationship
between the viewpoints of the NMPT stakeholders to a set of variables that define current and
future NMPT conditions in Dhaka. The difference in viewpoint of stakeholders to the choice of
the variables also needed to be understood to analyse and to comprehend the choice variability
of the stakeholders for a particular variable. Parametric statistical analysis would have been
useful in analysing these relationships and opinion differences of the stakeholders since they
consider mean, standard deviation and normality characteristics of a sample’s population
(Seigel and Castellan, 1988). The nature of the data collected for this interview included
categorical data (nominal and ordinal level data), for which there are no measures of mean or
standard deviation. A parametric statistical analysis based on these characteristics of the sample
would therefore not be possible and non-parametric tests are suggested to be used under such
circumstances. (Scanlan, 2008). Weaver (2002) also suggested that when data is categorical in
nature, nonparametric statistical analyses are the best approach.
A combination of both descriptive and inferential statistical approach was applied to analyse
the data. The general characteristics of descriptive statistical approach are that it explains
patterns and the general trend of relationship in a dataset (Field, 2005).This corresponded to
the study need to analyse the perception and relation of different stakeholder groups toward
each variable of NMPT. The available dataset allowed conduct of univariate frequency
distribution, bar chart pattern analysis and for relationship analysis, bivariate cross-tabulation of
the data in a contingency table. Scanlan (2008) explained that cross-tabulation is a two
dimensional tabular analysis that cross classifies subjects or events on two categorical variables
and is a useful way to understand the relationship of categorical data. To analyse the difference
in viewpoint between the stakeholder group’s choices on ordinal level variables, an inferential
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statistical approach, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used. Since the groups are independent
to each other with reference to their viewpoint to a particular variable and were more than
three in number, the Kruskal-Wallis (K-W) ANOVA approach was adopted as recommended by
Dallal (2000) and Scanlan (2008).Among different comparable statistical software available such
as SAS, STRATA, SPSS etc., SPSS was used for analysis due to its availability and suitability for
analysis requirement.
Administration procedure
The analysis procedure included coding of interview data, defining variables and then analysing
those variable using SPSS. Detailed description of the analysis process is provided in Appendix
D.5.1. The results and their discussion, from the analytical process, are presented in Chapter 9.
8.5.2 Multi-criteria analysis
Multi-criteria analysis (MCA) and its key analytical technique, Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP)
was selected as the primary method for analysing the information collected in Part C of the
interview schedule. Non-parametric ANOVA was used as a supplementary analytical technique.
The tool to process the analyses was Microsoft (MS) Excel.
Rationale
The key endeavour of Part C of the interview schedule is to make a comparative assessment of
five different and perhaps conflicting set of criteria with reference to their choice by
stakeholders; and to derive a relative weight base quantitative prioritisation to decide the most
desired qualities for the future Dhaka transport system. The MCA approach was selected for the
data analysis due to its ability as a decision tool to incorporate and assess multiple and
conflicting objectives. This approach is also useful due to its capability to assess the relative
importance of each criterion with others, using logically defined quantitative assignments in
order to reach to a reasonable decision (Mendoza, Macoun, Prabhu, Sukardi, Purnom &
Hartanto, 1999).
Among different MCA tools available for criteria assessment such as Ranking Method, Rating
Method and Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) (Mendoza et al. 1999), the latter was chosen for
analysis. The rationale was that this tool, according to Gerdsri (2004),
... is a multi-attribute decision making (MADM) technique that systematically solves
complex problems by decomposing the structure of a problem into hierarchies and
then applies the pairwise comparison on judgments to synthesise the priorities of
elements in each hierarchy
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In addition to its ability to make hierarchical structuring of a problem, the Pairwise Comparison
Method can measure both ordinal and cardinal importance of different criteria, useful to
quantify the relationship among the set criteria of this study by stakeholder groups and as a
whole. These later two attributes are also available to Rating method.
To analyse the difference in criteria preference between stakeholder groups, resulted from
AHP, and due to ordinal data nature and independent group characters, the Kruskal-Wallis
ANOVA test was conducted (Scanlan, 2008). MS Excel was used in processing both analyses. It is
understood that there were other AHP analysis tools such as Expert Choice and ANOVA tools
such as SPSS. The data structure, analysis requirement and flexibility in data management as
needed by this study segment led to the selection of MS Excel as preferred tool.
Administration procedure
Basic principles of AHP
The basic essence of the AHP approach applied in this study was construction of a matrix
expressing the relative value of the selected criteria. This involved one-on-one (pairwise)
comparisons between all possible criteria pairs. The comparative judgments on relative
importance of each criteria compared to others within the pair were assigned by the
stakeholders. Coyle (2004) suggested the criteria number be kept to a maximum of seven, to
ensure measurability based on the scale developed by Saaty in 1980, being the most commonly
used scale for assigning weights to criteria in AHP. This study therefore limited the criteria
numbers to five to meet the specifications. These selected criteria were social equity (SE), traffic
operational efficiency (TE), access and mobility (AM), environmental sustainability (ES), and
modern city image (MI). The detailed process of scaling the criteria, estimation process, and
sequence of analysis are described in Appendix D.5.2.
The summary process from selection to scoring of criteria for AHP is presented in Figure 8.3.
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Outcome Process
Analytical Hierarchy
Process
General Filtering, Classifying
and Grouping
Score of each
preference criteria
Literature Research
Focus group discussion
Preliminary
Criteria set
Assign Relative Weight
Pair wise Comparison
Restructured
Criteria
Figure 8.3: Application of MCA and AHP to the selection and scoring of criteria
Source: Developed by the author after Mendoza et al. (1999)
Estimation process for ANOVA
The priority score derived by stakeholder groups are then analysed using the ANOVA. The
output provided further insight into the state of agreement or disagreement among the groups
in preferring future transport system characters of Dhaka.
The results and their discussion, from the above process are presented in Chapter 9.
8.6 Summary
This chapter described the methodology used for NMPT stakeholders’ viewpoint analysis on the
mode and on future expectations of the Dhaka transport system. The process was based on
primary data collected from field interview. The rationale and administration process for the
sampling was first described with reference to five selected NMPT stakeholder groups i.e. GO,
NGO, NMPT operators, NMPT drivers and NMPT users. This was followed by description of
+ =
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rationale and implementation process for data collection, processing and analysis. During the
discussion on data collection process, the rationale for selection of collection method was
described, followed by instrument design process to record the desired data, and field
administration process to enable collection of the data.
Interview was found to be the most suitable data collection method supplemented by
observation. A semi-structured questionnaire schedule based on face-to-face interview was
administered to collect best quality data. To facilitate the recording of interview data and to
enable collection of appropriate data to meet analysis purpose, the schedule was divided into
three major segments. The first segment was on respondent details the second was on current
role and future preferences on NMPT and the third segment was on future preferred qualities
of the Dhaka transport system. The general approach towards processing of field-collected data
is then briefly discussed. During the discussion on data analysis process, the rationale for
selection of analytical methods and tools was described followed by a detailed administration
process for data refinement and analysis. Non-parametric statistical analysis was chosen for
analysing NMPT relevant viewpoints. SPSS was found suitable as an analysis tool. MCA based
AHP was chosen for prioritising the hierarchy of future transport qualities. MS Excel was found
suitable as an analysis tool. The next chapter presents and discusses the results of the data
analysis.
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9CHAPTER 9: STAKEHOLDER VIEWPOINT ON ROLE OF NMPT AND
EXPECTED QUALITIES FROM FUTURE TRANSPORT SYSTEM -
RESULTS OF ANALYSIS & DISCUSSION
9.1 Introduction
Chapter 8 described the data collection and analyses methods that were used for analysing the
viewpoint of non-motorised public transport (NMPT) stakeholders. This chapter discusses the
results of the analyses. In accordance with the structure of the interview schedule and data
analyses procedure, the chapter is divided into two major parts. Section 9.2 presents and
discusses analyses results of NMPT stakeholders’ viewpoint on current and future of the mode.
This is followed in Section 9.3, by the presentation and discussion of results on stakeholder
perception regarding future desired characteristics of the Dhaka transport system. Viewpoint
results are presented with reference to overall preference of all stakeholders and by individual
group. The results will feed into the process to decide the significance or otherwise of NMPT in
Dhaka and whether any aspect of NMPT management requires address. Chapter 10.
9.2 Present and future NMPT condition analysis
The analysis in this section is made with reference to seven variables that can provide insight on
current role and future expectation of NMPT in Dhaka by relevant stakeholder groups. The
variables include the current role of NMPT as a transport mode, current dependency level on
NMPT for daily trip making, current functionality of NMPT restriction measures, future
preferred service of NMPT, future preferred control level for NMPT movement, suggestion on
future operational and management improvement of NMPT, and suggestion on future policy
and planning improvement for NMPT. The analysis results with reference to these variables are
presented below.
9.2.1 Current role of NMPT
A broad stakeholder assessment regarding the current role of NMPT in the transport sector of
Dhaka is presented in Figure 9.1.Note that the current role is defined here with reference to the
general utility/functionality of NMPT as a transport mode in the Dhaka transport system and
respondents were requested to assess the role in this context.
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Figure 9.1: Assessment regarding current NMPT role in transport system of Dhaka
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009)
The illustration shows that the majority of the respondents (around 72 percent) across all
groups consider NMPT as a highly functional mode. A total of 8 percent of the respondents
were of the opinion that NMPT is of low or non-functional role. Table 9.1 breaks this data down
by interviewed groups.
Table 9.1: Stakeholder category based perception on current NMPT role in Dhaka transport system
Organization or respondent category Assessment regarding current NMPT role
Non-
functional
Low-
functional
Moderately
functional
Highly
functional Total
Government 0 1 1 2
% within respondent
category
.0% 28.6% 21.4% 50.0% 100.0%
Non-government 0 1 1 1
% within respondent
category
.0% 27.3% 36.4% 36.4% 100.0%
NMPT operator 0 0 1 3
% within respondent
category
.0% .0% 25.0% 75.0% 100.0%
NMPT driver 0 0 0 3
% within respondent
category
.0% .0% 20.0% 80.0% 100.0%
NMPT user 0 0 0 3
% within respondent
category
2.0% 8.0% 12.0% 78.0% 100.0%
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009)
Legend (%) 0 0 – 20 1 20-40 2 40-60 3 60-80 4 80-100
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The table reveals that a higher proportion of respondents within each stakeholder group apart
from non-government defined current utility of NMPT as highly functional. More than 75
percent of the NMPT operators, drivers and users assessed NMPT role functionality highly while
most of the remaining respondents assessed it as moderately functional. None of the NMPT
operators or drivers considered it as low functional while less than 10 percent of NMPT users
assessed it as low functional or non-functional. Government organisations (GO) and non-
government organisations (NGO) were more widespread in their opinion. More than 70 percent
of the GO and NGO respondents assessed the mode as highly or moderately functional while
around 30 percent rated it as low or non-functional.
To test the difference in stakeholder viewpoint on current role of NMPT, the K-W H statistics
were generated based on the ranking and estimation process described in Chapter 8, Section
8.6.1. This variable specific source ranking table is presented in Appendix D.6. The H statistics
result is presented in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2: Difference in preference on current NMPT role by stakeholder group
Difference of opinion Degree of freedom Critical value at 99% confidence level
(based on Chi-Square table)
Chi-Square value
(H value)
Between groups 4 13.3 15.280
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009) and analysis
Since 15.280 is greater than the critical value, the null hypothesis is rejected, that is,
stakeholders’ viewpoint on the current NMPT role do differ. However, this difference in opinion
is not great as observed in the viewpoint distribution results of Table 9.1.
9.2.2 Level of dependency on NMPT
A broad stakeholder assessment regarding general dependency on NMPT for daily trip making
by the transport users of Dhaka is presented in Figure 9.2.
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Figure 9.2: NMPT dependency level of Dhaka transport users for regular trips
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009)
The illustration shows that majority of the respondents (around 62 percent) considered the
transport users to be highly dependent on the mode for regular trip making in some form,
whether to make a complete trip or to be used as part of a multi-modal trip. A total of 10
percent of the respondents were of the opinion that their dependency level was not
substantial. None selected “no dependency” criteria. The perceptions are an amalgam of their
own usage of the mode and their knowledge on the travel pattern as well as trip characteristics
of city dwellers. Table 9.3 breaks this data down by interviewed groups.
Table 9.3: Stakeholder category based perception on NMPT dependency level for daily trips
Organization or respondent category
NMPT dependency level for daily trips
Low
dependency
Moderate
dependency
High
dependency Total
Government 0 0 3
% within respondent category 7.1% 14.3% 78.6% 100.0%
Non-
government
0 1 3
% within respondent category .0% 27.3% 72.7 100.0%
NMPT operator 0 1 2
% within respondent category 8.0% 32.0% 60.0% 100.0%
NMPT driver 0 1 2
% within respondent category 8.0% 32.0% 60.0% 100.0%
NMPT user 0 1 2
% within respondent category 4.0% 28.0% 68.0% 100.0%
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009)
Legend (%)
0 0 – 20 1 20-40 2 40-60 3 60-80 4 80-100
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The table reveals that around two-thirds (60 percent or more) of the respondents from each
stakeholder group perceived that Dhaka travellers are highly dependent on NMPT for regular
trip purposes with the highest within-group response share from GO (around 79 percent). The
low dependency option was least preferred by all stakeholder groups with an average response
share of less than 10 percent. Interestingly, the GO and NGO were found to perceive the regular
trip dependency role of NMPT to be more substantial (response share of 79 percent and 73
percent respectively) compared to other stakeholders. They were also the lowest share in the
low dependency criteria (response rate of 7 percent and 0 percent respectively).
To test the difference in viewpoint or otherwise of the stakeholders on NMPT dependency
issues, the K-W H statistics was generated based on the relevant ranking and estimation process
described in Chapter 8, Section 8.6.1. This variable, specific source ranking table is presented in
Appendix D.7. The H statistics result is presented in Table 9.4.
Table 9.4: Difference in preference on NMPT dependency level by different stakeholders
Difference of opinion Degree of freedom Critical value at 99% confidence level
(based on Chi-Square table)
Chi-Square value
(H value)
Between groups 4 13.3 2.847
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009) and analysis
Since 2.847 is lower than the critical value, the null hypothesis is accepted, that is, preferences
of stakeholders on current NMPT dependency for regular trips are similar. This is consistent
with the viewpoint distribution results of Table 9.3.
9.2.3 Current restriction functionality of NMPT
The functionality of current NMPT restriction measures in place were analysed with reference
to stakeholder viewpoint assessment at broad, both in totality and by groups. The results of the
frequency analysis are presented in Figure 9.3.
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Figure 9.3: Functionality of existing restriction of NMPT in Dhaka
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009)
The figure shows that the majority of the respondents (around 86 percent) are unsatisfied with
the current restriction measures in place for NMPT management. The figure also shows that
around three percent of the respondents are satisfied with the measures. None have chosen
the highly satisfactory criteria. Table 9.5 breaks this data down by interviewed groups.
Table 9.5: Stakeholder category based perception on existing restriction functionality of NMPT in
Dhaka transport system
Organization or respondent category Existing restriction functionality of NMPT
Unsatisfactory Moderately
satisfactory Satisfactory Total
Government 2 1 1
% within respondent
category
42.9% 28.6% 28.6% 100.0%
Non-government 2 2 0
% within respondent
category
45.5% 45.5% 9.0% 100.0%
NMPT operator 4 0 0
% within respondent
category
96.0% 4.0% .0% 100.0%
NMPT driver 4 0 0
% within respondent
category
100.0% .0% .0% 100.0%
NMPT user 4 0 0
% within respondent
category
88.0% 12.0% .0% 100.0%
Source: Developed by author after stakeholder interview 2009
Legend (%) 0 0 – 20 1 20-40 2 40-60 3 60-80 4 80-100
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The table reveals that the majority of the respondents from each stakeholder group expressed
their discontent on the effectiveness of current NMPT restriction measures. The discontent is
strong among the NMPT operators, drivers and users (response share of 96 percent, 100
percent and 88 percent respectively) with none from these groups having selected,
“satisfactory” as a response. The discontent was also verbally expressed by these groups during
the interview process, particularly their concern on the time and cost impact of the restrictions.
The responses of GO and NGO, primarily involved in the planning and implementation of the
restriction measures, were more distributed. More than 50 percent from both of these groups
were to a certain extent satisfied with the effectiveness of the NMPT restrictions on traffic
improvement. NGO were more moderate in their degree of content (response share of around
45 percent) while GO responded most (share of around 27 percent) to the answer satisfactory.
To test the difference in viewpoint or otherwise of the stakeholders on NMPT restriction
functionality issue, the K-W H statistics were generated based on the ranking and estimation
process described in Chapter 8, Section 8.6.1. This variable-specific, source ranking table is
presented in Appendix D.8. The H statistics result is presented in Table 9.6.
Table 9.6: Difference in preference on existing restriction functionality of NMPT by different
stakeholders
Difference of opinion Degree of freedom Critical value at 99% confidence level
(based on Chi-Square table)
Chi-Square value
(H value)
Between groups 4 13.3 48.399
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009) and analysis
Since 48.399 is far greater than the critical value, the null hypothesis is rejected, that is, a
substantial difference of opinion is existent regarding the effectiveness of the NMPT restriction
measures. This is also consistent with the viewpoint distribution results of Table 9.5.
9.2.4 Future preferred service role of NMPT
A broad stakeholder assessment regarding the future preferred service role of NMPT in the
transport sector of Dhaka is presented in Figure 9.4.
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Figure 9.4: Future service role perception of NMPT in Dhaka transport system
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009)
The illustration shows that around 68 percent of stakeholders prefer NMPT as a local service
and feeder network service to public transport, while around 25 percent prefer it as a city wide
transport service provider (local ,feeder and intra-urban). Very few respondents wanted to see
NMPT as local service only (response share of around 7 percent). None have chosen the ‘no
service’ criteria. Table 9.7 breaks this data down by interviewed groups.
Table 9.7: Stakeholder category based perception on future service role perception of NMPT
Organization or respondent category
Future service role perception of NMPT
Local network
service only
Local service
& feeder to
public
transport
Local,
feeder &
intra-urban
services Total
Government 1 3 0
% within respondent category 21.4% 78.6% .0% 100.0%
Non-government 0 3 0
% within respondent category 18.2% 63.6% 18.2% 100.0%
NMPT operator 0 2 1
% within respondent category 4.0% 60.0% 36.0% 100.0%
NMPT driver 0 3 1
% within respondent category .0% 68.0% 32.0% 100.0%
NMPT user 0 3 0
% within respondent category 10.0% 70.0% 20.0% 100.0%
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009)
Legend (%) 0 0 – 20 1 20-40 2 40-60 3 60-80 4 80-100
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The table reveals that approximately two-thirds (around 60 percent or more) from each
stakeholder category favoured NMPT as a local and feeder service provider with GO preferring
this option most (around 79 percent). Least preference was given to its use as a local service in
general with NMPT operators, drivers and users rejecting it the most. The GO and NGO had
greater preference in this regard (around 22 percent and 18 percent respectively). GO
completely disfavoured the preference of using NMPT at all parts of the network, while
moderate support for the option was revealed by remaining groups.
To test the difference in viewpoint of the stakeholders on NMPT future service role issue, the K-
W H statistics were generated based on the ranking and estimation process described in
Chapter 8, Section 8.6.1. This variable specific source ranking table is presented in Appendix D.9.
The H statistics result is presented in Table 9.8.
Table 9.8: Difference in preference on future service role of NMPT by different stakeholders
Difference of opinion Degree of freedom Critical value at 99% confidence level
(based on Chi-Square table)
Chi-Square value
(H value)
Between groups 4 13.3 14.109
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009) and analysis
Since 14.109 is greater than the critical value, the null hypothesis is rejected, that is, a difference
of opinion is existent regarding the future preferred service role of NMPT. However, this
difference in opinion is not as great as observed in the viewpoint distribution results of Table
9.8.
9.2.5 Future preferred control level on NMPT
The future preferred control levels for NMPT were assessed with reference to stakeholder
viewpoint at broad, both in totality and by groups. The results of analysis for all respondents are
presented in Figure 9.5.
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Figure 9.5: Preferred control level for NMPT in future Dhaka transport system
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009)
The figure reveals partial restriction (PR) as the most suitable/preferable restriction measure to
facilitate the future service role of NMPT as per stakeholders. This received a consensus of
around 87 percent compared to the no restriction (NR) option (share of around 13 percent) and
full restriction (FR) option (share of 1 percent). The preferred PR option as stated by the
respondents was split into two categories, PR-existing (the current practice with NMPT
restricted/planned to be restricted on all major roads) and PR-proposed (characterised by
NMPT restriction on selected major roads). The PR existing option was preferred by 15 percent
of respondents and PR proposed option was preferred by 71 percent of respondents. Table 9.9
breaks this data down by interviewed groups.
Table 9.9: Stakeholder category based perception on future preferred control level of NMPT
Organization or respondent category
Future preferred control level for NMPT
Full
restriction
Partial
restriction
-existing
Partial
restriction-
proposed
No
restriction Total
Government 0 3 0 0
% within respondent category 7% 71.4% 18.6% .0% 100.0%
Non-
government
0 1 3 0
% within respondent category 0% 27.3% 64.5% 9.1% 100.0%
NMPT
operator
0 0 3 0
% within respondent category 0% 4.0% 80.0% 16.0% 100.0%
NMPT driver 0 0 4 0
% within respondent category 0% 2.0% 82.0% 16.0% 100.0%
NMPT user 0 0 3 0
% within respondent category 0% 18.0% 70.0% 12.0% 100.0%
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009)
Legend (%) 0 0 – 20 1 20-40 2 40-60 3 60-80 4 80-100
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(The table reveals that the respondents across all groups prefer the partial restriction option
more than other alternatives. GO preferred the PR-exiting approach most (around 72 percent)
while the remaining stakeholders preferred the PR-proposed approach highest. Among them,
NMPT operators and drivers were more strongly in favour of a PR-proposed option (around 80
percent and 82 percent respectively) followed by preference for the NR option (around 16
percent). The users and NGO also substantially favoured the PR-proposed option (around 70
percent and 65 percent respectively), but they had some share in the PR-existing option and NR
option. The GO were also the only group choosing the FR option and not selecting the NR
option.
To test the difference in stakeholder viewpoint on the NMPT future preferred control level
issue, the K-W H statistics were generated based on the ranking and estimation process
described in Chapter 8, Section 8.6.1. This variable specific source ranking table is presented in
Appendix D.10. The H statistics result is presented in Table 9.10.
Table 9.10: Difference in preference on future preferred control level of NMPT by different
stakeholders
Difference of opinion Degree of freedom Critical value at 99% confidence level
(based on Chi-Square table)
Chi-Square value
(H value)
Between groups 4 13.3 32.129
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009) and analysis
Since 32.129 is far greater than the critical value, the null hypothesis is rejected, that is, a
substantial difference of opinion is existent regarding the choice of future preferred control
level on NMPT operation. This result is consistent with the viewpoint distribution results of
Table 9.9.
9.2.6 Suggestion on operational improvement and management
The suggestion of stakeholders on improving operation and management for NMPT in future
are presented in Table 9
Table 9.11: Stakeholder suggestions on future operation and management improvement for NMPT
Suggestions
Physical segregation of NMPT from
MT-NMPT interlink & interface at proper network location
Provision of NMPT supportive infrastructure
Practice of operational safety measures
Competitive & defined fare structure
Modern technology in vehicle design
Not known
Total
Source: Developed by author after
Figure 9.6: Suggestions of NMPT stakeholders for future management improvement of the mode
Source: Developed by author after
21.7%
9.4%
6.8%
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Suggestion on operational improvement and management
The suggestion of stakeholders on improving operation and management for NMPT in future
9.11 and Figure 9.6.
.11: Stakeholder suggestions on future operation and management improvement for NMPT
Multiple responses output
Number (N)
Physical segregation of NMPT from motorised transport (MT) 101
NMPT interlink & interface at proper network location 124
Provision of NMPT supportive infrastructure 92
nal safety measures 40
Competitive & defined fare structure 29
Modern technology in vehicle design 35
3
424
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009)
uggestions of NMPT stakeholders for future management improvement of the mode
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009)
23.8%
29.2%
6.8%8.3%
0.7% Physical segregation of NMPT from
MT
MT-NMPT interlink & interface at
proper network location
Provision of NMPT supportive
infrastructure
Practice of operational safety
measures
Competitive & defined fare
structure
Modern technology in vehicle
design
Not known
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Suggestion on operational improvement and management of NMPT
The suggestion of stakeholders on improving operation and management for NMPT in future
.11: Stakeholder suggestions on future operation and management improvement for NMPT
iple responses output
Percent
23.8%
29.2%
21.7%
9.4%
6.8%
8.3%
.7%
100.0%
uggestions of NMPT stakeholders for future management improvement of the mode
Physical segregation of NMPT from
NMPT interlink & interface at
proper network location
Provision of NMPT supportive
infrastructure
Practice of operational safety
Competitive & defined fare
Modern technology in vehicle
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The data reveals the three improvements, mostly suggested by all stakeholder groups. The
most common suggestion, put forward by around one-third of respondents (29 percent) was on
the need to formulate MT-NMPT interlink and interface at proper network locations. This was
followed by two closely preferred recommendations including physical segregation of NMPT
from MT (response share of around 24 percent) and supply of NMPT supportive infrastructure
(response share of around 22 percent). Fare structure suggestion was the least chosen. Table
9.12 breaks this data down by interviewed groups.
Table 9.12: Stakeholder category based suggestion on future NMPT management improvement
Organization or respondent
category
Future preferred operation and management improvement for NMPT
MT-NMPT
separation
MT-NMPT
interlink &
interface
NMPT
supportive
infrastruc.
Operating
safety
measures
Competitive
& defined
fare
structure
Vehicle
design
upgrade
Not
known Total
Government 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
% within
respondent
category
29.5% 25.0% 22.7% 11.4% 4.5% 6.8% 0.0% 100.0%
Non-
government
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
% within
respondent
category
28.1% 21.9% 18.8% 12.5% 9.4% 9.4% 0.0% 100.0%
NMPT
operator
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
% within
respondent
category
20.9% 29.9% 25.4% 6.0% 13.4% 4.5% 0.0% 100.0%
NMPT driver 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
% within
respondent
category
23.1% 33.1% 24.0% 4.1% 0.8% 12.4% 2.5% 100.0%
NMPT user 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
% within
respondent
category
23.1% 28.8% 18.8% 13.8% 8.8% 6.9% 0.0% 100.0%
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009)
Legend (%)
0 0 – 20 1 20-40 2 40-60 3 60-80 4 80-100
The tabular analysis also shows that MT-NMPT separation, MT-NMPT interlinkage and
supportive infrastructure were the three most popular suggestions put forward by each
stakeholder group for future operation and management improvement of NMPT. The share to
each of these choices per group was around 20 to 30 percent. Around 78 percent of GO
suggestions, 69 percent of NGO suggestions, 76 percent of NMPT operator suggestions, 81
percent of NMPT driver suggestion
three choice categories. Among other choices, improvement of operating safety measures
(proper vehicle fitness) was found
users (around 11 percent, 12 percent and 14 percent respectively); proper fare structure was
emphasised more by NMPT operators (13 percent) and improvement of vehicle ergonomics
was emphasised more by NMPT drivers (12 percent) comp
9.2.7 Suggestion on policy and planning framework for NMPT integration
The suggestion of stakeholders on improving policy and planning for NMPT in
presented in Table 9.13 and Figure
Table 9.13: Stakeholder suggestions on future policy and planning improvement for NMPT
Defined future NMPT role and integration within national transport policy
Dedicated NMPT regulatory framework
Capping on NMPT size based on demand analysis
Planned interconnected NMPT route plan development
Priority measures for NMPT in planning of certain network parts
Capacity building of operators & riders of NMPT
Not known
Total
Source: Developed by author after
Figure 9.7: Suggestions of NMPT stakeholders for future policy and planning improvement of the mode
Source: Developed by author afte
22.6%
19.1%
10.6%
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percent of NMPT driver suggestions and 70 percent of NMPT user suggestion
three choice categories. Among other choices, improvement of operating safety measures
(proper vehicle fitness) was found to be relatively more important to the GO, NGO and NMPT
users (around 11 percent, 12 percent and 14 percent respectively); proper fare structure was
emphasised more by NMPT operators (13 percent) and improvement of vehicle ergonomics
was emphasised more by NMPT drivers (12 percent) compared to remaining available options.
Suggestion on policy and planning framework for NMPT integration
The suggestion of stakeholders on improving policy and planning for NMPT in
.13 and Figure 9.7.
eholder suggestions on future policy and planning improvement for NMPT
Suggestions
Number (N)
Defined future NMPT role and integration within national transport policy
Dedicated NMPT regulatory framework
Capping on NMPT size based on demand analysis
Planned interconnected NMPT route plan development
Priority measures for NMPT in planning of certain network parts
Capacity building of operators & riders of NMPT
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009)
.7: Suggestions of NMPT stakeholders for future policy and planning improvement of the mode
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009)
11.6%
25.1%
9.5%22.6%
10.6%
1.5%
Defined future NMPT role and
integration within national transport
policyDedicated NMPT regulatory
framework
Capping on NMPT size based on
demand analysis
Planned interconnected NMPT route
plan development
Mode specific road hierarchy &
priority measures in network
planningCapacity building of operators &
riders of NMPT
Not known
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and 70 percent of NMPT user suggestions belong to these
three choice categories. Among other choices, improvement of operating safety measures
to the GO, NGO and NMPT
users (around 11 percent, 12 percent and 14 percent respectively); proper fare structure was
emphasised more by NMPT operators (13 percent) and improvement of vehicle ergonomics
ared to remaining available options.
Suggestion on policy and planning framework for NMPT integration
The suggestion of stakeholders on improving policy and planning for NMPT in the future are
eholder suggestions on future policy and planning improvement for NMPT
Multiple response
output
Number (N) Percent
46 11.6%
100 25.1%
38 9.5%
90 22.6%
76 19.1%
42 10.6%
6 1.5%
398 100.0%
.7: Suggestions of NMPT stakeholders for future policy and planning improvement of the mode
Defined future NMPT role and
integration within national transport
Dedicated NMPT regulatory
Capping on NMPT size based on
demand analysis
Planned interconnected NMPT route
plan development
Mode specific road hierarchy &
priority measures in network
Capacity building of operators &
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The responses reveal that three suggestions were most commonly put forward by stakeholders.
Around one quarter of respondents suggested having a dedicated NMPT regulatory framework.
This is followed by development of planned interconnected NMPT route development
(response share of around 23 percent) and development of mode specific road hierarchy and
priority measures in network planning (response share of around 19 percent). Capping on
NMPT number received the fewest responses. Table 9.14 breaks this data down by interviewed
groups.
Table 9.14: Stakeholder category based suggestion on future NMPT management improvement
Organization or respondent
category
Future preferred policy and planning improvement for NMPT
Define
NMPT role
& integrate
in national
transport
policy
Dedicated
NMPT
regulation
NMPT
capping
based on
demand
Inter-
connected
NMPT
route plan
NMPT
priority in
some
network
segments
Capacity
building of
owners &
drivers
Not
known Total
Government 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
% within
respondent
category
17.8% 28.9% 6.7% 17.8% 22.2% 6.7% 0.05 100%
Non-
government
0 1 0 1 1 0 0
% within
respondent
category
3.4% 27.6% 17.2% 24.1% 20.7% 6.9% 0.0% 100%
NMPT
operator
0 1 0 1 0 0 0
% within
respondent
category
3.1% 24.6% 9.2% 24.6% 18.5% 20.0% 0.0% 100%
NMPT
driver
0 1 0 1 0 0 0
% within
respondent
category
11.1% 22.2% 5.1% 23.9% 16.2% 17.9% 3.4% 100%
NMPT user 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
% within
respondent
category
15.5% 26.1% 12.7% 21.8% 20.4% 2.1% 1.4% 100%
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009)
Legend (%)
0 0 – 20 1 20-40 2 40-60 3 60-80 4 80-100
The tabular analysis reveals a similar general trend of choice popularity by stakeholder groups
to that of Figure 9.7 for the top three suggestions on future NMPT policy planning
improvements. Around 69 percent of GO suggestions, 71 percent of NGO suggestions, 68
percent of NMPT operator suggestions, 71 percent of NMPT driver suggestions and 67 percent
of NMPT user suggestion
improvement, GO and NMPT users have also emphasised the n
national transport policy (around 18 percent and 16 percent respectively), NMPT operators and
drivers have emphasised the need for better capacity building that is targeted to these groups
(around 20 percent and 18 percent re
demand-based NMPT capping
9.3 Preferred characteristics for future Dhaka transport system
The analysis in this section is
here to define the future transport system of Dhaka as described in Chapter
convenience of comprehension, the criteria are defined before the results are presented and
discussed. Social equity means affordability and opportunity
desired trip. Traffic operational efficiency means acceptable network condition with reference
to congestion, timely movement, safe road
have two components.
indicates movement convenience
Environmental sustainability means e
image means modern and state
transport environment and city
9.3.1 Overall preference analysis
The overall results of the AHP analysis on preferred transport system quality (criteria) for Dhaka
are presented in Figure 9
Figure 9.8: Overall status of quality preference
Source: Developed by author after field interview (20
33%
12%
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of NMPT user suggestions belong to these three choice categories. Among other choices for
improvement, GO and NMPT users have also emphasised the need for integration of NMPT in
national transport policy (around 18 percent and 16 percent respectively), NMPT operators and
drivers have emphasised the need for better capacity building that is targeted to these groups
(around 20 percent and 18 percent respectively) and NGO and NMPT users have emphasised
based NMPT capping.
Preferred characteristics for future Dhaka transport system
section is made with reference to the five key criteria that
define the future transport system of Dhaka as described in Chapter
convenience of comprehension, the criteria are defined before the results are presented and
discussed. Social equity means affordability and opportunity to use a suitable mode to make
Traffic operational efficiency means acceptable network condition with reference
to congestion, timely movement, safe roads and supporting infrastructure.
two components. Accessibility means ease of access to different city parts
movement convenience including comfort, privacy and security of travel.
Environmental sustainability means eco-friendly character of transport system.
image means modern and state-of-the-art mode use to enhance the physical appearance of
transport environment and city in general.
Overall preference analysis
of the AHP analysis on preferred transport system quality (criteria) for Dhaka
9.8.
.8: Overall status of quality preference in future transport system of Dhaka
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009)
17%
34%
12% 4%
Social equity
Traffic operational
efficiency
Access & mobility
Environmental
sustainability
Modern city Image
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to these three choice categories. Among other choices for
eed for integration of NMPT in
national transport policy (around 18 percent and 16 percent respectively), NMPT operators and
drivers have emphasised the need for better capacity building that is targeted to these groups
spectively) and NGO and NMPT users have emphasised
Preferred characteristics for future Dhaka transport system
made with reference to the five key criteria that have been chosen
define the future transport system of Dhaka as described in Chapter 8, Section 8.4.2.For
convenience of comprehension, the criteria are defined before the results are presented and
suitable mode to make a
Traffic operational efficiency means acceptable network condition with reference
and supporting infrastructure. Access and mobility
y means ease of access to different city parts while mobility
privacy and security of travel.
friendly character of transport system. Modern city
physical appearance of
of the AHP analysis on preferred transport system quality (criteria) for Dhaka
in future transport system of Dhaka
Social equity
Traffic operational
efficiency
Access & mobility
Environmental
sustainability
Modern city Image
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The analysis shows that traffic operational efficiency has been identified from the stakeholder
response as the most preferred quality for the future Dhaka transport system. Access and
mobility together are also of high priority. Modern city image was found to have the lowest
priority.
9.3.2 Preference analyses by groups
The quality preferences, with reference to the Eigen value or relative weighted value assigned
to them by the stakeholders, are presented in Table 9.15. The table also indicates the ordinal
ranking derived for different qualities within each group, based on these estimated relative
weighted values. The quality with highest received weight is assigned rank 1 and the rank
descends as the weighted value lowers. Rank 5 is assigned to the quality that is given least
weight by a group compared to other qualities.
Table 9.15: Quality preference hierarchy by stakeholder groups for future transport system of Dhaka
Preferred
quality Relative value (in weighted %) by Stakeholder category
GO Rank NGO Rank NMPT
operators Rank
NMPT
drivers Rank
NMPT
users Rank
Social
equity
17.7 3 20.5 3 10.4 4 7.2 4 28.6 2
Traffic
operational
efficiency
29.8 2 30.4 2 43.1 1 46.5 1 21.5 3
Access and
mobility
35.8’ 1 31.1 1 30.8 2 31.3 2 37.2 1
Environmental
Sustainability
9.9 4 13.1 4 12.2 3 11.9 3 9.4 4
Modern
City image 6.7 5 4.9 5 3.5 5 3.1 5 3.3 5
Source: Derived by author after field interview (2009)
Figures 9.9 present the results of relative weight values graphically.
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Figure 9.9: Comparative quality preference by stakeholder category in future transport system of Dhaka:
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009)
Analysis within groups
Analysing the quality preference within groups based on the results presented in Table 9.15 and
Figure 8.8, GO were found to assign top priority to access and mobility and traffic operational
efficiency. Social equity was assigned the third priority by this respondent group. NGO have
similar hierarchy for the three top priorities with the top two priorities being viewed as almost
equally important by this group. This group also assigned significant importance to social equity.
For NMPT operators and drivers, the top two priorities assigned were the same as those of GO
and NGO, that is, traffic operational efficiency and access and mobility. Environmental
sustainability was more preferred by these three groups than social equity. NMPT operators
preferred environmental sustainability marginally over social equity but NMPT drivers assigned
more prominent preference on environmental sustainability. NMPT users’ prioritised access
and mobility most highly followed by social equity and traffic operational efficiency.
Analysis between groups
Comparing the quality preference among groups, the general trend demonstrated that
improved traffic efficiency and better access and mobility were the top two qualities desired in
the future transport system of Dhaka by all stakeholder categories. Access and mobility was
ranked number 1 by three groups (G0, NGO and NMPT users) and ranked 2 by the remaining
two groups (NMPT operators and drivers). Traffic operational efficiency was ranked as 1 by two
groups (NMPT operators and drivers) and 2 by two groups (G0 and NGO). Lowest priority was
given to city image quality by all stakeholder groups (ranked 5). Fluctuation on viewpoint and
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
GO NGO NMPT
Operators
NMPT drivers NMPT users
Sh
are
(%
)
Stakeholder group
Social equity Traffic operational efficiency
Access & mobility Environmental sustainability
Modern city image
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prioritisation among groups was found regarding social equity and environmental sustainability
qualities (ranked 2 to 4).
A consistent high preference weight of around 30 percent or more was assigned to access and
mobility by each respondent group. NMPT users preferred it most and the others were very
similar in their priority. Improved traffic efficiency also received significant scores of around 30
percent or more among the four stakeholder groups. NMPT drivers scored this quality highest.
NMPT users preferred social equity as a higher priority over traffic operational efficiency. This is
understandable based on the discussion between the researcher and the NMPT users during
field interview. In this group’s view, it was relatively more important for them to be afforded a
decent transport option and be able to access to desired destinations over travel time savings
or better road conditions. The preference for environmental sustainability was prioritised most
highly by NGO in compared to others. NMPT operators and drivers were not far behind. These
values however reflect consistent lower priority for the criteria, in relation to preference for
other qualities.
Discussion and observation by the researcher on the stakeholders during interview showed
that, even though there was awareness of NMPT’s positive environmental effect, the necessity
of other qualities supersedes this priority. Modern city image was ranked lowest by all
stakeholders, but it was assigned a higher relative value by GO and NGO groups than the others.
Discussion with these groups during the survey revealed that they have the vision to modernise
the transport system and the general intention is to give Dhaka a look similar to that of cities of
more developed countries.
In addition to the identification of priority hierarchy for future transport quality of Dhaka, the
above discussion and ranking pattern also revealed relative consistency of the preferences. A
K-W H test was conducted to cross-examine this statement (Table 9.16). The null hypothesis is
that there is consistency in viewpoint of stakeholders regarding quality preference for future
Dhaka transport system.
Table 9.16: Difference in opinion between stakeholder groups on preferred quality for future Dhaka
transport system
Difference of
opinion
Degree of
freedom
Critical value at 95% confidence
level (based on Chi-Square table)
H value
Between groups 4 9.49 0.201
Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009) and analysis
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The result showed that H statistic is much lower than the critical value at the designated degree
of freedom. Therefore the null hypothesis is accepted, that is, there is good consistency in the
opinion of the stakeholder groups regarding their priority for qualities. This reflects the findings
of the AHP analysis. See Appendix D.11 for an inventory of respondent-wise, relative weights
assigned to all samples.
9.4 Summary
This chapter described the data analysis results of NMPT stakeholders’ viewpoint regarding the
role of the mode and the preference for future Dhaka transport. Non-parametric statistical
techniques such as frequency distribution, cross tabulation and the K-W statistical test were
applied to analyse the current role and future condition of NMPT. The findings on current issues
indicated that the major portion of five stakeholder groups considered NMPT to have a high to
moderate functional role. A moderate proportion of the GO and NGO differed from this trend
and expressed it to be of low functional role. The data analysis also showed that the major
portion of five stakeholder groups considered high to moderate dependency levels of Dhaka
transport users on the mode for regular trip purposes. Very few suggested otherwise.
Considerable variation in opinion was observed on current restriction functionality of NMPT,
with GO and NGO reflecting some degree of satisfaction. The remaining stakeholders were
mostly unsatisfied with the measures. Analysing the future situation, a substantial portion of
the stakeholders from each group were observed to favour NMPT performing local and feeder
service roles, while they differed on the other two options. GO was more inclined to see it as
local service mode; NMPT operators, drivers and users were inclined to see the mode as free-
flowing in all network parts and NGO was evenly split between these options.
Similar to respondent viewpoint on current restrictions, a spread in opinion was observed on
future preferred restriction levels of NMPT. Most preferences were split between two
alternatives of partial restriction strategy. Partial restriction-existing was highly favoured by GO
but the majority of the remaining stakeholders favoured the partial restriction-proposed
strategy. Among other control levels, some portion of the GO favoured full restriction measures
while some of the remaining respondent groups preferred the no restriction option.
Regarding the suggestions to improve future management and planning of NMPT, the
emphases on most desirable choices were quite similar between all five groups. Multi-criteria
analysis and Analytical hierarchy process based priority structure for a future transport system
of Dhaka was then determined, with reference to five predefined criteria; social equity, traffic
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operational efficiency, access and mobility, environmental sustainability and urban fabric and
city image. Traffic operational efficiency and access and mobility were found to be two most
preferred criteria by each stakeholder group. City image were the least preferred criteria. Social
equity was most preferred over environmental sustainability.
The understanding from this chapter informs the investigation of the role contribution of NMPT
and on the suitability of the current practices for NMPT control in Dhaka, from the perspective
of NMPT stakeholders. The results will also assist in providing insight on future preferences
from NMPT and in comprehending the coherence of NMPT to the desired character of a future
Dhaka transport system. The next chapter presents the understanding and inferences on the
future of NMPT in Dhaka.
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10CHAPTER 10: INFERENCES AND RECOMMENDATIONS FROM DHAKA
CASE STUDY ANALYSIS
10.1 Introduction
Chapters 3 to 9 provided a comprehensive review and analyses of non-motorised public
transport (NMPT) status in Dhaka city, Bangladesh, with reference to the published literature
and a stakeholder viewpoint survey. Based on these discussions and findings, this chapter
makes inference and recommendation on the future of NMPT in Dhaka.
The discussion of this chapter is divided into two major sections. Section 10.2 presents the
inferences on NMPT role condition and policy planning with reference to review and analyses of
literature. Section 10.3 presents the inference on opinion and preference of stakeholders
regarding these issues. The endeavour is to examine the validity of the set hypothesis and reach
answers regarding relevant research questions (research questions 1 and 2). Whether there is a
need to address research question 3 will also be revealed from the inferences.
10.2 Inferences from literature review
10.2.1 Inferences from NMPT role review
The role review and analyses in Chapters 4 to 6 has demonstrated two contrasting viewpoints
on NMPT based on statistics and evidence. Table 10.1 summarises these comparative
advantages and disadvantages of NMPT.
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Table 10.1: Comparative advantages and disadvantages of NMPT as a mode in Dhaka
Advantages
1. Maintains social equity by catering for market demand of vulnerable social groups (women,
children, elderly); serves student population; reduces poverty
2. Strong influence on macro economy and micro economy of Dhaka
3. Large backward and forward linkage for employment generation (direct- driver and owner;
indirect- repairing parts outlet, garages and painting shops)
4. Zero fossil fuel consumption and no health relevant impact
5. Better accessibility and on-board travel comfort for short-to-medium distance travel compared
to other available public transport modes
6. Better hours of service and reliability for short-to-medium distance travel compared to other
available public transport modes
7. Better service coverage and safety for short-to-medium distance travel compared to other
available public transport modes
8. Better door-to-door travel time compared to other most other forms of public transport.
9. Better affordability; as operationally inexpensive, compared to paratransits and private
motorised vehicles; provides greater service to low and middle income population
10. Lower road space occupancy related to passenger carriage (second to buses)
11. Appropriate and efficient form of transport mode for short distance passenger carriage, the
major trip demand of Dhaka.
12. Suitable for freight carriage; especially when there is a need to move small parcel loads between
farms and local markets and capital resources are scarce.
13. Suitable to narrow network parts of Dhaka
14. Possible best feeder mode for motorised public transit
15. Holds highest modal share as well as passenger trip share in total traffic stream and thereby
existing as substantially dominant mode
Disadvantages
1. Slow speed and congestion stimulator
2. Space inefficient
3. Unsafe and hazardous
4. High fare
5. High physical labour & thereby inhumane
6. Old technology
7. Poor image and reflection of backwardness.
Source: Developed by author after review and analysis of Chapter 4 to 6
The tabular representation reveals that NMPT is an important mode of regular transport in
Dhaka, offering flexible, convenient door-to door public transport service in a relatively cost
efficient manner, using renewable energy with no adverse environmental effect. They also
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represent an important source of employment, income and mobility for various social groups.
An alternative view, primarily from the decision level, was that NMPT are inefficient due to slow
speed and that they create congestion, are expensive, unsafe and inhumane as a means of
transport and should be replaced by motorised vehicles such as auto-rickshaws, tempos and
buses. It is therefore necessary to examine the validity of these claimed disutilities before final
inference is made on role significance of NMPT.
Slow speed
The commonly perceived constraint of NMPT has been its inefficiency as a mode of transport;
that is, slow operating speed and poor road space utilisation of the vehicle leading to traffic
congestion. The review and analyses found that the aspects of speed and its desired output,
travel time, for a mode are relative. They need to be assessed with reference to trip character,
that is, trip length and mode usage pattern of a transport system. The previous review and
analysis has revealed that typical trip length in Dhaka is around 5.4 km, three-quarter of the
total trips are short distanced (<3 km) (STP, 2005a; Hossain &Susilo,2011) , the primary trip
length of NMPT is 3 km (DITS, 1994a; STP, 2005a; DHUTS, 2010) and a number of available
vehicles have door-to-door service characteristics. It is therefore rational to measure the impact
of speed and travel time for NMPT, in comparison to other modes in context of the
aforementioned trip character. Accordingly, the analysis of Table 6.20 and Figure 6.17 showed
that for a 3 km door-to-door trip, NMPT has similar or better travel time compared to other
public transport modes. Even at a medium length trip (up to 5 km), NMPT is quicker than all
other public transport modes besides auto-rickshaw.
In the same context, the argument put forward by Habib (2002) that NMPT elimination would
reduce vehicle hours of travel and thereby traffic congestion is also not considered valid, as the
estimation was based on link travel time only, and not other components of generalised travel
time such as wait time, walk time, transfer penalties etc. An associated but equally important
aspect was also not considered, that being whether in-vehicle times or the other parts of the
generalised times would be dominant in deriving time gain inference for a network, which
depends on general trip distances of the transport system. The higher the trip distance, the
higher the contribution from in-vehicle times. After a certain break even distance, the
contribution of in-vehicle time would be greater than that of waiting time, walking time and
transfer penalty etc. According to Bari and Efroymson (2005b), it is usually between 3-4 km.
Since, three quarter of the trips in Dhaka are short distance trips, the argument of Habib (2002)
that removal of NMPT would reduce vehicle hours of travel is also not viable. Moreover, the
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argument of travel time reduction assumes that all NMPT mode shares are replaced by bus,
auto-rickshaw or taxi. This is highly impractical as was found from the Mirpur Road
Demonstrated Corridor post NMPT mode share analysis, presented in Figure 7.3. So the
argument that NMPT are slow moving and increase travel time is contextual and may be more
valid while making longer trips. Even then, the preferable mode of travel such as bus or human
hauler requires proper integration (design and/or planning) with NMPT component to ensure
optimisation of door-to-door travel time and to minimize the conflict of mixed-traffic
movements.
Road space inefficiency
The review and analyses discards the notion of road space utilisation inefficiency of NMPT. The
findings suggest that under a mixed mode operating system such as in Dhaka, NMPT are the
second most efficient road users after public transport (bus). According to analyses in Table 6.5,
under a loaded situation, the road space requirement of NMPT per passenger is one third less
than that of auto-rickshaw, one quarter less than taxi and one sixth less than cars.
Previous description and analyses also revealed that NMPT are road efficient in terms of total
road space share to trip share, compared to cars that are under no movement restriction. The
analyses revealed that cars occupy 38 percent of total road space in Dhaka while they carry only
6 percent of non-walk trip share, while NMPT occupy 32 percent of total road space but carry
48 percent of non-walk trips. The road space efficiency of NMPT is thereby clearly evident from
these findings. The discussion also emphasises the importance of having a balance in the future
planning of different modes, so that the restrictions and operational management process are
better distributed among the modes.
Cost ineffectiveness
The argument that NMPT is expensive, needs to be compared with auto-rickshaw and taxi,
which are comparative public transport modes available in Dhaka, rather than with the
traditional transit option such as bus. This is because, NMPT provides door-to-door service as an
individualised public transport like auto-rickshaw or taxi and unlike bus. The review and
analyses in Figure 6.18 and 6.19 showed that at different trip lengths (1-10 km), NMPT requires
lower out of pocket travel cost compared to auto-rickshaw or taxi. Motorcycles are costlier than
NMPT for distances above 3 km. Cars are costlier at all trip lengths. The cost-effectiveness of the
mode, under the current situation, is therefore without question. A recent survey study by
Hossain and Susilo (2011) echoed a similar affordability aspect of NMPT. The study found that
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87 percent of respondents would not have made a similar trip with similar level of service as
provided by NMPT, because the alternatives would be unaffordable to them.
Low safety
NMPT are sometimes labelled as a hazardous vehicles and causes of accidents. But the review
and analyses found that NMPT has less than one tenth of the contribution in mode share of
accidents in Dhaka compared to buses and truck, while they carry equal or more trips in
comparison. Rather, they were found to be more vulnerable to be effected by an accident, as
90 percent of accidental deaths in Dhaka were found to be attributable to buses and trucks.
It is understood from the review that NMPT lags in operating safety, because supportive
infrastructure or priority measures are not available for their movement and a lack of driver
training on road rules. The latter aspect is also applicable for other vehicle drivers. Review of
literature also found that the vehicular safety measures of NMPT require improvement,
especially provision for regular fitness checks. This practice is currently absent, as more than 90
percent of NMPTs are illegal due to the ceiling imposed in 1986. So it is important to have a
better balanced operating environment, technical support and regulatory backup to ensure
safety of NMPTs, as well as their coexistence with other more hazardous vehicles.
Inhumane character
NMPT driving is often labelled as an inhumane or dishonourable profession at policy level and
active efforts were undertaken to remove the mode. It is understood from the previous
literature review that NMPT driving does involve strong physical demand and has a long term
health effect. But the review and analyses also demonstrated that in Dhaka more than 50
percent of the people live below poverty line and the poverty line has increased over the last
decade. The review further revealed large scale employment dependence on NMPT by the
city’s population. So this debate of inhumanity, like the issue of speed, is relative and needs to
be understood from the socio-economic context of the city. Based on the livelihood aspect of
the poor and the scale of dependence on the industry, more than half of Dhaka population, it
may be arguable that it is more humane to have a profession such as NMPT driving that
involves hard labour but offers better self-reliance to the poor, than denying them of any other
better alternatives. In this context, Gallagher (1992) stated:
“…is rickshaw pulling a dishonourable occupation? There are many other jobs in
Bangladesh which are just as arduous, if not worse: brick-breaking, carrying goods by
head and shoulder, rowing boats, pulling carts by hand, labouring in forges, foundries
and bakeries. Yet no one talks about abolishing them.”
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Bari and Efroymson (2006) suggested:
“If we were really concerned about the rickshaw-pullers, we might have a better fare
structure for them or improve the technologically obsolete rickshaw fleets…if we can
make rickshaws more humane, we don’t have to worry about whether the rickshaw-
pulling profession as a whole is inhumane or not.”
From a more scientific viewpoint, Gallagher (1992) explained:
“Engineers who have studied the Bangladesh rickshaw reckon that a power output of
about 0.12-0.13 horse power (90W to 100W) is required to pedal it fast with a normal
load i.e. 8-9 mph (13 to 15 km/h) with two passengers on level ground with zero head-
wind. A comfortable power output is usually reckoned to be around 0.10 horse power
(75W). Hence rickshaw-pulling at 0.12-0.13 hp is very close to this comfortable level.”
Thus, under normal conditions, assuming flat ground which is common topography for Dhaka,
little wind and even with up to two passengers, and a 40 percent higher load than is observed in
general with average occupancy of 1.6, NMPT driving is not as difficult as often portrayed, even
for the elderly as is observed in Dhaka. But of course, with tough operating conditions (high
wind, slight gradient, rough road, worn tyres and frequent stop and starts), the power
requirement can rise by up to 100 percent (Gallagher,1992). In such situations, there are better
adaptation alternatives available to ease the situation, the primary of which is to improve the
old vehicular design. Current NMPT in Dhaka weighs 92 kg and as suggested by engineers such
as Ian Barwell (Gallagher,1992), who previously worked in NMPT design improvement of Dhaka,
the weight can be reduced by as much as 40 percent to 56 kg. The light weight NMPT designed
by ITDP, and those popularly used in India (weighting 55 kg) demonstrate this (Gadepalli, 2006).
So the ‘inhumane’ labelling of NMPT is relative; and with proper initiatives such as better
management and technological improvements, it is possible to reduce hardship of this
profession.
Examining poor city image
Finally, NMPT are often suggested as an antiquated vehicle by the policy makers that reflect
underdevelopment and backwardness. But review and analyses of literature, particularly in a
global perspective showed that most modern, attractive, livable cities of Western Europe,
Australia and North America are promoting NMTs such as bicycles and to certain extents,
technologically advanced NMPT, to enhance the attractiveness and liveability of their cities. The
rationality to promote a ban on NMPT in Dhaka on grounds of city image is contrary to image
shift in Western cities.
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The review and analyses of the advantages and disadvantages of NMPT revealed that the
benefits distinctly outweigh the disadvantages. It is therefore reasonable to infer that NMPT has
an ongoing and future potential role contribution as a regular public transport mode in Dhaka.
The hypothesis related to research questions 1 and 2 are thereby validated. Notwithstanding,
the analysis has found that certain aspects of NMPT such as operational safety and vehicular
technology do require improvement to ensure efficiency as a mode to be used into the future.
10.2.2 Inference from review on NMPT restriction practices
The review and analyses on NMPT restriction policies as presented in Chapters 5 and 7 have
demonstrated both advantages and disadvantages of the practices. Table 10.2 summarises the
comparative situation.
Table 10.2: Comparative advantages and disadvantages of NMPT restriction in Dhaka
Advantages
1. Improvement in overall link travel speed and travel time for motorised transports as
whole (Corridor 2 derivation)
Disadvantages
1. Large scale illegal operation of NMPT
2. Non-compliance in implementation of NMPT restriction measures compared to
guidelines set before the physical restrictions were imposed
a) Non-adherence in the category of roads restricted to NMPT
b) Non-adherence in provision of alternative NMPT routes
c) Non-adherence in maintaining directness standard for the provided alternative
NMPT routes A
3. Increase in link travel speed and travel time for bus (Corridor 2 derivation).
4. Increase in overall journey time and travel cost for NMPT users (Corridor 2
derivation).
5. Increase in overall journey time and travel cost for former NMPT users that switched
to other non-private transport modes (Corridor 2 derivation).
6. Reduction in total traffic flow (Corridor 2 derivation).
7. Increase in gross emission (Corridor 2 derivation)
8. Loss of livelihood to the NMPT drivers (Corridor 2 derivation)
Source: Developed by author after review and analysis of Chapter 5 an 6
The tabular analyses revealed that a considerable number of disadvantages were found from
review and analysis, related to current NMPT restriction policies. NMPT were banned on several
major and minor roads but were not compensated for, with suitable modal alternatives or
planned route provisions. Moreover, a number of roads were restricted to NMPT that were
primarily minor distributor or collector in character, previously dominated by NMPT movement.
These have disadvantaged NMPT users, the most dominant trip market in Dhaka. Previous
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review and analysis showed that, in one of the NMPT restricted corridors, NMPT users had to
incur additional time; cost and energy to make a trip after the restriction policies were imposed.
In addition, degradation in operating performance of the priority mode at the policy level, bus,
was also observed on the corridor after the NMPT restriction. This was attributable to the fact
that most road space was filed up by taxis, cars and motorcycles leading to similar or increased
congestion compared to the pre-NMPT ban time. An increase in gross emission was also found
due to increase in motorised modes in these corridors. The review and analysis further found
that NMPT restrictions have caused significant loss of livelihood for the NMPT drivers, one of
the largest employment sectors in Dhaka.
In comparison to all these disadvantages, the only key advantage was a marginal improvement
in average in-vehicle speed and travel time of motorised modes. But even that was found to be
insignificant since there was considerable rise in waiting time for passengers due to higher
demand than supply. So it is not surprising to find from the review that continuous protest and
dissatisfaction were expressed by the NMPT users, drivers and operators in this regard, which
has significantly slowed down the progress of the restrictions. A review on possible future
impact analyses of NMPT removal showed that initiatives to remove NMPT without proper
alternatives would likely lead to increased traffic congestion and emissions. Despite the
disadvantages outweighing the benefits, NMPT restriction measures are still active.
It is understood that NMPT restriction in some parts of the network might be rational on the
grounds of mobility and efficiency, but the strategies to implement the measures demand
better balance and coordination of NMPT operation with other modes of the network. It
appears that, while generally well-intentioned, policy initiatives to restrict or ban NMPT in
Dhaka have failed because they have been biased and unplanned. Biased because the focus has
more been on expected benefits of motorised vehicle users, private motorised vehicles in
particular, rather than focusing on broader mobility needs of all road users including NMPT
users. Unplanned and ad-hoc because the decisions were not pre-assessed with reference to
need and demand of the network, and were not supported by any planning platform or tool to
facilitate proper coordination between modes.
10.2.3 Inference from review on NMPT planning and management proposals
The review and analyses on NMPT integration proposals and practice initiative undertaken so
far and as presented in Chapters 4 and 7 have demonstrated the advantages and disadvantages
listed in Table 10.3.
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Table 10.3: Advantages and disadvantages of current NMPT management proposal in Dhaka
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Broad strategic guideline for
improvement of NMPT industry e.g. Gallagher
(1992), Wipperman and Sowula (2007).
2. Some design specific detailed guidelines
for NMPT infrastructure design improvement
and flow improvement such as in DUTP
(1996a).
3. Planning measures were suggested with
focus on zone based controlling of NMPT e.g.
Quium (1994)
4. Suggestion for NMPT priority measures
for their better management, but no
methodology or tool developed to derive to
that, e.g. Hodgkinson and Elton-Wallery
(2008)
1. No comprehensive planning framework
to facilitate balanced distribution of NMPT
and motorised transport (MT)
Source: Developed by author after review and analysis of Chapter 4 and 6
Table 10.3 indicates that, although a number of proposals have been in place for NMPT
management in previous research and government study, the absence of an integrated
planning methodology for NMPT management is prevalent. The most prominent method
suggested so far, the zone-based control of NMPT by Special Committee on Traffic Problems of
Dhaka (1985) and Quium (1994) was based on the examples of Indonesia. A more detailed
analysis of the approach found a number of concerns about maintaining operational balance of
NMPT compared to other vehicles and its proven disutility as demonstrated in Jakarta. The
other less rigid option by Hodgkinson and Elton-Wallery (2008), based on prioritisation
measures preferred the concept of giving more importance to NMPT over MT operation in
certain links. The derivations to the decision were not made based on any common underlying
principle and following scientific methodology, or considering any network governing attributes.
Rather, it was a very general derivation based on perception of an area and non-coherent
expectation of the researchers from the selected locations, e.g. to increase NMPT driver income
by prioritising the vehicle in rich socio-economic areas where users have better spending
capacity, prioritising NMPT in foreign delegate concentrated areas to promote their
international image etc . Moreover, none have addressed the issue of maintaining a balance in
distribution of different modes at different network parts of the city in an integrated manner.
More precisely, no appropriate methodology or planning tools are available to guide functional
integration of NMPT i.e. in enabling the definition of best location for NMPT in a network, with
reference to motorised modes and vice versa.
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10.3 Inference from viewpoint analysis
The NMPT stakeholder viewpoint as described in Chapters 8 and 9 revealed key insights on
current role and future expectation from NMPT by these groups, plus their preferred quality in
the future Dhaka transport system.
In the present context, the role functionality of NMPT and its dependency for day to day trip
purpose was acknowledged widely. This perception was true across all five stakeholder groups
and supports the hypothesis related to research question 1. Another important insight from
these analyses is that the viewpoint of GO has shifted considerably and is much more positive
towards NMPT than they have been in the recent past. However, considerable disagreement
was revealed regarding the effectiveness of NMPT restriction functionality. More than half of
GO and NGO respondents revealed their satisfaction in this regard, however utmost
dissatisfaction was revealed by other groups. This tension aligns with the review and analyses of
NMPT restriction policy. Important insight from this analysis is that a significant proportion of
GO and NGO also recognises the ineffectiveness of the current restriction initiatives to manage
NMPT (around 43 percent and 45 percent respectively). This implies gradual acceptance of the
decision makers on failure of their current strategies and reinforces the necessity to have a
fresh and planned approach towards NMPT management.
In the future context, majority of the stakeholders across all groups have defined NMPT as most
suitable as a local network service provider and as a feeder service to motorised public
transport. Such delineation reflects their recognition of future potential of NMPT and supports
the hypothesis related to research question 2. This view also provides insight on the preferred
pattern for future NMPT planning. There were, however, disagreements regarding future
preferred levels of control for NMPT. Though most stakeholders under each group preferred
partial restriction (PR) to other alternatives, GO preferred to stay with their current restriction
policy, PR-existing. The remaining stakeholders based their discontent on existing restriction
measures, preferring a more flexible PR approach, that is, PR-proposed. The key insight that can
be derived from this analysis is that a more detailed examination would be required to decide
the most preferred network environment for future NMPT planning, whether PR-existing, PR-
proposed or any other measure. The stakeholder viewpoint analysis also revealed some
common suggestions for improving the management and policy planning of NMPT for the
future, most popular of which included the need to include NMPT within the formal transport
planning processes, modal priority measures for NMPT at different network locations etc. These
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are expected to provide useful insight on the future desired character for an NMPT planning
approach in Dhaka, together with the aforementioned future preferences.
The preferred quality analysis for the future Dhaka transport system found traffic operational
efficiency and access and mobility as the two most desired criteria, followed by social equity.
These findings provide insight on future planning needs for Dhaka, at a transport system level.
10.4 The way forward
The discussion has established significant ongoing and future potential role contribution of
NMPT as a regular public transport mode in Dhaka. The discussion also revealed lack of balance,
along with an ad-hoc planning character of current NMPT integration approaches; and
subsequent ineffectiveness in achieving desired network efficiency. It can be inferred from such
experience that decisions to allow or restrict NMPT, or for that matter other modes and their
comparative preference should be derived based on careful examination of the network and
the operating character of individual modes. This is to ensure that the proposed distribution is
balanced in meeting the need of different transport markets. To facilitate methodical derivation
to the process, appropriate planning tools need to be framed accordingly.
The previous discussion revealed that no such method is currently available. Hence, this
research shall develop an integrated multimodal planning framework (IMPF) comprising a
decision tool and associated implementation strategies. The endeavour is to improve
coexistence of NMPT with motorised vehicles in Dhaka, while addressing the revealed
deficiencies as well as fulfilling desired needs for future. The whole process of Section A, B and
their linkage to following Section (Section C) are summarised in Figure 10.1.
Research gap
Need for a planning
tool to optimise
NMPT-MT
coexistence
Research outcome
A planning framework comprising:
-a decision tool for optimising
coexistence of NMPT with MT
-broad implementation strategy- to
support decision tool
SEC A: Chapter 1
Hypothesis &
Research questions
1, 2
Examined
by
Research questions 3,4 addressed
SEC A, B:
Chapter 2 to 10
Literature review &
Stakeholder viewpoint
based NMPT
dynamic
analysis
SEC C:
Chapter 11 to 15
Research plan and method
development for an
integrated planning
framework
Hypothesis
supported
Research
question 1, 2
answered
-NMPT role
established
-Deficit in
NMPT
planning
revealed
Figure 10.1: Process towards the decision on development of an integrated planning framework
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10.5 Summary
This chapter has described the inferences and learning from Section B, NMPT status review via
the case study of Dhaka, and established the need to improve future NMPT coexistence with
MT in the Dhaka transport system. The advantages and disadvantages of the NMPT role,
current NMPT restriction practices and current NMPT planning and management proposals
were summarised in this regard. The NMPT role review found that NMPT has a significant role
in multiple sectors of Dhaka - in maintaining social equity, economic efficiency, environmental
sustainability and in catering for door-to-door short distance travel demand. It was also found
that the key deficiencies labelled on NMPT modal operations are either largely invalid or
situational, that require better NMPT management than their blanket banning. The inference
was that NMPT has a significant role contribution in the present and future transport system of
Dhaka as a regular public transport mode.
The cost - benefit analysis on current NMPT restriction initiatives showed that the
disadvantages of the approach far outweigh the benefits. It was also revealed that the reasons
behind the ineffectiveness of current approaches are their ad-hoc, unplanned nature and lack
of balanced planning approach to distribute all modes across the network in a systematic
manner. The inference was that an integrated planning framework is needed to address this
inter-modal imbalance. The cost-benefit analysis of prevailing planning and management
initiatives found that no effective and integrated planning approach or tool is available to
address these deficiencies. Based on these findings the chapter concluded that, given the
substantial role significance of NMPT in Dhaka and due to the absence of any effective tool to
manage the same, it is necessary to develop an integrated planning framework to facilitate the
balanced coexistence and integration of NMPT with other motorised modes in Dhaka. Section C
(Chapter 11-15) will describe the process of developing such a planning framework. As a start to
this process, Chapter 11 provides an overview of the proposed planning framework.
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11SECTION C: INTEGRATED PLANNING FRAMEWORK
DEVELOPMENT FOR CASE STUDY DHAKA
CHAPTER 11: OVERVIEW OF THE PLANNING
FRAMEWORK
11.1 Introduction
Section B established the significance of NMPT as a regular public transport mode in Dhaka. The
section also revealed the need for a balanced, integrated planning framework to address the
efficient coexistence of non-motorised public transport (NMPT) with motorised transport (MT).
This section (Chapters 11 to 15) provides the development process of this planning framework
tool, henceforth termed an Integrated Multimodal Planning Framework (IMPF) or framework.
The case area will be the Greater Dhaka Area for reasons as explained in Section B, Chapter 3.
The discussion begins with an overview of the IMPF (this chapter), followed by methodology
adopted for the development of the tool (Chapters 12, 13) and the detailed description of the
IMPF tool development process (Chapters 14, 15). The objective is to formulate a practice-
oriented, planning framework decision tool for facilitating balanced distribution of NMPT and
MT for Dhaka’s transport system and to be able to apply the tool with necessary modifications
for similar cities elsewhere.
The discussion of this chapter is focused on introducing the conceptual planning process that is
used as a platform for the IMPF and key constituents of the process. An overview of the key
steps followed for the development of the planning framework for Dhaka (this section) and its
link to the forthcoming Section of the thesis is presented in Figure 11.1.
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Figure 11.1: Flowchart of key steps in the IMPF development process for Dhaka
SECTION C
Integrated multimodal
planning framework
development
Hypothesis test
Does the tool
facilitate better
balance between
NMPT & MT?
Overview of the
planning framework
Development description of
the planning framework
Application of
methodology
CHAPTER 11 CHAPTER 14, 15
SECTION D
Discussion &
Conclusion
Methodology
rationale
Methodology for planning
framework development
CHAPTER 12, 13
Constituents &
functioning of the
framework
Prelude to
planning
framework
IMPF tool and
implementation strategy
Analyse reasons and
suggest for future
improvement for its
functionality
Y
Dhaka case study
investigation ends
N
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11.2 Conceptual planning process in deriving IMPF
The conceptual planning process that is used to develop the IMPF is based on the Integrated
Transport Planning Framework guideline developed for Queensland by the Queensland
Government (2003). It incorporates key components of the model integrated strategic planning
process recommended by Commonwealth Department of Transport and Regional Services
(DTRS) (Morris Consultants, Daris Olsauskas & Associates, Planning Integration consulting,
Watson Agricultre Resource & Environmental Consulting & Foulsham and Munday, 2001) and
uses the fundamental premise of an integrated planning approach guideline devised by
Austroads (Westerman, 1998). According to Westerman (1998), Queensland Government
(2003) and Button, Vega and Nijkamp (2010), an integrated transport planning framework is a
guide to good-practice transport planning. It sets out collaborative, consistent and sustainable
approach to transport planning by assessing current and future needs, in general or issue
specific. Westerman (1998) and Queensland Government (2003) framework guideline also
suggests that it is important that an integrated transport planning framework should facilitate
proper planning by setting out desired outcomes, direction and principles and planning steps
for the framework. According to Queensland Government (2003):
A framework facilitates good-practice transport planning by setting out desired
outcomes that provide a consistent framework to focus planning on achieving good
outcomes for the community and the transport system; directions and principles that
provide guidance on how to achieve the desired outcomes; planning steps that offer a
process to follow when undertaking integrated transport planning.
Based on these guidelines and from the needs as revealed in previous sections the desired
outcomes, principles and directions and planning steps for the proposed IMPF are set to enable
development of a good-practice decision tool.
11.2.1 Desired outcomes
Desired outcomes are strategic statements that reflect the needs and values expected from the
framework (Queensland Government, 2003).The analysis of Section B has revealed that the
outcome expected from the planning framework would be to deliver a decision tool that is
integrative and collaborative in nature, enabling sustainable NMPT management alongside MT.
Integrative with reference to its ability to consider different modes in balance, its ability to
complement land uses and relevant transport policies in place when distributing modes in a
network. It is collaborative in its ability to combine the expectation of the different stakeholders
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(e.g. decision makers and users) from a future transport system. It is sustainable with reference
to the capability of the tool to offer better social equity, economic improvement, access and
mobility, environmental sustainability and improved governance while management of NMPT
alongside MT.
These attributes of the tool should be present in the proposed framework in a mix that can be
reached within the available circumstances, rather than in isolation, according to the guideline
of Queensland Government (2003) and planning model of DTRS (Morris Consultants et al.,
2001).
11.2.2 Direction and associated principles
In a planning framework, direction provides guideline on achieving the desired outcomes
(Queensland Government, 2003). The direction of the proposed IMPF is to facilitate a balanced
environment in distribution and operation of NMPT with MT.
The direction is supported by a number of principles that assist in its application and which are
attempted to be adhered to while striving for the direction. The principles chosen as such
included,
1. Ensuring integration of different modes in the transport system
2. Ensuring integration of transport and land use
3. Ensuring integration of transport system operation with policy planning
4. Enabling better representation of different stakeholders in the integration and
planning process
11.2.3 Planning steps
Queensland Government (2003) suggested that using the desired outcomes, direction and
principles as a guide, the planning steps offer practical advice on how to carry out the planning
exercise. The planning exercise for this study is to develop an IMPF tool that can be utilised in
order to optimize NMPT coexistence alongside MT.
Based on the suggested framework guideline of Queensland Government (2003) and integrated
planning model process of DTRS (Morris Consultants et al. ,2001) and Westerman (1998), four
major planning steps are formulated to carry out the target planning exercise of this study. The
first step is initial problem planning - defining purpose and scope of the planning exercise. For
this study, it includes the need rationale establishment for development of an IMPF for the
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Dhaka case study which has already been derived from Section B analysis. The second step is to
determine the preferred character for the proposed IMPF. The process includes detailed
analysis of alternative MT-NMPT integration strategies, with reference to multiple criteria that
are aligned to the set direction and principles. The endeavour is to determine the best
integration strategy for the framework while taking into account current deficiencies and future
preferences. The analyses as such, together with the learning of Section B, detail the preferred
attributes for the future transport network and the IMPF.
The third step is to assess and select a technique that can best address these deficiencies and
desired needs of the network while laying out the proposed IMPF tool. In particular, minimizing
mismatch between network functional character and operating character of modes. The fourth
and final step is to develop a strategy that can best address the set desired outcomes. For this
research, the strategy is the structuring process and application method of the developed
framework tool, based on selected layout technique and integration approach, in order to
address the current NMPT-MT management imbalance in the transport system. A schematic
diagram of the whole conceptual process is presented in Figure 11.2.The detailed methodology
and development process of these planning steps are described in following chapters.
It must be noted that the steps are structured so that they can be tailored to suit different
planning situations such as regional, local and site-specific planning, as suggested by
Queensland Government (2003).
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Figure 11.2: The conceptual planning process as the platform for developing the IMPF [after Queensland Government (2003), Morris Consultant et al. (2001) and Westerman (1998)]
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11.3 Summary
This chapter has provided a section overview on the proposed IMPF development process and
key activities in obtaining the same in case study Dhaka. This chapter has also outlined, in more
detail, the conceptual planning process and steps that are used as a platform in development of
the IMPF based on guidelines of Queensland Government (2003), DTRS (Morris Consultants et
al. , 2001) and Westerman (1998). The conceptual planning process discussion revealed that the
desired outcome of the framework was to achieve better sustainability, integration and
collaboration in future NMPT management decisions alongside MT. The underlying direction
was to facilitate balance between distribution and operation of NMPT with MT. Four major
planning steps were followed in achieving the desired outcomes and the set direction. They
include initial problem planning (need for IMPF tool); defining current and future state of the
problem (type and character of imbalance in current network; desired character for future);
evaluation and selection of technique that best address these deficiencies and needs; and
finally development of a delivery plan (IMPF tool structuring and application process) to
minimize current NMPT management imbalance with MT. The next chapter describes the
methodology rationale of the framework.
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12CHAPTER 12: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY RATIONALE
12.1 Introduction
“The identification and organisation of sequential steps are essential for organising
research plans and executing research projects in a successful manner. An appropriate
beginning with accurate statement of research questions, objectives and justifications
can greatly enhance the likelihood of success. The guiding principle for developing any
research methodology is that it must completely address the research questions. To
meet these objectives, a research study should have a detailed research design that can
be used as a blueprint for collecting observations and data that are connected to the
research questions.”
(Creswell, 2003)
Chapter 11 provided an overview of the conceptual planning process and major planning steps
formulated in deriving the integrated multimodal planning framework (IMPF). In order to shed
light on the methodological process relevant to these planning steps, a comprehensive research
design is required. The current chapter and its following chapter (Chapter 13) describe the
process. This chapter explains the rationale behind the methodological structure; data
collection types and methods; tools selected and analytical procedures adopted for addressing
relevant research question. Chapter 13 describes the application of the selected methodological
process on case study of Dhaka.
The methodology rationale devised for this study is structured into four key sections. Section
12.2 reviews the broad research approaches commonly used in social science studies. Section
12.3 reviews the different research methodology in practice in this field. The objectives of these
two sections are to construct ideas on the application context of the available research
techniques. Section 12.4 derives from a research framework design that is rationale in
addressing the need of the posed research question, formulated to evaluate the hypothesis.
Section 12.5 further investigates the justification of the chosen research methodology with
respect to standard theoretical inference. The endeavour is to ensure that methodological
sequence adopted and contents incorporated maximize the likelihood of achieving the research
aims and objectives. Figure 12.1 shows the conceptual undertaking behind the structure of this
chapter.
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Figure 12.1: The research framework design and link to case study application
12.2 Review of broad research approaches
Before attempting to develop a research design, it is important to review different research
approaches and their characteristics to understand the concept behind their selection. It is
observed that there are three major streams of research approaches in the social science realm,
based on purposes. These are exploratory, descriptive and explanatory (Babbie, 2007).
Exploratory research is a research type that is often used to determine the best research design
and data collection methods, when problems are in preliminary stage, (Babbie, 2007). It is
flexible and can address research questions of all types (what, why, how). However, the utility
of the research process is more effective when the topic or issue is new and data is difficult to
collect. More significantly, such research is preferable in unearthing theory from the data itself
rather than from a predisposed hypothesis. According to Shields and Tajalli (2006) exploratory
research can be best linked with the conceptual framework that leads to a working hypothesis.
Review of broad
research
approaches
Review of major
research
methodologies
Analyse
research question with
relation to posed hypothesis
Derive measurable
propositions
Data collection and analytical
procedures to enable
evaluation of posed
propositions
Construct concept
Development of suitable
research methodology
Does it
correspond to
standard norms?
CHAPTER 13
Application of the
methodology
N
Y
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This approach is non-confirmatory in character and outcomes are not usually useful for
decision-making by themselves; rather, they provide significant insight into a given situation.
Descriptive research is fundamental to the research enterprise and it has added immeasurably
to our knowledge of the shape and nature of our society (De Vaus, 2001). Unlike exploratory
research, it is more confirmatory in character, i.e. based on a predetermined hypothesis and the
research process attempts to refute or non-refute the same. This research approach is often
used to obtain information concerning the current status of a phenomenon to describe “what
exists” with respect to conditions in a situation and “how” that can be addressed (Key, 1997). To
be more generic, AECT (2001), McNabb (2002) and Miller (2006) state that, the concern of
descriptive research is to find out the “what is” situation. Descriptive research covers a wide
range of the study spectrum but is limited on the precondition that it should have practical
implications on life of the people i.e. the outcome should enable the researcher to establish a
method to address the complication. The process is useful therefore in making definitive
decisions about a problem statement and also to make validation of an assumption based on
factual, accurate, systematic data description. However it should be noted that the process fails
to satisfactorily describe the causal relationship between variables.
Explanatory research focuses on the “why” question more vigorously and therefore caters for
the need to explain the nature of relationship that exists between the dependent and
independent variables by answering what causes the effect (De Vaus, 2001). It is a style of
research in which the primary goal is to understand the nature or mechanisms of the
relationship between the independent and dependent variable. It also is a form of confirmatory
research process but the difference with descriptive research lies in the capability of this
process to better explain what caused a situation.
12.3 Review of research methodology literature
A brief comprehension of the commonly used research methodologies is also important, to
further build up the concept of an appropriate design framework to adopt for this research.
With this context, a short review of widely used, contemporary research methodology literature
is administered below to shed light on different techniques available and their rationale.
The major reviewed literature included that of Marsh (1982), De Vaus (2001), Sommer and
Sommer (2002), Hoyle, Harris and Judd (2002), Creswell (2003), Yin (2003), Leedy and Ormrod
(2005), Ziesel (2006), Neuman (2000) and Monette, Sullivan and DeJong (2011). The analysis
reveals that different clusters of researchers have classified research design process in varying
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manners, based on different themes and principles. De Vaus (2001) suggested a generalised
classification, Marsh (1982); Yin (2003) and Zeisel (2006) suggested classification by most
commonly-found character of research problems; Monette et al. (2011) suggested
categorisation by technique of measuring target variables; Sommer and Sommer (2002) &
Hoyle et al. (2002) classified research methodology by data collection methods; and Creswell
(2003), Leedy and Ormrod(2005) & Neuman (2000) classified research methods by quantitative
and qualitative nature of research.
The common design process categories found in this literature evaluation process included,
• archival analysis (Hoyle et al.,2002; Yin, 2003; Creswell, 2003; Neuman, 2000;
Monette et al., 2011)
• historical analysis (Yin, 2003; Leedy & Ormond, 2005; Neuman, 2000)
• survey (Yin, 2003; Creswell, 2003; Leedy & Ormond, 2005; Ziesel, 2006; Neuman,
2000; Monette et al., 2011)
• interview (Sommer & Sommer, 2002; Leedy & Ormond, 2005; Neuman, 2000;
Monette et al., 2011)
• observation (Sommer & Sommer, 2002; Hoyle et al., 2002; Leedy & Ormond,
2005; Monette et al., 2011)
• experiment (De Vaus, 2001; Sommer & Sommr, 2002; Hoyle, 2002; Yin, 2003;
Ziesel, 2006; Neuman, 2000) and
• case study (De Vaus, 2001; Yin, 2003; Ziesel, 2006; Leedy & Ormond, 2005).
Some researchers such as Creswell (2003), Lee and Ormond (2005) and Neuman (2000) have
attempted to associate choice of a particular design process for a particular type of data (e.g.
interview, survey or experiment with quantitative data; case study or historical analysis with
qualitative data). However the majority of the researchers have suggested that the whole
choice process of a suitable design for a research study should be related to the circumstances,
the research needs and the outcome desired from that research. According to Yin (2003):
the suitable research methods depend on the way the problem is defined, what the
investigators wants to know, the nature of the object being studied, previous
knowledge the study is based on and type of results desired.
De Vaus (2001) further argued that any data-collection method can be adopted for any design
and the selection should depend on the need of the research, not on whether it is a qualitative
research or a quantitative research. Creswell (2003) and Neuman (2000) have also accepted this
notion to be more effective in realising effective research design development, rather than
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being always attached to the concept of pre-fixed association between design and data type. It
is worth mentioning that though the meanings are alike, the terminology used to specify the
phrase research methodology was different by researcher. The most commonly used
expressions included ‘research design’ (De Vaus, 2001; Leedy & Ormond, 2005; Zeisel, 2006;
Neuman, 2000), ‘strategy’ (Marsh, 1982; Hoyle et al.,2002; Yin, 2003), ‘research technique’
(Sommer & Sommer, 2002; Monette et al., 2011) etc.
Note that the purpose of this section is not to detail each method type, their context and
application. Rather, it is to outline the commonly practiced ideology for classification and
selection of research design process. The endeavour is to provide a better understanding while
developing the research design for this study. The context, rationale and applicability of chosen
methods for the current study (Section 12.4) will be described as required with reference to
these discussed methods. The detailed review of the discussed research methodologies are
presented in Appendix E.1.
12.4 The research framework design
The whole process from framing a question to data analysis and its interpretation is very
important for answering research questions as clearly as possible (De Vaus ,2001). The research
design therefore needs to ensure that evidence is obtained and processed to enable us to
answer research questions as unambiguously as possible, in alignment to conceived
hypothetical propositions. No wonder then it is commonly believed that the most significant
start to a research methodology development process is the establishment of a comprehensive
research design process. Kerlinger and Lee (2000) said:
A research design is a plan, structure and strategy so conceived as to obtain answers to
research questions or problems. The plan is the complete scheme or program of the
research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing the
hypotheses and their operational implication to the final analysis of data.
The above definition denotes that a research design is a procedural plan that has two main
functions. Identification and development of procedures and logistical arrangements required
for a particular study, but that construct rationale on the validity of such procedures to ensure
that they can achieve the best result. This section and its following section (Section 12.5) focus
on developing such a rationale, with reference to IMPF development. In this section, the design
process starts with examination of the research question set to clarify the posed hypothesis as
related to the framework development. This is followed by formulation of operational concepts
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underlying the research question and then their break down into measurable sub-concepts, to
better reflect the hypothetical frame of reference conceived earlier. These sequences enabled
logical derivation to appropriate data collection and analytical procedure i.e. a research design
which can satisfactorily answer the research question and validate hypothesis.
12.4.1 Examining research question
The necessity to initiate the research design process with careful examination of research
questions is an agreed approach considered by almost all researchers including the literature
reviewed in Section 12.3. It is suggested that the process should start by clarifying the research
question (in accordance to preconceived hypothesis, if applicable) and the choice of a suitable
methodology is derived based on the type of questions asked (Yin, 2003). Leedy &Ormond,
(2005) added the argument that different research questions lead to the address of different
research problems, thereby requiring different research designs and methods. This in turn
results in the collection of different types of data and different interpretations of those data.
This research has posed the following hypothesis
‘There is an ongoing significant role of NMPT as a regular public transport and it can effectively
contribute towards sustainable transport with respect to social equity, economic independence,
environmental security and traffic operational efficiency, if integrated appropriately into the
transport system’
The first part of the hypothesis on role significance of NMPT has been established in Section A
and B. Research questions 1 and 2 were also answered in this process. In order to examine the
latter part of the hypothesis, which is the basis for IMPF development, the following research
questions were formulated.
How can NMPT best perform a continuing role as regular public transport in the
present and future context of a developing city such as Dhaka? And
How can NMPT contribute to sustainable transport in the present and future
context of a developing city such as Dhaka?
Based on the review presented on research approach and methodology, it is possible to deduct
some of them from the spectrum for research design. Due to the confirmatory background of
the research questions, which is subject to a preconceived hypotheses examination, they
should fall under either descriptive or explanatory research question category. Moreover, due
to the topic theme, the contemporary nature of the questions and the scope of this research,
methods such as historical research method, true experimental design method, longitudinal
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design method or obtrusive observation method can be eliminated. The rest of the broad
approaches and design methods are analysed in following segments with reference to the
posed research questions.
The posed research questions are primarily descriptive research questions due to the pattern of
their enquiry, but also possess explanatory components to rationalise the descriptive tasks. The
questions intend to understand the ‘what is’ and ‘how’ phenomena, in alignment with the
notion of descriptive research (Key, 1997; Miller, 2006). The focus in this instance is ‘what
changes in transport network management are required to sustainably link existing need to
future expectations’ regarding NMPT integration in Dhaka and ‘how that can be achieved’. Since
such a process requires answering the questions viz. ‘what changes’, ‘where applicable’, ‘why
so’ and ‘how so’, a mix of descriptive as well as explanatory paradigm is logical. Different
research methods are suggested for the defined research approach such as experiment, survey,
archival analysis, case study (Yin, 2003 & Ziesel, 2006); observation, survey, interview (McNabb,
2002; Miller, 2006). In order to facilitate the choice of a suitable method related to the need of
this research, it is better to operationalise and refine the concepts in the question such that
they can lead to more specific measurable propositions (De Vaus, 2001).
The key concepts of these questions are how can NMPT best perform its role as a regular public
transport and in achieving transport sustainability. In other words, the key concepts can be
combined and redefined as the need of a well -ntegrated planning framework for balance
distribution of NMPT with motorised transport (MT). This concept is broad and requires
translation into more measurable sub-concepts to enable suitable evaluation method selection.
The break-down process needs to be aligned with the above hypothetical frame of reference
and relevant sub-questions of this research question, constructed in Chapter 1. The measurable
sub-concepts as such, can be derived as comprehension of the desired characteristics for the
proposed framework, selection of suitable technique that can replicate those characteristics in
the proposed framework, and based on selected attributes plus technique, development of a
methodology for functionality of the proposed framework. These sub-concepts correspond
respectively to planning steps 2, 3 and 4 of the conceptual planning process for IMPF
development. Note that outcome for planning step 1 is already derived from analysis of Section
B, as explained in Chapter 11. The spatial context of the concept is fixed for case study of Dhaka.
12.4.2 Preferred data collection and analytical procedure
Examination of the research question enabled a broad understanding of the underlying
concepts and sub-concepts that need to be addressed to achieve a productive research design
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for IMPF development. This section identifies the rationale for selection of data type, collection
methods and analytical procedures that can efficiently measure the sub-concepts, thereby
facilitating response to research question as definitively as possible. The whole process is
divided into three major segments corresponding to the planning steps 2, 3 and 4.
If the proposed framework can reveal that it is able to develop a decision mechanism that can
logically distribute traffic (both NMPT and MT) across a network based on rational NMPT
restriction approach and thereby enable efficient coexistence of NMPT with MT; then it can be
inferred that the process is well achieved.
Comprehension of the desired characteristics for the proposed framework
To make sure that the proposed framework can best cater these needs, the desired
characteristics for the network were first defined. The characteristic analysis of the proposed
IMPF started with an examination of variable network environments (alternative NMPT-MT
restriction strategies) that the proposed framework could be based upon including current
strategy in practice (see Chapter 14 for description of these strategies).Such a network
environment selection would ensure that the restriction approach to select NMPT integration
into the transport system is based rather on needs than bias and will thereby assist in
addressing the first problem found in current system. To measure the degree of NMPT-MT
restriction strategy that is feasible and tenable in Dhaka, it needs to be evaluated from multi-
dimensional perspectives for robustness of derived strategic choice.
The suitability analysis as such included archival information analysis of previous relevant
strategic initiatives, observation and secondary data based land-use traffic intensity analysis and
primary data based stakeholder viewpoint analysis. To analyse the effectiveness of the current
NMPT-MT strategy that is in practice in Dhaka, in addition to the above evaluations, a more
detailed road functionality analysis of the existing transport network was made. The results of
these analyses led to the selection of the most suitable strategic approach for NMPT-MT
integration. The results also led to the delineation of desired attributes for the proposed
framework.
Rationale for archival analysis based previous strategic initiatives
The suitability discourse was initiated with analysis of previous NMPT management initiatives
undertaken in Dhaka from social, economic, environmental and transport perspectives,
interwoven with the need of selected alternative transport strategies. This was in order to
understand the prospects and constraints of those initiatives with reference to the selected set
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of alternative restriction strategies. Such analysis facilitates provision of a broad comparable
outlook of the proposed strategies and sets the scene for further analytical needs and types.
Due to the broader nature of the analysis, an archival data-based content analytical technique
was found to be the preferable option.
Rationale for land use-traffic intensity analysis
Ample evidence exists to demonstrate that land use and travel demands are strongly associated
(Kitamura, Mokhtarian and Leidet ,1997). It has also been hypothesized that, not only the
intensity, but the mixture of land uses, is associated with travel and mode specific demands
(Lenvine, 2006; Hanson & Giuliano, 2004; Geurs & Wee, 2003; Cerverho, 2000; Pushkarev &
Zupan, 1977). From such evidence of association between land use and travel, it can be inferred
that travel demand and thereby mode distribution can be affected by land use. Since
development of an IMPF requires understanding on land-type use, its relationship with road
hierarchy, effect of land-use patterns and corridor type on mode-specific traffic generation and
the surrounding environment, the land use -traffic interactivity analysis was conducted. The
fundamental aim of assessment was to enable exploration of the suitability of the alternative
strategies with reference to the prevailing road category, land use character and mode specific
traffic intensity generation. To be more precise, such analysis would enable depiction of inter
linkage among road category-land use type- mode type demand, which often varies for
different road levels. This inter-relationship was crucial in comprehending the suitability of
mode preference across land use and thereby coherence of revealed land character with
features of the strategies on offer.
For a better understanding within manageable scale and due to resource constraints in
administering overall city scale land use-traffic interactivity processes, the analysis for the study
was limited to six case corridors forming an area boundary and interconnected within them.
The corridors were so selected to represent major road classifications available for Dhaka;
namely primary, secondary, collector, local and narrow. Moreover, the corridors have mixed
and significant land use characteristics including the presence of major retail, commercial and
institutional hubs of the city. This would ensure a realistic, in-depth analysis of the land use -
traffic demand - mode suitability - activity characterisation for different network types and
provide a generic insight on the desired strategy for NMPT-MT integration pattern under such
circumstances. The presence of dynamic network characteristics such as existence of the only
physically segregated MT-NMPT link in the city on one of these case corridors further adds
value to the selection. This is because it would add another dimension in the analytical
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procedure, by demonstrating relationship and rationale of practiced mode restriction strategy
(NMPT) to available land character. Such corridor level land use –traffic interactivity analysis
approach, in the case of a large network, is also recommended by studies such as DITS (1994a),
RTA (2008) and EPA (2011). Ordinal, qualitative scaling was selected for comparative evaluation
of the land use- traffic interactivity result. See Chapter 13 for explanation on scaling aspect.
The physical feature and land use data needed for the analysis were primarily secondary
sourced, from relevant government agencies and aerial photography, in order to ensure
accuracy and viability. Primary data were only collected to match and update secondary
sources. Description of case study and data collection process are depicted in Chapter 13.
Rationale for stakeholder viewpoint based analysis
Review on previous research regarding NMPT management and formulation of transport
strategies towards their integration within transport system, as presented in Section B, has
depicted that the policy change initiatives have often been undertaken by a part of the
concerned stakeholder, the relevant government organisations. Consultation and public
participation have been neglected, in most instances with different NMPT stakeholders (users/
drivers/operators) resulting in a gap between the neesd of these groups and the decisions of
the policy makers. The resultant transport framework had therefore, often been pro-motorised
in character (see Section B for details).
In order to ensure the completeness of the evaluation process for suitable IMPF network, the
perception of NMPT stakeholders - decision makers, operators, drivers and users was
considered. A two level, quantitative interview based perception analysis was undertaken. At
mode specific level, the viewpoints on future NMPT service role and integration pattern with
MT were assessed to help feed into the decision for a suitable NMPT integration strategy. At a
more system level, their viewpoints on future preferred quality from the transport system of
Dhaka were undertaken to analyse the coherence of alternative transport strategies with
viewpoint result. The rationale for selection of relevant appropriate tools and techniques for
data collection and analysis of the stakeholder viewpoint process was described in Chapter 8.
Rationale for standard road functionality analysis
As a part of the suitable network environment analysis for proposed framework, the
effectiveness of current NMPT-MT strategy in achieving desired mode-balance at different
network levels were further investigated. The analysis purposed to examine the mode
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distribution coherence of the existing transport network of Dhaka in four categories of
standard network governing attributes- design attributes, functional attributes, frictional
attributes and impact attributes. Such an approach to network character analysis is
suggested by literature such as that from Brindle (1996), Marshall (1998; 2002; 2005), Eppell,
Bunker and McClurg (2001), Urban Services (2005) and RTS (2008).
Though a general character review of the network and the status of its impact in achieving
mode balance, with reference to alternative strategies, was made during archival analysis,
the road functional analysis was important to have a more criteria based, systematic
analysis for different levels of the network. In alignment with the study area selection
process of land-use traffic intensity analysis, the evaluation for this approach was limited at
corridor level, to five case corridors. The corridors were also kept the same in order to
maintain consistency in decision derivation on suitable integration environment.
Note that the field-observed, network condition for different sub-attributes of the four
selected attributes was primarily evaluated as qualitative entity. This is because no
quantitative thresholds are available for some of the measure of effectiveness (e.g. speed
and its function mobility, accessibility, public transport service frequency). The
heterogeneous character of traffic and scale of the relevant task also make it extremely
difficult to develop such a threshold within the scope of this research. For others, (e.g.
dominant linkage type, ease of movement), the best evaluation parameter is qualitative.
Ordinal scaling was selected for comparative evaluation of the network character.
The attributes information was sourced from a mixture of secondary and primary sources.
Secondary sources from government organisations and official documents were preferred
for ensuring data quality. Primary sources were selected when new data was required to be
collected and not available from other surveys (e.g. status of the major governing criteria).
Such multi-dimensional, evidence-based and mixed approach strategic evaluation methods for
assessing alternative restriction options ensured that the selected network environment for
IMPF is free from the ad-hoc character, mode bias and top-down deficiencies identified earlier.
The output of this analysis coupled with derivations made from Section B led to the
development of a desired and practicable set of attributes that needs to be reflected in the
proposed framework. It should be noted that strategic network modelling, a commonly used
tool for alternative transport condition evaluation, was not followed in this process. This is due
to some unavoidable and unrecoverable constraints, as described in following section.
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Why not modelling in the evaluation of alternative transport strategies?
It is understood that transport modelling is a technique for simplified representation of the real
world (Ortuzar & Williamson, 2005). It is therefore advised to analyse the impact of alternative
strategic options on transport network using such a tool. But to be assured of the quality of the
modelling procedure it needs to be rigorous and based on authentic and current data sources,
appropriate modelling environment to be able to replicate the dynamic socio-economic, land
use and traffic mix of the study area and validation of the same to establish its applicability.
With these criteria, it needs to be the focus tool of a study to allow the degree and extent of
detailing and effort to be rendered for quality outcome.
The endeavour of this research is not to forecast a planning option based on network
modelling, rather the development of an integrated planning framework. Selection of a suitable
network environment i.e. degree of NMPT-MT coexistence in that network environment is
important to develop the intended planning framework. The approach preferred to select such
a framework is multi-dimensional. This includes analysis of the suitable strategy to incorporate
NMPT and MT with reference to previous relevant strategic initiatives and lessons; analysis of
land use-traffic interactivity and what that indicates on desired demand pattern for NMPT and
MT; and analysis of the viewpoint of the stakeholders on future preferred attributes from the
Dhaka transport system and their correlation to alternative NMPT-MT integration strategy. If
attainable, the preferred approach also intends to test the alternative NMPT-MT strategic
combinations, based on network modelling, to determine impact with reference to operational
performance parameters (e.g. travel time, cost, comfort etc.).However, a number of constraints
were faced by the author while attempting to apply the modelling tool to project such
multimodal environment.
It was found from previous literature and consultation with experts in this field that four
strategic demand models have so far been developed for the Dhaka transport network. They
include, the strategic transport model developed by the Greater Dhaka Integrated Transport
Study (DITS) (1994) team, Dhaka Urban Transport Model (DUTM) developed by Habib (2002),
Urban Transport Planning Model (UTP Model) developed by the STP project team (2005), and
Dhaka Strategic Transport Model (DSTM) developed by Hasan (2007). Among these, in DITS
model, the distribution of mode and traffic assignment process including that of NMPT is not
considered as true representation of a real scenario as observed in Dhaka (Hasan, 2007).The
DUTM model is criticised heavily with reference to the validity of the model itself (with
reference to GEH statistics on the observed volume and estimated flow from the model) and its
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applicability in assessing the restriction impact (a complete ban in this case) of rickshaw on the
transport system (Bari, 2004). The UTP model was not suitable for this research since this model
only considered motorised trips in the mode choice modelling and thereby assignment process.
No walk trips and non-motorised trips were considered. Moreover, none of these three models
made any adjustment to replicate the true heterogeneous socio-economic, land use and
multimodal traffic mix needs of Dhaka when developing modelling framework (Hasan, 2007).
Regarding DSTM, availability information of the model became public in the first quarter of
2011. The key issues and constraints of the model are discussed in the following section, but the
usage possibility of this model could not be considered by the author due to time constraints
and some other data requirement constraints, as discussed in the following. The model could
be used in appropriately replicating the current MT-NMPT restriction implication on the
transport system better than the previous models, due to its rigorousness in attaining the
heterogeneity of different network characters (See Appendix E.2 for more detail features and
issues of the discussed four models). However, since the model is completely based on an STP
(2005) database as is the modal split, a comprehensive new SP survey is required with relation
to different alternative MT-NMPT transport strategies to develop a new modal split; necessary
matrix corrections are required to update the base trip tables and the model can then be
applied to compare the comparative performance impact analysis, as suggested by Bari (2004).
A considerable sample size would be required to conduct the SP survey, considering the spatial
coverage of Dhaka City and to maintain coherence with the previously undertaken survey
sample of STP (5,772 households). The selection and administration of such corrections and
survey is a highly demanding task, but would have been possible if that was the core focus of
the research. These activities are subject to reception of STP (2005) source data. The data is
available, however the author was not provided access to it on IP grounds.
Even with these data, primary and secondary, the question still arises about the application
suitability of such a unimodal model to portray a multimodal trade-off situation which includes
comparative NMPT performance analysis with other motorised modes, and which is based on a
modelling platform devised for homogeneous traffic of developed cities. In addition, the
inconsistent nature of traffic flow along a corridor due to road side interferences (e.g. illegal on-
street parking, vendor occupancy), a common phenomenon in developing cities such as Dhaka
and affecting output flow, travel times are unaccounted for in current state-of-the-art models.
It might therefore be logical to deduce that without any significant adjustment made to the
existing modelling platforms (e.g. EMME 2/3, most commonly used in developing cities and the
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base for the latter three models) or without the development of a modelling platform
completely dedicated to the needs and requirements of a developing city such as Dhaka, the
true comparative predictive analysis between MT and NMPT in such context might not be
realised to a pragmatic level. This reasoning prompted the author not to use this tool in
comparative evaluation of alternative NMPT-MT strategies and for subsequent selection of a
suitable network environment based on such analysis.
Selection of suitable technique to replicate characteristics of the proposed framework
A case for functional hierarchy in this research
In order to cater for the necessity to develop a decision tool based on the characterisation
of the needs as revealed during planning step 2, a suitable methodology is thereby
required. A technique that can facilitate logical distribution of NMPT and other modes
across the network, based on the functional need of different parts of the fixed facilities
(network links) and that of the operating flow entities (modes).This would be a method that
could minimise the conflict between these interactive elements of road function-abutting
land use-traffic type in operation while maintaining the need for access and mobility of
different transport users. A procedure that would enable the operational need for
management of the road network and their hierarchical inter-level integration to facilitate
efficient operation of the conflicting modes like MT and NMPT in achieving network
sustainability, improved amenity for the users/city inhabitants.
If we compare these needs with the conceptual framework of the functional hierarchy
concept, the key usefulness of the idea lay in its capability to classify an entity based on
functional significance and in a sequential order, enabling logical optimisation of the
operational needs from that entity. Based on these underlying principles, the application of
the said concept to the development of a revised layout for Dhaka transport network which
is a modified road functional hierarchy, was found to be quite logical. According to
Department of Transport and Main Roads (DTMR) (2031), planning and managing of mode-
road interactive deficiencies is found to be much more efficient using a road functional
hierarchy due to its strength to allocate right traffic types to the appropriate roads.
Moreover, Marshall (2004) emphasized that this method offers itself as a tool to assist in
planning the interface between land use, traffic and road systems on which the traffic
operates, and to appropriately link roadways in the road system. Eppell et al (2001) added
the potential of the process in optimising the transport network’s access, mobility, safety
and mode operational efficiency.Marshall (2004; 2005) suggested that road functional
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hierarchy as a system of integrated network planning is popularly used to avoid conflict
between the operation and management of various mode categories such as MT and non-
motorised transport (NMT). In summary, the inherent character of the road hierarchy
process to be flexible and adoptable; adjusting to changing road categories, functional
demand attribute shifts, variable traffic split and network scale, makes it most suitable for
layout of the proposed decision tool. A mode-road functional hierarchy based planning
framework tool as such would be able to utilise these aforementioned features of the
technique to appropriately allocate traffic to category of road; linking the design,
functional, frictional and impact need of the road category to the operational need of the
mode types, MT and NMT/NMPT.
Development of a methodology for functionality of the framework
A case for a partial restriction based mode-road interactive and hierarchical decision tool
The core of the IMPF was to develop a tool that can be applied to allocate suitable mode to
suitable road category, that is to develop a process to derive to decisions while setting an
appropriate road hierarchy for an area. Therefore, a mode-road interactive tool was developed.
In order to address the need of having a mixture of MT and NMPT at different levels of the
network, based on the governing attributes of different network elements as suggested in
planning step 2, and to follow an hierarchical approach in their prioritisation of distribution as
suggested in planning step 3, the method was adopted for structuring the decision tool.
A case for case study approach for analysing applicability of framework tool
In order to evaluate the applicability of the framework in deriving desired outcomes as set
in Chapter 11, a corridor level case study approach was undertaken. A similar area
boundary to that selected for land use-traffic interactivity analysis and network character
analysis was adopted to maintain homogeneity in evaluation. But ranking of links and the
corresponding modal priority assignment was conducted for all interconnected links to
impart an area level scenario of the tool. The impact of the tool in addressing needs of the
transport network or otherwise is thus assessed, in detail at the local level while informing
on broader understanding at the system level. From a transport network planning viewpoint,
Hook (2002) and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2011) suggested that this corridor or
sub-area level evaluation provides opportunities for more focused and detailed consideration of
sustainability measures and strategies. Such measures can provide a broader understanding of
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the system wide situation as well as assisting in project level decision making under time and
resource constraints.
From a more generic perspective, Merriam (1988) cited such case study analysis as a preferred
choice in examining the effectiveness of a developed tool for those researchers who are also
seeking insight, discovery and interpretation from their research outcome, in addition to
hypothesis testing only and where there is a desire for holistic description and explanation of
revealed output. Stake (1981) suggested that such an approach can derive more comprehensive
and contextual end results integrated with researchers’ own experience and understanding.
Seperich, Woolverton, Beierlein, and Hahn (1996) and Braunstein (2004) have further described
the positive effect of such a case study approach, emphasizing that it facilitates easier decision
making, improves the analytical quality of the decision, reduces the time required to make the
decisions, and increases the frequency of correct decisions.
Strategic guideline for framework implementation
Due to scope of this study, relevant implementation guidelines to facilitate the functionality
of the proposed decision tool were kept at broader level. However, to ensure succinctness,
the strategies were sub-divided by multiple sector based elements corresponding to the
tool structure, with specification of different degrees of attention for each.
The discussion on the adopted methodology to answer research question 3, thereby
facilitating development of the proposed framework, clearly revealed that there is no single
technique that was used. Rather, it was an amalgam of quantitative and qualitative
approaches as identified in methodology literature. This gives the research the character of
a mixed-method design. It is therefore necessary that the norms of this type of research
need to be closely reflected in the adopted research design. The coherence of the adopted
research design with reference to mixed-method design is discussed in next section.
12.5 Coherence of the preferred approach for research design to
standard theoretical inference
Creswell (2003) is considered a primary author in mixed-method research and has been a
strong source for reference in most of the research methodology literature discussed in Section
12.3. Creswell suggested in his research methodology some discussion about three major
research methods including quantitative method, qualitative method and mixed-method
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approaches. However, he went on to suggest that in the case of adopting any of these methods,
the chosen approach should correspond to the three framework element notions or elements
of inquiry. They are ‘knowledge claims’, general procedure of research called ‘strategy of
inquiry’ and detailed procedure of data collection, analysis and writing called ‘methods’. Each of
the said elements has different characteristics, depending upon the methodological approach
undertaken. Figure 12.2 shows the relationship among the elements of inquiry, approaches to
research and design process of research as suggested by Creswell (2003).
Figure 12.2: Inter-linkage among elements of enquiry and derivation of research approach and design
process from these elements
Source Creswell 2003
Since each research approach is expected to reflect certain characteristics of the elements of
inquiry, the following discussion aims at cross-examining the coherence of the element
characteristics expected by mixed method approach and their alignment with the developed
design for the proposed framework. Such a process would ensure the rationale of the adopted
research design, mixed method design.
12.5.1 Alternative knowledge claims
Concepts
According to Creswell (2003), knowledge claims are the paths researchers follow to learn about
their subject. There are four major notions related to knowledge of claims. They include
postpositivism, constructivism, advocacy/participatory and pragmatism. A fifth notion,
Elements of Inquiry
Alternative
Knowledge Claims
Strategies of inquiry
Methods
Conceptualised by the
researcher
Approached to Research
Quantitative
Qualitative
Mixed Methods Translated into
practice
Design Process of Research
Questions
Theoretical Lens
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Write-up
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transformative, was later added by Creswell and Plano Clark (2011). These primarily
philosophical schools of thoughts are attempted to be linked with research method paradigm
since the 1960s (Hanson, Clark, Petska, Creswell & Creswell, 2005).
Postpositive knowledge claims that findings about human actions and behaviour cannot be
ascertained with full confidence (Creswell, 2003). This notion is interested in determining cause
and effects. Pospositivists narrow down their focus to study the relationship among a few
variables. They begin with a theory and gather data to defend or disapprove it. The suitability of
this philosophical paradigm is often argued to be linked to quantitative methods only (Hanson
et al., 2005). On the contrary, constructivism does not simply rely on a few variables. Rather,
according to Creswell (2003), the constructivists attempt to gain experience from people’s
experience and make close consideration of the environment in which people live or work. This
is what leads to the development of a theory rather than a predefined one. This paradigm is
also often argued to be associated with quantitative methods (Sale and Brazil, 2004).
Compared to these two, the advocacy/participatory paradigm, also known as transformative
paradigm, prefers to advocate in favour of marginalised people. Creswell and Plano Clark (2011)
suggested that this thought focuses on inequality and injustice, which shape a power and
privilege reality. The notion is interested in analysing power and privilege determinants of
reality for communities engaged in this work. Iniquity is blended with politics and political
agenda in such a knowledge claim approach and is closely associated with qualitative methods
(Mackenzie & Knipe, 2006) though some also prefer them to be associated with mixed-method
(Mertens, 2003). Contrasting to all these thoughts, pragmatism focuses on understanding
problems and is much more flexible in terms of interwoven capability to a research design
(Creswell, 2003). The researchers following this thought have a choice to select and mix
methods for research purpose. Pragmatism is seen as the paradigm that provides the
underlying philosophical framework for mixed-methods research (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003;
Mackenzie & Knipe, 2006).This knowledge claim can answer what and how type research
questions better and considered the best foundation for mixed-method design (Hanson et al.,
2005).
Correlation of the concept to current research design
If we compare the focus area, nature of exploration process and the end target of the
aforementioned knowledge claims, it is quite clear that pragmatism best suits the character of
knowledge that this research design is aiming to achieve. This is because the proposed
framework design process is based on initial problem understanding and planning,
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development of techniques accordingly and has the flexibility to adjust the research
question/hypothesis based on process outcomes. Moreover, the topic itself is a pragmatic
theme, attempting to investigate ‘what’ enquiry and ‘how’ enquiry. The framework design
section also demonstrated the requirement of the research to apply mix-methods rather than a
single one. All these factors indicate the close proximity of the research to the pragmatism
paradigm.
12.5.2 Strategies of inquiry
Concepts
Strategies of inquiry are types of qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods designs or models
that provide specific directions for procedures in a research design (Creswell, 2009).It is the
primary investigation approach undertaken in research to realise the questions posed and
objectives set. Among these, according to Maxwell and Loomis (2003), quantitative and
qualitative approaches could differ on many facets. This could be based on the type of data
used (textual or numerical), the type of enquiry (exploratory or confirmatory), methods of
information collection (quantitative or qualitative) and type of analysis and inference (statistical
or qualitative). Creswell suggested that the common strategies of inquiry involved in
quantitative approach include experimental, quasi-experimental, correlation and survey.
Qualitative approach includes grounded theory, ethnography, narrative research (archival and
content analysis), biography, phenomenology and case study. The literature review of
methodologies as presented in Section 12.3 also reflects similar typologies, indicating the long
lasting practice of these by researchers.
A mixed method approach on the other hand is a relatively recent approach. Campbell and Fisk
were the first to initiate the approach in 1959 to study the validity of psychological traits
(Creswell, 2009). According to Campbell and Fisk as cited in Creswell (2009),
Recognizing that all methods have limitations, researchers felt that biases inherent in
any single method could neutralize or cancel the biases of other methods. Triangulating
data sources—a means for seeking convergence across qualitative and quantitative
methods—was born. By the early 1990s, the idea of mixing moved from seeking
convergence to actually integrating or connecting the quantitative and qualitative data.
Creswell and Plano Clark (2011) further suggested that under the mixed method approach,
quantitative and qualitative data can be merged into one large database or the results used
side-by-side to reinforce each other. The essence in all these arguments is the fact that the
mixed-method approach plays a part by mitigating the biases, balancing the weakness of one
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approach with the strength of another. For instance, if the purpose of research is to generate
new ideas and test them, neither qualitative nor quantitative approaches alone would be
sufficient; rather, both have to be applied to realise optimum results. Morse (2003) argued that
the use of quantitative and qualitative methods together aids in gaining complete picture of a
phenomenon in these circumstances.
The strategies of inquiry for a mixed-method approach can be classified into three broad
categories by the order and process of using the quantitative and qualitative approaches
Creswell (2003; 2009).They are sequential, concurrent and transformative. Sequential method
involves elaboration on or expanding on the findings of one method with another method. For
example, the study matter starts with a quantitative method in which a theory or concept is
tested, followed by a qualitative method for detailed exploration with a few cases or individuals.
By comparison, with concurrent mixed method, the researcher converges or merges
quantitative and qualitative data in parallel order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the
research problem. In this process, both quantitative and qualitative data are collected at the
same time and then integrated into the interpretation of the overall results. Another key
character in this strategy is that the researcher may embed one smaller form of data within
another larger data collection in order to analyse different question types. Transformative
mixed method uses both quantitative and qualitative approaches and the sequence can be
either sequential or concurrent. But the researcher uses a theoretical lens as a perspective
within research design. In all of these strategies, the research design can have equal proportion
or more of one of the two basic techniques - quantitative and qualitative.
Correlation of the concept to current research design
It is evident from the above discourse that a mixed method research design, with a combination
of quantitative and qualitative inquiry approaches, may complement and supplement each
other, allowing strengthening the set propositions through triangulation. Creswell (2003; 2009)
emphasized that it is now well established that the use of mixed methods makes a study more
robust. If we focus to the purpose of this research design, the necessity of both the techniques
were found important as discoursed in research framework design section(Section 12.4).
Qualitative methods such as archival analysis, land use-traffic interactivity analysis and road
functionality based network character analysis was important in developing a suitable network
environment. The stakeholder viewpoint-based quantitative analysis was important to
supplement the suitability analysis process. The qualitative functional hierarchy process for
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layout of the framework tool and case study application process to test its validity was also
deemed necessary. Such a triangulated approach enabled the development and validation of
the proposed framework.
Using only qualitative or quantitative methods alone would not have been able to conclude to
the desired end and with sufficient evidence for the framework development-related research
question. The use of integration and a triangulation based, mixed method approach in this
research, is therefore believed to have aided in comprehensively addressing the research
purpose and needs. Moreover, due to the simultaneous order and requirement of using the
quantitative and qualitative approaches, the concurrent mixed method was found to be the
most suitable strategy.
12.5.3 Methods
Concepts
The third major part in the elements of inquiry is research methods that involve data collection,
analysis and interpretation that the researcher proposes for the research. The choice of method
depends on whether the intent is to specify the information type to be collected or allow it to
emerge from project participants (Creswell, 2003).Creswell (2009) added that, depending on
the degree of predetermined nature of the methods, their use of close-ended versus open-
ended questioning, forms of data drawing, and their focus on numeric versus nonnumeric data
analysis, the suitable methods should be selected. With this context, a quantitative method
should be suitable if the data methods are predetermined, the major instrument is questions,
data forms are performance data/attitude data/observation data/census data, and the
analytical and interpretation process is statistical. On the contrary, if the research character
needs an emerging method, open-ended question, interview data/observation data/document
data/audio-visual data forms, text/image based analysis, and thematic/pattern interpretation,
qualitative method are suitable. Anything that demands a combination of both these methods
needs a mixed method of data collection and analysis elements. It is suggested in most of the
methodology literature such as De Vaus (2001), Sommer and Sommer (2002), Creswell (2003),
Yin (2003, Zeisel (2006), Neuman (2000), Creswell (2009) and Monette et al (2011) that
commonly used mixed method data collection involves census and other secondary data
sources, instruments such as questionnaire and checklists and through field-based observation
and interview.
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Correlation of the concept to current research design
The character of the current research design demonstrated that the data collection to be a mix
of predetermined and emerging methods. Predetermined because it includes quantitative,
structured questionnaire with closed ended question only (e.g. land use survey, stakeholder
viewpoint survey on current and future role of NMPT and on preferred transport attributes for
the future Dhaka). Emerging because it includes qualitative, open ended questions (e.g.
stakeholder viewpoint survey on suggestions regarding future improvement of NMPT). The data
drawing forms were multiple including census data, document data, transport database of the
government, digital and hard copy maps, interview data, unobtrusive observation data. The
intention was to have a combination of information, partially specified (e.g. close ended
interview and unobtrusive field observation) and partially to be emerged from participants (e.g.
the open ended interview). The analytical procedure as described in the research design section
indicated the need to use a combination of text analysis, image analysis and statistical analysis.
Finally, the interpretation was a combination of thematic analysis (e.g. functional hierarchy
analysis), statistical/quantitative interpretation (e.g. stakeholder viewpoint analysis) and pattern
interpretation (e.g. preferred attribute selection for the proposed framework). If we compare
these characters with the method selection criteria of Creswell as aforementioned, it
demonstrates the closest proximity to the suitable features of mixed methods.
12.5.4 Derivation to the best approach
Based on the character analysis of the research design with reference to the key elements of
inquiry and problem, it can be derived that the best approach for framework design of this
research is the mixed-method approach as already chosen in Section 12.4. See Figure 12.3 for
the derived linkage between these elements and the chosen research approach.
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Figure 12.3: Inter-linkage among elements of inquiry, derived research approach and design process
Source Developed by author based on Creswell (2003) and derived research framework
Apart from the elements of inquiry and research problem type, personal experience and
audience could also play a role in selection of an approach (Creswell, 2003; 2009). Investigators
with skill in scientific writing, unobtrusive observation techniques, structured interview and
numerical analysis would have a bias towards quantitative research design. Conversely, those
with expertise in descriptive writing, literature-based text analysis and unstructured interview
would prefer qualitative design. Researchers with both forms of skills should adopt the mixed
method. For the latter, the researcher received training and expert guidance to gain
competence in administering the chosen mixed method approach, through university-run
training and workshops. The audience aspect was however not considered in such method
selection process.
12.6 Summary
This chapter presented the rationale behind the methodology adopted for IMPF development.
The rationale description started with examination of research question to construct the
concept, generate of measurable sub-concepts and justify the data collection and analysis
procedure adopted in evaluating those sub-concepts. A review of broad research approaches
enabled deduction of the most suitable analysis approaches for the posed research question.
Elements of Inquiry & results
for this research
Approach to this Research
Quantitative
Qualitative
MIXED METHOD (Combination of
quantitative &
qualitative approach)
Translated into
practice by the
researcher
Conceptualised by
the researcher based
on standard practices
& research needs
Alternative
Knowledge Claims
Strategies of Inquiry
Data collection &
Analysis Method
PRAGMATIC
PARADIGM
CONCURRENT
MIXED METHOD
MIXED METHOD
Design Process of
Research
Questions
Theoretical Lens
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Write-up
Validation
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The descriptive approach, supplemented by explanatory approach, was thus found to be best
suited to answer the research question.
Examination of the concept and three sub-concepts derived from the research question,
together with the comprehension of different available research methods and their context,
enabled development of suitable analytical methods for evaluation of those sub-concepts. Since
the sub-concepts correspond to the planning steps set in Chapter 11 for IMPF development,
such a process also allowed the selection of methods to measure of these key planning steps.
For evaluation of planning step 1, the necessary measures were readily available from an
analysis of Section B. For planning step 2, which was to set up the suitable network
environment and preferred character for the proposed framework, the suitable methodologies
were found to be archival analysis, land use-traffic interactivity analysis, stakeholder viewpoint
analysis and standard road functionality analysis.
For planning step 3, the aim of which was to determine a technique that can best replicate the
need and characteristics of the proposed framework, the functional hierarchy method was
proving to be most effective. For planning step 4, the aim of which was to structure and
functionalise a tool that can allow balanced distribution of mode across a network, a mode-road
interactive method based decision tool was devised. This was found most suitable since it
allowed development of a particular blend of NMPT-MT modal priority corresponding to the
need of different network levels, while considering the operating character of the modes. In
order to demonstrate the validity of the proposed tool in achieving the set desired outcomes, a
case study application process was also administered.
The review and analysis of research framework design found mixed method to the best method
for achieving the answers of research questions 3, 4 and to validate the hypothesis. The
resultant method was further cross-examined with standard theoretical inferences to evaluate
their validation with reference to key elements of inquiry. This process confirmed the
appropriateness of the concurrent mixed method as the best methodology to follow for the
development of the IMPF. The next chapter describes the application of the research
methodology.
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13CHAPTER 13: APPLICATION OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
13.1 Introduction
Chapter 12 described the rationale of mixed methods adopted to address the research question
related to planning framework development. The chapter also established the rationale of the
selected methods with reference to standard theoretical inferences. This chapter describes the
sequential methodological steps that are followed to accomplish the framework development
and operation process for Dhaka.
The chapter content is divided into four major sections, corresponding to the planning steps
devised in Chapter 11. Section 13.2 describes initial planning process (purpose, scope and
rationale) for the framework development. Section 13.3 describes the development process of
background network environment and the layout tool for the framework. Section 13.4
describes the development structure and functionality process of the framework. The
instruments and procedures used at different stages are also described during the process. The
endeavour is to ensure that the methodological sequence adopted enable address of the
objectives, required to be accomplished in order to develop the framework.
The key stages of the methodological process, adopted in framework development are shown
in Figure 13.1.
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Figure 13.1: Key methodological stages in framework development process
Structure & functionality of the
framework
Status analysis of NMPT: Dhaka
condition review & learning
Status analysis of NMPT: Global
condition review & learning
Need for a planning framework in order
to facilitate balanced integration of
NMPT with MT
Building scene for integrated
planning framework
Dhaka Case study rationale & selection
Decision support system developed for
optimising NMPT operation in mixed traffic
Planning step 4
Planning step 1
RQ 3, 4
Objective 5
Background
investigation on
NMPT status
Deficiencies identified in management and
co-existence of NMPT with other modes
Research
Void
Initial Planning: Purpose, scope &
rationale for framework established
Y
Hypothesis test:
Is NMPT significant
as a regular public
transport mode?
Analyse reasons &
suggest alternative provision
N
Y
N Analyse reasons &
suggest alternative provision
Y
N
Hypothesis test:
Does the tool facilitate
better balance
between NMPT & MT?
Analyse reasons &
refine strategies for
layout of framework
Best restriction strategy & layout method
determined for NMPT integration
Planning step 2, 3
RQ 3, 4
Objective 3,4
Hypothesis test:
Is NMPT significant
as a regular public
transport mode?
Current role established & future need
determined for NMPT in Dhaka transport system RQ1, 2
Objective 2
Current role established & future need
determined for NMPT in developing city
transport system
RQ1, 2
Objective 1
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13.2 Initial planning process for framework development
The first stage of the planning framework development process was to define the purpose,
scope, and rationale for the same. Background investigation in Section A and B has established
the magnitude of problem, which is a lack of balance in incorporating non-motorised public
transport (NMPT) with motorised transport (MT) in the current Dhaka transport system. The
investigation also found that since NMPT has a substantial role in catering travel demand in
Dhaka, there is a clear need for developing a framework or tool that can facilitate in enabling
balanced coexistence. The purpose and rationale of the framework was thus established. The
scope of the framework was limited to the Dhaka case study, consistent with the coverage of
background investigation and due to reasons explained in Chapter 3.
13.3 Building scene for planning framework
This stage of the methodology is divided into two major sub-stages. First sub-stage involves
comprehension of the desired characteristics of the proposed framework, corresponding to
planning step 2. This is followed by a selection of suitable tools that can replicate the need of
the proposed framework, corresponding to planning step 3. The aims from these two stages are
to prepare the platform for layout and operationalization of the framework.
13.3.1 Comprehension of the desired characteristics for the proposed
framework
Character analysis of alternative transport strategies
This process commenced with analysing suitable network environment or restriction strategy
for the proposed framework. A combination of four alternative strategies, depending on degree
of NMPT restriction with MT was devised. The selection was made on the basis of government
policy initiatives undertaken for NMPT integration at different periods, review of Dhaka
transport plans, stakeholder viewpoint analysis and consultation with academic mentors. Three
methods were used to administer the suitability analysis of alternative strategies.
Archival analysis
This method went through secondary data sources and transport plan-based review and
analysis of the compatibility and suitability of the alternative transport strategies. The analysis
was performed especially with reference to current implications or possible future implication
of the alternative strategies on the transport system, compatibility with dominant network
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characters and coherence to future transport plans of Dhaka. The comparative advantages
(benefit) and disadvantage (cost) of each alternative strategy was thus evaluated.
Land use-traffic interactivity analysis
This method assessed particular land uses in attracting traffic and their distribution pattern,
along a corridor and with reference to a land use block at both directions of the corridor. For
uniformity and convenience of analysis across different corridors, a land use block on a corridor
is defined as the area bounded by that corridor in front, two consecutive side roads on either
side, constituting one or multiple plots at one plot depth from the corridor boundary and
forming a segment within the corridor. The gross traffic attraction capability of a land use block
or a segment by mode type was measured to understand the traffic intensity of that block-.
existing trend / future potential of the given land use block or segment section in generating/
attracting a vehicle type. See Figure 13.2 for sample land use blocks.
Land use - traffic interactivity analysis was administered with respect to five major network
levels, incorporating six corridors and forming an area boundary. They included Mirpur Road
(Dhanmondi Road 27 intersection northbound and Pilkhana Road intersection southbound)
(Primary Road) (Corridor 1); Satmasjid Road (Dhanmondi Road 16 northbound and Dhanmondi
Road 2 southbound) (Secondary Road) (Corridor 2); Dhanmondi Road 27 (Mirpur Road
northbound and Satmasjid Road southbound) (Collector Road) (Corridor 3A); Pilkhana Road
(Mirpur Road northbound and New Market Vegetable Market Road southbound) (Collector
Road) (Corridor 3B); Dhanmondi Road 12A (Dhanmondi Road 11 northbound and Dhanmondi
Road 8A southbound) (Access Road) (Corridor 4); and the road opposite of Dhanmoni 12A
(Narrow Road) (Corridor 5) (See Figure 13.2 for case corridors) . For each corridor type, applied
major land use categories were as prescribed in DCC (2003). They are residential, commercial
(retail, office), industrial, institutional (educational and training facility), mixed, administrative,
recreational/open space, restricted and special.
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lLegend
Start and end for Corridor 1 Start and end for Corridor 4
Start and end for Corridor 2 Start and end for Corridor 5
Start and end for Corridor 3A,3B
Example of land use blocks at 1 plot depth
Figure 13.2: The study area with selected corridors for land use-traffic interactivity analysis
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During the field data collection in late 2009 the DAP (2008) land use map, which is the most
updated official map of the area, was used as a base map. The necessary updates with
reference to land usage and building height for each block, in both directions, were made from
field observation. In order to derive major land use type for a block incorporating both
directions, they were recorded by their usage majority within the block. The similar process was
followed to update and record information on major building heights within each block.
Traffic intensity by land use blocks were divided into qualitative scales, since it was not possible
to gather and assess the data on a quantitative spectrum (see Appendix F1 for detailed
explanation on difficulties that led to non-opting of quantitative data based evaluation
approach). The primarily qualitative scales adopted for intensity evaluation were - very high,
high, moderate, low and very low. - each level representing a degree of traffic intensity in
descending order of volume based on vehicular generation /attraction observed by land use
block from field, over time and by road categories. Such scale structure and evaluation
approach was devised following the concept of fuzzy-set theory and based on the need for this
very analysis. Application of the theory in social science suggests that, for complex construction
of categories of measurement and where measurement is based on qualitative evidence, it is
often useful to develop a scale where relevant objects can have varying degree of membership
in the set with reference to which the measurement is constructed and under diverse domain,
for better inter-comparison (Ragin, 2000). Fuzzy-sets and their scoring, as Ragin (2000) added,
can also be carefully tailored in social science to fit the theoretical concepts, through infusion of
substantive knowledge and solid grasp of theoretical relevance.
The objective of this analysis required an approach that enables qualitative evidence
(observation and classification of mode specific traffic generation by judgement) and
substantive knowledge-based evaluation of traffic intensity by mode (objects), with relation to
land use types (their membership in reference set) at different road levels (heterogeneous
domains). Fuzzy set and its application guideline as suggested by Ragin (2000) was found a
rationale match in enabling such relative inter-comparison of objects by sets and domains. In
addition, the approach allows assignment of scores to object and by sets to have an easier
comprehension of the relative status. Based on these contexts, the aforementioned scale
division was assigned for evaluation of the mode specific traffic intensity, with reference to their
set membership criteria, by land use type. For scoring the membership, seven-value fuzzy set
was used with a ratio scale of equal interval. The relationship between verbal expression and
the corresponding score is laid out as follows (Table. 13.1).
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Table 13.1: Continuous Fuzzy Set with scale divisions and corresponding scores
Expression of membership (traffic intensity by mode
with relation to land use)
Score
Absolute intensity (Full membership) 1
Very high intensity 0.83
High intensity 0.67
Moderate intensity (Cross over point) 0.5
Low intensity 0.34
Very low intensity 0.17
No Intensity (Full non-membership) 0
Source: Derived by the author based on Ragin (2000) and scope of this analysis
The field observation in this regard was made for one working day, between 7 am to 9pm which
incorporated business hours for major land uses and types along these corridors. The
observation started with corridor 1 at Mirpur Road-Pilkhana Road intersection and finished with
corridor 5 at Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A-Sher-E-Bangla Road intersection. Multiple and
continuous observations of each corridor were made by the author, in a continuous loop
pattern, to ensure relative homogeneity of observed output. Observation and scaling by
multiple surveyors would have greater chance of resulting in different results of intensity, as the
judgement level of each person differs to others. The scaled observation as such for each block
or segment of a corridor provided a corridor level comprehension of traffic intensity by land
use. The results were then compared to the characteristics of alternative transport strategies to
understand the coherence and comparative suitability of each to the outcome.
The key tool for data collection was a land use-traffic interactivity field survey sheet, one for
each corridor (see Appendix F2 for sample survey sheet). MS Excel, DAP base map and Google
map were used for analytical process.
Stakeholder viewpoint analysis
This method went through interview-based quantitative analysis of stakeholders related to
NMPT industry on the future preferred integration level between NMPT and MT and on their
future preferred quality in Dhaka’s transport system. Outputs from these data were then
synthesized with the characteristics of alternative transport strategies to determine the
coherence of the strategies to desired demands of stakeholders. The key data collection
instrument was interview schedule while SPSS and MS Excel tools were used for data analysis.
The detailed methodology for data collection and procedure of analysis in this context were
described in Chapter 8.The results of these analyses put forward the preliminary preferred
strategy for the proposed framework.
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Character analysis of current restriction strategy
Standard road functionality analysis of current transport network
This method analysed the current network character with reference to the key criteria that
govern the functionality of different modes at a given network level. The analysis was made for
a number of sub-criteria under the four governing criteria-design, functional, frictional and
impact. The expected and observed operating status of different modes, primarily divided into
NMPT and MT, were assessed against these governing criteria.
Regarding the analysis process, a primarily qualitative framework of the expected state of
governing attributes for different road types was first established. Previous transport plans,
government documents and practising transport professionals in Dhaka were consulted in this
process. In cases where no information on standard condition was available in local documents,
international standards were used with modifications, based on local experience and in
consultation with academic mentors, to suit to local conditions. This provided a reference base
for the comparison of the governing criteria observed on site to that expected for different road
types in Dhaka. Detail definitions of these criteria are presented in Appendix G2 and the
description of scaling system to evaluate the criteria are explained in Table 14.3.
For comparison of field operating status of MT and NMPT to criteria of reference framework,
field observation was made for one working day in late 2009, between 7 am to 9pm and for the
same corridors to that of land use survey, in order to maintain coherence in observation
duration and pattern of observed traffic between these surveys. The observation started with
corridor 1 at Mirpur Road-Pilkhana Road intersection and finished with corridor 5 at Dhanmondi
Road No. 12/A-Sher-E-Bangla Road intersection. Multiple and continuous observations of each
corridor were made by the author, under a continuous loop pattern, in order to ensure relative
homogeneity of observed output.
The design features (geometry and road type) of the corridors were cross-examined and new
information was added, as required by using Google Earth image as the base map. The
frictional, impact and functional features were observed on field and recorded by the author in
coherence with the developed qualitative framework scale. For journey speed (defined as
running speed plus delay) of MT and NMT, they were collected at peak periods at each of these
corridors. In order to record speed of MT traffic and NMT traffic concurrently in a stream, which
varies due to their distinct operating speed, two additional surveyors were included. The author
recorded the journey speed with NMPT as survey vehicle to determine the stream speed for
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NMT. Between the two additional surveyors, one recorded the journey speed with car as the
survey vehicle and the other with bus as survey vehicle to have a better understanding of
stream speed for MT. The peak periods for each corridor were determined by consultation with
DCC, local practising transport officials and local inhabitants along these corridors.
The commonly defined peak periods for all six corridors were - 7am to 9am and 4pm to 7pm.An
additional interim peak between morning and evening, 12pm to 2pm, was assigned for Mirpur
Road, Sat Masjid Road and Dhanmondi Road No. 27 due to concentration of schools at these
corridors. Extended after hours peak periods were required to be surveyed, due to
concentration of retail outlets on Mirpur Road, Sat Masjid Road, Dhanmondi Road No. 27 and
Pilkhana Road, which usually remain open until 10 pm. The long opening hours and presence of
significant quantity of private universities on the former two corridors was also key attractor for
late traffic. In accordance to these characteristic, Mirpur Road and Sat Masjid Road were
assigned with additional peak of 7pm to 9pm while Dhanmondi Road No. 27 and Pilkhana Road
with additional peak of 7pm to 8pm.
As aforementioned, the surveyed outputs were then compared with the general expected
standard for these attributes, as sourced from the qualitative reference framework. Such
analysis provided a corridor level comprehension of operational coherence of the modal
composition for different network levels as enabled by current NMPT-MT integration strategy,
in comparison to the desired performance for those levels.
The key tool for data collection was the road functionality attribute field survey sheet, one for
each corridor (see Appendix G1 for sample survey sheet). MS Excel, DCC road database, DITS
(1994b), DUTP (1996b), STP (2005c) and Google map were used for analytical process.
Archival analysis of other characteristics feature
The coherence or otherwise of the current NMPT-MT integration strategy was further
compared with government guidelines, in particular future transport plans and their needs, in
order to understand the compliance of the strategy to these requirements. The preferred
NMPT-MT integration strategy was also selected during the process described in this section.
Derivation of preferred attribute for the framework
Based on characteristics analysis of alternative transport strategies and in-depth analysis of the
current network character, the deficiencies and requirements for the future transport system of
Dhaka were derived. This together with the review and analysis of Section B enabled the key
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preferred attributes desired from the proposed framework to enhance quality of NMPT
coexistence with MT to be identified.
13.3.2 Selection of suitable technique to replicate characteristics of the
proposed framework
The desired characteristics analysis of the proposed framework indicated the need for a tool
that can address the current mismatch between distribution and prioritisation of modes, to suit
the characteristics of different network levels. Functional hierarchy was found to be the most
suitable tool in minimising this imbalance and is used as the method of structuring the
framework tool.
In order to establish the suitability of the functional hierarchy tool in devising a modified road
hierarchy for Dhaka, the conceptual framework and common application areas of the tool were
first reviewed. In particular, the relevance and utility of the tool in network planning, and in the
pattern of deficiency as posed in the character analysis section of Dhaka, were considered. The
validity of the tool for the cause was thus established. In order to restrengthen the utility claim
of the tool, the applicability results of the functional hierarchy technique in addressing similar
multimodal integration initiatives were also analysed. Based on these, this technique was
selected to be most suitable to layout the proposed framework.
13.4 Structure and functioning of the framework
Based on the restriction pattern selected and layout technique suggested, the final stage of the
methodology describes the process to structure and operationalise the framework,
corresponding to planning step 4. The process is divided into three major, interlinked sub-
stages. The endeavour from this stage was to have a decision tool that may be applied at
various network areas of Dhaka, in order to logically and sustainably rank the road categories
and prioritise modal distribution under these categories to optimise the operational
performance of the transport system.
13.4.1 Development of mode-road functional hierarchy tool
The framework tool, as explained in Chapter 12, was structured based on a network
environment that is characterised by partial restriction of NMPT with MT and applying the
concept of functional hierarchy. The modal priority composition, as such, was divided into three
broad categories with MT preference at one end of network priority spectrum, NMPT at the
other end and a mixed priority in between these two levels. This suited to the functional need
of the network and the operating character of the available modes.
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This preliminary set of network modal priorities was then analysed and expanded by comparing
it to the standard governing the attributes desired at different network levels, as found during
road functionality analysis. A corridor is allocated a particular position within a road hierarchy
and with a certain priority combination of modal composition, if the functional need of that
road category corresponds to a set status of network governing attributes previously derived;
and complements operating characteristics of modes assigned. A total of six road levels with
one combination of governing attributes and modal priorities for each, distributed in
descending hierarchical structure of MT to NMPT and corresponding to the changing
hierarchical functional network needs, were thus derived.
13.4.2 Case study application of the tool
The decision tool developed was applied to a case study, part of Dhanmondi and its
surroundings, in order to examine the functionality of the tool under real conditions. The
chosen network was a tailored, smaller segment of the original network adopted for land use-
traffic interactivity analysis and road functionality analysis. The northern boundary of the area
was kept similar to the original network, with a small extension to include one of the proposed
BRT lines of STP (2005b). The southern boundary was reduced to Dhanmondi Road No. 7/A (Sat
Masjid Road end) and Dhanmondi Road No. 10 (Mirpur Road end), deemed sufficient for the
objective of the test and to keep the analysis to manageable scale.
The area was selected for multiple reasons. Firstly, previous analyses ensured a better
understanding of network character on the area; and availability of land use, traffic and other
characteristics data on the network, that would assist in a more robust testing process.
Moreover, since the previously chosen network incorporates major road types, land character
and other dynamic characters as explained in Section 13.3.1, it would ensure a better
demonstration of the capability of the tool. In addition, the original network had proximity to a
proposed BRT corridor, that added value for the purpose of the tool evaluation.
Each link was assigned a particular hierarchy with particular modal priority distribution, if
functional need of the link corresponded to such allocation. A unique colour code was applied
to represent each road category. The coding and analysis was based on available data and local
experience of the researcher in the area. The framework based network was then compared
with the base network, to yield a qualitative understanding of the changes between the base
and modified network; and the impact of the tool in achieving desired outcomes of balance and
integration between NMPT and MT. The final part of the hypothesis was thus evaluated.
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13.4.3 Strategic guideline from framework implementation
A number of supportive measures were recommended to facilitate and improve better
realisation of the tool. The recommended implementation strategy was divided into multiple
thematic elements of concern or target components. Broader recommendations were provided
for multiple sub-components under each component. These strategic recommendations were
structured to correspond to the proposed road hierarchical structure of the framework tool to
enable their better comprehension and relation.
13.5 Summary
The chapter has described research methodology for developing the framework tool, including
method description for four interconnected planning stages, required to structure the tool.
At planning step 1, initial planning including purpose, scope and rationale for the framework
tool was defined. Review and analysis of Section B was adopted as input in deriving the
conclusion of this step. At planning step 2, the desired characteristics of the proposed
framework were derived. This process involved suitability analysis of alternative NMPT-MT
integration strategies with relation to the current needs and future demands of Dhaka, followed
by examination of the current network character as a part of assessing the effectiveness of
existing restriction strategy. Archival analysis, land use-traffic interactivity analysis, stakeholder
viewpoint analysis and standard road functionality analysis were applied during the evaluation
process. At planning step 3, functional hierarchy was selected as suitable technique for the
layout of the framework. This selection involved review of functional hierarchy as a concept in
network planning, application suitability of the technique to the needs of the current Dhaka
network and case study evaluation of the method in addressing similar situations elsewhere.
At planning step 4, the framework tool was structured based on partial integration between
NMPT-MT and with the use of functional hierarchy technique. The combination of governing
attributes and modal priority that optimises functional need and performance of network levels
that constitutes road hierarchy of a transport system was thus devised. A case study application
of the framework was then administered to examine the capability of the tool in achieving
operational balance and modal coordination between different network levels. A broad,
descriptive implementation strategy was proposed to facilitate the future functionality of the
tool. The next chapter describes comprehension of the desired characteristics of the proposed
framework and the selection process of suitable techniques for layout of the framework.
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14CHAPTER 14: BUILDING SCENE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE
INTEGRATED PLANNING FRAMEWORK
14.1 Introduction
“….. NMTs will continue to exist because they cater to a particular type of travel need
that faster modes (public or private) cannot effectively serve. Further to this, their
existence is desirable as they are truly sustainable. However, their present existence
alone cannot make a transport system sustainable. To make the system sustainable,
NMTs must be integrated with other modes so that they can play their due functional
role. An efficient transit system integrated with complementary systems of NMTs and
other motorised paratransit modes can be envisaged as a sustainable transport system
for future Dhaka. Planning, designing and implementation of such a transport system
remains a challenge to the urban transport planners of the country.”
(Quium, 1994)
Chapters 11 to 13 introduced a four step planning process and methodology that has been
developed for the framework. These chapters also discussed the procedure and description for
completion of planning step 1, initial planning for the framework. This Chapter focuses on the
detailed description for completion of planning steps 2 and 3. The following chapter does so for
planning step 4. .
The content of this chapter is divided into two major sections. Section 14.2 corresponds to
planning step 2 and the following section corresponds to planning step 3. Section 14.2 analyses
desired characteristics for the proposed framework based on multi-dimensional evaluation of
alternative non-motorised public transport (NMPT) - motorised transport (MT) integration
scenarios. The suitable integration approach for the framework and key deficits of the current
network are determined. Section 14.3 describes the process to selection of suitable method
that can address current deficiencies in the transport network and can be adopted for layout of
the framework. The process of this chapter is expected to produce a balanced platform for
structuring and application of a framework to enable efficient coexistence of NMPT with MT.
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14.2 Comprehension of desired characteristics for the proposed
framework
14.2.1 Character analysis of alternative transport strategies
Building alternative transport strategies
The characteristics analysis for the proposed framework started with network environment
suitability analysis, i.e. the best non-motorised transport (NMT)-MT integration approach
permissible for the framework. Note that NMT in these strategic options and relevant
discussions onwards stands for both NMT bicycle and NMPT, unless otherwise stated. The
analysis commenced with formulation of alternative transport strategies. A total of three
strategies were selected based on NMPT restriction intensity, covering the possible temporal
dimensions -past, present and and possible future scenario in the transport system of Dhaka.
These alternative transport strategies included
A. Full restriction of NMPT: The NMPT movement was assumed to be fully restricted.
MT movement was considered to be unrestricted. This assumption was based on
the notion of some of the previous transport documents and practice of city
authorities on complete future eviction of NMPT from the transport system. This
represents one extreme end of the strategic spectrum.
B. No restriction of NMPT: The NMPT was assumed to be unrestricted throughout
the network. This assumption corresponds to the mode’s plying condition before
2002, when NMPT movement restriction commenced. MT movement was
considered to be completely restricted in this condition, excluding emergency
vehicles such as ambulance, fire brigade etc. This represents the other extreme
end of the strategic spectrum.
C. Partial restriction of NMPT-existing: The NMPT was assumed to be restricted on all
major roads, including restriction currently in effect or in plan for future
implementation. NMPT are allowed on minor roads (secondary, tertiary, collector
and narrow). MT movement is unrestricted. This scenario reflects present
coexistence between NMT and MT in Dhaka. This also represents a middle sphere
within the strategic spectrum, compared to A and B, as explained above.
The following section evaluates these strategies to assess their suitability with reference to
three thematic aspects. The process is described below.
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Suitability analysis of the alternative transport strategies
The analytical approach for alternative option assessment included macro-level needs as well as
micro-level demands. The three dimensions of evaluation selected for the purpose are now
discussed.
Evaluation I: Impact analysis of alternative strategies based on mulltisectoral attributes
and network character
The previous initiatives to control of NMPT and concurrent MT coexistence in Dhaka transport
were discussed in Section B. The results of these policy initiatives were also discussed. This
evaluation discusses the key implications or possible implications of these initiatives, with
reference to the alternative strategies.
Considering the full restriction (FR) scenario, a multitude of implications were revealed. These
implications were assumed based on the review made on current NMPT restriction initiatives in
Section B. The possible implication of a full degree of NMPT restriction strategy and concurrent
unrestricted MT movement, if imposed, were found to be,
• large scale socio-economic impact due to employment loss of around 2.31 million,
unlikely to be replaced in medium-to-long term by any other sector or sectors in
combination in future; and loss of livelihood of the dependent population on this
industry (derived from Chapter 6);
• increase of environmental pollution in the long term (derived based on Hoque et
al., 2005; Nasir, 2005; DUTP, 2007 & Chapter 6).
• increased inefficiency in road space utilization, given road usage is primarily
replaced by private car, taxi and other low occupancy motorised transport
following current trend (derived based on HDRC, 2004; Hoque et al., 2006 and
Chapter 6);
• increase in total journey time ( walk time and wait time to access poorly located
bus stops) for former NMPT users, mostly non-owners of private transport and
those who cannot afford paratransit (derived based on Bari & Efroymson, 2007;
DUTP, 2007 and Chapter 6);
• restrictive movement for vulnerable social groups, students and middle income
population, due to lack of a suitable alternative MPT mode to NMPT with
comparable quality and availability, distorting social equity (derived based on STP,
2005c and Chapter 6);
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• void of any comparable MPT mode for short distance passenger and freight trip
making (2-5 km), that comprises 70 percent of all trips in Dhaka (derived based on
STP 2005c and Chapter 6);
• non-suitability of any MPT modes in replacing NMPT, to serve narrow network
parts of Dhaka (eg. Old Dhaka) for freight and passenger transport (derived based
on STP 2005c; Rahman, D’Este & Bunker, 2009b , Rahman, D’Este & Bunker, 2011
and Chapter 6) ;
• non-compatibility with the future plan to introduce a rapid transit system and the
recommended role of NMPT as feeder modes, in filling the door-to-door
connectivity gap (derived based on STP 2005c; Bari and Efroymson, 2007 and
Chapter 7).
The likely benefits for the strategy include increased corridor productivity and improved
reliability (travel time) for private automobile users (derived based on Habib, 2002; Habib &
Alam, 2003a; DUTP, 2007). Such gains would however, depend on the effectiveness of allowing
high capacity public transport and better traffic management such as on-street parking control
etc. Otherwise these benefits are likely to become marginal as was demonstrated from the
network performance study on MT only Mirpur Corridor (see Chapter 7 for detailed analysis).
The review shows that the costs of the strategy seemed to distinctly outweigh the benefits. In
addition, such a strategy would imply clear bias towards MT modes, ignoring the existence of
the largest operating fleet share NMPT, contrary to achieving a balanced transport system.
Considering the inverse condition, that is, no restriction (NR) scenario, a number of benefits and
cost of the approach were revealed. These derivations were based on the observations made of
the pre-2002 condition by previous literature and on the assumption of full restriction of MT.
The key problem of such an approach could be,
• loss of mobility or increase in travel cost for the low income population, who were
primarily dependent on MPT bus for their daily work and other trips (derived
based on STP 2005c);
• loss of employment- groups related to operation and management of MPT, groups
engaged as paid chauffeurs and groups related to trading of motorised transport
modes (importers, retailers and repairers);
• reduction in overall traffic operational efficiency (decreased average speed,
increased travel time and delay) of major roads primarily designed to serve better
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mobility and provide long distance city wide coverage(derived based on Habib &
Alam 2003b; DCC,2002 ) ;
• reduction in overall passenger carrying capacity of the network corridor (derived
based on Bari & Efroymson, 2007);
• increase in travel demand and thus vehicle-km of travel, creating congestion and
poor level of service (derived based on Habib & Alam, 2003b);
• non-suitability in carrying large scale, bulk freight carriage and carriage of freights
at longer distances (derived based on Chapter 6); and
• non-compatibility with the future plan to introduce a mass transit system, that
includes rail transit and bus rapid transit. Both of these options would require
complementary MPTs such as buses to support and extend their coverage
(derived based on DHUTS, 2010).
This option would allow unrestricted NMPT flow throughout the network, would increase
accessibility and connectivity provision as well as improve affordability to concerned users, and
reduce environmental impact. But a considerable number of critical service dimensions would
be unattainable. The review shows that the costs of the strategy outweigh the benefits. In
addition, such a strategy would imply bias towards NMPT modes, completely ignoring the
existence of a large operating fleet share such as MT, contrary to achieving a balanced transport
system.
The comparative condition between FR and NR scenarios clearly revealed that a better balance
is desirable between the modes, a strategy that encourages both MT and NMPT in their
respective roles. This strategy requires more impartial perspective towards both NMT and MT
and requires corresponding with the general network and the associated character need of
Dhaka transport system, as revealed through Chapters 6, 7 and the above review. A well
planned, partial restriction (PR) strategy, combining both NMPT and MT can therefore be seen
as the preferable option in attaining such a balanced network environment. The key benefits of
such an approach would be,
• enabling better accessibility to different modes by different travel markets,
thereby improving affordability and minimizing loss of mobility;
• enabling better catering to diverse travel markets and trip characteristics,
passenger and freight ;
• offering improved connectivity and accessibility among different parts of the
transport network, buy allowing diverse mode options;
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• better maintenance of employment and economic self-reliance, by allowing
trading of both industries; and
• enabling better compliance with the future transport plan to incorporate mass
transits (rail/bus) by offering both NMPT and MT mode provisions, to complement
the rapid transit services ;
The possible disadvantages of the approach could be speed compromise in corridors with
mixed modes (derived based on Habib &Alam, 2003b) and the possibility of greater conflict
between NMPT and MT compared to previous options. But these limitations are distinctly
outweighed by the perceived benefits of the approach. In particular, the likely strength of the
strategy in incorporating both NMPT and MT into the transport system demonstrates its
relatively impartial character as a strategy. Moreover, with appropriate planning, it is possible to
minimize the identified disadvantages substantially.
Evaluation II: Land use-traffic interactivity analysis
The fundamental concept of this assessment was to explore the suitability of the alternative
strategies with reference to the prevailing land use character of major road categories, and in
relation to the mode-specific traffic demand at those land uses. Both current conditions and
expected future demand of these land uses to attract traffic were analysed. A sub-network of
six major case corridors forming an interconnected area polygon was chosen for analysis. The
land use was classified into nine major categories. The modes were split into two major groups,
MT and NMT. But land use-traffic interactivity varies for different vehicle categories and it was
important to have a deeper understanding of such a relationship to better comprehend the
need or otherwise of different mode types with respect to land uses. The primary mode split
was therefore further sub-categorised, six under the MT category and two under the NMT
category corresponding to the current major mode split of Dhaka. A corridor-wise summary of
the analysis output is presented in Table 14.1. Appendix F3 to F8 provides segment-wise results
of the analysis.
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Table 14.1: Land use- traffic interactivity for different road categories
Existing road type Adjacent major land use Traffic intensity by mode type
(existing trend/future potential of the given land uses in generating/attracting the vehicle type)
MT NMT
Car Motor
Cycle Bus Human hauler Auto rickshaw Taxi Bicycle NMPT
Primary
(Mirpur) (Corridor 1)
Commercial Retail
Mixed commercial
Institutional
High High Very high High High Moderate Low Very high
Membership score (M) 0.67 0.67 0.83 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.83
Secondary
(Satmasjid)
(Corridor 2)
Commercial Retail
Mixed commercial
Institutional
High High High High Moderate Low Very Low Very high
Membership score (M) 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83
Collector
(Dhanmondi road no.27)
(Corridor 3A)
Mixed-commercial High Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Very Low High
Membership score (M) 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.67
Collector
(Pilkhana Road)
(Corridor 3B)
Mixed-commercial High Moderate High High Moderate Low Very Low Very high
Membership score (M) 0.67 0.5 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83
Access
(Dhanmondi road 12/A)
(Corridor 4)
Residential
Mixed- residential High Moderate Low Low Moderate Low Very low Very high
Membership score (M) 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83
Narrow
(opposite of Dhanmondi road 12/A)
(Corridor 5)
Residential
Mixed-residential Moderate Moderate Low Low Moderate Very low Very low Very high
Membership score (M) 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.5 0.17 0.17 0.83
Source: Derived based on field survey (2009) and Ragin (2000)
Note: Shading is used for better tabular representation of the categorical expression of membership (traffic intensity by mode with relation to land use)
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Land use pattern overview
Overview of the analysis result in Table 14.1 indicates the dominant presence of exclusive
commercial retail use and primary commercial usage-based mixed use development at primary
road, Mirpur Road and secondary road, Sat Masjid Road. At Mirpur Road, examples of such
commercial retail usage include regional level centres such as New Market shopping complex ,
Elephant Road retail centre, Hawkers Market, Gausia Market and Chandni Chawk; examples of
commercial office and heath care usage include Globe Centre, BCSIR, Standard Chartered Bank,
Flora limited, Gonoshastho Complex and Harun Eye Foundation; examples of major institutional
usage include Dhaka College, Imperial College, Teacher’s Training College and Govt. Laboratory
High School. At Sat Masjid Road, the major commercial retail usage includes Anam Rangs Plaza,
Shankar Plaza and Keari Plaza; major commercial office and heath care usage include Save the
Children, ACME building, Priyanka Community Centre, Sunrise Coaching Centre, Chayanot, IBN
Sina Diagnostic Centre and Medinova Medical Centre; major institutional usage includes
Victoria University, University of Asia Pacific, University of Liberal Arts, United University and
Stamford University. Note that the southern segment of Sat Masjid Road connects to Pilkhana
road through a restricted area, Bangladesh Rifles Headquarter. This compound comprises
offices, retail shops, community hall, educational institute and residence as major usage.
The pattern changes to more mixed commercial usage at collector road levels that primarily
include each land use block with retail centres, offices and institutions together. Major mixed-
commercial usage in Pilkhana Road includes New Market, Post Office, book stores and cloth
markets. This corridor also has the ladies’ residential hall of Dhaka University. In Dhanmondi
Road No. 27, major mixed-commercial usage includes Meena Bazar Complex, Concord Centre,
Genetic Plaza and Rapa Plaza. This corridor also has institutional usage such as Asian University.
The land usage pattern shifts to residential and residential base, mixed use developments at
local level roads. At local road, Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A, the major residential usage includes
multi-storied apartment units; major mixed residential developments include residence with
institutional usage such as St. Judes School, commercial usage such as Western Grill. This
corridor also has a city level recreation use, Abahani Field and a special use, Taqwa Mosque. At
the narrow road, opposite to Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A, the major residential usage includes
one or two storey houses; major mixed-residential usage is all mixed-residential such as
residences with shops or training facilities such as the British Council on the ground floor. See
Appendix F.3 to F.8 for detailed description of land uses by segments of each corridor.
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Analysing mode specific intensity of traffic generation by Land use
At an individual traffic level, the current demand and future potential demand for both MT and
NMT traffic at all road categories and for different land uses were found to be a common
phenomenon. This traffic intensity was observed to have a multitude of patterns, with relation
to the shift in land use. NMPT and MT, such as car and motorcycle were observed to be the
three major modes respectively, across all land use types and at all network levels. NMPT has a
membership score of 0.67<M<0.83 while car and motorcycle has score of 0.5<M<0.67. Taxi and
bicycle were observed to be the least demanding vehicles respectively by any land use type.
Taxi has a membership score of 0.5<M<0.17 and bicycle has score of 0.17<M<0.33. Buses and
human haulers were found to attract more demand from commercial and commercially-based
land usage. In these categories, bus has a higher membership score of 0.5<M<0.83 and human
hauler has a score of 0.33<M<0.67.
For Corridor 1, Mirpur Road between Dhanmondi Road No. 1 and Dhanmondi Road No. 27,
NMPT movement has been restricted since 2002 (Khan, 2011). In order to analyse the NMPT
traffic attraction pattern at land uses of these corridor section, analysis was based on the
observation of NMPT at side roads. It was assumed that NMPT terminated passenger trips near
the approach to Mirpur Road and passengers destining to a land use on Mirpur Road were
potential NMPT demands for those land uses. Note that for this section, each land use block on
either side of the road was assessed following the approach as specified above.
In order to analyse the current demand and future potential attraction of bus and human
haulers for residential and mixed residential developments, which were primarily concentrated
on Corridors 4 and 5, the evaluation needed to be based on assumptions. This was rational
since buses and human haulers were not allowed on these corridors. Therefore assessments of
the attraction of land uses on these corridors were not possible from direct observation. The
assumptions were sourced from the local experience of the researcher as a resident of
Dhanmondi area, being a regular user of different public transport modes to make trip from and
to this area and the LOS analysis of bus, human hauler in Chapter 6.
As a resident and a former regular user of bus and human hauler, the researcher was aware
that quality of service (accessibility and service quality) of the currently available bus or human
hauler service in Dhaka is not satisfactory. The LOS analysis of Chapter 6 corresponds to this
notion; in particular the interview of residents conducted during that analysis included
inhabitants of Corridor 4 as well. It is rational to deduce from such a response base that, due to
poor quality of service (in-vehicle comfort, reliability, security and safety) and not so accessible
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location/service coverage offered by these services, the trip attraction of local residences was
not particularly induced by bus or human hauler. Rather, more preference was demonstrated
for public transport modes such as NMPT or auto rickshaw, and where possible, private vehicles
such as car or motorcycle. This pattern is not likely to be altered in the near future, unless
substantial improvements take place in the motorised public transport sector. Moreover, the
socio-economic condition of the locals, a middle to middle-high income group, who can afford
NMPT or auto rickshaw as a regular form of transport mode, reinforces the validity of the
claimed traffic intensity pattern for NMPT.
Note that the traffic intensity findings for residential and mixed-residential land uses might vary
between bus, human hauler and NMPT to some extent, with variability of location and
particularly socio-economic class of the residents. The general mode trend is, however,
expected to remain similar. That is, the need of both MT and NMT for different land uses across
different network levels and with NMPT, MPT bus, human hauler and MT car as major modes.
These also complement the overall mode share distribution found from the analysis of Chapters
4 and 6.
From the key derivatives of this analysis when compared with the alternative NMPT-MT
integration options, the following were established,
• The FR strategy or the NR strategy was considered to be impractical considering
the current / potential future demand of different categories of two major mode
classes, NMT and MT, across land use category and road classifications. The focus
of developing a balanced network environment also contradicts the fundamental
constituents of this option.
• The best strategy was therefore found to be PR. This option, based on the
aforementioned analysis can offer a mixed mode traffic composition, which is an
environment desired and corresponded to by the current and future pattern of
land use-traffic interactivity of Dhaka.
Evaluation III: Stakeholder needs and future demand analysis
This analytical approach was undertaken with the objective to comprehend the viewpoint of
stakeholders regarding alternative strategic preference for NMPT-MT integration. The analysis
was done at two levels, mode specific level and system level. Note that detailed methodology
and description of impartial stakeholder selection and relevant analysis procedure were
presented in Chapters 7 and 8.
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At mode specific level, the viewpoint of stakeholders were recorded and analysed with
reference to the preferred control level for NMPT with MT in the future Dhaka transport
system. The overall viewpoint result revealed that,
• 87 percent of the total respondents favoured the PR condition, where NMPT and
MT would coexist. Only 14 percent of the viewpoints were in favour of either NR
strategy or FR strategy. The share was 13 percent for the former while 1 percent
for the latter.
The stakeholder group-based viewpoint result revealed that,
• The PR approach was preferred by more than 85 percent of the respondents
within each group. Government organisations, constituting major agencies related
to transport operation and management of Dhaka, were highly in favour of the PR
approach (around 90 percent), together with non-government organisations
funding the developments (around 92 percent).
• NR approach was chosen by less than 15 percent by each group with government
organisation completely opposing the approach.
• Government organisations were also the only group to support the FR option.
• The review of the viewpoints suggested that PR approach was prioritised distinctly
compared to the other two approaches.
At the system level, the viewpoint was recorded and analysed with reference to the attribute
preferred by the stakeholders, from the future Dhaka transport system. Five attributes were
analysed, including social equity, traffic operational efficiency, access and mobility,
environmental sustainability and modern city image. The overall preference analysis showed
that most of the responses were in favour having a transport system that enables good traffic
efficiency (34 percent), access and mobility (33 percent) followed by social equity (17 percent)
and environmental sustainability (11 percent). A similar order of preference was also revealed
from individual group analysis. If we compare these preferences with the character of the
alternative strategies in discussion,
• FR strategy and/or NR strategy were found to be unsuitable. This is because both
of these strategies are characterised by absolute preference of a particular mode
type - MT for the former strategy while NMT for the latter. As a result, the
opportunity of modal and spatial accessibility, personal mobility and traffic
operational efficiency are considerably hindered as revealed from the analysis of
Chapters 6, 7 and the learning of Evaluation I.
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• PR approach, that enables incorporation of both MR and NMT, offers a better
chance of balance in catering the need of different travel markets and trip
characters, offering better equity in mode choice and in mobility of movement
under the current transport scenario of Dhaka.
The detailed methodology and description of relevant analysis procedure were made in
Chapters 7 and 8.
Derivation from the above analysis depicts the suitability of PR as a preferable integration
approach for co-existence of NMT with MT, under the current transport system and conditions
of Dhaka.
Preliminary selection of preferred strategy
The qualitative and quantitative evaluations conducted above provided a preliminary
understanding on preferred NMPT-MT integration scenario. The evaluation also assisted in
derivation of a transport strategy that can address balanced NMPT-MT coexistence for future
Dhaka, as well as desired outcomes for the proposed framework .The evaluation results are
summarised in Table 14.2.
Table 14.2: The alternative transport strategies with NMPT restrictions and suitability result
Scenario
Code
Scenario
Name Description Evaluation I Evaluation II Evaluation III Result
A FR of
NMPT
NMT restriction on
the entire network,
MT movement
unrestricted
Not
desirable
Not
desirable
Not
desirable
Rejected
B NR of
NMPT
NMT movement
unrestricted, MT
movement
restricted on entire
network
Not
desirable
Not
desirable
Not
desirable
Rejected
C PR
(existing)
(E) of
NMPT
NMT movement
restricted on major
roads, MT
movement
unrestricted
Desirable for
mixed traffic
condition
Desirable
for mixed
traffic
condition
Desirable for
mixed traffic
condition
Preliminarily
accepted
Source: Developed by author based on alternative transport strategy evaluation
Table 14.2 indicates that both FR and NR strategies are unlikely based on their present and
possible future impact analysis on multisectoral attributes of city system and network; need and
pattern of current and possible future interactive relationship expected between land use and
traffic at different network levels; and current and future expectation of stakeholders from the
Dhaka transport system. The evaluation results from the table also found PR (E) strategy to be a
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more balanced, preferable option in addressing these directions and needs of the Dhaka
transport system.
A review of Section B and introduction to alternative strategies at the beginning of this section
has indicated PR (E) to be an already practised strategy for NMPT-MT integration for Dhaka. The
discussions in Chapter 7 and Chapter 10 of the section has further introduced the issue of
ineffectiveness of the current NMPT restriction strategy in achieving a balance between
operation and performance optimisation of NMPT and to an extent, that of MT. It is therefore
necessary to analyse and investigate in detail, the discrepancies or otherwise of the current PR
strategy. The results of the analysis would provide insights on the need or otherwise of a new
PR approach; and in addition, if applicable, would inform on the pattern of needs and deficits of
the current approach that needs to be addressed.
14.2.2 Characterisation of existing partial restriction strategy
The examination of current PR strategy is divided into two major segments. The effectiveness of
the strategy was first investigated with reference to its capability in optimising and balancing
the key requirements for different network levels. This was followed by the coherence analysis
of the current strategy with relation to desired objectives of major transport plans for Dhaka
and other associated prescribed guidelines.
Analysis with reference to current transport network performance
Standard road functionality analysis, at the corridor level, was the approach chosen to analyse
the effectiveness of PR (E) in meeting the desired network performance and balance at different
network levels. A total of six major corridors, similar to that of land use- traffic interactivity
evaluation were analysed in this regard. The mode split, for analysis purposes, was divided into
MT and NMPT. The analysis was conducted with reference to four major governing criteria and
relevant sub-criteria for network performance assessment. Detailed definition of each criterion
is provided in Appendix G2. Table 14.3 presents the standard governing attributes and desired
status for different major road categories. The output of the comparative analysis between
standard road functionality expected from each network level and that observed for the
analysis modes are then discussed, in the following table (Table 14.3).
For convenience of comparison, the discussions are made with reference to the study area map
(Figure 14.1), as and where deemed necessary. The map is presented at the beginning of this
comparative discussion, and in the following table (Table 14.3).
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Table 14.3: Desired performance level of major governing attributes across road network levels
^This is a guideline only. More detailed investigation is required to develop a comprehensive speed limit guideline based on road type, built up condition and traffic mix.
*measured with reference to surrounding land use & noise generation
Source: Derived by author from the sources specified in consultation with academic mentors and practicing professionals
Note: Prescribed guideline based standard derivation for each attribute was supplemented by consultation with
Academic mentors and practicing professionals in Dhaka to optimise judgement balance.
DESIGN FEATURE FUNCTIONAL FEATURE FRICTIONAL
FEATURE IMPACT FEATURE
Road
category Type Right of Way Road type Dominant linkage Connectivity Mobility function
Maximum speed
limit^ ( built up
areas)
Public transport (PT)
service (availability and
cost)
Access function Preferred abutting
land use Traffic sensitivity*
1 Primary road 4 2 M 3 3 3 3 1 9 0 2
2 Secondary road 3 2 2 9 2 2 2 3 1 � 0 2
3 Collector road 2 2 � 2 2 1 1 3 1 2 � 0 2
4 Local road 1 0 8 1 1 1 1 3 8 0 1
5 Narrow road 0 0 8 1 1 0 1 3 8 1
Reference
for review
DITS (1994a),DMDP
(1995), DCC (2002),
STP (2005b), DAP
(2008)
DCC (2002), STP
(2005b), DAP (2008),
DITS (1994a), DCC (2002),
DAP (2008)
DITS (1994a), STP (2005b),
DAP (2008), Kadiyali (2007),
Eppell et al (2001)
DITS (1994a), DCC
(2002), Eppell et al
(2001), HCM (2010)
DCC (2002), STP
(2005b), Kadiyali
(2007), HCM (2010)
DCC (2002), Kadiyali
(2007), STP (2005b)
DCC (2002), STP (2005),
Kadiyali (2007)
DMDP (1995), DAP
(2008), Kadiyali (2007)
Ministry of
Environment (2005)
legend Description legend Description legend Description legend Description legend Description legend Description Legend Description legend Description legend Description legend Description
0 4m-7m 0 Undivided (1way/ 2
way) 0 <10 0 Silence zone
(40dB-50dB
1 7m-12m 8
Sites (aggregated
lots served by a local
street)
1
Collectors to
residential
streets
1 Frequent or
constant
friction in
movement
1 <20 1
High frequency,
low capacity,
affordable service
at lower order,
local level roads;
1 Infrequent
access point 8
Primarily
residential 1
Residential
(45dB-55dB
2 12m-18m 2 Divided ( 2 way) �
Environment Cell
(contains local
streets and is an
area block of a
suburb)
2 Major arterials
to collectors 2
Neither
infrequent nor
constant
friction
2 20-40 2
Neither
infrequent nor
constant access
point
� Mixed 2 Commercial
(55dB-65dB
3 18m-25m 9 Specific area 3
Major arterials
to major
arterials
3
No or
infrequent
friction in
movement
3 40-60 3
High frequency,
high capacity,
affordable service
at higher order
distributor roads
3 Frequent access
point 9
Primarily
commercial 3
Industrial
(70dB-75dB)
4 25m-30m M Metropolitan
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lLegend
High volume NMT traffic pushed back to local roads
Trip point at south Trip point at west
Common NMT route, south to west
Of Dhaka before current strategy
Principal NMT route, connecting south to west
of Dhaka, with current strategy
Suburb or area location Frequent points of friction at Mirpur Road
Figure 14.1: Study area network with different attributes
MOHAMMADPUR
DHAKA SOUTH
Example of frequent
access interval on
Mirpur Road
(<=200m) ;
uncontrolled
MIRPUR ROAD
SAT MASJID
ROAD
DHANMONDI
ROAD 27
ROAD NO. 2
PILKHANA ROAD
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Analysing design criteria
The comparative analysis of observed traffic performance to that of the standard governing
attributes in Table 14.3 revealed that the design criteria of the corridors are coherent to
standard road geometry expected. The observed right of way for all the analysis corridors were
found to be in proximity (Mirpur Road- 30m, Sat Masjid Road-21m, Dhanmondi Road No. 27-
12m, Pilkhana Road- 15m, Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A-7m, road opposite to Dhanmondi Road
No. 12/A – 4m) to the prescribed standard in the above table. The road type attribute is also
observed to be similar to the prescribed standard of Table 14.3. Mirpur Road, Sat Masjid Road
and the collector roads (Dhanmondi Road No 27 and Pilkaha Road) were observed to be
divided. The access and narrow roads, Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A and the road opposite of
Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A were observed to be undivided.
Analysing functional criteria
From the functional perspective, the catered areas by the analysis corridors were found to be
much more scattered and overlapping across different road categories than desired as per the
key purpose of each road category. For example, under PR(E) strategy, since the NMT were
pushed back from primary to local roads and without any planned route alternatives, many of
the NMT users are forced to use these roads (Sat Masjid Road, Dhanmondi Road No. 2 or
Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A) as diversions to reach the desired destination (Figure 14.1). As a
result, some of these roads (Pilkhana Road and Dhanmondi Road No 12/A) are now observed to
be used for through traffic to connect specific areas, such as for journeys from the southern
suburbs to the western suburbs of Dhaka. This is in addition to its expected function as a local
traffic carrier to connect different small sites or environment cells (neighbourhoods). Such
behaviour contradicts the standard guideline prescribed in Table 14.3 and compromises the
hierarchy of road usage, and therefore the quality of service in these roads.
In terms of network connectivity, proximity of the standard road type to road type connectivity
was observed in the field (Figure 14.1). However, a greater degree of accessibility due to
unrestricted movement incentives under current strategy was observed for MT, compared to
NMT at all road levels. This contradicts the findings of previous generic network analysis and
land use traffic intensity analysis that demonstrated high demand of NMPT for almost all land
use types, particularly for short local (site specific) and intra-neighbourhood trips. This also
contradicts the standard requirement for good inter-road interconnectivity for all major mode
types in a transport system, MT and NMT in this instance.
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Mobility and travel speed were found to be poor and disruptive for both MT and NMT, at most
road levels, in contradiction to the prescribed guidelines of Table 14.3. For Mirpur Road
(Corridor 1), the recorded speed for MT stream was 35km/h. This low speed range was due to
an increased use of space inefficient vehicular usage at post NMPT restriction periods and lack
of management in controlling roadside activities (e.g. on-street parking, vending), that reduces
effective road width and transport productivity. For other roads (Corridor 2 to 5) the recorded
speed were - Sat Masjid Road (MT: 15-20km/h, NMT:6-8km/h); Dhanmondi Road No. 27 (MT:
12-15km/h, NMT: 8km/h); Pilkhana Road (MT:10-15km/h, NMT: 6-8km/h); Dhanmondi Road
No. 12/A (MT:10km/h, NMT: 6-8km/h); opposite of Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A (MT: 5km/h,
NMT: 5km/h). These low speed values and consequent poor mobility, particularly in higher
order roads were due to an unplanned mixture of slow and fast moving vehicles, a movement
allowance without suitable traffic management measures such as vehicle based priority rules,
that could minimise conflicts. Particularly, excess flows of NMPT at local roads due to restriction
and unrestricted movement allowance for MT at all network levels are escalating such mobility
and speed problems.
Analysis of network performance from the public transport viewpoint (service frequency, stop
provision and user cost) also demonstrated lack of coherence among the need of the individual
corridor types as prescribed in Table 14.3 and that of the assigned mode. For example, MPT
(bus and human hauler) service frequency was found to be low in secondary roads (Sat Masjid
Road) and very low in collector roads (Dhanmondi Road No. 27 and Pilkhana Road) even though
the standard recommends higher frequency. The same is applicable to MPT stop provisions.
NMPTs, on the contrary, were found to be oversupplied in these parts while they were
relegated from major roads. To a certain extent, the availability of NMPT in lower roads is
preferable according to Table 14.3, yet no priority provision to facilitate operation or
management for NMPT was found in any of these roads. Concurrently, excess availability of
NMPT in secondary roads (Sat Masjid Road) was also observed, due to a lack of planned
management or operational hierarchy. These conditions of oversupply or undersupply are
contrary to the requirement of reasonable PT service provision on all network parts.
Analysing the PT user cost attribute, it was found that due to NMPT operational restriction, the
users of this mode were forced to spend extra on fares for longer detours compared to pre-
restriction travel routes (Figure 14.1). But no operational priority and/or infrastructure support
was attempted in the PR (E) strategy to facilitate NMPT movement over MT, or to minimise its
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trip lengths. In comparison, for MPT users or for private automobile users, they were not
required to encounter such disincentives.
Analysing frictional criteria
From a frictional dimension, the current strategy restricted NMT from major roads (e.g. Mirpur
Road) in order to improve speed and productivity of these road categories. But the post NMPT
restriction demonstration study (DUTP, 2007) and observation suggested that, since no
effective design or management measures were undertaken to control the frequent access
nature from and to this road, the friction between through traffic and access traffic did not
improve much. Mobility also did not improve by much. This was evidenced by the marginal shift
in total journey speed on these roads at pre and post NMPT restriction period (See Chapter 7
for detailed result of relevant analysis). Figure 14.1 shows the frequent access nature of Mirpur
Road. Concurrent to this, since more traffic (NMT) was forced to roads such as Sat Masjid Road,
which was supposed to be acting as a high mobility low access road, they became highly
frictional. This was because most NMT vehicles, travelling from south to west of Dhaka, that
were not allowed to use Mirpur Road, started traversing Sat Masjid Road to access to different
specific areas and sites such as Lalmatia suburb, Mohammadpur suburb etc., obstructing
expected traffic flow of this corridor. See Figure 14.1 for this shift of NMT routes and use of Sat
Masjid Road as a principal through route, adding significantly to the frictional attributes of the
corridor.
Analysing impact criteria
Analysis of traffic sensitivity conditions along the case corridors revealed the status as
contradictory in all corridors in comparison to the set standard for these corridors as prescribed
in Table 14.3. The noise levels at commercial corridors (e.g. Mirpur Road/Sat Masjid Road) were
found to be around 105dB, in mixed corridors (e.g. Dhanmondi Road No. 27) to be around 101
dB and in residential corridors (e.g. Dhanmondi Road No. 12A) to be around 103 dB. These are
similar to those found in a recent survey by WBB Trust (Jakir, 2011). These higher-than-
preferred values are despite the relative similar land uses across the evaluation corridors. The
key reasons for such discrepancy, primarily for residential areas and collector/local roads such
as Dhanmondi Road No. 27, Dhamondi Road No. 12A and the opposite road of Dhamondi Road
No. 12A, are due to the unrestricted use of these local roads by high noise generating MT, as a
through traffic corridor and due to the overuse of these corridors by NMPT.
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Analysis with reference to other aspects
The PR (E) strategy was also found to contradict the preferred future transport guideline and
the need of stakeholders from the future Dhaka transport system. Analysing the primary
transport plans for Dhaka, STP (2005b), it was found that the plan suggests a rapid transit
option in improving future public transport conditions of Dhaka and advises for NMPT to serve
as a feeder to those proposed services. The constituent of PR (E) strategy does not offer a
network hierarchy that can facilitate this procedure, for example, provisions to ensure that
rapid transit at arterials or NMPT at local network can perform optimally by movement priority
and improved network management provisions.
Analysing the stakeholder viewpoint as described in Chapter 9 and Section 14.2.1 of this
Chapter, it was found that the desired demand was to have a transport system that ensures
good traffic operational efficiency and equity in access for daily trips. However, standard road
functionality analysis and review of Chapter 7 revealed the current transport system to have
features such as overemphasis on facilitating operation of MT users, creating disruption in
movement for NMPT users and mismanagement in operating environment. It can therefore be
concluded that PR (E) strategy is incapable in properly addressing stakeholder needs.
Final selection of preferred strategy
The results from the analysis above indicate a lack of balance and suitability of the implemented
planning strategy in facilitating coherence between the functional need of different road types
and the prioritisation of the operating modes. The analysis also revealed incompatibility of the
current approach with reference to some of the desired future transport strategy and
stakeholder needs. These considerations therefore infer the ineffectiveness of the PR (E) in
attaining optimality between coexistence of NMPT and MT. This demonstrates a need for a
modified PR strategy as a platform for the proposed framework. This modified PR strategy,
henceforth termed as PR-proposed is defined as follows:
MT and NMPT would coexist in different network parts, similar to the PR (E) strategy.
But unlike PR (E) strategy, the decision and degree of restriction for NMPT and MT,
particularly at different road categories, would be derived based on the functional need
of those categories and the compatibility of operating characteristics of modes. Such a
strategy would offer an improved planning process, compared to PR(E), for operational
coexistence of MT with NMPT through i) enabling better balance in distribution of
these modes across network; and through ii) incorporating the multi-objective needs of
the current network.
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14.2.3 Derivation of preferred attribute for the framework
The discussion in Sections 14.2.1 and 14.2.2 has revealed the deficits of current network and
the needs to be addressed by the proposed strategy. These needs in turn can be termed as
preferred attributes of the proposed framework. These attributes can be grouped into a
multitude of broad quality categories and are summarised below.-
i) Balanced operational integration between MT and NMPT with coherence to
network functional needs and land use character at different levels of the road
network;
ii) Adherence to future transport policy and plans of Dhaka
iii) Incorporation of stakeholder needs and demands from the future Dhaka transport
system.
iv) Ease of application of the developed tool in assessing and deciding the suitability
of a road category for the preference of a given mode;
v) Offer adoptability and flexibility in use of the framework under different traffic
distribution and network configurations.
Review of the proposed strategic structure and preferred attributes implied the need for a
suitable technique that can accommodate these deficiencies and needs into the proposed
framework; in an efficient manner. Once such a technique is developed, the next stage is to
apply the technique in structuring of the framework. The former statement is addressed in
following section. Chapter 15 describes the process and outcome of the latter statement.
14.3 Selection of suitable technique to replicate desired features of
the framework
14.3.1 Functional hierarchy concept and suitability to address system
deficiency of Dhaka
The character of deficiencies posed above indicated the need for a process that can minimise
the conflict between interactive elements of road function-abutting land use - traffic type in
operation while maintaining the requirements for access and mobility of different transport
users. The character analysis also indicated an operational need for management of the road
network and its hierarchical inter-level integration to facilitate efficient movement of the
conflicting modes in achieving network sustainability, better safety and improved amenities for
the users/city inhabitants.. The analysis further established the need for planning and
management of the network to ensure traffic volumes are carried out appropriate to the road’s
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functional and management attributes. In brief, all these call for a system that can serve
variable type and degree of functional needs of fixed facilities, flow entities and encourage
traffic distribution in accordance
Comparing these needs with the conceptual framework of a functional hierarchy concept it was
found that the key usefulness of the idea lay in its capability to classify an entity based on
functional significance and in a sequential order; enabling logical optimisation of the operational
needs from that entity. DTMR (2010) added that the application of this concept in layout of
fixed facilities is useful due to its strength in allocating appropriate traffic types to the
appropriate roads. Based on these underlying principles and observed mode distribution
imbalance, the application of the said concept to the development of a revised layout for Dhaka
transport network, that is a modified road functional hierarchy, was found to be quite logical.
Emphasising the operational utility of functional hierarchy as a concept in road network
planning and adjustments, the Toowoomba Regional Council (2010) document suggested that,
The usefulness of the functional hierarchy based classification system is that
operational needs relating to such matters as access management, intersection form
and spacing, management of turning traffic, the treatment of public transport and
pedestrians and cyclists signing strategies can all be attached to the various elements of
the functional hierarchy to ensure that compatible treatments and functions coexist.
The Toowoomba Regional Council (2010) document elsewhere argued that the elegance of a
functional hierarchy approach in developing a road network reclassification lies in the fact that
their functional characteristics relate directly to defining their operational specifications. These
notions were found to be quite similar to the desired output achievement process of the
framework, which is aimed at addressing the mismatch between functional character of
different traffic types and their correlation with the operational specification of road types.
Moreover, the method offers itself as a tool to assist in planning the interface between land
use, traffic and road system on which the traffic operates, and to appropriately link roadways in
the road system (Marshall, 2004).
According to RTA (2008), road network hierarchy is a system of sequential and inter-related
classification of roads and distribution of traffic therein to sustainably cater for the need of the
different road users, transport and non-transport functions of roads. Such a technique also
recognised the wide range and balance need between mobility and access on the network,
crucial to addressing the same for both MT and NMPT users of Dhaka. Emphasising the
contribution of functional hierarchy as a process in classifying and integrating compatible
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roadway functions to the operational need of the flow entities , Eppell et al. (2001) stated that a
functional hierarchy process enable,
...each roadway in terms of its function such that appropriate objectives for that
roadway can be set and appropriate design criteria can be implemented. These
objectives and design criteria are aimed at achieving an efficient road system whereby
conflicts between the roadway, traffic and the adjacent land use are minimised..... The
road hierarchy can then form the basis of ongoing planning and system management
aimed at reducing the mixing of incompatible functions.
Marshall (2004) suggested that road functional hierarchy as a system of integrated network
planning is popularly used to set up to avoid conflict between the operation and management
of various mode categories such as MT and NMT. According to Marshall (2003), the process also
assists in defining and redesigning the different types of roads according to their multitude of
functional attribute requirements. These aforementioned qualities of the method also
corresponds quite closely to the network deficiencies of Dhaka where often the conflict in
operation between slow and fast moving vehicles (NMPT and MT) led to operational
inefficiency in their coexistence and management chaos. Hook (2005) echoed that settling the
conflicting design needs of safety and convenience for NMT and the safety and convenience of
MT can be best be settled through a careful definition of a functional road hierarchy. Otherwise,
simply designing all roads for high speed motor vehicle use will destroy the commercial,
recreational and residential character of entire sections of the city. Urban Services (2005) and
Australian Transport Council (2006) highlighted the utility of the functional hierarchy process in
incorporating and maximising the need for operational safety, amenity and eligibility of
different modes across variable road categories. Eppell et al. (2001) and Austroads (2006)
further added to the potential of the process in optimising the transport network’s access,
mobility, safety and mode operational efficiency.
The conceptual framework and application areas of the functional hierarchy system in
addressing road network layout, as a process for incorporating the needs and deficiencies of the
analysed Dhaka network, set it as a suitable method; a method for the layout of the proposed
framework, enabling distribution of most appropriate mode to their best road categories while
accommodating the road functional characteristics, multidimensional user and land use
demand attributes. The capability of the process in ensuring safety, optimising accessibility,
mobility, facilitating greater connectivity through operational efficiency and above all the
management of balance for MT and NMT reinforced the selection appropriateness of the
process for the framework. The inherent character of the process also enabled it to be flexible
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and adoptable, adjusting to changing road categories, functional demand attribute shifts,
variable traffic split and network scale.
14.3.2 Multimodal Integration initiatives with functional hierarchy approach
and learning
Previous discussion established suitability of functional hierarchy for layout of the framework,
but it was worth exploring the fundamental integration methods applied in similar multimodal
environments in other countries to further ascertain the coherence of the process. Chapter B’s
discussion revealed that physical planning and network level planned integration were absent
for NMPT alone. However, the example of cases where such initiatives were undertaken for
integrating NMT, NMPT and NMT only, was thought to be worth discussing to explore their
fundamental principle of planning. Two case cities were respectively chosen in this regard,
Bogota, Columbia and Portland, USA.
The City of Bogota, Columbia was chosen primarily due to its acceptance as the best NMT
integration initiative within the developing cities as well as its scope coverage for both NMT and
NMPT, NMT as primer. Underlining the prospects of NMT use, a 350 km of protected bikeway
system was designed as a complementary part of the BRT system, TransMilenio (Hidalgo, 2002;
Penalosa, 2005; Ho, 2007). According to Hook (2003), the process was a combination of
opportunistic planning and rational planning As a part of the rational planning approach, the
bikeways were developed based on survey and analysis on corridors corresponding to the
demand for NMT and NMPT; and also reflecting the need and operating suitability of these links
to the functional character of the modes, which can be defined as a form of functional
hierarchical process. As a part of the notion, parking provisions for NMTs were also allocated
near transit location along the bikeways. The net benefit and success of the process was
demonstrated by the rise in daily ridership of NMT from 1 percent to 4 percent (Cervero, 2003).
The City of Portland, Oregon, USA was selected as a NMT bicycle integration initiative, which
was considered to be world class and one of the best in USA (Rollins, 2008). The city at present
has a bikeway network of 300 miles (480 km). According to the origin plan known as Portland’s
Bicycle Master Plan 1996, the bikeways were classified by their origin-destination points as City
Bikeways, Off-street Paths and Local Service Bikeways. However, this classification created a
binary system for on-street bikeways and also did not distinguish how different streets classified
under City Bikeways are expected to function within a network.
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Such deficiencies and the need to allocate as well as prioritize right vehicle corresponding to the
operational specification of the street type, the Portland Bicycle Plan for 2030 recommended
modifying bikeway classifications in the Transport System Plan to introduce a functional
hierarchy of bikeway routes (City of Portland Bureau of Transportation, 2011). Such a method
would enable the bikeways to be prioritized and optimized based on their mode specific needs,
and accommodating functional suitability of the street on which to manage the prioritization.
For example, following the functional hierarchy process, some of the City Bikeways which were
expected to have very high demand were recommended to have in-roadway bikeways with
greater width and this was suggested to be traded-off with removal of motorised travel lanes or
parking bays. Such functional mode distribution to network needs are expected to improve bike
ridership to accommodate the ‘interested but concerned cluster (>50 percent Portlanders)’
(City of Portland Bureau of Transportation, 2011).
The proven success (Bogota) and preference for the betterment of a successful situation
(Portland) of the hierarchy based planning principle in NMT integration within city transport
system were thereby quite evident.
The analysis so far established the potential of the functional hierarchy method in distribution
as well as prioritization of right traffic to right network locations. Strength of the method in
facilitating an orderly interfacing at inter-modal and inter-level road network coordination also
proved the utility of the method for the desired endeavour.
14.4 Summary
This chapter has described background structure, character and setting for the development of
the framework. The desired characteristics for the proposed framework were first determined
(planning step 2). This was followed by selection of suitable technique that can replicate these
needs of the proposed while laying out the framework, as a part of planning step 3.
Analysis of a suitable network environment started with formulation of three alternative
integration strategies, constituted with various combinations of MT and NMT modes under
each strategy. The formulated strategies were FR of NMPT with MT movement unrestricted, FR
of MT with NMT movement unrestricted and PR of both MT and NMT. The coherence of the
formulated strategies were then evaluated with reference to the macro –network and micro-
network levels. At the macro level, their impacts were assessed on different sector of transport
system including socio-economic, environment and travel, and with reference to future
stakeholder demand from transport system. At a corridor level, the strategies were assessed
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with reference to land use-traffic interactivity pattern of the corridors and with reference to
standard road functionality expected from different network levels.
Evaluation at the first level depicted the need for both MT and NMT as significant transport
modes in the network environment of Dhaka and subsequent rejection of two extreme
strategies, FR of NMPT and FR of MT. PR was found to be a more balanced approach in
integrating the two mode splits. At the second level, the appropriateness of PR-E was evaluated
with reference to its ability to optimise the coexistence of MT and NMT in the network. The
results indicated lack of balance of current strategy in defining role and place of MT and NMT at
different levels of the network and with reference to the functional needs of the network. The
lack of coherence of the existing strategy in meeting future stakeholder demands and future
prescribed guidelines of transport plans was also revealed. The need for a modified PR strategy,
PR-proposed and development of a decision tool with the need to address these deficits was
also thus established. These identified deficiencies and needs of the network formed the basis
for preferred attributes of the proposed framework tool. Planning step 2 was thus
accomplished.
At planning step 3, a suitable tool was derived that can be used to replicate these needs of the
network, while laying out the decision tool. The functional hierarchy approach was found to be
the best solution in this regard to optimally readjust the operational pattern and traffic
distribution priority of the network categories. The application suitability of functional hierarchy
from theoretical concept and in practice success from case studies reinforced the compatibility
of the method. The application process of the chosen technique and with the PR-proposed
strategy as an integration platform, in layout of the decision tool is elaborated in following
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15CHAPTER 15: INTEGRATED MULTI-MODAL PLANNING FRAMEWORK-
CONSTITUTES AND FUNCTION
15.1 Introduction
Chapter 14 identified planned partial restriction of non-motorised public transport (NMPT) and
motorised transport (MT) as the desired approach and network environment for modal
integration in the proposed planning framework, in response to the desired demand of the
Dhaka transport system. The absence of systematic priority and balance in distribution of NMPT
and MT, corresponding to functional demand across different network levels was also revealed.
Based on these analyses, the chapter establishes a functional hierarchy as a rational technique
to accommodate these demands and as a tool for layout of the framework.
This Chapter describes the process for structuring the framework and its operational measures
for application. Section 15.2 describes the structure of the framework and the process in its
derivation. Section 15.3 describes the functionality of the framework by examining its
application on a small network of Dhaka. Section 15.4 provides implementation strategies to
facilitate operationalization of the framework. The tool developed is expected to assist in
deciding the preferable modal priority on a corridor basis, based on the prevailing network
governing attributes; and thereby assigning that corridor a particular hierarchy label. The tool
may also examine the compatibility of current modal composition to road character for a
particular corridor. These processes in turn may optimise coexistence of often conflicting
modes, such as NMPT and MT, and enhance broader network performance.
15.2 Structure and constituence of the framework
15.2.1 Overview of the framework
The fundamental assumptions behind the structuring of the framework are derived from the
analysis and results of planning steps 2 and 3, described in Chapter 14. They are,
i) that there should be a combination of MT and non-motorised transport (NMT)
across the network;
ii) that the distribution of these modal variations should be based on a set of
desirable performance criteria of roadway elements for each classification level,
including design characteristics, functional characteristics, frictional characteristics
and impact characteristics;
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iii) that the coherence of the performance features to the suitable mode type and
road category should be decided based on the functional hierarchical needs i.e.
depending on the degree of preference at each classification level.
The general structure of the proposed integration framework is that it recommends
classification of the transport network of Dhaka into six levels, based on the functional hierarchy
process. As part of the process, MT and NMT are dynamically distributed across the network
based on the functional need of roadway element, its surrounding land use and other
associated needs that correspond to the given operational character of a mode category. The
process leads to the selection of a functional, needs-based hierarchical network layout (Figure
15.1 and 15.2).
The proposed mode-road hierarchical level/integration layers and their relationship to existing
network layout of Dhaka are depicted in Figure 15.2 and Table 15.1. Note that the proposed
hierarchy codes used in Figure 15.2 and Table 15.1 for framework are such structured that they
represent the multimodal priority principle of the proposed framework, in contrast to the
current hierarchy code which represents MT priority.
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Figurer15.1: Broader arrangement for mode-road functional hierarchy framework
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Figurer15.2: Breakdown of broader arrangement of mode-road functional hierarchy framework
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Table 15.1: Proposed framework road hierarchy/integration layer with degree of modal distribution and its comparison to the existing scheme
Road type Existing road hierarchy code Existing mode
composition* Proposed hierarchy code Proposed mode composition**
MT NMT MT NMT
Primary type I not applicable not applicable not applicable 3B 4 X
Primary type II 1 4 0 3A 4 X
Secondary 2 2 2 2C 3 1
Collector 3 2 2 2B 2 2
Access 4 2 2 2A 1 3
Narrow 5 2 2 1 X^ 4
*Source: STP (2005b) and Field Survey 2009; ** Source: Derived based on the review and analysis of Chapter 4 to 14 and Figure 15; ^Emergency service vehicles and local resident vehicles allowed
Non
existent
Very low Low Moderate High Mode
exclusive
x 0 1 2 3 4
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The figures and table reveal a need for significant restructuring of the current hierarchy, more
specifically at the mode composition that define those hierarchies in order to address the issue
of imbalance in modal distribution, which is in prevalence at the Dhaka transport network. Such
modifications also address the existing mismatch between MT and NMT/NMPT in operation,
co-existence and policy planning. The underlying process to derive the proposed layout for the
framework and the capability of the framework in addressing the current network problems are
elaborated in the following sections.
15.2.2 Approach towards derivation of the framework structure
The fundamental endeavour behind the development of the framework is not to propose
another road hierarchy layout, rather, to derive a planning instrument that can be used to
assign a road hierarchy in order to allocate appropriate traffic to the appropriate network type,
particularly to facilitate operational balance between MT and NMT. The process therefore
focuses on logically integrating the MT and NMT to an appropriate element of the network such
that the desirable functional needs for a road type and mode category may be achieved, rather
than the present non-compatible road classification system. With this underlying context, a
three stage process is adopted towards the conception, development and construction of the
proposed framework, corresponding to the framework assumptions briefed in Section 15.2.1.
Stage 1 determines the mode distribution that is desirable from the network as a whole and the
possible combination or integration approach suitable in this regards. Partial restriction (PR)-
proposed was found to be the best approach (Chapter 14) and subsequently MT, NMT based
mixed traffic distribution was adopted for the framework development. This phase
conceptualised the most desirable background network environment for the framework.
Stage 2 selects and establishes standard governing attributes that are desirable from a roadway
category or network level (Chapter 14). One new attribute set is included, in addition to those
discussed and standardised. This is public transport stopping provision under frictional criteria.
The objective is to improve robustness of the framework tool. This phase developed the
influencing factors that worked as a basis for correlating the functional need of the roadway
element to that of the mode category.
Stage 3 correlates the functional needs of the road elements with operating utility of traffic
composition based on the selected governing attributes. The functional hierarchy process was
found to be the best technique in this regard to facilitate priority-based layout for the mode-
road interactivity condition as explained in Chapter 14. Subsequent administration of the above
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correlation process is conducted in this Chapter based on the selected network environment in
order to derive to the desired integration layout. This is the key focus of elaboration in following
discussion and is presented with reference to the proposed road hierarchical sequence
presented in Table 15.1.
Road hierarchy: level 3
This classification level is found to be most appropriate to the MT excusive mode distribution
and is assigned to arterial or primary road category.
The previous network character analysis of arterial roads and its correlation with the derived
governing attributes indicated that such network links should,
• be characterised by high right-of-way (ROW) and designed as dual carriageway;
• be expected to possess metropolitan level coverage capability due to the spread of
the network;
• be able to act as a connection of major arterials;
• facilitate service with predominantly longer trip lengths;
• encourage high travel speed , greater mobility and negligible accessibility function
due to the nature of the trips being served;
• accommodate public transport (PT) that are fast, high capacity, high frequency but
with lower stop intervals to ensure smooth traffic flow;
• be allowed or expected to allow greatest provision for indented PT stopping bays
where appropriate; and
• be allowed exclusive traversing through predominantly commercial or
administrative corridors, having low traffic sensitivity (greater noise allowance)
with reference to surrounding land use.
If a particular corridor is found to possess these characteristic features, it would be deemed
suitable to be labelled with arterial or primary road class.
The functional needs of this road category when compared with mode character analysis for
MT and NMT as made in Chapters 4 to 7 and Chapter 9, indicate that these directly correspond
to the operating suitability of MT only mode type to cater for such degree of requirements. This
is because MTs meet the high speed, high mobility, longer trip making requirements of such
level; are capable of making inter-zonal connections productively and reliably. They fit the
public transport characteristics desired for the level, and do not contradict land use/traffic
sensitivity demand.
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The presence of NMT traffic can lead to a multitude of constraints in such an operating
environment. In particular, reduction of traffic flow efficiency and speed; greater possibility of
contradiction between MT and NMT and subsequent safety hazard to NMT due to the high
speed nature of the links. A complete restriction of NMT therefore is desirable under these
circumstances. Moreover, considering the current directives of DCC (2002) for desired road
classification character of Dhaka, the arterial/primary roads are suggested to be fully prohibited
for NMT. This corresponds to the proposal made for level 3, compared to the situation in
practice at a comparative current network level 1 (e.g. Mirpur Road).
It is noted that, due to the proposed inclusion of the rapid transit system (BRT) in the future
Dhaka transport system as demonstrated in STP (2005b), DAP (2008) and DHUTS (2010), the
level 3 network is proposed to be subdivided as 3A and 3B. Though the key governing attributes
and their degree of preference would be similar at both levels, 3B would act as the top level tier
compared to 3A. 3B will be allocated to only those corridors that will be assigned with graded
BRT lines in future. These links will be equipped with both MT traffic as well as BRT traffic, but
with greater priority (infrastructure and traffic management) for the latter to facilitate better
mobility and operational performance of this mode. Such a split treatment of arterials will also
address deficiency in the current road system as prescribed in DCC (2002), which does not
provide or propose any additional separate operating provision/ level at the road hierarchy for
the proposed BRT system.
Road hierarchy: level 2C
This classification level is found to be most appropriate to the MT dominated mode distribution
and is assigned to sub-arterial or secondary road category.
Comparing Dhaka network character analysis with the standard governing attributes as derived
for secondary roads it is found to,
• be preferable to have some parts of the network links with high-moderate ROW
and designed as dual carriageway;
• be expected to possess specific area/intra-zonal coverage capability due to the
spread of the network;
• be able to act as a connection of major arterials to collectors;
• facilitate service with long-moderate trip lengths;
• encourage moderate travel speed , moderate mobility and low accessibility
function due to the nature of the trips being served;
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• prefer such PT that are fast, moderate capacity , moderate-high frequency but
with relatively more frequent stop intervals compared to arterials;
• allow or expected to allow greater provision for indented PT stopping bays where
appropriate/possible; and
• be suitable to be traversing through predominantly commercial corridors with
growing other mixed usage, having low traffic sensitivity (greater noise allowance)
with reference to surrounding land use.
If a particular corridor is found to possess these characteristic features, it would be deemed
suitable to be labelled with secondary road class.
The functional needs of this road category when compared with the operating character for MT
and NMT as described in Chapters 4 to 7 and Chapter 9 it is observed that, MT should be the
more preferable mode type to cater for such degree of functional needs than that by NMT. This
is because it meets the need for better speed and mobility than accessibility, caters better for
moderate trip making requirements; fits more with the public transport characteristics desired
for the level and does not contradict with land use/traffic sensitivity demands.
However it is recommended that the presence of NMT should also be prevalent at this network
level to a certain extent. This is primarily attributable to the low level but yet attainable need for
intra-zonal shorter trips, low capacity public transport trips particularly by the vulnerable social
groups generated due to the presence of mixed land uses, as found from an analysis of Chapter
4 to 7 and Chapter 9, field observation and local experience of the researcher. However their
over presence at the present time would lead to a multitude of constraints such as reduction of
traffic flow efficiency and speed; greater possibility of contradiction between MT, NMT and
subsequent safety hazard to NMT due to reasonable speed nature of the links (e.g. Sat Masjid
Road). A greater control of NMT compared to MT is therefore desirable under these
circumstances. Moreover, considering the current directives of DCC (2002) desired road
classification character of Dhaka, it might be preferable to completely segregate NMT from MT
at this network level.
Road hierarchy: level 2B
This classification level is most appropriate for a relatively close distribution of MT, NMT and is
assigned to collector road category.
Correlation of collector network character and derived hierarchy governing factors indicate the
need for such network links in Dhaka to,
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• be of moderate ROW and designed as dual carriageway;
• be suitable to serve environmental cells due to the spread pattern of the network;
• enable connection of traffic carrying roads/collectors with residential streets;
• facilitate service with predominantly moderate to short trip lengths;
• encourage moderate to low travel speed , yield relative equity in mobility and
accessibility function due to the nature of the trips being served;
• have such public transport that are moderate-to-low capacity , high frequency
with higher stop intervals to ensure access but with reasonable operating speed to
facilitate traffic flow ;
• allow or expected to allow provision for indented PT stopping bays where
appropriate ; and
• be suitable to traverse through predominantly mixed use corridors having
moderate traffic sensitivity (reduced noise allowance than previous road levels)
with reference to surrounding land use.
If a particular corridor is found to possess these characteristic features, it would be deemed
suitable to be labelled as collector road class.
The functional needs of this road category when compared with mode character analysis for
MT and NMT, as described in Chapters 4 to 7 and Chapter 9, shows that both MT and NMT
should be preferred to cater for such degree of functional needs. This is because MTs could
cater for moderate length intra-zonal trip demands, including that for public transport while
maintaining reasonable frequency and speed as desired partially from the network.
NMT are equally suitable for this road level. This is because the mode matches the shorter
length, low capacity, more frequent trip demands as usually generated in such localised traffic
environment and found from their character analysis in Chapters 4 to 7 and Chapter 9. The
moderate roadway capacity of the links in this road level, more sensitive nature of the
surrounding land uses to the noise/air pollution generated by MTs than the preceding
categories and need for links to maintain a reasonable speed environment, yield a balance in
MT and NMT for the proposed road category. Complete dominance or lack of operational
planning of either could jeopardise the degree to which the desirable performance attributes
for the road category could be realised or the general traffic operational efficiency with similar
road types in Dhaka (e.g. Dhanmondi Road No. 2). A partial segregation of MT from NMT would
be preferable at such levels of mixed traffic operation, also suggested by directives of DCC
(2002).
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Road hierarchy: level 2A
This classification level is most appropriate for NMT-dominated mode distribution and is
assigned to the local/access road category.
Correlation of network character and derived hierarchy governing factors for local roads
indicates preference for such network links in Dhaka to,
• be characterised by low ROW and acceptable as single carriageway;
• be expected to serve local sites/properties directly due to the spread pattern of
the network; enable connection to local areas from properties;
• facilitate service with predominantly short trip lengths;
• encourage low travel speed , lower mobility and greater accessibility function due
to the nature of the trips being served;
• have such PT that are in general low capacity and least implicating on surrounding
residences , but easily available and affordable to ensure access equity; and
• be suitable to traverse through predominantly residential use corridors having
high traffic sensitivity (low noise allowance) with reference to surrounding land
use.
If a particular corridor is found to possess these characteristic features, it is suitable to be
labelled as access road class.
The functional needs of this road category when compared with mode character analysis for
MT and NMT/NMPT as discussed in Chapters 4 to 7 and Chapter 9 indicate that NMT should be
the prioritised mode to cater for such a degree of functional needs. This is because NMTs cater
best for short length intra-zonal trip demands while maintaining high demand frequency for
public transport at such local environment; cater for accessibility need of a substantial market
niche especially of the vulnerable (women, children, elderly), students and middle income non-
car owners. They ensure a speed environment that is found desirable and safer due to
surrounding residence-based activity patterns. They are also better capable to fill the gap
between journeys from home to nearest public transport hub or vice versa compared to other
comparative modes of transport.
MT is the least acceptable mode at this level due to a multitude of constraints. These include
safety implication due to speed, high sensitive negative impact on surrounding land uses and
non-compatibility with the calm neighbourhood environment compared to NMT (STP, 2005c;
analysis of Chapter 4 to 7). They would be allowed only in the case of being owned by residents
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of the locality or for emergency vehicles (e.g. ambulance, fire brigade etc.). They would be
conditionally allowed if the purpose of travel is work relevant to the locality or for local visits.
No through access of MT would be allowed within such network parts, except in emergency
situations. Otherwise their over presence would undermine the desire to attain discussed
attributes and degrade the overall living environment of the neighbourhoods as was found in
Dhanmondi, Dhaka (e.g. Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A). No segregation of MT from NMT is
recommended at such level of mixed traffic operation in line with similar suggestions put
forward by the current directives of DCC (2002).
Road hierarchy: level 1
This classification level is most appropriate to an NMT exclusive mode distribution and is
assigned to narrow road category. This is a special road category that corresponds to the very
narrow streetscapes (e.g. Modhubazar Road, Razarbazar Road) or to whole locality with similar
network structure (e.g. Old Dhaka) typical of Dhaka. These network elements demand special
treatment at the hierarchical configuration and are also in accord with the recommendations of
the DCC (2002) road referencing database. This database defined narrow roads as short
segments providing access to small areas. However, in this discussion the road category
primarily represents all network links that are constricted in design width and primarily served
local circulation including property access.
Correlation of network character including reasoning as aforementioned and derived hierarchy
governing factors for narrow roads indicates that such corridors feature,
• very low ROW and are acceptable as 1/2 lane single carriageway;
• expected to serve local sites/properties directly due to the spread pattern of the
network;
• enable connection to local areas from properties or vice versa that require to
traverse constricted links or represented the general physical network character of
a whole area(s);
• facilitate service with predominantly short trip lengths;
• encourages low travel speed , did not demand mobility but very high accessibility
function due to the nature of the trips being served;
• prefers to have PT that are in general low capacity and have least implication on
surrounding residences , but are easily available and affordable to ensure PT
access equity; and
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• are suitable to traverse through predominantly residential/residence dominated
mixed use corridors having high traffic sensitivity (low noise allowance) with
reference to surrounding land use.
If a particular corridor is found to possess these characteristic features, it would be deemed
suitable to be labelled as narrow road class.
When the functional needs of this road category are compared with mode character analysis for
MT and NMT, it is found that NMT should be the only mode to cater for such a degree of
functional needs. This is because, according to character analysis on NMT in Chapters 4 and 6, it
can cater best for short length intra-zonal trip demands while maintaining high demand
frequency for public transport in such local environments. They are better capable to cater for
accessibility needs of a substantial market niche especially the vulnerable (women, children,
elderly), students and middle income non-car owners. This also ensures a speed environment,
desirable and safer due to surrounding residence-based activity patterns. NMT has the
capability to fill the gap between journeys from home to the nearest public transport hub or
vice versa, which is of particular significance under existing poor location of bus stops as
revealed in Chapter 6. The sheer ROW of such links, <=4m is also suitable only for space efficient
vehicles such as NMT to allow some sort of operational efficiency and order in movement at
this road level.
MT is not acceptable at this level, primarily due to its physical configuration. Other constraints
include its safety implication due to speed, and high negative sensitivity impact on surrounding
land uses and non-compatibility with the calm neighbourhood environment (STP, 2005c &
Section B analysis). They would only be allowed in case of the vehicle owner being a resident of
the locality and for emergency vehicles services (e.g. ambulance, fire brigade etc.). Otherwise
their over presence would undermine the need to attain desirable attributes and degrade the
overall living environment of the neighbourhoods, as was found for instance in narrow roads
opposite Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A, and for districts as Old Dhaka.
This process to derivation of suitable road category with suitable modal composition,
corresponding to the functional need of a corridor and thus facilitate network performance
optimisation is illustrated in Figure 15.3 to Figure 15.9.An easy-to-use template of the same for
field application is presented in Figure 15.10 and Figure 15.11.
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Figurer15.3: Conceptual approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision forindividual corridors in Dhaka transport system
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Figurer15.4: Approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision for Primary Road type I
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Figurer15.5: Approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision for Primary Road type II
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Figurer15.6: Approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision for Secondary Road
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Figurer15.7: Approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision for Collector Road
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Figurer15.8: Approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision for Local Road
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Figurer15.9: Approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision for Narrow Road
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Figure15.10: An easy to use diagram for determining desired network governing characteristics and their
intensity for the proposed road hierarchy in accordance to the planning framework
Figure15.11: An easy to use diagram for determining desired
for the proposed road hierarchy in accordance to the planning framework
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: An easy to use diagram for determining desired mode distribution and their intensity
for the proposed road hierarchy in accordance to the planning framework
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Note that all criteria are not necessarily required to be fulfilled to allocate a corridor to a
particular road hierarchy and mode composition. The allocation would depend, in addition to
the framework guideline, on the understanding of the decision maker on the local traffic and
land use conditions; plus on the expected need from the new development work or
redevelopment intended for the area. The adjustment or modification of criteria intensity might
also be deemed necessary, by locality and city type.
15.2.3 Coherence of framework to desired outcomes
Validation of the framework is necessary, with reference to preferred qualities set for the
framework, in response to existing network deficiencies and future needs.
Ensuring balance in operation of modes
Instead of classifying the road network based on the traditional approach used previously,
which focuses on desired operational needs of the motorised modes only, the framework-
developed approach concentrates on mixed mode preference. This includes assessing different
network conditions with reference to their expected performance attributes, and correlating
this with desired operating characteristics of MT and NMT, thereby defining and allocating
modes to their suitable network level. The priority and non-priority of modes to a particular
corridor type is also similarly derived. This arrangement enables improved efficiency in
operation of both NMT and MT, since the best performance of the mode can be attained in
such a relevant, coherent network environment. This also ensures that the distribution of NMT
and/or MT are not biased, but systematically derived.
As a result, the current problem of imbalance between the MT and NMT operational
environments (coverage, connectivity, accessibility, mobility, and demand catering of different
market niche) is expected to be minimised. For example, the prioritisation of NMT at a lower
order road would enable better connectivity and mobility for social groups such as students,
working females and middle class elderly population, many of whom prefer short trip lengths,
cannot afford private transport or paratransits and feel it inappropriate to ride on an MPT. On
the contrary, MT prioritisation on higher order roads would enable their better performance,
which was previously compromised due to mixed, unplanned operation of all mode type at
these road types.
Adherence to future transport policy
The framework better complies with government strategy, which is to efficiently address future
Dhaka transport problems. Firstly, the framework offers provision of a dedicated network level
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for rapid transit operations. Such transit provisions were part of government’s future proposed
strategy (STP, 2005c; DHUTS, 2010) to meet the growing travel needs of Dhaka, though
accommodation of rapid transit is missing in the current road hierarchy. Secondly, the proposed
framework encourages greater priority of NMT in lower order roads and the opposite at higher
order roads, to facilitate the desired direction of Dhaka transport plans to adopt NMT as a
principal feeder service to long haul motorised public transport, to minimize emission and
improve overall environment.
Incorporation of stakeholder demand
The framework reflects the needs of stakeholders of the future Dhaka transport system. In
particular, the road hierarchy and mode composition better satisfy the need of stakeholders
(both policy makers and users) to have a more dominant local and feeder service role of NMPT,
and that of having greater service role of MT at inter-zonal, or city level.
The framework also enables better equity and affordability in access to modes, particularly for
the NMT users by facilitating their movement at local neighbourhood level. The framework
enables better sustenance for NMPT and thereby secures economic independence of the large
stakeholder group such as NMPT operators and drivers. The planned allocation of modes to
different road hierarchies would also help to derive improved traffic efficiency and faster
accessibility to various city parts, when well supported with network planning.
Ease of applicability of the framework tool
The framework decision process is based on a set of network governing attributes and mode
operational characteristics for a transport network. Based on the information on the expected
standard for multi-dimensional network attributes as presented in this framework, and
knowledge on mode operating character, the tool can be easily applied to examine mode
distribution status of an existing corridor in Dhaka or elsewhere in the country. Desirable
hierarchy of a future corridor and its modal priority can also be decided by applying the tool.
Adoptability and flexibility
It is understood that, due to the qualitative definition for most of the governing attributes, it
might be difficult to compare comparative governing standards if a new quantitative standard is
developed for any particular urban area of Bangladesh. However, the layout patterns of the
framework allow easy replacement of current standards with updated ones; and follow the
recommended functional hierarchical sequence in deriving respective corridor status.
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The review and analysis reveals that the proposed framework to a greater extent validates its
capability to accommodate the problems that are prevailed in the current transport network
and can attain the desired outcome set from the framework. The framework in the process also
indicates its potential as a tool to better address the quadruple bottom line sustainability of
better traffic operational efficiency, socio-economic equity, environmental security and
governance support, as defined in Chapter 2, Section 2.2.
However, to strengthen the validation of the framework, a small network-based application of
the tool is now presented. This demonstrates the capability of the tool in examining and
logically labelling a real network in accordance to its functional needs; and thereby facilitates
better inter-modal integration.
15.3 Application of the framework
The case network for this evaluation was introduced in Chapter 13. Based on the principles and
criteria set in the decision tool, the test network is assessed and ranked by colour with
reference to their place in the road hierarchy. The condition of road hierarchy and modal
distribution without the tool, which reflects existing condition is also colour coded for
comparison.
Among the corridors assessed within the test network, one representation from each category
is described to understand the road hierarchy and mode distribution derivation process. They
include Lake Road, Mirpur Road, Sat Masjid Road, Dhanmondi Road No. 27, Dhanmondi Road
No. 12/A and the road opposite of Dhanmondi Road 12/A. A few corridors outside the test
network are also assessed in parts, due to close connectivity with the test network, including
Manik Mia Avenue, Pantha Path and Asad Avenue.
The corridor locations and output of the analysis is presented in Figure 15. 12 and Figure 15.13.
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Layer 5 (Narrow Road, no priority between
MT and NMT) Layer 2 (Secondary Road, no priority between
MT and NMT)
Layer 4 (Access Road, no priority between MT
and NMT) Layer 1 (Primary Road, MT Only)
Layer 3 (Collector Road, no priority between
MT and NMT)
Figure15.12: Test network with current road hierarchy and traffic composition
Base map source: Google Map (2011)
All these roads fall
under either existing
layer 2 or 1
All these roads fall under
either existing layer 2 or
1
All these roads fall
under either
existing layer 2 or
1
Special area
(National Parliament
Zone)
All these roads fall under
either existing layer 2 or
1
Test network area:
Major sections with
current network and
traffic condition
Test
network
area: STP
proposed
BRT line
MIRPUR ROD
SAT MASJID
ROAD
DHANMONDI
ROAD 27
DHANMONDI
ROAD 12/A
MANIK MIA AVENUE
ROAD OPPOSITE
OF DHANMONDI
12/A
LAKE ROD
ASAD AVENUE
PANTHA PATH
DHANMONDI
7/A
DHANMONDI
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Base map source: Google Map 2011
Figure15.13: Test network with proposed road hierarchy and traffic composition in accordance with
framework tool
Base map source: Google Map (2011)
Layer 1 (Narrow Road, NMT Only) Layer 2C (Secondary Road, MT>NMT)
Layer 2A (Access Road, MT<NMT) Layer 3A (Primary Road II, MT Only)
Layer 2B (Collector Road, similar priority
between MT and NMT) Layer 3B (Primary Road I, MT & MRT)
All these roads fall
under either proposed
layer 2A or 1
All these roads fall under
either proposed layer 2A
or 1
All these roads fall
under either
proposed layer 2A
or 1
Special area
(National Parliament
Zone)
All these roads fall under
either proposed layer 2A
or 1
Test network area:
Major sections,
Layer 3A to 1
Test network
area: with
layer 3B (STP
proposed
BRT) line
section
MIRPUR ROD
SAT MASJID
ROAD
DHANMONDI
ROAD 27
DHANMONDI
ROAD 12/A
ROAD OPPOSITE
OF DHANMONDI
12/A
MANIK MIA AVENUE
LAKE ROD
ASAD AVENUE
PANTHA PATH
DHANMONDI
7/A
DHANMONDI
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The comparative overview of the corridors without and with the tool represents two distinct
features. Firstly, road hierarchy levels are similar for both scenarios, except shift of rank for Lake
Road to a new category (Primary I from Primary). Secondly, distinct rearrangement in the mode
distribution pattern of all the remaining corridors except collector roads.
15.3.1 Derivation of layer 3B Road (MRT prioritised over MT)
Among the observed shifts, Lake Road is found to be suitable as a proposed layer 3B (a new
road level proposed specifically for rapid transit) instead of existing layer 5 (MT only category).
This is deemed logical since it is a part of one of the proposed BRT lines (BRT line C) of STP
(2005b). In addition the road has wider carriageway, serves as a metropolitan level linkage
connecting east and west Dhaka, demands high mobility and speed; has dominant MPT routes;
and is surrounded by administrative and public recreation spaces. These aspects qualify the
corridor, based on the framework to be a layer 3 road, recommended to be dedicated to MT
traffic and with priority for rapid transits.
Layer 3 roads with planned BRT line development, in order to facilitate dedicated route and
supporting infrastructure as suggested by STP, need to be treated as a separate road type from
traditional MT only roads and managed accordingly. The presence of other motorised transport
such as private vehicles are expected to be lower priorities on these road categories, through
regulatory measures for operational and management convenience.
15.3.2 Derivation of layer 3A Road (MT only road)
The mode distribution pattern, for the other road categories, is also found to be more rational
in accordance with the proposed condition than with the prevailing arrangements, except for
Mirpur Road. For its segment within the test network, the current arrangement of the MT only
condition is found to be rational. The functional condition of the road as revealed in the Chapter
14 analysis demands high mobility, and speed ;requires functioning as an inter-zonal linkage
connecting Dhaka from north to south, acts as a significant MPT route and has dominant
surrounding commercial usage.
All these qualify the corridor, based on the framework, to be a layer 3A road (corresponding to
previous road level 1) and accordingly suitable to be catered by MT only traffic. However, it
should be noted that for Mirpur Road, the current access interval of 200m-250m is found to be
too frequent to enable smooth traffic flow compared to standard recommendations of around
500m (DITS, 1994a; Eppell et al., 2001). This aspect needs to be addressed with proper traffic
management measures to ensure efficient functioning of this corridor.
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15.3.3 Derivation of layer 2C Road (MT prioritised over NMT)
In case of Sat Masjid Road, the functional condition of the road as revealed from Chapter 6 and
14 analysis indicates desired attributes such as relatively high mobility, operating speed and
trend to cater predominantly longer trips; to distribute traffic to areas north and west of the
city; connecting arterial roads (e.g. Mirpur) to collectors (e.g. Asad Avenue); serving as a key bus
route and thereby demonstrating demand for high capacity PT and being governed by
predominantly commercial and relevant usage. These qualify the corridor, based on the
framework, to be a layer 2C road (corresponding to previous road level 2).
Accordingly the corridor is recommended to be more suitable to be catered by MT as priority
traffic for its strong operating coherence to the desired network attributes. However, due to the
characteristics of land use in this corridor as explained in Chapter 14, demand also exists for
short-to-medium length trips, particularly by user groups such as students and older population
etc. who are attracted to the educational institutions and health care facilities on the corridor.
Therefore, the provision of NMT traffic is also allocated to cater for such demands. The mode is
recommended only at a low priority level through management and route planning measures
to maintain the primary need of this corridor- mobility and productivity. Such distribution and
prioritisation would also enable minimisation of the deficits and operating imbalance of the
corridor, observed under current conditions (Chapter 14).
15.3.4 Derivation of layer 2B Road (MT and NMT equally prioritised)
Dhanmondi Road No. 27 has similar functional conditions to that of Sat Masjid Road, based on
Chapter 14 analysis. However, its primary connectivity function is to collect traffic from primary
(Mirpur) and secondary (Sat Masjid) roads and connect to residential streets (e.g. Lalmatia) and
the trips as a result are more medium-to-short in character. The traffic carrying function is
therefore lower in most instances than that of Sat Masjid Road. Land use of this corridor is also
found to be more mixed primarily with commercial usage, but there are residential apartment
units and houses as well. The mobility and access requirements as a result demand to be of a
similar pattern. In addition, the ROW of the road is considerably low (10 m-12m) to Sat Masjid
Road (23-25m). On these grounds, it is rational to allocate this corridor according to framework
criteria as a layer 2B road (corresponding to previous road level 3).
The mode distribution due to such land character, traffic connectivity and other functionality is
recommended with close balance of MT and NMT, to cater needs for both long and short trips,
and low and high capacity PT requirements. Note that, features of layer 2B and 2C roads can
overlap due to their close functional nature. Judgement of suitable road hierarchy and mode
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distribution recommendation under such circumstances relies on experience and
understanding of the analyst on the land use- traffic condition of the local network; and on the
desired aim of future development of the area.
15.3.5 Derivation of layer 2A Road (NMT prioritised over MT)
In the case of Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A, the functional condition of the road as revealed from
Chapter 14 analysis indicates desired attributes such as relatively high access requirements and
subsequent low mobility needs, due to the predominant residential land use character served
by the corridor . The corridor is observed to be mostly generating short-to-medium local trips to
reach nearby activity centres and also for reaching MPT stops or paratransit stands (e.g. Taxi).
The ROW of the corridor is also at the lower end of the road geometry, being around 7m to
10m. As a result, it is desirable to have lower traffic carriage than the aforementioned roads
such as layer 2B. All these qualify the corridor, based on the framework, to be a layer 2A road
(corresponding to previous road level 4).
Accordingly the corridor is recommended as more suitable to be prioritised by NMT traffic for
its strong operating coherence to the desired network attributes. MT traffic would be desirable
for only those local functions or land uses that generate such traffic (e.g. visitors, local resident
vehicles, emergency use vehicles etc). However, such generation, especially visitor traffic would
be controlled or restricted through land use management, time restricted movement and area
pricing measures. This is also important to maintain the high traffic sensitivity desired from such
corridors. Through traffic, both NMT and MT should be discouraged in order to optimise the
functionality of this category of corridor. Such distribution and prioritisation minimises the
deficits and operating imbalance of the corridor, which have been observed under current
condition (Chapter 14).
15.3.6 Derivation of layer 1 Road (NMT only)
Functional characteristics of the road opposite to Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A as revealed in
Chapter 14, or for that matter, any similar road in the vicinity (West Dhanmondi and Shankar)
demonstrate some key characteristics. These include very limited ROW, <=4m, undivided 2 lane
carriage, primary connectivity as an access road to residential properties, acceptability for low
speed, primary mostly function as local corridors with short trips, desirability to have low
capacity space efficient PT to adjust to the network character of the area, and desirability to
have relatively calm traffic environment due to land use nature, predominantly residential. All
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these qualify the corridor, based on the framework, to be a layer 1 road (corresponding to
previous road level 5).
Accordingly the corridor is recommended to be more suitable to be prioritised by NMT traffic
for its strong operating and physical coherence to the desired network attributes. MT traffic
allowance would be strictly prohibited, primarily due to such network geometry. Exceptions
would be the vehicles of local residents and emergency use vehicles. Through traffic, both NMT
and MT, should be discouraged, to optimise the functionality of this category of corridor. Such
distribution and prioritisation would also enable minimisation of the deficits and operating
imbalance of the corridor, which have been observed under current conditions (Chapter 14).
The discussion reveals the capability of the tool, as a broad guideline, to address the
multidimensional governing needs of a network and enable systematic assignment of road level
and relatively balanced mode distribution (NMPT alongside MT) to complement these needs.
These derivations, together with the findings of Section 15.2, indicate validation of hypothesis
relevant to planning step 4.
Note that due to the scope of this study and resource constraints, the application examples
were demonstrated on two broad categories of traffic, MT and NMT. But the same framework
is capable of more detailed, individual mode specific analysis with respect to its structure.
15.4 Implementation strategy to suppport the framework
In order to facilitate better applicability of the proposed framework and to maximize its utility, a
set of broad, supportive implementation strategies is recommended. This strategic guideline is
divided into six broad themes or elements of concern, namely physical measures, regulatory
measures, network planning measures, traffic management measures, demand management
measures and financial measures. For better comprehension, each element of concern is
broken down into multiple sub-elements and a brief guideline is provided for each, by the six
proposed road hierarchy levels of the framework. It is important to note that the effectiveness
of the framework in achieving desired network performance depends significantly on the
successful implementation of these supporting measures. Table 15.2 presents this self-
explanatory strategic guideline.
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Table 15.2: Implementation strategy to support the planning framework for Dhaka
Element of
concernSub-elements
Cat 3B Cat 3A. Cat 2C Cat 2B Cat 2A Cat 1
Physical
measures
on-road infrastructure
development for modal
segregation (hard/soft)
Requirement Yes No Yes No No No
Type barrier seg no seg barrier seg lane/No seg No seg No seg
Details
Dedicated
lane/track for MRT;
Bus lane for others
Bus lane low height l inked
bollardsn/a* n/a n/a
Pricing High Very low low n/a n/a n/a
On-road PT transfer facility
developmentRequirement Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Varibale
TypeMRT station;
MPT stopsMPT stops
MPT stops; NMPT
stands
MPT stops; NMPT
stands
NMPT stands (if space
permits)
NMPT stands (if
space permits)
Pricing High; moderate moderate moderate; low low low low
Priority signaling & signage
systemRequirement Yes for MRT; Yes for MPT Yes for MT not required Yes for NMT Yes for NMT
TypeAutomated traffic
l ights; Sign posts
Automated traffic l ights;
Sign posts
Automated traffic
l ights; Sign postsn/a Sign posts Sign posts
Pricing moderate moderate moderate n/a low low
Levy stations for area pricing Requirement Yes Yes Yes No Yes No
Type Automated Automated Automated/manual n/a Automated/manual n/a
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Element of
concernSub-elements
Cat 3B Cat 3A. Cat 2C Cat 2B Cat 2A Cat 1
Regulatory
measure
Land use control to conform
with set hierarchy
Empahsize
commercial use
Empahsize commercial
use
Empahsize
commercial use
More non-
commercial use
Empahsize residential
use; other uses to
support residence
Empahsize
residentialuse; other
uses to support
residence
Route design and control Yes for MRT & MPT Yes for MPT Yes for MPT Yes MPT and NMPT Yes for NMPT Yes for NMPT
Licensing control Yes for all modes Yes for all modes Yes for all modes Yes for all modes Yes for all modes Yes for all modes
Fare strcturing Yes for MRT & MPT Yes for MPTYes for MPT &
paratransits; Yes for paratransits; Yes for paratransits;
guide for NMPT guide for NMPT guide for NMPT guide for NMPT
Institutional strengthening
Traffic
management
Enforcement financial;
operational financial; operational
financial;
operational
financial;
operational financial; operational
financial;
operational
Traffic operations Precedence mobility Precedence mobilityMore mobility;
Less accessibil ity
Balance mobility &
access function
Less mobility;
Precence accessibil ity
Less mobility;
Precence
accessibil ity
Driver training on road rulesEmphasis on MT
driversEmphasis on MT drivers
Emphasis on MT &
NMT drivers
Emphasis on MT &
NMT drivers
Emphasis on MT & NMT
drivers
Emphasis on NMT
drivers
Roadside interference( illegal
access & parking)
Ensure maximum
controlEnsure maximum control
Ensure maximum
control
Ensure maximum
controlEnsure maximum control
Ensure maximum
control
Central coordination of regulation to operation (follow STP 2005 & DHUTS 2010)
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Element of
concernSub-elements
Cat 3B Cat 3A. Cat 2C Cat 2B Cat 2A Cat 1
Demand
management Area Pricing (financial sticks) Requirement Yes Yes Yes No Yes No
TypeControl private
vehicles, e.g.car
Control private vehicles,
e.g.car in inner city
access points
Control movement of
NMTs n/a Control movement of MT
Control movement of
MT
Control movement for
through traffic
Control movement for
through traffic
Details on pricing
High entry & waiting
levy for using these
routes during any
time
High entry &waiting levy
for using these predefined
accesses by LVs during
any time
High entry & watitng
levy on weekdays
working hours
n/a
Very High entry & watitng
levy on weekdays
working hours
Controll entry of MT
at predefined access
points
Extremely l imited
waiting/parking
points for NMT
Extremely l imited
waiting/parking points
for MT
Allow only those MT
bearing residence tag
Staggered working hours
Financial need Overall infrastructure cost High- Very high High- Moderate High- Moderate Moderate -Low Low Moderate -Low
Overall management cost High Moderate Moderate Low Moderate-High Moderate-High
to facil itate distribution of demand across time-segments
*n/a: Not applicable
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15.5 Summary
This chapter has described the structure and functioning of the planning framework as a part of
planning step 4. The discussion started with depiction of the framework tool, including
description of its component parts - the layers and traffic compositions and derivation process
of these components. The coherence of the derived tool to the desired outcome set at Chapter
11 was also assessed. This was followed by a case study-based application demonstration of the
tool. The discussion concluded with broad implementation strategies to support the
functionality of the tool.
The framework tool, based on the functional need of the current transport network and
operational characteristics of MT and NMT, was divided into six hierarchical levels. The
functional needs were assessed with reference to four major network criteria – design,
functional, frictional and impact, derived in Chapter 14. Among the road levels, five were similar
in network governing attributes, as recommended for Dhaka but distinctly different in the
modal distribution pattern. These five road levels were primary road, secondary road, collector
road, access road and narrow road. In addition, a new road level with new traffic composition
was proposed in the framework. For this purpose, the primary road type was split into two
classes - Primary road type I and Primary road type II. The former corresponded to the current
primary road. The latter was proposed to have a priority-based management to facilitate future
rapid transits such as BRT and reduced right-of-way for private vehicles. The new layer identifier
for the road category according to framework is 3B.
Among the other levels, primary road type I was found to be most suitable to be kept at its
current condition, that is as an MT only road level, given that particular corridor corresponds to
the set attributes of the framework. The new layer name for the road category according to
framework, is 3A. Secondary, collector and access road levels were proposed in the framework,
to be suitable as mixed-mode corridors, with MT and NMT as existing. But the current ‘no
prioritisation’ approach of the modes was found to be incompatible to fulfil desired corridor
performance. Analysis of the functional need of the corridors suggested secondary roads to be
best suited to MT priority, collector roads to be best suited to similar priority for MT and NMT
and access roads to be best suitable with NMT priority. Narrow roads, in the same vein, were
found to be best suited to NMT-only roads than the current no priority situation.
This process to derive to road hierarchy and mode distribution for a corridor was found to
ensure better balance, between MT and NMT, at different network levels. The need of better
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system level traffic efficiency, better accessibility at different network parts and enhancement
in personal mobility were also found to be more achievable under such an arrangement.
Application example of the tool on a small case network of Dhanmondi also revealed the ability
of the tool in better addressing the need of the test network corridors, enabling logical
distribution of modes and demonstrating easy use and flexibility of the framework as decision
tool.
These findings reinforced the derivations made above on the rationality of the tool in achieving
desired outcome set in Chapter 11, which is enabling a collaborative and balanced decision
process to facilitate NMT coexistence with MT. Collaborative, with reference to the
characteristics of the tool to represent the viewpoint of different stakeholder groups;
incorporating the aspects of land use, network character and future needs of transport plans.
Balanced, with reference to characteristics of the tool to prioritise and logically distribute modes
(MT and NMT) by the functional need of the network, ensuring right modes are allowed in right
locations, in right preference, thereby facilitating the key attributes towards transport
sustainability. The findings as such also validated the hypothesis coupled with planning step 4.
A broad implementation strategy, by proposed road level and with reference to five key
elements; physical measures, regulatory measures, demand management measures, traffic
management measures and financial needs, was outlined to supplement the application of the
tool. The next Chapter presents the conclusion from the study and outlines future research
opportunities.
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16 SECTION D: CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 16: DISCUSSION AND
CONCLUSION
16.1 Introduction
Chapter 15 described the structure and functioning of the planning tool. This chapter also
evaluated the coherence of the tool in addressing desired outcomes. Completion of the four
level planning processes and validation of hypothesis related to research question 3 were thus
achieved. In this process, this research has fulfilled its aim of developing a decision tool to derive
to appropriate road hierarchy for a mixed-mode transport network.
This Section and Chapter outlines a summary of the complete study and the way forward. The
discussion of this chapter is divided into three major sections. Section 16.2 presents a brief
summary based discussion of the study. The original contribution from this study is identified in
Section 16.3. Section 16.4 indicates the opportunities for future research that stem from this
study. Finally, the closure to this thesis is presented.
16.2 Research summary and conclusions
Based on the research conducted to address the research questions and to achieve the
objectives, this thesis maintains that non-motorised public transport (NMPT) is a unique form of
public transport and its requirement or otherwise should be carefully evaluated before
undertaking any decision to restrict them from a transport network. This need for careful and
planned assessment is more significant for developing cities since the history and scale of
existence of the mode is much greater than is the case of developed country cities. Addressing
the operation and management of NMPT in a non-coherent manner, without being considered
as a part of formal transport system might result in an imbalance of user demand to supply.
To illustrate the above mentioned aspects and demonstrate that research questions set out in
Chapter 1 to address these, have been answered, the key conclusions from this research are
summarised below, by linking them to the research questions and relevant objectives of this
study. This is explained with the work reported in respective chapters to address these
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questions and to achieve the objectives. The work reported in some chapters helped to achieve
multiple objectives. These chapters may appear more than once in following discussion.
16.2.1 Define current role and future suitability of NMPT, primarily of
developing cities and to a lesser extent for developed cities
An extensive literature review and analysis was conducted in a global context, to determine the
status of NMPT as a regular public transport mode. The review incorporated major cities of
developed and developing countries, with NMPT in operation.
Chapter 2: During the status review of developed cities, it was found that NMPT has a long, but
discontinuous history of existence with most popularity gained after its re-emergence in the
1990s. The review indicated that NMPT primarily functions as a tourist transport mode in these
parts of the world and does not yet have significant contribution as a daily travel mode yet. But
the review also revealed challenges in blending the mode within highly motorised traffic
environment of these cities and the need of a well-planned framework to ensure its sustainable
coexistence with motorised transport in future.
Status review of developing cities found a long continuous history of NMPT, negligible validity of
the reasoning against disutility of the mode and significant multisectoral role contribution of the
mode as a regular public transport mode under adverse policy environment, in many major
cities, particularly in Asia. The role review also found the strong possible role and share of the
mode in these cities in the near future. The review revealed the immediate need for an
integrated planning framework to better manage this mode, to improve its operational
efficiency and to minimise its conflicts with other available motorised modes.
It was highlighted from the discussion that, to realise the endeavour to formulate a detailed
planning framework, a case study approach would be preferable given time and resource
limitations. Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh, was chosen in this regard, due to the
magnitude and scale of operation of this industry.
16.2.2 Define current role and future suitability of NMPT, in case study Dhaka
The NMPT status review and analysis for the Dhaka case study was divided into four major
dimensions. They were - extensive literature review on condition of the mode (Chapters 3 to 5),
in-depth analysis of the reviewed literature (Chapters 6, 7), viewpoint analysis of all relevant
stakeholders on the condition of the mode (Chapters 8, 9); and inferences on the current and
future role of the mode (Chapter 10), based on the output of review and analysis.
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Chapter 3: An overview of Dhaka NMPT industry was made in this introductory case study
chapter. The review revealed eight decades of NMPT presence as a regular public transport
mode. The development trend of NMPT indicated a two-phase growth situation, including a
gradual increase in the first four decades since its evolution in Dhaka in 1938 and a steep rise
over the last four decades. The review also presented other key aspects of NMPT industry, such
as the regulation in effect for operational control of the mode, usual trip length and daily
productivity of NMPT, fare structure, ownership and rental practices in place, operating hours
and typical revenue from the mode. The discourse set the scene for in-depth review and
analysis of the industry and to assess NMPT status from a multidimensional perspective.
Chapters 4 and 5: These chapters reported the viewpoint of previous literature – individual
research efforts and previous transport sector plans, on the NMPT industry of Dhaka. Chapter 4
revealed the arguments in favour of NMPT while Chapter 5 delineated the arguments rejecting
the mode in order to develop an impartial understanding on its condition.
In Chapter 4, the role of the mode was primarily reviewed with reference to social, economic,
employment, environmental, transport and safety viewpoints. The research highlighted the
large scale influence NMPT has in supporting the livelihood of the poor, and in their economic
self-reliance, in sustaining the environment, in balancing the travel demand and travel quality
needs of the lower and middle income population, and in catering for commonplace small
freight movement requirements. The literature also highlighted road space utility of NMPT in
relation to other comparable modes such as auto-rickshaw or taxi, suitability to narrow network
structures of the city, its potential as a feeder to public transport services, and its better safety
record to other major transport modes. The chapter also reported, with respect to reviewed
literature, the regulatory, traffic management and vehicular design related policy and planning
proposals put forward for integration of NMPT with motorised transport (MT).
A review of literature in Chapter 5 found some key underlying reasoning behind rejecting of the
mode and the need for its restriction. They include slow speed, low capacity and road space
inefficiency of the mode, subsequent contribution to traffic congestion, health impact and
inhumane nature of the profession, and its representation of a poor, underdeveloped city
image to the outside world. A number of government policy recommendations to control NMPT
derived from such perspectives on the mode were then reviewed. Second Five Year Plan (1980-
1985) and Third Five Year Plan (1985-1990) of Bangladesh Planning Commission suggested
complete removal of NMPT. Special Committee Report 1986 and Fourth Five Year Plan (1990-
1995) suggested their removal from major roads and restriction to some specific zones. DUTP
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Phase II (1996-2005) suggested removal of NMPT from 11 major arterials of the city
encompassing 120 km of roadway. NLTP (2004) encouraged nationwide reduction of NMPT
trips by half within 2014, based on which implementation actions for NMPT control are in effect
onwards. The review reported the implementation strategies in place for management of
NMPT. Licensing control was found as the first approach applied to curb NMPTs and has been in
effect since the 1950s. Rise of import duties on spare parts of bicycle and NMPT was applied in
early 1980s and is continuing. Physical restriction in NMPT operation was introduced in 1980s
and has been more rigorously enforced since 2002. The literature review also found physical
restriction as the primary restriction strategy in effect for controlling Dhaka NMPT movement.
Chapters 6 and 7: These chapters presented detailed analysis of the literature reviewed to
derive new information and findings on the NMPT industry. The NMPT role analysis was made
in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 made pattern analysis of NMPT integration initiatives and impact
analysis of the undertaken NMPT restriction initiatives by government.
In Chapter 6, the role analysis was conducted with reference to key issues that were previously
reviewed in the literature, including social, economic, employment, environmental and
transport aspects. Social analyses revealed that for major short-to-medium trip makers e.g.
females, students and elderly, NMPT trip shares have increased. The analyses also revealed that
NMPT has a greater share among low and middle income populations. On a macro-economic
perspective, the gross revenue from NMPT was found to increase over the last two decades. On
a micro-economic perspective, the analyses suggested higher revenue of the NMPT employees
compared to National GDP and some key formal and informal sector professions. Employment
sector analyses showed that the share of NMPT industry jobs increased significantly in the last
two decades. Environmental sector analyses revealed that motorised modes are contributing to
all of transport-sourced pollution in Dhaka, while catering almost an equal trip share to that of
NMPT.
The transport role analyses revealed that NMPT mode has had an annual growth rate of 20
percent in the last five years, which is highest among all available modes. Currently NMPT
shares around half of the non-walk trips in Dhaka. NMPT was found to take less road space per
passenger compared to auto-rickshaw, taxi or car, but more space than a bus or human hauler.
NMPTs were found to offer better accessibility and service quality compared to bus on different
elements of the of network - at stop level, route level and system level. Similar or better service
performance of NMPT was found at all three system elements to auto-rickshaw and taxi, except
for service coverage. NMPT also showed better performance level in quality of service measures
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to private vehicles than other public or paratransit modes. The understanding from this Chapter
is expected to inform inferences about the role contribution or otherwise of NMPT in Dhaka.
In Chapter 7, the investigation of integration initiatives examined issues by classifying them into
policy proposals and more operational planning proposals. Both concerns and potential of the
strategies were considered during analyses. The majority of the research was found to
concentrate on developing strategic policies and guidelines for NMPT operational
improvement. Some operational proposals had strong design guidelines such as DUTP 1996.The
planning proposals were found to be based on zone centric control of NMPT. The priority
measure for NMPT operation in some selected network parts was proposed by one researcher.
The derivation of priority measures was, however, random in nature.
Government restrictions were investigated in relation to the key restriction types that were
identified and reviewed previously, viz. analysing licensing control and physical control. The
impact analysis of the former control showed a constant increase in illegal NMPT share since its
official ceiling was fixed in 1986. For the latter control, the analysis was split into two time
frames; before 2002, when NMPT physical restriction was less practiced, and after 2002, from
when it was applied at a widespread scale. Pre-2002 analyses showed mixed results with
several failed attempts to restrict NMPT, but the initiatives also managed to successfully off-
restrict the mode from six major roads.
Post 2002 analyses showed deviation from the prescribed guidelines for NMPT restriction on
some links. The analyses also showed deviation following the alternative NMPT route provision
standards. The impact analyses of post 2002 NMPT restriction were focused on the Mirpur
Demonstration Corridor due to data constraints. The results revealed improvement in link
speed and link travel time of motorised modes in general. The speed and travel time by bus has,
however, decreased on the same corridor. The impact analyses showed that most of the road
space on the corridor was occupied by private car; however bus share has also reasonably
increased. Another interesting finding of the impact analyses was that 20 percent of the former
NMPT users shifted to buses, contrary to the expectation of bulk shift to this mode which was
split between NMPT, auto-rickshaw and taxi. The understanding from this Chapter is expected
to inform inferences on the suitability or otherwise of the current practices for NMPT control.
Chapters 8 and 9: Stakeholder viewpoints on the condition of the mode and on the future
desired attributes form the transport system of Dhaka were presented in these Chapters.
Chapter 8 described the methodology used for stakeholder viewpoint analysis while the result
of the analysis was reported in Chapter 9.
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The methodology description of Chapter 8 was divided into sequential, interlinked stages. The
sampling was made with reference to five selected NMPT stakeholder groups i.e. GO, NGO,
NMPT operators, NMPT drivers and NMPT users; and a total of 150 samples were taken for
analysis. Interview was chosen as most suitable data collection method supplemented by
observation. A semi-structured questionnaire schedule based on face-to-face interview was
administered to collect best quality data. To facilitate the recording of interview data and to
enable collection of appropriate data to meet analysis purpose, the schedule was divided into
three major segments. First segment was on respondent details, the second was on current role
and future preference on NMPT; third segment was on future preferred qualities of Dhaka’s
transport system. Non-parametric statistical analysis was chosen for analysing NMPT relevant
viewpoints. SPSS was found suitable as analysis tool. MCA based AHP was chosen for prioritising
the hierarchy of future transport qualities. MS Excel was found suitable as an analysis tool.
In Chapter 9, the data analysis on stakeholder viewpoint was divided into two major streams.
The first stream reported findings on the current role and future condition of NMPT. The
findings on current issues indicated that the major portion of five stakeholder groups
considered NMPT to have a high-to-moderate functional role. A moderate proportion of the GO
and NGO differed from this trend and expressed it to be of low functional role. The data analysis
also showed that the major portion of five stakeholder groups considered high-to--moderate
dependency level of Dhaka transport users on the mode for regular trip purposes. Very few
suggested otherwise. Considerable variation in opinion was observed on current restriction
functionality of NMPT, with GO and NGO reflecting some degree of satisfaction. The remaining
stakeholders were mostly dissatisfied with the measures.
Analysing the future situation, a substantial portion of the stakeholders from each group were
observed to favour NMPT performing local and feeder service roles, while they differed on the
other two options. GO was more inclined to see it as local service mode; NMPT operators,
drivers and users were inclined to see the mode as free flowing in all network parts and NGO
was evenly split between these options. Similar to respondent viewpoint on current restriction,
spread in opinion was observed on future preferred restriction levels of NMPT, with MT. Most
preferences were split between two alternatives of partial restriction strategy. Partial
restriction-existing (defined as current NMPT-MT coexistence pattern) was highly favoured by
GO but the majority of the remaining stakeholders favoured the partial restriction-proposed
strategy (defined as changed, more planned NMPT-MT coexistence pattern). Among other
control levels, some portion of the GO favoured full restriction measures while some of the
remaining respondent groups preferred the no restriction option. Regarding the suggestions to
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improve future management and planning of NMPT, the emphasis of most desirable choices
were quite similar between all five groups, led by a need for proper interlink between MT and
NMPT and a need for comprehensive regulatory frameworks.
In the second stream of analysis, multi-criteria analysis and analytical hierarchy process based
priority structure for the future transport system of Dhaka was developed, with reference to
five predefined criteria; social equity, traffic operational efficiency, access and mobility,
environmental sustainability and urban fabric and city image. Traffic operational efficiency and
access and mobility were found to be the two most preferred criteria by each stakeholder
group. City image was the least preferred criteria. Social equity was more preferred over
environmental sustainability.
The understanding from this chapter feeds into the investigation of the role contribution of
NMPT and on the suitability of the current practices for NMPT control in Dhaka, from the
perspective of NMPT stakeholders. The results will also assist in providing insight on future
preferences from NMPT and on comprehending the coherence or otherwise of NMPT to the
desired character for future Dhaka transport system.
Chapter 10: Inferences and learning on current status and future role of NMPT was found to be
crucial, based on the discussion and findings of Chapters 3 to 9. The NMPT role review found
that NMPT has a significant role in multiple sectors of Dhaka - in maintaining social equity,
economic efficiency, environmental sustainability and in catering for door-to-door short
distance travel demand. It was also found that the key deficiencies labelled on NMPT modal
operations, are either largely invalid or situational and require better NMPT management than
their blanket banning. The inference was that NMPT has a significant role contribution in
present and future transport systems of Dhaka as a regular public transport mode.
The cost-benefit analysis on current NMPT restriction initiatives showed that disadvantages of
the approach far outweigh benefits. It was also revealed that the reasons behind the
ineffectiveness of current approaches are their ad-hoc, unplanned nature and lack of balanced
planning approach to distribute all modes across the network in a systematic manner. The
inference was that an integrated planning framework is needed to address this inter-modal
imbalance.
The cost-benefit analysis of prevailing planning and management initiatives found that no
effective and integrated planning approach or tool is available to address these deficiencies.
Based on these findings the chapter concluded that, given the substantial role significance of
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NMPT in Dhaka and due to absence of any effective tool to manage the same, it is necessary to
develop an integrated planning framework to facilitate the balanced coexistence and
integration of NMPT with other motorised modes in Dhaka.
16.2.3 Evaluate and determine suitable network environment for integration
of NMPT with MT using Dhaka as a case study
Chapter 11: The planning framework development process for Dhaka was divided into four
planning steps as discussed in Chapter 11. They include initial problem planning (establishing
need for IMPF tool) (planning step 1);defining current and future state of the problem (type and
character of imbalance in current network; desired character for future) (planning step
2);evaluation and selection of technique that best address these deficiencies and needs
(planning step3);& finally, development of a delivery plan (IMPF tool structuring and application
process) to minimize current NMPT management imbalance with MT(planning step 4).
Chapters 12, 13 and 14: As planning step 1 was accomplished during the review and analysis of
Section B, Chapter 14 focused on the next stage in the framework development process, which
was to evaluate the suitable network environment for integration of NMPT with MT (planning
step 2).The methodology rationale and application process in this connection were described in
Chapter 12 and 13 respectively.
Chapters 12 and 13: Based on examination of the relevant research question (research question
3), Chapter 12 found that for planning step 2, which was to set up the suitable network
environment and preferred character for the proposed framework, the appropriate
methodologies were a combination of quantitative and qualitative techniques. They included
archival analysis, land use-traffic interactivity analysis, stakeholder viewpoint analysis and
standard road functionality analysis. Chapter 13 described the field application process of these
methods to achieve the desired evaluation
Chapter 14: Analysis of suitable network environment started with formulation of three
alternative integration strategies, constituted with various combinations of MT and non-
motorised transport (NMT) modes under each strategy. The formulated strategies were full
restriction (FR) of NMPT with MT movement unrestricted, FR of MT with NMT movement
unrestricted and partial restriction (PR) of both MT and NMT. The coherence of the formulated
strategies were then evaluated with reference to macro –network and micro-network level. At
macro level, their impacts were assessed on different sector of transport system including
socio-economic, environment and travel, and with reference to future stakeholder demand
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from transport system. At a corridor level, the strategies were assessed with reference to land
use-traffic interactivity pattern of the corridors and with reference to standard road
functionality expected from different network levels.
The evaluation first depicted the need for both MT and NMT as significant transport modes in
the network environment of Dhaka and subsequent rejection of two extreme strategies, FR of
NMPT and FR of MT. PR was found to be more balance approach in integrating the two mode
splits. Second, the appropriateness of PR-existing (PR-E) was evaluated with reference to its
ability to optimise the coexistence of MT and NMT in the network. The results indicated a lack
of balance of the current strategy in defining the role and place of MT and NMT at different
levels of the network and with reference to the functional needs of the network. The lack of
coherence of the current strategy in meeting future stakeholder demands and future
prescribed guidelines of transport plans was also revealed. The need for a modified PR strategy,
PR-proposed and development of a decision tool with the need to address these deficits was
also established. These identified deficiencies and needs of the network formed the basis for
preferred attributes of the proposed framework tool. Planning step 2 was thus accomplished.
Chapters 4 to 7: These Chapters informed the macro-level evaluation of alternative transport
strategies, starting with strategic evaluation related to archival analysis presented in Chapter 14.
Chapters 8 and 9: These Chapters informed the macro-level evaluation of alternative transport
strategies, at first level of strategic evaluation related to stakeholder viewpoint analysis
presented in Chapter 14.
16.2.4 Examine and select appropriate technique for layout of an integrated
multimodal decision tool using Dhaka as a case study
Chapter 11: Similar to planning step 2, the overview of planning step 3 and its relation to the
conceptual planning process, direction and desired outcome of the framework was defined.
Chapters 12 and 13: Based on examination of research question 3, Chapter 12 found that for
planning step 3, the endeavour of which was to determine a technique that can best replicate
the need and characteristics of proposed framework, functional hierarchy method proved to be
most effective. Chapter 13 described the field application process of the method.
Chapter 14: The selection process to derive the tool involved a review of functional hierarchy as
a concept in network planning, application suitability of the technique to the needs of the
current Dhaka network and case study-based utility analysis of the method in addressing similar
situations elsewhere. Two separate multimodal case locations with differing condition - Bogota,
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Colombia (MT-NMT integration achieved with NMT primary focus on bicycle) and Portland,
Oregon, USA (MT-NMT integration proposed with bicycle as NMT) were examined. The success
of the former and the identification of certain network deficiencies of the latter also indicated
the utility of the approach in addressing NMT-MT conflicting scenarios. Planning step 3 was
accomplished in the process.
16.2.5 Develop a functional framework for the proposed decision tool to
facilitate sustainable NMPT coexistence with MT, using Dhaka as a case study
Chapter 11: The overview of planning step 4 and its relation to the conceptual planning process,
direction and desired outcome of the proposed framework was defined.
Chapters 12 and 13: Based on examination of the relevant research question (research question
3) it was found that for planning step 4, the endeavour to structure and functionalise a tool that
can allow balanced distribution of mode across the network, a mode-road interactive method-
based decision tool, is most appropriate. The application of the developed tool was
demonstrated using a small test network within Dhaka to show the real world validity of the
proposed tool in achieving the set desired outcomes.
Chapter 15: The framework tool, based on the functional need of current transport network
and operational characteristics of MT and NMT, was divided into six hierarchical levels. The
functional needs were assessed with reference to four major network criteria – design,
functional, frictional and impact, derived in Chapter 14. Among the road levels, five were similar
in network governing attributes, as recommended for Dhaka but distinctly different in the
modal distribution pattern. These five road levels were primary road, secondary road, collector
road, access road and narrow road. In addition a new road level with new traffic composition
was proposed in the framework. For this purpose, the primary road type was split into two
classes - Primary road type I and Primary road type II. The former corresponded to the current
primary road. The latter was proposed to have a priority-based management to facilitate future
rapid transit such as BRT and reduced right-of-way for private vehicles. The new layer name for
the road category according to framework is 3B.
It was found most appropriate to keep primary road type I as an MT only road level, given that
particular corridor corresponded to the set attributes of the framework. The new layer name
for the road category according to framework is 3A. Secondary, collector and access road levels
were proposed in the framework, to be suitable as mixed mode corridors; that is, with MT and
NMT as existing. But the current ‘no prioritisation’ approach of the modes was found to be
incompatible to fulfil the desired corridor performance. Analysis of the functional need of the
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corridors suggested secondary roads as most suitable with MT priority, collector roads most
suitable with similar priority for MT and NMT, and access roads best suitable with NMT priority.
Narrow roads, were found best suitable with NMT only roads than current no priority situation.
This process to derive to road hierarchy and mode distribution for a corridor was found to
ensure better balance between MT and NMT at all network levels. The need of better system
level traffic efficiency, better accessibility within different network parts, and enhancement in
personal mobility were also found to be more achievable under such arrangements. The
example application of the tool on a small case network of Dhanmondi also revealed its ability
to better address the need of the test network corridors, enabling logical distribution of modes
and demonstrating easy use and flexibility of the framework as a decision tool. An important
learning revealed from these discussions was that not all criteria need to be fulfilled to allocate
a corridor with a particular road hierarchy and mode composition. The allocation would
depend, in addition to the framework guideline, on the understanding of the decision maker on
the local traffic, land use condition and topography; plus the expected need from the new
development work or redevelopment intended for the area. The adjustment or modification of
criteria definition might also be deemed necessary, by locality and city type. For instance, there
might be the need to consider the topography issue seriously for an undulated city (Darjeeling,
India) compared to that for Dhaka which has flat terrain.
The theoretical explanation and application made above demonstrates the tool’s success in
achieving desired outcome set in Chapter 11, which is to enable a collaborative and balanced
decision process to facilitate NMT coexistence with MT. Collaborative, with reference to the
characteristics of the tool to represent the viewpoints of different stakeholder groups;
incorporating the aspects of land use, network character and future needs of transport plans.
Balanced, with reference to characteristics of the tool to prioritise and logically distribute modes
(MT and NMT) by the functional need of network, ensuring right modes are allowed in right
location, in right preference and thereby facilitating the key attributes towards transport
sustainability. The findings as such also validated the hypothesis coupled with planning step 4
and addressed research questions 3 and 4. A broad implementation strategy, by proposed road
level and with reference to five key elements; physical measure, regulatory measure, demand
management measure, traffic management measure and financial needs, were outlined in the
end to supplement the application of the tool. It is important to note that the effectiveness of
the framework in achieving desired network performance depends significantly on the
successful implementation of these supporting measures.
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16.3 Contribution to knowledge
16.3.1 Contribution to theory
Contribution at global scale
Very little literature has concentrated on the issues relevant to NMPT. Most literature is in
context of developing cities in countries such as India, Indonesia and Bangladesh. Research such
as that of Replogle (1991b), Guitink (1996) , Hook and Replogle (1996), Hook (2005) etc.
concentrated on review and reporting of NMPT role status of developing cities. Warren (1986),
Parikesit (1999), Tiwari (2002), Whitelegg and Williams (2005), Fung (2005), Joewono and
Kubota (2005) concentrated on specific case studies such as Singapore, Indonesia, India, Hong
Kong etc., mostly focusing on historical aspects of the mode. Gallagher (1992) provided some
integrated reviews of NMPT scenario in a global level. None of these studies had, at a global
level and in a comparative integrated manner, determined the current role condition and future
potential of the mode as a regular public transport mode.
This research has attempted to address this gap by undertaking a detailed literature review and
analysis of NMPT with reference to developing and developed cities, and in an aggregated
comparative manner. Such review and analysis provided significant new insights on the status
and role of the mode at a global scale - its evolution, current growth, usage and future market
demand, impact on transport system of different major cities and potential as a future regular
public transport option. The review of the regulatory and management measures also provided
new insights on the policy planning dimension of the mode - past, present and future. Such an
aggregated global NMPT status review was not available beforehand and can be considered as
a significant platform and contributory document for future detailed analysis at this scale.
Contribution at local scale
The literature review on the case study of Dhaka revealed that previous research on NMPT has
concentrated on the issues relevant to their role in the overall transport spectrum of the
country or Dhaka (e.g. Rashid, 1986; Gallagher, 1992); problems relevant to NMPT as a mode of
transport (e.g. Habib, 2002; Begum & Sen, 2004); potential of NMPT as a mode (e.g. Gallagher,
1992; Wipperman & Sowula, 2007; Hossain & Susilo, 2010) and the argument of essential or
detrimental policy aspect of NMPT on the transport system (e.g. Quium, 1994;Bari, 2004).
However, none of these works have clearly highlighted the future place of NMPT in the mixed
traffic environment of Dhaka, especially not as analysed output of aggregated review and
subsequent, in-depth multidimensional analysis. In particular, absent were analyses
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encompassing the aspects of role contribution from the mode, the policy planning aspect of the
mode and their detailed impact with reference to previous transport plan, and the NMPT
stakeholder perspective on the topic. This study has integrated all these dimensions into a
sequential process in order to reach a decision on the current and future place of NMPT in the
Dhaka transport system, which is more balanced, impartial and robust. Such aggregated
detailed status review and in-depth analysis on NMPT can be considered as a significant
platform and contributory document for future relevant studies on Dhaka.
16.3.2 Contribution to practice
LOS template for mode operational performance measure
This study in the process of NMPT role definition has developed, based on available data and
within the scopes of this study, a LOS template for comparative operational performance
measure of NMPT and other available modes in Dhaka. The structure of the LOS has followed
the most widely -accepted reference for service quality measurement of public transport and
comparative service modes, TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003). This LOS
template can be adopted as a reference guideline for future service quality comparison
purposes between NMPT and other modes, in the local context of Dhaka.
Localized reference template for desired characteristics of road
This study has developed, based on available data and within the scopes of this study, a broad
localized template for defining desired performance level of major governing attributes across
different road levels, during the process to build a planning framework for integration of NMPT
with MT. This can be used as one of the reference guidelines for design and building of future
road networks in urban Dhaka.
Planning framework development for MT-NMT integration
The study has formulated an effective mechanism for collaborative, sustainable operational
integration of NMT (NMPT in particular) with MT in the mixed traffic environment of Dhaka.
The framework tool or decision tool is suitable from which to derive to suitable mode
composition and road hierarchy level for corridors within a transport network, characterised by
priority for both MT and NMPT traffic. Unlike existing practices, this tool addresses the
functional needs of each corridor (governing attributes) and corresponding composition of MT
and NMPT (mode attributes). The tool structure also better reflects the stakeholder needs from
future Dhaka transport system and to the rapid transit development needs of future Dhaka
transport plans.
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Such a tool is expected to be the first of its kind that can be used in situ, to determine the best
distribution of NMPT, alongside MT across design, functional, frictional and impact criteria. The
tool would also allow network performance enhancement at a strategic level and minimise the
prevailing conflicts between MT and NMT traffic. A case study-based application and validation
of the tool on a real network strengthens its claim of functionality, adoptability and flexibility.
The tool will be able to be applied to both existing facilities as well as being used for assessing
the suitability of road layout and mode distribution when undergoing network planning for
potential future developments. Due to flexibility of the tool structure, with necessary
adjustment to the attribute levels and combination, the framework may be applied to other
developing cities with similar MT-NMPT traffic environment.
16.4 Future research
During the course of this study for NMPT status review and operational optimisation, a number
of research issues emerged. These were beyond the scope of this research, but demanded
detailed investigation. They are listed below, as potential future research areas. Items 1 to 7
relate more to the global scale, while items 8 to 10 relate to the Dhaka case study only.
1. This research does not include detailed case study-oriented condition analysis of
NMPT in developed country cities. Such investigation is worth pursuing to deepen
understanding on future coexistence and functionality improvement of the same.
2. This research has developed a multimodal planning framework tool and validated
its application on a real case network. But the tool should be refined by applying it
to various network locations, by more detailed modal breakdown, at different
cities and using longitudinal studies to reach to more generalised conclusions.
3. Due to the scope of this research, safety characteristics of each mode within the
framework were not examined in detail, which is worth exploring in future.
4. Due to the scope, this research has focused on planning oriented solutions to
optimise coexistence of NMT with MT. Detailed investigation is required to
develop design guidelines for the purpose, in order to better complement the
planning framework at the operation level.
5. This research does not investigate integrated route network development process
for NMPT or NMT (bicycle). Detailed studies are required to develop adaptable,
flexible methodology for route network planning for NMPT and NMT operation.
6. To ensure efficient operation and coverage of MPT traffic, detailed study to refine
the current MPT route operations to better facilitate their service in MT prioritised
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corridors and in other MPT allowed corridors according to framework tool should
be undertaken. To ensure balance and coherence in network planning, the
application of these route plans (NMPT, NMT and MPT) for a case study need to
be undertaken in coordination and not separately.
7. The review of available literature and previous models has depicted the need of a
localised strategic demand model for Dhaka and cities with similar traffic
characteristics. This study recommends development of a strategic demand model
that best addresses the multi-modal trade-off character of cities such as Dhaka to
suit, within permissible range, the derived results to observed conditions.
8. Depending on the availability of a suitable strategic demand model, it is
recommended that the impact of alternative transport strategies for integration of
MT and NMT be analysed. This would enable effective and long term prediction
for multimodal transport system planning in these cities.
9. This research has developed a comparative LOS template for available modes in
Dhaka. This requires refinement and adjustment, as required, based on wide-scale
field data collection for future calibration.
10. This research has developed a primarily qualitative framework for standard road
functionality analysis due to the scope and availability of resources. To ensure
more measurable outcomes, detailed study (one study or a combination of
subsequent, inter-related studies) to standardise a quantitative guideline for the
permissible attributes (speed limit, traffic carriage, PT service quality parameters)
that govern network performance, needs to be administered.
11. This research has administered a land use – traffic interactivity analysis based on
qualitative evaluation, due to absence of a secondary survey database and
resource constraints. It is recommended to have corridor-by-corridor land use
intensity and traffic intensity database development study, initiating with major
corridors; and a progressive update at regular intervals. This is to facilitate more
quantitative evaluation and projection in future.
16.5 Research Close
This chapter has documented the summary and main conclusions from this research study. This
chapter has also portrayed the contribution of this research to the field of knowledge and
suggested future areas for investigation. Documentation of all aspects of this research is now
completed.
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APPENDICES
Appendix A: Concept of sustainable development and sustainable transport
Sustainable development: Concept and models
Though the term ‘sustainable development’ has been used since the early 1970s, it has only
been generally accepted over the past three decades following the Brundtland Report of World
Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). The WCED has defined sustainable
development as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Bruntland, 1987). This iconic definition
has, however, been criticised due to the difficulty to define and determine the concept of the
‘needs’ (Choguill, 1996; Wheeler & Beatley, 2004) and has lead to the development of two
notions, Triple Bottom Line (TBL) and Quadruple Bottom Line (QBL) providing more detailed
explanation of the concept of sustainability.
• The TBL concept of sustainable development depends on social, economic and
environmental improvement at the same time rather than at the expense of each
other (Cobb, Halstead & Rowe, 1995; The Scottish Government Publication, 2006)
or otherwise as a compromise among these interconnecting elements (Bond,
Motimer & Cherry, 1998; Pike, Pose & Tomaney, 2006).
• The notion of QBL sustainability is relatively new and is still being explored by
researchers. The essence of this concept is derived based on TBL ideology, adding
the dimension of governance with the existing three dimensions of sustainability
(Teriman, Yagitcanlar & Mayere, 2009). Emphasizing the significance of
governance in achieving sustainability, Porter & Craig (2004), Evans, Joas,
Sundback & Theobald (2006) and Nolmark (2007) highlighted that the functioning
of governance including institutional capacity of organisations and instruments
such as law, regulations and planning systems are central in the process towards
achieving urban sustainability.
These TBL and QBL ideas of sustainability and basic human needs are crucial in transportation
development, planning, and policy making in any country.
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Sustainable transport system
The concept of ‘sustainable transportation’ calls for a more holistic approach to transportation
policy and investment planning, with an emphasis on achieving a diverse and balanced mix of
transport modes and a sensible arrangement of land use that enables conservative use of
energy and capital to fulfil mobility needs (Replogle, 1991c). The system has emerged as
mechanism that provides physical, economic and social equity in every aspect of life.
A sustainable transport system therefore encompasses comprehensive integration of policy,
system development and management to achieve diverse and balanced mix of transport modes
(sophisticated motorised and traditional fuel free non-motorised types) while enabling social
equity, cost effectiveness, energy conservation and mobility. Research in the last few years has
revealed from literature of Replogle (1991a; 1991b, 1991c), Quium (1994), Basler and AG
(1998), Gudmundsson (1999), World Bank (2002), Evans (2006), Nolmark (2007), Jonsson (2008)
and Teriman et al. (2009) four potential factors: economic, environmental, social and
governance/political as indicators for transport sector sustainability stemming from the original
notion of sustainable development. Efroymson and Rahman (2005) added that the mobility
solutions in developing cities should target issues regarding minimum energy consumption,
safety and poverty reduction. These notions are also reinforced by Kalthier’s (2002) transport
policy spectrum for sustainability for developing cities.
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Appendix B: Wheel Tax Draft Bye-Laws, Sections 118 and 119
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Appendix C: Calculations
C.1: NMPT revenue estimation by shifts (based on driver engagement pattern)
According to STP (2005b, 2005c) monthly income of a NMPT driver is derived as Bangladesh
Taka (Tk) 4300 [Australian Dollar (AUD) 88.75]. Based on this, the daily gross revenue ( excluding
rent cost) of a NMPT driver is Tk143.33 (AUD 2.95) over a period of 8 hours and Tk287 (AUD
5.92) over a period of 16 hours.
C.2: Daily gross revenue estimation for NMPT industry (based on NMPT operation)
Gross revenue estimation
The per day gross revenue of NMPT industry in Dhaka for 1994 was available from DITS (1994a).
The value was Tk30 million (AUD 1 million). The estimation was based on the earning of one
NMPT driver per NMPT vehicle. But, researches such as Gallagher (1992) has argued that the
revenue estimation from NMPT industry should be based on the revenue of 1.83 drivers per
NMPT vehicle and post DITS transport studies such as DUTP (1996) followed similar process.
Based on these, the 1994 gross revenue used in this study is, Tk30 million * 1.83 = Tk54.9
million (AUD 1.83 million).
For 2005, the gross revenue per day from NMPT industry is estimated as Tk.1198 million (AUD
24.73 million). This is derived based on a daily revenue of Tk342.33 (AUD 7.06) per NMPT
[Rental revenue from one NMPT= Tk.80 (AUD 1.65) (STP, 2005c); Operational revenue of one
NMPT, based on a driver’s earning- Tk143.33 (AUD 2.95) (derived from STP, 2005c); 1.83 drivers
per NMPT]; for a fleet size of 500,000 with a utility rate of 70 percent as suggested for revenue
calculation of NMPT industry in DITS (1994a).
For 2011, the gross revenue per day from NMPT industry is estimated as Tk.3720 million (AUD
45.93 million). This is derived based on a daily revenue of Tk484.3 (AUD 5.98) per NMPT [Rental
revenue from one NMPT= Tk.100 (AUD 1.28) (DHUTS, 2010); Operational revenue of one
NMPT, based on a driver’s earning- Tk210 (AUD 2.59) (derived from Sultana, 2011); 1.83 drivers
per NMPT]; for a fleet size of 1,100,000 with a utility rate of 70 percent as suggested for
revenue calculation of NMPT industry in DITS (1994a).
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Conversion of revenue values to monetary equivalent if year 2011
For comparison of revenue shifts among analysis years, the 1994 and 2005 revenue values are
converted to present values of 2011 using the formula,
Future value= Present value (1+rate of inflation)^duration,
where
future value = the monetary equivalent in 2011
present value = the base year value (1994 & 2005)
average inflation rate-= 6.31 percent (during 1995 to 2011), 8.08 percent (during 2006 to 2011 )
The monetary equivalent of 1994 in 2011 for NMPT gross revenues is found to be Tk155 million
(AUD 5.17 million) and that of 2005 is found to be Tk1910 million (AUD 39.42 million).
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C.3: Employment share by NMPT sector and direct dependent population on NMPT sector
a b c D e f g h i j k l m
Year NMPT
number
NMPT
driver
Ancillary
employment (most
conservative
assumption)*
Total direct
employment
Average
household
size
Working
members
Dependent
members
Total
dependence
(non-work
members)
Total
population
of Dhaka
Total active
population
% share of
active
population
in NMPT
industry
% share of
non work
members
(dependent
population)
1994- DITS
2005- STP
2011- DMP
c=b*1.83,
where 1.83 is
driver no.
per NMPT
No statistics are
available; value
derived based on
consultation with
transport officials and
operators of NMPT
industry in Dhaka
e=c+d 1994-HIES* 1991-92;
2005- HIES 2005;
2011- DHUTS (2010)
h=f-g i=e*h 1994-HIES*
1991-92;
2005-
Estimated
based on STP
(2005c) &
2011-
Estimated
based on
DHUTS (2010)
& CIA (2011)
k (1994)=j
*0.35 (0.35
derived from
HIES 1992-92) ;
k (2005 &
2011)=j*0.32
(0.32 is derived
from HIES 2005)
l=e/k m=i/j
1994 150,000 274,500 100,000 374,500 5.34 1.5 3.84 1,438,080 6,000,000 2,100,000 18 24
2005 500,000 915,000 200,000 1,115,000 4.72 1.5 3.22 3,590,300 11,470,000, 3,670,400 30 31
2011 1,100,000 2,013,000 300,000 2,313,000 4.72 1.5 3.22 7,447,860 13,752,185, 4,560,000 50 52
*HIES- Household income expenditure survey
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C.4: Daily Work output by NMPT and other modes
a b c d e f g h i J
Mode type Trip number Average trip
length (km)
Vehicle-km Share (%) Average
occupancy
(number of
person)
Passenger-km Share (%) Person-trips Share (%)
DHUTS (2010) STP (2005c) d=b*c e=d (for a
mode/d (total)
STP (2005a) g=b*c*f g=f (for a
mode/f (total)
i=b*f j=i (for a mode/i
(total)
Bus 6,195,576 9.5 58,857,972 54 45 2,648,608,740 96.55 278,800,920 93.89
Auto rickshaw 1,359,770 8.5 11,558,045 11 2.3 26583503 0.97 3,127,471 1.05
NMPT 7,920,273 3.8 30,097,037 27 1.6* 48,155,260 1.76 12,672,437 4.27
Car, other four
wheelers and
taxi**
1,065,836 8.5 9,059,606 8 2.2 19,931,133 0.73 2,344,839 0.79
Total 16,541,455 109,572,660 2,743,278,637 296,945,667
*Including empty NMPT; ** though taxi occupancy from field survey was found to be 3, since there is no published information on the same and the trip number of DHUTS (2010)
provides a combination of car, other private vehicles and taxi, the PCE of car is used which is the most dominant of these vehicles
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C.5: Comparative road space share between NMPT and other vehicles
a b c d e
Mode type Vehicular share on
road (%)
PCE value
(Average road
space per vehicle)
Space occupancy by
vehicle on road, at a
given time
Share (%)
Derived from the
vehicular statistics
and distribution of
BRTA (2011)
Ali (2006) d=b*c e=d (for a mode)/d
(total)
Bus 1 1.8 1.8 0.05
Auto rickshaw 1 0.8 0.8 0.02
Taxi 1 1 1 0.03
NMPT 65 0.18 11.7 0.32
Car and other 4
wheelers
14 1 14 0.38
Motorbike 15 0.5 7.5 0.20
C.6: Average seat capacity and occupancy of vehicles
Mode type Seat capacity Average occupancy
Bus 23-28 (STP 2005c) 45 (STP 2005a)
Human hauler
8 (Field observation) 8.0
Auto rickshaw
3 (Field observation) 2.3 (STP 2005a)
Taxi
4 (STP 2005c & field observation) 3 (Field observation)
NMPT
2 (Field observation) 1.6 (STP 2005a)
Car
4 (Field observation) 2.2 (STP 2005a)
Motorcycle
2 (Field observation) 1.6 (STP 2005a)
Bicycle
1 (Field observation) 1 (STP 2005a)
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C.7: Travel time calculations for different modes in Dhaka
Mode type Trip length
(km)
Operating speed
(kph)
[STP (2005a,
2005b 2005c)]
Walk time for transit (origin)
(minutes)*;
Walk + wait time for paratransit
(origin) (minutes)**
Wait time (minutes)^ Travel time/km
(minutes)
Walk time for transit (destination)
(minutes)*;
Park + walk time for private vehicles
(destination ) (minutes)
Total (door
to door)
travel time
(minutes)
a b c d e f= c/60 minutes g h=d+e+g
Bus 3 24 10 (Kittelson and Associates et al.,
2003, Uddin et al ,2003)
10 (Alam, 2011; STP,
2005a)
2.5 10 37.5
Human hauler 3 24 10 Uddin et al (2003) 11 ((Alam, 2011; STP,
2005a)
2.5 10 38.5
Auto rickshaw 3 24 15 0 2.5 0 22.5
Taxi 3 24 25 0 2.5 0 32.5
NMPT 3 12 7.5 0 5 0 22.5
Car 3 24 0 0 2.5 0 8
Motorcycle 3 23 0 0 2.6 0 8.5
Bicycle 3 12 0 0 5 0 15
Walk 5 12
Assumption:
*Walk distance for public transport: 10 minutes= 800m @ 5kph; Walk time for human hauler is assumed to be equal to that for bus for estimation above
^Lowest wait time is adopted for public transport from the range 10-20 minutes as suggested by Alam (2011) and headway survey of STP (2005a)
**Walk time plus wait time for paratransits are combined as no distance can be assumed or relevant data are available; derived from field survey
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C.8: Travel cost (user out of pocket travel cost) calculation for different modes in Dhaka
Mode type Fare/km for public transport*;
Cost/km for private transport
**
Trip length
1 2 3 4 5
Taka AUD Taka AUD Taka AUD Taka AUD Taka AUD Taka AUD
Bus^ 1 0.02 1 0.02 2 0.04 3 0.06 4 0.08 5 0.10
Human hauler^ 1 0.02 1 0.02 2 0.04 3 0.06 4 0.08 5 0.10
Auto rickshaw^^ 12 0.25 12 0.25 12 0.25 17 0.35 22 0.45 27 0.56
Taxi^* 20 0.41 20 0.41 20 0.41 28 0.58 36 0.74 44 0.91
NMPT~ 5 0.10 5 0.10 8 0.17 10 0.21 12 0.25 14 0.29
Car~~ 10 0.21 10 0.21 20 0.42 30 0.63 40 0.84 50 1.05
Motorcycle~~ 3 0.06 3 0.06 6 0.12 9 0.18 12 0.24 15 0.30
*Derived based on STP (2005a) for all modes except car & motorcycle. **For cars, the per km user cost is calculated from per litre fuel cost of Tk55 (AUD 1.14), (information received by consultation with
Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resource, Government of Bangladesh personnel in Dhaka ) and average mileage of 6km per litre, a conservative value based on consultation with automobile industry
personnel in Dhaka. The fuel cost for motorcycle was assumed as same to that for car and the mileage is estimated as 25 km per litre (conservative value) from same consultation source.
^For bus & human hauler, total fare =trip length * fare/km, as suggested in STP (2005c);
^^For auto rickshaw, total fare (for first 2km) = trip length * fare/km, fare for each subsequent km is Tk5 (AUD 0.1); as suggested in STP (2005c)
^*For taxi, total fare (for first 2km) = trip length * fare/km, fare for each subsequent km is Tk8 (AUD 0.17); as suggested in STP (2005c)
~For NMPT, total fare for first km is Tk5 (AUD 0.1) and changes for each subsequent km; as suggested in STP (2005c)
~~For car & motorcycle, the cost is estimated as total cost= trip length * unit cots/km, since no guideline is prescribed & according to consultation with relevant industry professionals.
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Appendix D: Stakeholder viewpoint analysis
D.1 Interview schedule design process
The detailed design process followed for development of each part of the three part interview
schedule, for stakeholder viewpoint recording is described below.
Part A: Respondent details
Kumar (2011) stated that decision of using an open ended or close ended question depends on
the available information for structuring the question and the way the information gathered
would be used for analysis Part A questions were primarily close ended as the objective of the
information was to build a general profile on the respondents, with some detail knowledge
gathering on the GO and NGO respondents related to direct engagement in NMPT
management. The reason is to use it later, if required for analysing the relationship between
this variable to their perception on current and future role of NMPT in Part B.
Part B: Respondent viewpoint on existing approach and future plan towards NMPT in Dhaka
Part B has five close ended questions of ordinal category, to assess the view of the respondents
on the current condition and future role preference type of NMPT. These questions were
structured as close ended. This is because the response options were hierarchical and
anticipatory, derived based on previous literature review and pre-survey consultation by
researcher with academic mentors to suit information needs for study. The objective was to use
the information to analyse the degree of preference for each variable type by different
stakeholder groups, and to analyse the relationship of this preference between groups.
However, to ensure that more alternative options can be included during the interview, an
answer option ‘Others’ was included (Kothari, 2008) for each of these five questions. The last
two questions were open ended and nominal in nature, to assess the preferred management
and policy planning alternatives for future control of NMPT. Due to unanticipated nature of the
responses, these questions were kept open ended to ensure that most preferences could be
recorded.
Part C: Criteria based preference for future transport system development for Dhaka
Part C questions were all close ended. The objective was to record, analyse and develop a
quantitative hierarchical ranking of stakeholder viewpoints, by groups and in total, on the
desired future transport scenario for Dhaka. The reference of assessment was a set of
predefined criteria. The preferred criteria selection process was rigorous. A preliminary set of
criteria was developed by Focus Group Discussion (FCD) and review of previous relevant
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literature. The FCD process involved a group of 20 people from different socio-economic and
transport usage backgrounds, including working population from private and public sector, non-
working population, senior citizens, students, and homemakers. Based on discussion, a list of
criteria was developed that represents their preference of criteria for future Dhaka transport
system. They were then matched with the preference of criteria as set in literature such as in
Replogle (1991a), Gallagher (1992), Quium (1994), World Bank (2002), STP (2005b) and DHUTS
(2010). The preliminary lists of criteria were thus derived. For convenience of analysis, the
criteria were reclassified and grouped into five major categories. Appendix D.1.1 presents the
preliminary and grouped criteria.
D.1.1: Preferred criteria for future Dhaka transport system and their categorisation
Preliminary criteria Grouped criteria
Access to desired modes Social Equity
Affordability of travel
Low traffic congestion
Traffic operational efficiency
Fast and timely movement
Safe road environment
Supportive infrastructure
Easy access to different city part
Access and mobility
Convenience and comfort of travel
Privacy and security of travel
Low emission
Environmental sustainability
Low noise pollution
Smart look to the vehicles in operation
Modern city image
Transport options reflects modernisation
Source: Derived by author after Focus Group Discussion and literature review
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D.2: Sample questionnaire form for government and non-government organisations
A. Respondent Details
Declaratory Note: All comments and responses will be treated confidentially. The specific details of individual
persons and their positions will not be identifiable in the interview transcripts to be attached with the thesis or
anywhere within the main text of final published thesis.
The participant responses will be re-identifiable only by the research team.
1. Category of your organization
Government
Non-Government (Local)
Non-Government (International)
Others (please specify)
2. Your experience in the transport sector of Dhaka (in years)
<5
5-10
11-15
16-20
>20
3. Please specify your role in the transport sector of Dhaka? (Multiple responses accepted)
Policy planning & development
Policy implementation
Expert professional/ Consultant (please specify type)
Fund provider
Others (please specify)
4. Do you have any specific experience to deal with the operation & management of non-
motorized transport (NMT) sector of Dhaka?
Yes
No (Go to question )
5. What type of non-motorized transport?
Private (walk & Bi-cycle)
Public (rickshaw & rickshaw van)
Both
6. Please share your concerned experience.
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B. Respondent Viewpoint on Existing Approach & Future Plan Towards
Non-Motorized Public Transport in Dhaka
1. Do you think that the transport system of Dhaka is leading to a right direction?
(Please categorize response & record discussion)
Yes
No
2. What is your assessment regarding current role of NMPT rickshaw in Dhaka
transportation system? (Please categorize response & record discussion)
Non- functional
Low functional
Moderately functional
Highly functional
Others (please specify)
3. What, according to you is the general level of dependency of the transport users on
rickshaw as a day-to-day trip mode in Dhaka?
(Please categorize response & record discussion)
No dependency
Low dependency
Moderate dependency
High dependency
Others (please specify)
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4. Your comments on the existing restriction functionality of rickshaw in Dhaka.
(Please categorize response & record discussion)
Unsatisfactory
Moderately satisfactory
Satisfactory
Highly satisfactory
Others (please specify)
5. How do you perceive future service role of rickshaw in the transportation system of
Dhaka? (Please categorize response & record discussion)
No service
Local network services only ( Intra- neighbourhood & Inter- neighbourhood ) (please also
respond to Q.6)
Local network service & feeder service to public transport (present & future) (please also
respond to Q.6)
Local, feeder & intra-urban services (please also respond to Q.6)
Others (please specify) (also respond to Q.6)
6. What level of control you prefer for rickshaw as a mode in future transportation system
of Dhaka? (Please categorize response on prioritize preference & record discussion)
(Multiple responses accepted)
Full restriction
Partial restriction type A ( existing trend i.e. all major roads )
Partial restriction type B (selected major roads only)
No restriction
Others (please specify)
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7. Do you have any specific suggestions regarding ‘operational improvement & management’ for
integration of rickshaw into the overall transportation system of Dhaka? (Please categorize
response & record discussion)
8. Do you have any specific suggestions regarding ‘policy & planning framework’ for integration of
rickshaw into the overall transportation system of Dhaka? (Please categorize response & record
discussion)
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6. What attributes in your opinion are preferable & crucial to be considered in developing future
transport system of Dhaka? Please answer through relative significance comparison for each
combination of indicators.
Note: Please consider future upgraded condition of each indicator during indicator evaluation
i. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?
Somewhat more important
Social Equity Much more important
Traffic Operational Efficiency Very much more important
Equally Important Absolutely more important
ii. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?
Somewhat more important
Traffic Operational Efficiency Much more important
Access & Mobility Very much more important
Equally Important Absolutely more important
iii. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?
Somewhat more important
Access & Mobility Much more important
Environmental Sustainability Very much more important
Equally Important Absolutely more important
C. Indicator Based Preference for Future Transport System Development
for Dhaka
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iv. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?
Somewhat more important
Environmental Sustainability Much more important
Urban Fabric & City Image Very much more important
Equally Important Absolutely more important
v. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?
Somewhat more important
Urban Fabric & City Image Much more important
Social Equity Very much more important
Equally Important Absolutely more important
vi. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?
Somewhat more important
Social Equity Much more important
Access & Mobility Very much more important
Equally Important Absolutely more important
vii. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?
Somewhat more important
Environmental Sustainability Much more important
Social Equity Very much more important
Equally Important Absolutely more important
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viii. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?
Somewhat more important
Traffic Operational Efficiency Much more important
Environmental Sustainability Very much more important
Equally Important Absolutely more important
ix. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?
Somewhat more important
Urban Fabric & City Image Much more important
Traffic Operational Efficiency Very much more important
Equally Important Absolutely more important
x. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?
Somewhat more important
Access & Mobility Much more important
Urban Fabric & City Image Very much more important
Equally Important Absolutely more important
THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION & TIME
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D.3: Sample questionnaire form for non-motorised public transport operators, drivers and
users
A. Respondent Details
Declaratory Note: All comments and responses will be treated confidentially. The specific details of individual
persons and their positions will not be identifiable in the interview transcripts to be attached with the thesis or
anywhere within the main text of final published thesis.
The participant responses will be re-identifiable only by the research team.
1. Category of the Respondent
Rickshaw Owner
Rickshaw Driver
Rickshaw User
2. Your engagement as workers in the rickshaw industry (applicable to owners and drivers
only) (please specify the exact or near exact duration in years where possible)
<5
5-10
11-15
16-20
>20
3. Your duration as a regular rickshaw passenger (applicable to users only) (please specify
the exact or near exact duration in years where possible)
<5
5-10
11-15
16-20
>20
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B. Respondent Viewpoint on Existing Approach & Future Plan Towards
Non-Motorized Public Transport in Dhaka
1. Do you think that the transport system of Dhaka is leading to a right direction?
(Please categorize response & record discussion)
Yes
No
2. What is your assessment regarding current role of NMPT rickshaw in Dhaka
transportation system? (Please categorize response & record discussion)
Non- functional
Low functional
Moderately functional
Highly functional
Others (please specify)
3. What, according to you is the general level of dependency of the transport users on
rickshaw as a day-to-day trip mode in Dhaka?
(Please categorize response & record discussion)
No dependency
Low dependency
Moderate dependency
High dependency
Others (please specify)
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4. Your comments on the existing restriction functionality of rickshaw in Dhaka.
(Please categorize response & record discussion)
Unsatisfactory
Moderately satisfactory
Satisfactory
Highly satisfactory
Others (please specify)
5. How do you perceive future service role of rickshaw in the transportation system of
Dhaka? (Please categorize response & record discussion)
No service
Local network services only ( Intra- neighbourhood & Inter- neighbourhood ) (please also
respond to Q.6)
Local network service & feeder service to public transport (present & future) (please also
respond to Q.6)
Local, feeder & intra-urban services (please also respond to Q.6)
Others (please specify) (also respond to Q.6)
6. What level of control you prefer for rickshaw as a mode in future transportation system
of Dhaka? (Please categorize response on prioritize preference & record discussion)
(Multiple responses accepted)
Full restriction
Partial restriction type A ( existing trend i.e. all major roads )
Partial restriction type B (selected major roads only)
No restriction
Others (please specify)
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7. Do you have any specific suggestions regarding ‘operational improvement & management’ for
integration of rickshaw into the overall transportation system of Dhaka? (Please categorize
response & record discussion)
8. Do you have any specific suggestions regarding ‘policy & planning framework’ for integration of
rickshaw into the overall transportation system of Dhaka? (Please categorize response & record
discussion)
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6. What attributes in your opinion are preferable & crucial to be considered in developing future
transport system of Dhaka? Please answer through relative significance comparison for each
combination of indicators.
Note: Please consider future upgraded condition of each indicator during indicator evaluation
i. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?
Somewhat more important
Social Equity Much more important
Traffic Operational Efficiency Very much more important
Equally Important Absolutely more important
ii. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?
Somewhat more important
Traffic Operational Efficiency Much more important
Access & Mobility Very much more important
Equally Important Absolutely more important
iii. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?
Somewhat more important
Access & Mobility Much more important
Environmental Sustainability Very much more important
Equally Important Absolutely more important
C. Indicator Based Preference for Future Transport System Development
for Dhaka
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iv. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?
Somewhat more important
Environmental Sustainability Much more important
Urban Fabric & City Image Very much more important
Equally Important Absolutely more important
v. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?
Somewhat more important
Urban Fabric & City Image Much more important
Social Equity Very much more important
Equally Important Absolutely more important
vi. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?
Somewhat more important
Social Equity Much more important
Access & Mobility Very much more important
Equally Important Absolutely more important
vii. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?
Somewhat more important
Environmental Sustainability Much more important
Social Equity Very much more important
Equally Important Absolutely more important
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viii. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?
Somewhat more important
Traffic Operational Efficiency Much more important
Environmental Sustainability Very much more important
Equally Important Absolutely more important
ix. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?
Somewhat more important
Urban Fabric & City Image Much more important
Traffic Operational Efficiency Very much more important
Equally Important Absolutely more important
x. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?
Somewhat more important
Access & Mobility Much more important
Urban Fabric & City Image Very much more important
Equally Important Absolutely more important
THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION & TIME
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D.4 Interview administration process
The detailed process followed for administration of the interview, for stakeholder viewpoint
recording is described below.
Administering interview
Government and non-government organisations
The GOs and NGOs were interviewed throughout the month of December 2009, depending on
the appointments available with each respondent. Most of the participants were willing to
spend a reasonable time, between 15 minutes to one hour, to discuss their viewpoint on NMPT
and the transport future of Dhaka. Most of the respondents preferred the researcher to
complete the questions for them, but reviewed them later to ensure that their responses were
correctly recorded. The open ended questions were self-written by four respondents while for
others, their viewpoints were summarised in writing by the researcher. Among close ended
questions, for those in Part C, a rating scale chart was supplied by the researcher for
convenience of the respondents while assigning relative weight to the criteria set in these
questions (see Appendix D.5.2.1 for detail on the rating scales). All but two respondents could
be interviewed during the first appointment. These respondents, one from DTCB and the other
from JICA required to be re-visited as they had to prematurely terminate the on-going interview
with the researcher due to urgent official work. Additional insights from the discussion and
opinions by respondents were recorded in from of written summary. All interviews were
conducted by the researcher, supplemented by observation to maintain homogeneity of data
recording and quality.
NMPT drivers
NMPT drivers and users were interviewed throughout the month of December 2009, excluding
the days on which an interview schedule was set with GOs and NGOs. Locations to the north
east and south east of Dhaka were first covered, followed by the locations to the north west
and south west. The NMPT drivers were interviewed first Most of the respondents were willing
to spend between 15 minutes to one hour for expressing their viewpoints. They were
compensated for the interview time to ensure their full commitment into the process.
Subjected to difficulty in understanding the questions in their original form and language which
is English, the questions were explained (and translated from English to native language of
Bangla) in a simple way to them by the researcher in order to gain best information. The
responses for the open ended questions in Part B were recorded based on their understanding
and then later re-arranged to match the theme of the variables. For Part C close ended
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questions, the rating scale process was explained by the researcher for convenience of the
respondents while deciding suitable relative weight to the criteria set in these questions. Few
additional insights and comments were received from this respondent group. All interviews
were conducted by the researcher, supplemented by observation to maintain homogeneity of
data recording and quality.
NMPT users
For a particular location as predefined, NMPT users were interviewed on the same day, after
completion of interview with the NMPT driver. It was most difficult to convince the respondents
of this group, who were making a particular journey to give a break and allocate time for the
interview purpose. On average, two users in every 10 users who were requested agreed to be
interviewed. Most of the participants were willing to spend between 15 and 30 minutes for
expressing their viewpoints. Some of the respondents were very helpful and were happy to fill
in the close ended questions by themselves, while the open ended ones were filled in by the
researcher according to their responses. Subjected to difficulty in understanding the questions
in their original form and language which is English, the questions were explained (and where
required translated from English to native language of Bangla) in a simple way in order to gain
best information. For Part C close ended questions, the rating scale chart was explained by the
researcher for convenience of the respondents while deciding suitable relative weight to the
criteria set in these questions. Little additional insight and comment was received from this
respondent group due to time constraints. All interviews were conducted by the researcher,
and supplemented by observation to maintain homogeneity of data recording and quality.
NMPT operators
The NMPT operators were interviewed during the first week of January 2010. Locations to the
north east and south east of Dhaka were first covered, followed by the locations to the north
west and south west. Most of the participants were willing to spend a reasonable time,
between 15 minutes to one hour to express their viewpoints. 18 out of 25 NMPT operators
were available at the time of their first visit to their garages, as the nature of their profession
compels them to be physically available throughout the day at the garage to facilitate their fleet
supervision and management. These characteristics of the NMPT operators were revealed
during the interview with the NMPT drivers. The other seven operators were randomly selected
from remaining garages of their respective locality. The questions were explained (and where
required translated from English to native language of Bangla) in a simple way to them by the
researcher in order to gain best information. For some respondents, the responses for the open
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ended questions in Part B were recorded based on their understanding and then later re-
arranged to match the theme of the variables. For Part C close ended questions, the rating scale
process was explained by the researcher for convenience of the respondents while deciding
suitable relative weight to the criteria set in these questions. Little additional insight and
comment was received from this respondent group. All interviews were conducted by the
researcher, supplemented by observation to maintain homogeneity of data recording and
quality
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D.5 Analysis of data
D.5.1 Analysis process for non-parametric statistical analysis
Coding interview data
The data collected from interview were textual responses. For purpose of analysis, the
responses were divided into four groups as per stakeholder categorization and processed
through steps. Stage one involved preparing the data for analysis in SPSS. This is followed by
input of the data into SPSS and analysing the data. During stage one, responses for both close
ended and open ended questions for each respondent were coded. In the case of close ended
questions which were ordinal in character (Part B, Questions 2 to 6), the coding process
involved assigning numerical values to each variable (answer option of a question) ranging from
1 to 5, where 1 indicated lowest order option and 5 indicated highest order option. For open
ended multiple response questions which are nominal in character (Part B, Questions 7 and 8),
the descriptive answers were categorised into classified options and then numerically coded,
ranging from 1 to 10 for the purpose of defining and analysing the variables; and where the
code numbers do not represent any particular weight or value of the option. The same principle
of coding is followed for close ended questions related to respondent profile that were nominal
(Part A, Questions 1, 3 to 5) and numerical (Question 2) in character. A fixed set of numerical
codes were assigned to the options not known (11), no response (12), not applicable (13) and
not chosen (14) across all questions to avoid confusion in relevant data entry process and to
maintain uniformity in result output. Appendix D.5.1.1 shows coding inventory for open ended
questions.
D.5.1.1: Coding protocol for open ended questions of the questionnaire
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Defining variables
Once data were tailored as specified, stage two was administered. The first task in this stage
was defining variables under ‘variable view’ window. This involved naming, type identification,
labelling, value coding, missing value ranging and measure determination for each variable.
Each respondent under one stakeholder category was input as record and all the answers
corresponding to that record were defined as variables. The value coding was completed using
the process mentioned previously. Once declaration completed, the data were displayed under
‘data view’ window and ready for analysis. Appendix D.5.1.2 and D.5.1.3 shows examples for
both views for a respondent under government organization category.
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D.5.1.2: Variable View window in SPSS 17.0
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D.5.1.3: Data View window in SPSS 17.0
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Analysing variables
The variables were analysed using three primary techniques- frequencies and cross-tabs for all
categorical data, single response and multiple response while K-W ANOVA for ordinal data only.
For K-W statistics, H, it was automatically computed in SPSS by generating a group wise ranking
table for each variable, based on coded input data and the output statistics was compared to a
critical value in the Chi-Square distribution table to interpret the results. The general principle
followed behind the estimation process is that observations from all groups for a specific
variable are jointly sorted and ranked from lowest to highest, the average rank being assigned
in the case of ties, and finally the sum of ranks derived for each group. The analysis results of
the K-W ANOVA are presented in Chapter 9. Appendix D.5.1.4, D.5.1.5 and D.5.1.6 shows the
example of input dialog box for these three analysis process, for different variable analysis.
Appendix D.5.1.4: Example of data input for frequency analysis for a variable
Appendix D.5.1.5: Example of data input for crosstab analysis for a variable
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Appendix D.5.1.6: Example of data input for Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA for a variable
In case of the open ended questions, they all had more than one response. SPSS has a feature
called Multiple Response Variables that allows analysing questions with more than one
response. In such cases, the response variables were needed to be defined as a set for analysis
(SPSS 2007). The multiple responses were therefore defined to sets and analysed accordingly.
Appendix D.5.1.7, D.5.1.8 and D.5.1.9 shows examples of multiple response analysis made for
two variables, NMPT operation and management proposals for future and NMPT policy and
planning proposals for future.
Appendix D.5.1.7: Example of data input for defining multiple response data set for one variables
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Appendix D.5.1.8: Example of data input for defining multiple response data set for two variables
Appendix D.5.1.9: Example of data input for frequency analysis for multiple response variable set
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D.5.2 Multi-criteria analysis process
Scaling technique in AHP
As explained in Section 8.5.2, the relative weights assigned to the criteria were based on nine
point scale originally developed by Saaty (1980) and most commonly used for AHP comparison
purposes. The scale has intensity of importance values (1-9), each value describing an
importance level ranging from equal importance (1) to absolute more importance (9). See Coyle
(2004) for details. In this study, the criteria as per Saaty’s rating scale were divided into five
definitions and weights as depicted in Appendix D.5.2.1.
Appendix D.5.2.1: The rating scale used for priority estimation
Intensity of
importance
Definition Explanation
1 Equal importance Two factors contribute equally to the objective
3 Somewhat more
important
Experience and judgment slightly favour one over the other
5 Much more
important
Experience and judgment strongly favour one over the other
7 Very much more
important
Experience and judgment very strongly favour one over the
other. Its importance is demonstrated in practice
9 Absolutely more
important
The evidence favouring one over the other is of the highest
possible validity
Source: Saaty and Vergus (2006)
Estimation process and sequence for AHP
The next step was to calculate relative weights or importance of the criteria based on the values
assigned by the respondents. This was undertaken using the AHP eigenvector technique as
suggested by Saaty and Vergus (2006).There are several methods for estimating the eigenvector
for a criterion. The technique adopted in this estimation included multiplying together the
entries in each row of the matrix and then taking the nth root of that product (where n is the
number of comparing elements), as it gave a very good approximation of correct answer. The
nth roots were then summed and that sum was used to normalise the eigenvector elements to
add to 1.00. Appendix D.5.2.2 provides an example of a criteria preference matrix based on the
scaling of indicators for a government agency respondent.
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Appendix D.5.2.2: The preference matrix with weighted value assigned by a respondent
Preference
matrix
Criteria and ratings
SE TE AM ES MI
SE 1 1/9 1/5 1/5 3
TE 9 1 1/3 9 5
AM 5 3 1 1 9
ES 5 1/9 1 1 5
MI 1/3 1/5 1/9 1/5 1
Source: Derived by researcher after Table 8.5 and response of the interviewee
The subsequent relative value estimation for the criteria for above respondent is demonstrated
in Appendix D.5.2.3.
Appendix D.5.2.3: The eigenvector estimation for a respondent
Eigen value
calculation
Product
nth root of
product of
values
Eigen
Vector,
ω
SE TE AM ES MI
SE 1.000 0.111 0.200 0.200 3.000 0.013 0.422 0.058
TE 9.000 1.000 0.333 9.000 5.000 135.000 2.667 0.368
AM 5.000 3.000 1.000 1.000 9.000 135.000 2.667 0.368
ES 5.000 0.111 1.000 1.000 5.000 2.778 1.227 0.169
MI 0.333 0.200 0.111 0.200 1.000 0.001 0.272 0.037
7.255 1.000
Source: Derived by researcher after Appendix D.5.2.2 and Coyle (2004)
The whole process of matrix estimation, eigenvector calculation and choice hierarchy was done
for each respondent. The eigenvector average for each criterion from one stakeholder group
indicated the group priority for that criterion compared to other alternatives. The eigenvector
average for each criterion across all stakeholder groups indicated overall priority for that
criterion compared to alternatives.
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D.6: Source ranking table and detailed statistical output for K-W H statistics analysis on
current NMPT role
Ranks
Organization or
respondent category N Mean Rank
Assessment regarding current NMPT
role in transport system of Dhaka
Government 14 55.54
Non-government 11 46.45
NMPT operatror 25 78.38
NMPT driver 50 81.80
NMPT user 50 78.31
Total 150
Note: In above table, the higher mean rank value of a respondent category indicates acknowledgement on greater
functionality of NMPT’s current role in Dhaka transport.
Test Statisticsa,b
Assessment regarding
current NMPT role in
transport system of
Dhaka
Chi-Square 15.280
df 4
Asymp. Sig. .004
a. Kruskal Wallis Test
b. Grouping Variable: Organization or
respondent category
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D.7: Source ranking table and detailed statistical output for K-W H statistics analysis on NMPT
dependency level
Ranks
Organization or
respondent category N Mean Rank
NMPT dependency level of Dhaka
transport users for daily trips
Government 14 87.39
Non-government 11 85.45
NMPT operatror 25 74.52
NMPT rider 50 74.52
NMPT user 50 71.45
Total 150
Note: In above table, the higher mean rank value of a respondent category indicates acknowledgement on higher
NMPT dependency level of users in Dhaka transport.
Test Statisticsa,b
Rickshaw dependency
level of Dhaka
transport users for
daily trips
Chi-Square 2.847
df 4
Asymp. Sig. .584
a. Kruskal Wallis Test
b. Grouping Variable: Organization or
respondent category
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D.8: Source ranking table and detailed statistical output for K-W H statistics analysis on NMPT
restriction functionality
Ranks
Organization or
respondent category N Mean Rank
Existing restriction functionality of
rickshaw in Dhaka
Government 14 109.43
Non-government 11 105.50
NMPT operatror 25 67.90
NMPT rider 50 65.00
NMPT user 50 73.70
Total 150
Note: In above table, the higher mean rank value of a respondent category indicates its greater satisfaction on NMPT
restriction functionality in Dhaka transport.
Test Statisticsa,b
Existing restriction
functionality of
rickshaw in Dhaka
Chi-Square 48.399
df 4
Asymp. Sig. .000
a. Kruskal Wallis Test
b. Grouping Variable: Organization or
respondent category
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D.9: Source ranking table and detailed statistical output for K-W H statistics analysis on NMPT
future role perception
Ranks
Organization or
respondent category N Mean Rank
Future service role perception of
NMPT in Dhaka transport system
Government 14 50.39
Non-government 11 64.86
NMPT operatror 25 85.26
NMPT rider 50 84.74
NMPT user 50 70.75
Total 150
Note: In above table, the higher mean rank value of a respondent category indicates its greater support on wider
spatial operation for NMPT in future.
Test Statisticsa,b
Future service role
perception of
rickshaw in Dhaka
transport system
Chi-Square 14.109
df 4
Asymp. Sig. .007
a. Kruskal Wallis Test
b. Grouping Variable: Organization or
respondent category
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D.10: Source ranking table and detailed statistical output for K-W H statistics analysis on
NMPT dependency level
Ranks
Organization or
respondent category N Mean Rank
Preferred control level for NMPT as
mode in future Dhaka tarnsport
system
Government 14 32.07
Non-government 11 59.41
NMPT operatror 25 85.90
NMPT rider 50 87.20
NMPT user 50 74.30
Total 150
Note: In above table, the higher mean rank value of a respondent category indicates its greater support on lower
physical restriction for NMPT operation in future.
Test Statisticsa,b
Preferred control level
for rickshaw as mode
in future Dhaka
tarnsport system
Chi-Square 32.129
df 4
Asymp. Sig. .000
a. Kruskal Wallis Test
b. Grouping Variable: Organization or
respondent category
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D.11: Inventory of respondent wise relative weight assigned to all samples for eigenvector based AHP analysis
Preference Indicator _ Eigen Values_Estimated
Q No.Cum
Q No.Respondent category Sub-category Location Respondent
Cumulative
respondentsSocial equity
Traffic
operational
effciency
Access &
mobility
Environmental
sustainabil ity
Modern city
image
SE TE AM ES MI Total
1 1 Government GO_Rajuk R1 R1 0.058 0.368 0.368 0.169 0.037 1.000
2 2 officials GO_Rajuk R2 R2 0.333 0.092 0.241 0.092 0.241 1.000
3 3 GO_DCC R3 R3 0.043 0.328 0.191 0.131 0.307 1.000
4 4 GO_DCC R4 R4 0.557 0.126 0.239 0.054 0.025 1.000
5 5 GO_DCC R5 R5 0.093 0.248 0.597 0.043 0.020 1.000
6 6 GO_DCC R6 R6 0.070 0.386 0.412 0.110 0.022 1.000
7 7 GO_DTCB R7 R7 0.290 0.080 0.401 0.197 0.032 1.000
8 8 GO_DTCB R8 R8 0.291 0.153 0.429 0.104 0.023 1.000
9 9 GO_BRTA/DTCB R9 R9 0.133 0.398 0.372 0.065 0.032 1.000
10 10 GO_BRTA R10 R10 0.127 0.382 0.409 0.059 0.022 1.000
11 11 GO_BRTA R11 R11 0.148 0.381 0.381 0.063 0.026 1.000
12 12 GO_DMP R12 R12 0.050 0.533 0.280 0.105 0.032 1.000
13 13 GO_DMP R13 R13 0.119 0.396 0.396 0.063 0.026 1.000
14 14 GO_DMP R14 R14 0.062 0.332 0.174 0.174 0.257 1.000
15 15 Non-government NGO_ADB R15 R15 0.143 0.517 0.197 0.103 0.039 1.000
16 16 officials NGO_ADB R16 R16 0.078 0.391 0.284 0.206 0.041 1.000
17 17 NGO_ADB R17 R17 0.112 0.314 0.314 0.227 0.033 1.000
18 18 NGO_JICA R18 R18 0.040 0.534 0.281 0.105 0.040 1.000
19 19 NGO_JICA R19 R19 0.130 0.365 0.418 0.065 0.022 1.000
20 20 NGO_WB R20 R20 0.309 0.289 0.289 0.058 0.054 1.000
21 21 NGO_WB R21 R21 0.272 0.272 0.272 0.113 0.073 1.000
22 22 NGO_WB R22 R22 0.477 0.134 0.141 0.219 0.028 1.000
23 23 NGO_WBB R23 R23 0.237 0.026 0.135 0.542 0.060 1.000
24 24 NGO_WBB R24 R24 0.132 0.313 0.297 0.227 0.031 1.000
25 25 NGO_WB R25 R25 0.278 0.104 0.308 0.278 0.032 1.000
1 26 NMPT NURU MIA GARAGE_30 VEHICLES UTTARA R1 R26 0.064 0.322 0.429 0.150 0.034 1.000
2 27 operators NURU MIA GARAGE_20 VEHICLES BARIDHARA/KALACHANDPUR R2 R27 0.071 0.497 0.221 0.180 0.032 1.000
3 28 BABUL GARAGE_35 VEHICLES GULSHAN/BADDA R3 R28 0.090 0.394 0.380 0.107 0.029 1.000
4 29 RASHID GARAGE_28 VEHICLES RAMPURA/KAMLAPUR R4 R29 0.057 0.538 0.191 0.179 0.035 1.000
5 30 SADEQUE'S GARAGE_90 VEHICLES MALIBAGH/MOGHBAZAR R5 R30 0.130 0.424 0.307 0.104 0.035 1.000
6 31 KHIJIR'S GARAGE_75 VEHICLES GABTOLI & SURROUNDINGS R6 R31 0.079 0.437 0.363 0.088 0.033 1.000
7 32 HARUN GARAGE_70 VEHICLES GABTOLI & SURROUNDINGS R7 R32 0.096 0.538 0.251 0.090 0.025 1.000
8 33 SATTAR GARAGE_90 VEHICLES KALLAYANPUR R8 R33 0.173 0.352 0.346 0.091 0.038 1.000
9 34 SHIRAJ AKANDA GARAGE_85 VEHICLES WEST AGARGAON R9 R34 0.113 0.511 0.288 0.064 0.025 1.000
10 35 JULMOT ALI GARAGE_45 VEHICLES MIRPUR R10 R35 0.105 0.490 0.316 0.055 0.033 1.000
11 36 AJGAR GARAGE_70 VEHICLES NOBODOY R11 R36 0.109 0.407 0.381 0.075 0.028 1.000
12 37 MOIN GARAGE_80 VEHICLES DHANMONDI R12 R37 0.068 0.490 0.321 0.089 0.032 1.000
13 38 HAKIM GARAGE_35 VEHICLES KATASUR R13 R38 0.247 0.205 0.446 0.068 0.033 1.000
14 39 SAFI GARAGE_ 60 VEHICLES RAYERBAZAR R14 R39 0.059 0.387 0.322 0.190 0.042 1.000
15 40 BIPLOB'S GARAGE_50 VEHICLES HAZARIBAGH R15 R40 0.062 0.388 0.208 0.312 0.030 1.000
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Preference Indicator _ Eigen Values_Estimated
Q No.Cum
Q No.Respondent category Sub-category Location Respondent
Cumulative
respondentsSocial equity
Traffic
operational
effciency
Access &
mobility
Environmental
sustainability
Modern city
image
SE TE AM ES MI Total
16 41 TAJU GARAGE_220 VEHICLES SOBHANBAGH R16 R41 0.076 0.369 0.223 0.297 0.035 1.000
17 42 BILLAL GARAGE_20 VEHICLES KALABAGAN/SUKRABAD R17 R42 0.101 0.449 0.355 0.062 0.032 1.000
18 43 AKBAR GARAGE_65 VEHICLES NILKHET/BABUPURA R18 R43 0.154 0.397 0.335 0.084 0.030 1.000
19 44 KHALIL GARAGE_30 VEHICLES KANTABAN R19 R44 0.137 0.432 0.313 0.088 0.029 1.000
20 45 JALIL/RASHID/KASHEM GARAGE_170 VEHICLES AZIMPUR R20 R45 0.075 0.460 0.230 0.204 0.031 1.000
21 46 JHELPHAR GARAGE_230 VEHICLES SHAHIDBAGH R21 R46 0.090 0.577 0.213 0.093 0.028 1.000
22 47 LOKMAN GARAGE_24 VEHICLES PALASHI/BAKSHIBAZAR/C.POLE R22 R47 0.148 0.254 0.484 0.079 0.035 1.000
23 48 MONTO GARAGE_120 VEHICLES LALBAGH R23 R48 0.077 0.418 0.371 0.101 0.034 1.000
24 49 ALI HOSSAIN GARAGE_35 VEHICLES LALBAGH R24 R49 0.092 0.566 0.247 0.062 0.033 1.000
25 50 IQBAL MIAH GARAGE_87 VEHICLES LALBAGH R25 R50 0.128 0.470 0.167 0.144 0.091 1.000
1 51 NMPT GABTALI/PALLABI/MIRPUR R1 R51 0.055 0.504 0.309 0.105 0.027 1.000
2 52 drivers R2 R52 0.062 0.528 0.265 0.113 0.032 1.000
3 53 R3 R53 0.068 0.506 0.275 0.120 0.031 1.000
4 54 SHAMOLI/AGARGAON R4 R54 0.088 0.512 0.288 0.088 0.023 1.000
5 55 R5 R55 0.069 0.511 0.308 0.082 0.029 1.000
6 56 R6 R56 0.095 0.388 0.394 0.095 0.028 1.000
7 57 MDPUR/BERIBADH/BOSILLA R7 R57 0.119 0.544 0.226 0.076 0.035 1.000
8 58 R8 R58 0.057 0.405 0.385 0.120 0.033 1.000
9 59 R9 R59 0.049 0.238 0.573 0.109 0.030 1.000
1060
DHANMONDI/ZIGATOLA/PANTHAPATH/
RAJARBAZAR/HATIRPOOLR10
R60 0.054 0.388 0.388 0.138 0.0321.000
11 61 R11 R61 0.055 0.523 0.300 0.093 0.029 1.000
12 62 R12 R62 0.123 0.509 0.204 0.134 0.030 1.000
13 63 R13 R63 0.069 0.386 0.306 0.200 0.039 1.000
14 64 R14 R64 0.062 0.419 0.379 0.112 0.029 1.000
1565
SC. LAB./GREEN RD/AZIMPUR/ELEPH. RD/UNIV.
AREAR15
R65 0.050 0.505 0.304 0.112 0.0291.000
16 66 R16 R66 0.073 0.487 0.323 0.085 0.032 1.000
17 67 R17 R67 0.063 0.358 0.431 0.119 0.029 1.000
18 68 MOTIJHEEL/GULISTAN/PALTAN R18 R68 0.077 0.567 0.104 0.224 0.028 1.000
19 69 R19 R69 0.091 0.513 0.228 0.130 0.038 1.000
20 70 R20 R70 0.077 0.479 0.224 0.189 0.031 1.000
21 71 OLD DHAKA R21 R71 0.065 0.470 0.359 0.077 0.029 1.000
22 72 R22 R72 0.053 0.403 0.384 0.128 0.032 1.000
23 73 R23 R73 0.089 0.428 0.355 0.092 0.037 1.000
24 74 R24 R74 0.071 0.440 0.331 0.130 0.028 1.000
25 75 R25 R75 0.076 0.615 0.182 0.102 0.026 1.000
26 76 UTTARA/AIRPORT/KHILKHET R26 R76 0.118 0.581 0.133 0.133 0.034 1.000
27 77 R27 R77 0.112 0.413 0.306 0.135 0.033 1.000
28 78 R28 R78 0.054 0.531 0.284 0.096 0.034 1.000
29 79 BANANI/GULSHAN R29 R79 0.064 0.506 0.295 0.109 0.026 1.000
30 80 R30 R80 0.082 0.592 0.187 0.115 0.025 1.000
31 81 R31 R81 0.132 0.398 0.293 0.147 0.030 1.000
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Preference Indicator _ Eigen Values_Estimated
Q No.Cum
Q No.Respondent category Sub-category Location Respondent
Cumulative
respondentsSocial equity
Traffic
operational
effciency
Access &
mobility
Environmental
sustainabil ity
Modern city
image
SE TE AM ES MI Total
32 82
BARIDHARA/BASUNDHARA/
PROGOTI SARANI
R32 R82 0.081 0.476 0.292 0.125 0.026 1.000
33 83 R33 R83 0.065 0.275 0.533 0.101 0.026 1.000
34 84 R34 R84 0.067 0.499 0.286 0.119 0.029 1.000
35 85 MOHAKHALI/TEJGAON R35 R85 0.058 0.530 0.265 0.120 0.027 1.000
36 86 R36 R86 0.056 0.493 0.302 0.117 0.032 1.000
37 87 R37 R87 0.062 0.497 0.157 0.257 0.026 1.000
38 88 RAMPURA/KAMLAPUR/KHILGAON R38 R88 0.076 0.481 0.295 0.118 0.030 1.000
39 89 R39 R89 0.085 0.397 0.397 0.096 0.024 1.000
40 90 R40 R90 0.051 0.502 0.302 0.119 0.026 1.000
41 91 OLD AIRPORT/FARMGATE/ B. MOTOR R41 R91 0.106 0.446 0.318 0.106 0.026 1.001
42 92 R42 R92 0.050 0.599 0.203 0.122 0.026 1.000
43 93 R43 R93 0.087 0.560 0.203 0.120 0.029 1.000
44 94
MALIBAGH/MOUCHAK/
MOGHBAZAR/KAKRAIL
R44R94
0.122 0.412 0.385 0.056 0.025 1.000
45 95 R45 R95 0.096 0.551 0.147 0.175 0.031 1.000
46 96 R46 R96 0.080 0.520 0.265 0.112 0.024 1.000
47 97 R47 R97 0.084 0.539 0.252 0.101 0.025 1.000
48 98 SAIDABAD/JATRABARI R48 R98 0.083 0.427 0.355 0.098 0.037 1.000
49 99 R49 R99 0.095 0.408 0.145 0.316 0.036 1.000
50 100 R50 R100 0.061 0.505 0.289 0.108 0.036 1.000
1 101 NMPT GABTALI/PALLABI/MIRPUR R1 R101 0.262 0.126 0.524 0.066 0.022 1.000
2 102 users R2 R102 0.214 0.225 0.427 0.105 0.030 1.000
3 103 R3 R103 0.390 0.139 0.390 0.057 0.024 1.000
4 104 SHAMOLI/AGARGAON R4 R104 0.319 0.141 0.298 0.209 0.034 1.000
5 105 R5 R105 0.426 0.128 0.325 0.081 0.040 1.000
6 106 R6 R106 0.507 0.245 0.166 0.057 0.025 1.000
7 107 MDPUR/BERIBADH/BOSILLA R7 R107 0.332 0.229 0.316 0.059 0.063 1.000
8 108 R8 R108 0.224 0.330 0.298 0.094 0.054 1.000
9 109 R9 R109 0.345 0.226 0.312 0.085 0.032 1.000
10110
DHANMONDI/ZIGATOLA/PANTHAPATH/
RAJARBAZAR/HATIRPOOLR10
R110 0.141 0.486 0.287 0.059 0.0271.000
11 111 R11 R111 0.371 0.151 0.396 0.058 0.024 1.000
12 112 R12 R112 0.537 0.191 0.191 0.055 0.026 1.000
13 113 R13 R113 0.274 0.128 0.521 0.051 0.026 1.000
14 114 R14 R114 0.365 0.235 0.293 0.075 0.032 1.000
15115
SC. LAB./GREEN RD/AZIMPUR/ELEPH. RD/UNIV.
AREAR15
R115 0.293 0.314 0.293 0.076 0.0241.000
16 116 R16 R116 0.067 0.258 0.526 0.119 0.031 1.000
17 117 R17 R117 0.342 0.165 0.411 0.051 0.031 1.000
18 118 MOTIJHEEL/GULISTAN/PALTAN R18 R118 0.292 0.129 0.484 0.064 0.031 1.000
19 119 R19 R119 0.251 0.212 0.432 0.079 0.026 1.000
20 120 R20 R120 0.250 0.215 0.429 0.055 0.051 1.000
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Preference Indicator _ Eigen Values_Estimated
Q No.Cum
Q No.Respondent category Sub-category Location Respondent
Cumulative
respondentsSocial equity
Traffic
operational
effciency
Access &
mobility
Environmental
sustainability
Modern city
image
SE TE AM ES MI
21 121 OLD DHAKA R21 R121 0.068 0.226 0.282 0.395 0.030
22 122 R22 R122 0.226 0.278 0.383 0.077 0.036
23 123 R23 R123 0.262 0.253 0.392 0.063 0.030
24 124 R24 R124 0.208 0.223 0.424 0.109 0.036
25 125 R25 R125 0.192 0.113 0.511 0.154 0.030
26 126 UTTARA/AIRPORT/KHILKHET R26 R126 0.144 0.514 0.261 0.056 0.025
27 127 R27 R127 0.310 0.233 0.361 0.071 0.025
28 128 R28 R128 0.575 0.130 0.191 0.079 0.025
29 129 BANANI/GULSHAN R29 R129 0.194 0.302 0.416 0.061 0.027
30 130 R30 R130 0.280 0.315 0.315 0.063 0.028
31 131 R31 R131 0.498 0.213 0.199 0.063 0.026
32132
BARIDHARA/BASUNDHARA/
PROGOTI SARANI
R32R132 0.222 0.197 0.400 0.152 0.029
33 133 R33 R133 0.285 0.373 0.240 0.073 0.029
34 134 R34 R134 0.288 0.303 0.308 0.070 0.030
35 135 MOHAKHALI/TEJGAON R35 R135 0.201 0.409 0.291 0.071 0.027
36 136 R36 R136 0.469 0.115 0.323 0.063 0.031
37 137 R37 R137 0.289 0.209 0.399 0.080 0.023
38 138 RAMPURA/KAMLAPUR/KHILGAON R38 R138 0.201 0.214 0.459 0.089 0.037
39 139 R39 R139 0.072 0.205 0.595 0.101 0.027
40 140 R40 R140 0.207 0.249 0.451 0.060 0.033
41 141 OLD AIRPORT/FARMGATE/ B. MOTOR R41 R141 0.112 0.275 0.524 0.063 0.025
42 142 R42 R142 0.237 0.349 0.315 0.072 0.026
43 143 R43 R143 0.200 0.177 0.541 0.057 0.025
44 144
MALIBAGH/MOUCHAK/
MOGHBAZAR/KAKRAIL
R44R144 0.192 0.390 0.318 0.068 0.032
45 145 R45 R145 0.142 0.354 0.378 0.073 0.053
46 146 R46 R146 0.274 0.209 0.425 0.066 0.027
47 147 R47 R147 0.306 0.194 0.395 0.074 0.032
48 148 SAIDABAD/JATRABARI R48 R148 0.206 0.440 0.227 0.101 0.025
49 149 R49 R149 0.197 0.291 0.422 0.061 0.029
50 150 R50 R150 0.169 0.436 0.295 0.069 0.031
Code Rank
1
2
3
4
5
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Appendix E: Research methodology rationale –selected issue specific detail
discussion
E.1. Review of research methodology literature
De Vaus (2001) provided a generalised classification of research methodology and termed it as
research design. In fact he argued that research design is different from the method by which
data are collected. He also argued that any data-collection method can be adopted for any
design and the selection should depend on the need of the research, not on whether it is a
qualitative research or a quantitative research. His suggested research design methods include
• Experimental design
• Longitudinal design
• Cross –sectional design
• Case study design
Following similar ideology, Marsh (1982), Yin (2003) and Zeisel (2006) stated that selection of
research design is unrelated to whether one wants to collect quantitative or qualitative data.
Marsh (1982) argued in context of the applicability of survey methods in both qualitative and
quantitative research design stating that quantitative surveys can provide information and
explanations that are `adequate at the level of meaning', based on their structure and content.
Yin (2003) who termed research method as strategy argued that the decision about a suitable
strategy will depend on the character of the research question, investigator’s control over
events and the temporal dimension of the phenomenon. Based on these needs, he classified
research strategies into five types as follows,
• Experiment
• Survey
• History
• Archival analysis
• Case study .
He also suggested that each of these strategies can be used for any of the broad research
approaches such as exploratory, descriptive or explanatory and for both quantitative and
qualitative data. Zeisel (2006) also supports the arguments posed by Yin (2003) and further adds
that the suitable research design (as he termed research methods) depends on the way the
problem is defined, what the investigators wants to know, the nature of the object being
studied, previous knowledge the study is based on and type of results desired. His suggested
research designs include,
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• Case study
• Survey
• Experiments
On a different note to above perspectives, Monette, Sullivan, and. DeJong (2010) classified
research methodology into three broad categories based on the techniques of measuring the
target variables. They are thereby termed as research techniques and include,
• Verbal reports technique
• Observation technique
• Archival records technique
Verbal report technique was further subdivided into survey research, in-depth interview and
focus group discussion techniques. Observation technique on the other hand was classified into
participant based observation technique (qualitative) and non-obtrusive technique including
field surveys of objects (quantitative/qualitative). They also suggested some other qualitative
techniques in their discussion including cases studies, life-histories and narratives.
Contrary to De Vaus (2001), Yin (2003) and Zeisel (2006), Sommer and Sommer (2002) and
Hoyle (2002) classified research methodology based on the data collection methods to a greater
extent. Sommer and Sommer (2002) termed the proposed methods as techniques alike
Monette et al. and they include,
• Observation
• Experiment
• Questionnaire
• Interview
Hoyle et al. (2002) followed similar concept but different terminology (strategies) and
classification type for their preferred research strategies and they include,
• Randomised experiments
• The laboratory setting
• Nonrandomised design
• Applied research
• Observation and archival research
• Qualitative research (narrative analysis, focus group, oral history and participant
observation)
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In different viewpoint to above discussion, Leedy and Ormrod(2005) and Neuman (2009)
classified research methodology into two broad hierarchical categories, quantitative research
and qualitative research. According to them, quantitative research is a more precise way of
describing objective reality through investigating, explaining and predicting the relationship
among target variables. On contrary, qualitative research deals with multifaceted characteristics
of a phenomenon with the aim of interpreting the human perspective and subjective insights.
Leedy and Ormond classified both quantitative and qualitative categories into two sub
categories each and termed as designs. Quantitative category included,
• Descriptive design method
• Experimental and ex-post-facto design method
Descriptive category was split into observation studies, correlation research, development
designs and survey research
Experimental and ex-post-facto design had five sub-categories as pre-experimental design, true-
experimental design, quasi-experimental design, ex-post-facto design and factorial design.
Qualitative category included
• Qualitative research and
• Historic research
Among them, qualitative method was further classified into case study, ethnographies,
phenomenological study, grounded theory study and content analysis.
Neuman (2009) in comparison portrayed the categorization in a slightly different manner. He
had three sub-categories for quantitative class while two for qualitative class. The quantitative
category included
• Experimental design
• Survey research
• Non-reactive and Secondary research
Qualitative category incorporated
• Field research
• Historic-comparative research
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The discourse reveals the fact that different cluster of researchers have classified research
design process in different manner, based on different theme and principles. The terminologies
used to define them are also variable. But what is common is the underlying fact that the whole
choice process should be related to the circumstances, the research needs and the outcome
desired.
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E.2.Strategic demand models for Dhaka and non-compatibility issues to this study
The objective to use modelling in this research is to evaluate alternative transport strategies
with regard to different degrees of NMPT restrictions in combination with MT. A modelling
platform is as such required that can best replicate the true heterogenic traffic scenario and also
predict multimodal trade-off situation of NMPT correctly.
DITS model
DITS (1994b) developed a conventional four step process based strategic transport model for
forecasting travel demand within Greater Dhaka. This was to test various alternative transport
policies and strategies for future of the city. The model took account of the non-motorised
vehicle mix within Dhaka and followed a four-step modelling process in this regard. The model
considered the mixed traffic character by including walk, rickshaw, public transport (bus or
tempo) and private motorised transport in a modal split model. But it used a series of binary
choice logit models for distribution the O-D pairs into these four modes, i.e. simplifying the
multimodal choice of binary from which is choice between two modes at a given time. But such
choice model is appropriate where equally competing choices are available. Modes are not
equally competing in Dhaka, for instance walk is used for different distances of trips based on
the availability and affordability of the user, while. NMPT is used for short distance trips of 2-3
km and preferred by certain social groups such as women, children, elderly who cannot afford
car or do not prefer the public transport environment. So the distribution of mode and traffic
assignment in this manner including that of NMPT cannot be considered as true representation
of a real scenario. Moreover, the data was outdated and even if we neglect this, due to the
Intellectual Property (IP) rights issue of the concerned institution, Government of Bangladesh
Planning Commission, the base model or trip matrices were not accessible.
DUTM model
The transport planning model developed by Habib (2002), DUTM had the endeavour to analyse
the present and future traffic congestion and resulting air pollution in Dhaka city, using the four
step process. The research evaluated alternative planning options such as elimination of
rickshaw and auto-rickshaw, improvement of road network, improvement of bus transit and
introduction of a rail transit system in Dhaka. The model had a multinomial logit model based
mode choice based traffic distribution for O-D pairs. The mode specific utilities were chosen to
be time, cost and comfort. However, the model was substantially criticised by Bari (2004). This
was with reference to the validity of the model itself (with reference to GEH statistics on the
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observed volume and estimated flow from model) and it applicability in assessing the restriction
impact (complete ban in this case) of rickshaw on transport system. According to Bari,
Banning NMT is a multimodal issue and a model that deals with only vehicular
movements within road links completely ignoring walking and waiting times of journeys
should not be used to assess such impacts. Inappropriate use of unimodal model
(model that deals with in-vehicle times only) to predict multimodal trade off situations
could lead to misleading conclusions.
Moreover, the model did not make any adjustment to match to the heterogeneous socio-
economic, land use and traffic mix needs of Dhaka when developing the modelling framework
(Hasan, 2007). The data set of the model was also outdated, sourced from DITS (1994a) survey.
The model therefore seemed not sufficiently compatible in its original state to be used as a base
model for this research, whose requirement is to provide true comparative impact
demonstration of the NMPT in existence with other modes.
STP model
STP project team developed UTP Model was based on four step modelling process as well. The
model was developed and used to forecast future travel demand resulting from different land
use scenarios and transport strategies. The endeavour was to predict the performance of
existing, committed and alternative development strategies for Dhaka’s urban transport
network infrastructure, services and policies (STP, 2005c). The key constraint with the mode
with relation to this research need was that this model only considered motorised trips in the
mode choice modelling and thereby assignment process. No walk trips and non-motorised trips
were considered, whereas the same project survey revealed 37 percent of total trip share being
catered by NMPT. So this model was also deemed inappropriate to serve as a base model for
the research. Moreover, the data possible to access from STP (provided by Dhaka City
Corporation and Dhaka Transport Coordination Board) were also limited to the traffic counts
and occupancy survey of few selected links only. The mode specific trip distribution table for the
zones or any relevant matrix were not accessible from the executing agency and custodian of
the project, Bangladesh Planning Commission due to the similar ground as revealed for DITS.
DSTM model
By comparison, the DSTM developed by Hasan (2007) and based on STP (2005) data has a
better modelling framework to replicate the heterogeneous socio-economic, land use and
traffic mix needs of Dhaka. The model followed the four step process alike the previous models
AAPPPPEENNDDIICCEESS
Page 384
and made modification at different stages to match the local context of Dhaka. The
heterogeneity in socio-economic structure was addressed by separating the households into
different income groups and analysing their demand separately. Trip attraction survey based
trip rates has been developed for different land uses. The mode split is divided into pre-
distribution and post-distribution stage. In pre-distribution, zonal trips were separated into walk
and intra-zonal trips and inter zonal trips. And the latter category was subdivided into personal
trips and trips using NMPT/auto-rickshaw/bus. The post-distribution model developed
multinomial logit model based modal split with three alternative modes, NMPT, auto-rickshaw,
bus (Hasan & Hoque, 2010). The model could be used in appropriately replicating the current
MT-NMPT restriction implication on transport system better than the previous models, due to
its rigorousness in attaining the heterogeneity of different network character.
However, since the model is completely based on STP (2005) database as is the modal split, a
comprehensive new SP survey is required with relation to different alternative MT-NMPT
transport strategies to develop a new modal split; necessary matrix corrections are required to
update the base trip tables and the model can then be applied to compare the comparative
performance impact analysis, as suggested by Bari (2004). A considerable sample size would be
required to conduct the SP survey, considering the spatial coverage of Dhaka City and to
maintain coherence with previously undertaken survey sample of STP (5,772 households). The
selection and administration of such corrections and survey is a highly demanding task, but
would be possible if that were the core focus of the research. These activities are subject to
reception of STP (2005) source data. The data is available, however the author was not provided
access to it on IP grounds.
AAPPPPEENNDDIICCEESS
Page 385
Appendix F: Land use- traffic interactivity analysis
F.1: Why not quantitative traffic counts survey for land use -traffic interactivity analysis?
The quantitative data collection based evaluation approach could not be adopted for this
analysis, attributable to a number of reasons. The first reason was the temporal length of the
survey, spanning 14 hours at a stretch. Such time length was essential for the chosen corridors
because variable peak hour of land uses were observed in these study corridors. For example,
educational institutions had been observed with peak periods between 7 am to 10 am (schools
and universities), 12 pm to 3 pm (schools); 5 pm to 8 pm (universities); commercial office usage
had been observed with peak periods between 8am to 10 am; 4 pm to 7 pm; commercial retail
usage with peak periods between 3 pm to 9 pm; and health facilities with variable peak periods
throughout the day. Most of the three major categories of study corridors (Mirpur Road, Sat
Masjid Road, Dhanmondi Road No. 27 and Pilkhana Road) have significant presence of these
usages in different combinations; and thereby required survey period of 7 am to 9 pm to ensure
reasonable representation of traffic pattern. However, it was highly resource intensive to have
carried out such large scale, simultaneous land use specific traffic count survey across all the
corridors.
Moreover, due to a large number of land use block, at both direction of each corridor, that
required being surveyed for traffic generation/ attraction counts (more than 120 block points),
it was also highly resource intensive.
Furthermore, due to the non-door to door service nature of a number of the observed modes
(bus, human hauler & in case of Mirpur Road, rickshaw), the lack of fixed locations for boarding
and alighting of public transports, it was extremely difficult to have counts of their
generation/attraction by land use block and to ensure consistency over time in this regard. It
was found more rational to express the traffic intensity by approximation and using qualitative
ordinal scaling, based on observed condition and previous substantive knowledge of the author
on traffic movement pattern in Dhaka.
In addition, even if it is assumed that such constraints are possible to overcome, the problem of
quantitative prediction of the traffic intensity pattern for future would still required to be
estimated based on assumption. This is since no such land use specific traffic attraction data
were available for the case corridor at the time of field data collection and therefore, it was not
possible to establish any relationship of shift in mode attraction along these corridor over
period (past and present). Consequently, it is not possible to make any quantitative prediction,
based on existing survey count, on the future trend of the traffic in these study corridors.
AAPPPPEENNDDIICCEESS
Page 386
These limitations led the researcher to adopt a qualitative approach in evaluation of the land
use - traffic interactivity analyses. Moreover, in such cases, the researcher would have the
liberty to follow a loop observation of the study corridors, since count over time aspect in
parallel and at all locations do not have to be strictly adhered to maintain assessment
conformity of comparative corridors. Rather, a general observational derivation, at close time
interval between corridors would be reasonable in determining level of the traffic intensities for
the land use blocks.
AAPPPPEENNDDIICCEESS
Page 387
F.2: Sample survey sheet for data collection for land use and traffic interactivity analysis
Corridor Name Corridor category Survey date Survey time Name of Surveyor
Segment
no.
Segment
name
Access
interval
(meter)
Adjacent
major
land use *
Average buliding
height (in story)
1= East side of corridor
when moving northbound
2= West side of corridor
when moving northbound
Car Motor cycle BusHuman
hauler
Auto
rickshawTaxi Bicycle NMPT
LEGEND :
Land use category
Residential
Commercial (retai l,
office)
Industrial
Institutional (school,
college, uni, training
center)
Mixed
Administartive
Recreational/ Open
sapce
Restricted
Special
*Land use in order of
their majority in the
block
**the existing trend/
future potential of the
given land use in
generating/ attarcting the
vehicle type
Traffic intensity**
Non-motorised
transportMotorised transport
AAPPPPEENNDDIICCEESS
Page 388
F.3: Segment wise result of land use-traffic interactivity analysis for Mirpur Road
Corridor Name: Mirpur Road Corridor category: Primary road Survey date: December 10 2009 Survey time: 7 am to 9pm
Segment no. Segment name
Access
interval
(meter)
Adjacent major
land use *
Average buliding
height (in story)
1= East side of corridor when moving northbound
2= West side of corridor when moving northbound
Car Motor cycle BusHuman
hauler
Auto
rickshawTaxi Bicycle NMPT
1
Pilkhana rd- New Market
Vegetable Market/J Imam
Rd
210 Commercial
1. Nilkhet book market
2. New market 2-6 story High High Very high Very high High Moderate low Very high***
0.67 0.67 0.83 0.83 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.83
2
New Market Vegetable
Market/ J Imam rd-
Naeem Rd
180Commercial,
Institutional
1. Chandni chalk market, Gausia market,
2. Dhaka College & Chandrima market, 6 story Very high High Very high High High Moderate low Very high***
0.83 0.67 0.83 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.83
3Naeem Rd- Dhanmondi
Rd1/ New Elephant Rd310
Commercial,
Institutional
1. Bodruddoza market, Petrol pump, Globe shopping
ctr,Golden gate shopping ctr, Priyangon shopping
center
2. Govt Laboratory High School, Teachers Training
College
3-10 story High Moderate Very high High High Moderate low Very high***
0.67 0.5 0.83 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.83
4
Dhanmondi Rd1/ New
Elephant Rd- Dhanmondi
Rd2
70 Commercial
1. BCSIR research institute; and school
2.Some 3 story markets, police farry 2 story Low Moderate Moderate Low Low Very low Low High
0.33 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.17 0.33 0.67 LEGEND :
5
Dhanmondi Rd2-
Dhanmondi Rd3 /Green
Rd
120 Institutional1. BCSIR research institute; and school
2.Dhaka City College, Sonali Bank, Happy Arcade
shopping centre
6 story High Moderate High Low Moderate Very low Low Very highLand use
categoryIntensity
0.67 0.5 0.67 0.33 0.5 0.17 0.33 0.83 Res idential No
6Dhanmondi Rd3/ Green
Rd- Dhanmondi Rd 4110
Commercial
Institutional
1. Lab Aid Cardiac Hospital, Flora l imited, Green Rd
Petrol pump,,Western gril l complex
2. Alliance Fracaise, DHL, Multistoried commercial
complex
3-6 story Very high High High Moderate High High Very low Very high Commercial
(reta i l , office)Very low
0.83 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.67 0.67 0.17 0.83 Induis tria l Low
7Dhanmondi Rd4-
Dhanmondi Rd 5110
Commercial
Institutional
1.Standard Chartered Bank, other commercial centers,
World University of Bangladesh
2. Yousuf confectionary, Gyankosh book & stationary
shop , Eastern University, multistoried commercial
complex
4-6 story High High High Moderate Moderate Low Low Very high
Ins ti tutiona l
(school ,
col lege, uni ,
training center)
Modera te
0.67 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.83 Mixed High
8Dhanmondi Rd5-
Dhanmondi Rd6110 Commercial
1. Haruns eye clinic, Gonoshastho hospital, Mother &
child care hospital
2. Dhanmondi police station, Jamuna Bank, 6 story Moderate High Moderate Moderate High Moderate Low high Adminis ta rtive Very high
0.5 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.67Recreational/
Open sapceAbsolute
9Dhanmondi Rd6-
Dhanmondi Rd7110 Commercial
1. Orchard Point shopping centre
2.Kings bakery, Almas superstore, Apartment complex,
Beximco pharmaceutical office6 story High Moderate High Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Very high Restricted
0.67 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.83 Specia l
***No ricksha w on main corrridor, but plying on the segrega ted channel on main roa d
Mode specific traffic intensity with memebership type and score**
Motorised transport Non-motorised transport
*La nd use in order of the i r ma jority in the block
**the exis ting trend/ future potentia l of the given land
use in genera ting/ a tta rcting the vehicle type
AAPPPPEENNDDIICCEESS
Page 389
Segment no. Segment name
Access
interval
(meter)
Adjacent major
land use *
Average buliding
height (in story)
1= East side of corridor when moving northbound
2= West side of corridor when moving northbound
Car Motor cycle BusHuman
hauler
Auto
rickshawTaxi Bicycle NMPT
10Dhanmondi Rd7-
Dhanmondi Rd8130 Commercial
1.Garden city market, Chinese restaurant
2.ARA Centre, restaurant, multistoried office bui lding
(including One Bank)6 story High High High Moderate High Low Very low High
0.67 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.67 0.33 0.17 0.67
11Dhanmondi Rd8-
Dhanmondi Rd9120
Commercial,
Recreational/
Open sapce.
1. Multistoried commercial complex (computer sales
and repair centres, electronics & refrigerator sales,
service centres etc.) , Capital market
2.Dhanmondi club & cricket ground
6 story Moderate High High Moderate High Low Low Very high
0.5 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.67 0.33 0.33 0.83
12Dhanmondi Rd9-
Kalabagan 1st lane60
Commercial,
Recreational/
Open sapce.
1.Coopers, book shops with offices upstairs
2.Dhanmondi field, Dhanmondi recreation club,
Multistoried Market4-6 story Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Low High
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.67 LEGEND :
13
Kalabagan 1st lane-
Dhanmondi Rd10
(7)/Kalabagan 2nd lane
60 Commercial
1. Market, car showroom
2. Multistoried market 4-6 story Low Moderate High Moderate Low Very low Low High Land use category Intensity
0.5 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.33 0.67 Resi dentia l No
14
Dhanmondi Rd 10 (7)/
Kalabagan 2nd lane-
Kalabagan 3rd lane
80
Commercial,
Institutional
Recreational/
Open sapce.
1.Multistoried markets, Bai tul Salah Mosque
2.Dhanmondi lake 4-6 story Moderate High Very high High High Moderate Low Very highCommercia l
(reta i l , office)Very low
0.5 0.67 0.83 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.83 Induis tria l Low
15Kalabagan 3rd lane-
Panthapath370
Commercial
Recreational/o
pen space
1.Multistoried markets & office complex, lazz pharma
& other pharmas, Dutch Bangla Bank, Dolphin bus
ticket sales centre
2..Horticulture & open field, Kalabagan Cricket ground
1-6 story Very high High Very high High High Low Low Very high
Ins ti tutiona l
(s chool ,
col lege, uni ,
trai ning center)
Moderate
0.83 0.67 0.83 0.67 0.67 0.33 0.33 0.83 Mixed High
16Panthapath- Dhanmondi
Rd1270
Recreation,
Institutional
1.New model degree college
2. Dhanmondi Lake 4 story High Moderate Very high High Moderate Very low Moderate Very high Administartive Very high
0.67 0.5 0.83 0.67 0.5 0.17 0.5 0.83Recreationa l/
Open sapceAbsolute
17 Dhanmondi Rd 12-
Sukrabad Rd80 Commercial
1. New model degree col lege
2. Santoor restaurant, chill ies restaurant, Cherokee
hair saloon, bank3-4 story High Low High Moderate High Moderate Very low Very high Restricted
0.67 0.33 0.67 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.17 0.83 Specia l
***No rickshaw on main corrridor, but pl ying on the segregated channel on main road
Mode specific traffic intensity with memebership type and score**
Motorised transport Non-motorised transport
*Land us e in order of their majority in the block
**the exis ting trend/ future potenti al of the given land
use in generating/ attarcting the vehi cle type
AAPPPPEENNDDIICCEESS
Page 390
Segment no. Segment name
Access
interval
(meter)
Adjacent major
land use *
Average buliding
height (in story)
1= East side of corridor when moving northbound
2= West side of corridor when moving northbound
Car Motor cycle BusHuman
hauler
Auto
rickshawTaxi Bicycle NMPT
18Sukrabad Rd -
Dhanmondi Rd1350
Commercial
Institutional
1. Confectionaries, Office buildings, Daffodi l
International University
2. Market complex & office bui ldings4-6 story High High High Moderate Moderate Low Low Very High
0.67 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.83 LEGEND :
19Dhanmondi Rd 13-
Dhanmondi Rd14120 Commercial
1.Multristoried Market & offices
2. Residential bui ldings and retail outlets 6 story Moderate High High Moderate Moderate Low Low High Land use category Intensity
0.5 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.67 Res i dentia l No
20Dhanmondi Rd 14-
Unnamed Rd 140
Commercial ,
Residential
1. Residential blocks
2.Sobhanbagh mosque market, mosque, book shops,
fast food shops 3 -4 story High Moderate High Moderate Moderate Low Low High
Commercia l
(retai l , office)Very l ow
0.67 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.67 Indui s tria l Low
21Unnamed Rd 1-
Dhanmondi Rd 280
Commercial ,
Residential
1. Residential blocks
2.Sobhanbagh mosque market, mosque, book shops,
fast food shops 3-4 story High Moderate High Moderate Moderate Low Low High
Instituti ona l
(s chool ,
col lege, uni,
trai ni ng center)
Moderate
0.67 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.67 Mixed Hi gh
22Unnamed Rd 2 -
Dhanmondi Rd 15100
Commercial
Institutional
1. Daffodi l International University, Prince Plaza
2.Multistoied market, Dhnamondi Orchid Plaza 6 story High Moderate Very high High High Moderate Low Very high Adminis tarti ve Very hi gh
0.67 0.5 0.83 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.83Recreationa l/
Open s apceAbs ol ute
23Dhanmondi Rd15-
Dhanmondi Rd16120
Commercial
Institutional
1.BIAM complex
2.Rapa Plaza & other markets 6 story Very high High Very high High Very high High Moderate Very high Res tri cted
0.83 0.67 0.83 0.67 0.83 0.67 0.5 0.83 Speci al
*** No NMPT on major ca rria geway of the corrri dor, pl yi ng on the s egregated cha nnel pa ra l l e to ma in carri agewa y
*Land us e in order of thei r majori ty i n the bl ock
**the exi s ti ng trend/ future potenti al of the gi ven la nd
us e i n generati ng/ attarcti ng the vehi cl e type
Mode specific traffic intensity with memebership type and score**
Motorised transport Non-motorised transport
AAPPPPEENNDDIICCEESS
Page 391
F.4: Segment wise result of land use-traffic interactivity analysis for Sat Masjid Road
Corridor Name: Sat Masjid Road Corridor category: Secondary road Survey date: December 10 2009 Survey time: 7 am to 9pm
Segment no. Segment name
Access
interval
(meter)
Adjacent major
land use *
Average buliding
height (in story)
1= East side of corridor when moving northbound
2= West side of corridor when moving northbound
Car Motor cycle Bus Human hauler Auto rickshaw Taxi Bicycle NMPT
1
Pilkhana Rd
intersection- BDR
internal road
intersection
900
Commercial,
Residential,
Institutional
1. BDR auditorium, BDR club, Grocery stores,
residential units, agroculture fields, gardens; 2.
BDR School & College, Darbar Hall (community centre),
Rifles bhaban, residential units, water bodies,
playfields
4 to 6 story; major 6
storyHigh Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Very high
0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.83
2
Dhanmondi Rd 2
intersection -
Dhanmondi 2A
intersection
60
Commercial,
Recreational
(lake)
1.Dhanmondi lake,
2.Commercial complex (rosh, mutual trust bank,Rex,
other clothing stores)
2-3 story Moderate Moderate High High Moderate Low Very low High
0.5 0.5 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.67
3Dhanmondi Rd 2A-
Hazaribagh Rd40 Commercial
1.Newspaper outlet, car showroom, IBN Sina
diagonostic centre;
2.Commercial complex under construction
4-6 story High High High High Low Very low Very low High
0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.33 0.17 0.17 0.67
4Hazaribag Rd-
Dhanmondi Rd 3A70
Institutional,
Commercial
1. University of Asia Pacific, Fujicolor photo studio,
Sunrise coaching centre,Eastern university,;
2. Office buildings
2-4 story High High High High Moderate Low Very low Very high
0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83 LEGEND :
5Dhanmondi Rd 3A-
Dhanmondi Rd 4A120
Institutional,
Commercial
1. Kakoli school
2.Victoria university, retai l shops, photo studio ,
chinese restaurant
3-6 story Moderate Moderate High High Moderate Low Very low Very high Land use category Intensity
0.5 0.5 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83 Res identia l No
6Dhanmondi Rd 4A-
Dhanmondi Rd 5A80
Commercial,
Institutional
1.Medinova diagonostic centre , New castle university,
other diagonostic centers,;
2.Office cum market complex
6 story High Very high Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Very low highComme rcia l (re ta il ,
offi ce )Very low
0.67 0.83 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.17 0.67 Induistria l Low
7Dhanmondi Rd 5A-
Dhanmondi Rd 6A120
Commercial,
Recreational
(lake)
1.Anam rangs plaza, Dhanmondi lake;
2. Apartment buildings & houses6 story High High Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Low Very high
Insti tutional (s chool ,
col lege , uni, tra ining
center)
Moderate
0.67 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.83 Mixed High
8Dhanmondi Rd 6A-
Dhanmondi Rd 7A90
Special,
Commercial
1.Eidgah field, Priyanka community centre;
2.Keari plaza, other retail shops, groceries, office
buildings
4-6 story Moderate Moderate High Moderate High Moderate Low high Adminis tartive Very high
0.5 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.67Recreational/ Open
sapceAbs olute
9Dhanmondi Rd 7A-
Dhanmondi Rd 8A130
Institutional,
Commercial
1., Sagar community centre, diagonostic centre, St
judes school, superstores (e.g. Almas), apartment
buidlings and other residential units;
2.Cambridge intl school, office building, Mercantile
bank
4-6 story Very High High High High Moderate Low Low Very high Res tri cted
0.83 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.83 Spe cia l
Traffic intensity**
Motorised transport Non-motorised transport
*Land us e in order of thei r ma jori ty in the block
**the exi sting trend/ future potentia l of the given
land us e in ge nerating/ attarcting the vehicle type
AAPPPPEENNDDIICCEESS
Page 392
Segment no. Segment name
Access
interval
(meter)
Adjacent major
land use *
Average buliding
height (in story)
1= East side of corridor when moving northbound
2= West side of corridor when moving northbound
Car Motor cycle Bus Human hauler Auto rickshaw Taxi Bicycle NMPT
10Dhanmondi Rd 8A-
Dhanmondi Rd 9A110
Mixed,
Institutional
1. United university, shops
2. Shops in ground floor, offices l ike Save the chi ldren
& residence upsatirs
6 story Moderate Moderate High Moderate Moderate Low Very low Very high
0.5 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83
11Dhanmondi Rd 9A-
Dhanmondi Rd 10A110
Commercial,
Institutional,
Mixed
1. IBN sina hospital, Sayeedena community centre.,
IUBAT, Stamford university;
2 . Shops, offices, restaurants
6 story High High High High High High Very low very high
0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.17 0.83
12Dhanmondi Rd 10A-
Dhanmondi Rd 11A120
Commercial,
Mixed
1. Shops in ground floor, office & residence upsatirs;
2. Restaurants such as Brocolly , Olympia etc. 2-6 story High Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Very low Very low High
0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.17 0.17 0.67 LEGEND :
13Dhanmondi Rd 11A-
Dhanmondi Rd 12A110
Institutional,
Commercial
1. Darul Ihsan University, Star complex
2.Star, Pizza hut, Satmford & World University3- 6 story, major 6
storyHigh High High High High Moderate Very low Very high Land use category Intensity
0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.17 0.83 Residential No
14Dhanmondi Rd 12A-
Dhanmondi Rd 13A210
Recreational/
Open sapce,
Mixed
1.Abahani field, Janata bank, gym
2.ACME office & mixed use buildings
2-6 story; major 6
storyModerate High Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Very low High
Commercial (retai l ,
offi ce )Very low
0.5 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.67 Induis tria l Low
15Dhanmondi Rd 13A-
Dhanmondi Rd 14A90
Institutional,
Commercial
1.Maple leaf school, Dhk Intl. school, ,Bangladesh
medical college hospital;
2. Office cum residence, shops
2- 6 story High High High High High Moderate Very low High
Ins ti tutiona l (s chool ,
col lege, uni , training
center)
Moderate
0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.17 0.67 Mixed High
16Dhanmondi Rd 14A-
Dhanmondi Rd 15A120 Commercial
1.Chayanot music lerning institute, retail outlets
2. Market complex (Shankar plaza) 6 story Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Moderate Low Low Very high Adminis tartive Very high
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.83Recreational/ Open
s apceAbsolute
17
Dhanmondi Rd 15A-
Dhanmondi Rd 16 or
27
120Commercial,
Institutional
1.Chinese restaurant, Centre for Urban Studies,
apartment buildings and houses, shops 2.
Market, IBAIS University etc.
2- 6 story Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Very low Very high Restricted
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83 Special
Motorised transport Non-motorised transport
*Land us e in order of the i r majori ty in the block
**the exis ting trend/ future potentia l of the given
la nd us e in generating/ attarcting the vehicle type
Mode specific traffic intensity with memebership type and score**
AAPPPPEENNDDIICCEESS
Page 393
F.5: Segment wise result of land use-traffic interactivity analysis for Dhanmondi Road No 27
Corridor Name: Dhanmondi Road 27 Corridor category: Collector Road Survey date: December 10 2009 Survey time: 7 am to 9pm
Segment no. Segment name
Access
interval
(meter)
Adjacent major land use
*
Average buliding
height (in story)
1= East side of corridor when moving
northbound 2=
West side of corridor when moving northbound
Car Motor cycle Bus Human hauler Auto rickshaw Taxi Bicycle NMPT
1
Satmasjid Rd
intersection - Dhanmondi
Rd 8A intersection
240Commercial, Residential ,
Institutional
1.City Bank, AB Bank, Community centre,
Residential unit; 2.Kebab
Shop, Chi inese restaurant, UODA
6 story High Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Very low High
0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.67
2
Dhanmondi Rd 8A
intersection- unnamed rd
1
193Commercial, Residential ,
Institutional
1.BDCOM ltd office, Dekko Group office,
Apartment building
2.Bengal Gallery, Meena Bazar, Etc superstore,
Oxford School, Apartment buildings
6 story High Low Moderate Moderate High Moderate Very low Very high
0.67 0.33 0.5 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.17 0.83
3Unnamed rd 1- unnamed
rd270
Commercial, Residential ,
Institutional
1. Shampan restaurant, Apartment bui lding
2. Boi Bichitra book shop, Chinese restaurant,
Apartment building
6 story High Low Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Very low High
0.67 0.33 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.67
4Unnamed rd 2-
Dhanmondi Rd 11135
Commercial, Residential ,
Institutional
1. Offices, Residential units, computer training
centre, retai l outlets 2. IFIC
bank, Asians University, Residential units,
offices
6 story High Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Very low Very high
0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83
5Dhanmondi Rd 11 -
Mirpur Rd286 Commercial
1.HSBC bank, Joypur Sweet shop,Rapa Plaza,
ADB publishng ofice
2. Farzana Shakil beauty saloon, Xenial Chinese
Restaurant, Genetic Plaza, Shwarma food shop,
Photo studio, Car showroom, WVA office,
Cal i fornia Pastry shop
4 to 6 story Very high High High Moderate High Moderate Low Very high
0.83 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.83
*La nd use in
order of their
ma jori ty in the
bl ock
**the exis ting trend/ future
potentia l of the gi ven l and
use i n generating/ a tta rcti ng
the vehi cl e type
LEGEND :
Land use category
Res i denti alCommerci al (reta i l ,
office)Indui s tri al
Ins ti tutiona l (school , col l ege,
uni vers ity, tra ini ng center)Mi xed Admini sta rti ve
Recrea tiona l / Open
sapceRestricted Specia l
Intensity
No Very l ow Low Moderate Hi gh Very hi gh Absol ute
Mode specific traffic intensity with memebership type and score**
Motorised transport Non-motorised transport
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F.6: Segment wise result of land use-traffic interactivity analysis for Pilkhana Road
Corridor Name: Pilkhana Road Corridor category: Collector Road Survey date: December 10 2009 Survey time: 7 am to 9pm
Segment no. Segment name
Access
interval
(meter)
Adjacent major
land use *
Average buliding
height (in story)
1= East side of corridor when
moving northbound
2= West side of corridor when
moving northbound
Car Motor cycle Bus Human hauler Auto rickshaw Taxi Bicycle NMPT
1
Maj. Ge. Shakil Rd
intersection- Begum
Fazi latunnesa Mujib Hall
Rd intersection
100Residential ,
Special
1. Azimpur Graveyard;
2. BDR compund4-6 story High Moderate High Moderate Moderate Low Low High
0.67 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.67
2
Begum Fazilatunnesa
Mujib Hall Rd
intersection-New Market
Vegetable Market Rd
intersection
185Commercial,
Special
1.Azimpur Graveyard;
2.Begum Fazi latunnesa Mujib
Hall
4 story Moderate Low Low Moderate Moderate Low Very low Very high
0.5 0.33 0.33 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.83 0.83
3
New Market Vegetable
Market Rd intersection-
Mirpur Rd intersection
230 Commercial
1. Bangladesh postal
telegrapg & post service; 2.
New Market Shopping presinct
2- 4 story Very high High Very high Very high High Moderate Low Very high
0.83 0.67 0.83 0.83 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.83
*Land use in
order of thei r
majority in the
block
**the exi s ting
trend/ future
potentia l of the
given la nd use in
generating/
attarcting the
vehicle type
LEGEND :
Land use category
Res identia lCommercia l (reta i l ,
office)Induis tria l
Institutional
(school, col lege,
univers i ty, tra ining
center)
Mixed Admini s tartiveRecreational / Open
sapceRestri cted Specia l
Intensity
No Very low Low Modera te High Very high Absolute
Mode specific traffic intensity with memebership type and score**
Motorised transport Non-motorised transport
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F.7: Segment wise result of land use-traffic interactivity analysis for Dhanmondi Road No. 12A
Corridor Name: Dhanmondi Road 12A Corridor category: Access Road Survey date: December 10 2009 Survey time: 7 am to 9pm
Segment
no.Segment name
Access
interval
(meter)
Adjacent major
land use *
Average buliding
height (in story)
1= East side of corridor when
moving northbound
2= West side of corridor when
moving northbound
Car Motor cycle Bus Human hauler Auto rickshaw Taxi Bicycle NMPT
LEGEND :
1
Satmasjid rd intersection-
Dhanmondi Rd 8A
intersection
240
Recreational/Open
space, Mixed
residential
1. Abahani field
2. Apartment complex, Maple
Leaf School, residence cum
food shop
4 to 6 story High High Moderate Moderate High Moderate Very low Very high Land use category Intensity
0.67 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.17 0.83 Resi dentia l No
2
Dhanmondi Rd 8A
intersection-Dhanmondi
Rd 13A intersection
260Residential , Mixed
residential
1. Apartment bui ldings;
2. Apartment bui ldings, WIF
office with residence
6 story High Moderate Low Low High Moderate Very low Very highCommercia l (retai l ,
office)Very l ow
0.67 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.67 0.5 0.17 0.83 Indui stria l Low
3
Dhanmondi Rd 13A
intersection- first
intersection of
connecting road to
Dahnmondi Rd 11A
210 Residential , open fiels
1.Backside of Dhanmondi Lake
2. Apartment bui ldings,
backside open field of
Dhanmondi Girls School
6 story Moderate Moderate Low Low Moderate Low Very low Very high
Institutional (school,
col l ege, uni, tra i ning
center)
Moderate
0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83 Mi xed Hi gh
4
First intersection of
connecting road to
Dahnmondi Rd 11A-
second intersection of
connecting road to
Dahnmondi Rd 11A
240 Residential1.Backside of Dhanmondi Lake
2. Apartment bui ldings6 story High Moderate Low Low Moderate Low Very low Very high Admini starti ve Very high
0.2 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83Recreational / Open
s apceAbsol ute
5
Second intersection
of connecting road to
Dahnmondi Rd 11A-
Dhanmondi Rd 13A
intersection
230 Residential1.Backside of Dhanmondi Lake
2. Apartment bui ldings6 story High Moderate Low Low Moderate Low Very low Very high Restri cted
0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83 Speci a l
Mode specific traffic intensity with memebership type and score**
Motorised transport Non-motorised transport
*Land us e in order of thei r majority in the bl ock
**the exis ti ng trend/ future potenti a l of the given
la nd use i n genera ti ng/ attarcting the vehi cl e type
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F.8: Segment wise result of land use-traffic interactivity analysis for the road opposite of Dhanmondi Road 12A
Corridor Name: Opposite of Dhanmondi Road 12A Corridor category: Narrow Road Survey date: December 10 2009 Survey time: 7 am to 9pm
Segment
no.Segment name
Access
interval
(meter)
Adjacent major
land use *
Average buliding
height (in story)
1= East side of corridor when
moving northbound
2= West side of corridor when
moving northbound
Car Motor cycle Bus Human hauler Auto rickshaw Taxi Bicycle NMPT
1
Dhanmondi 12A
intersection-
Dhanmondi Road 9A
intersection
70 Mixed-residential
1. Residential uni its
2. British Council, Residential
units with shops in some
building at the ground floor
4 to 6 story Moderate High Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Very low Very high
0.5 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83
2
Dhanmondi Road 9A
intersection -
unnamed road
intersection towards
Sher-E- Bangla Road
20Residential Mixed-
residential
1&2. Primari ly resedence
units wth shops in some
ground floor
4 to 6 story Low Moderate Low Low Moderate Very low Very low Very high
0.33 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.5 0.17 0.17 0.52
3
Unnamed road
intersection- Sher-E-
Bangla Road
intersection
500^Residential Mixed-
residential
1 & 2. Primari ly resedential
units wth shops at ground
floor of some buildings
4 to 6 story Low Moderate Low Low Moderate Very low Very low Very high
0.33 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.5 0.17 0.17 0.83
^ Major access i nterval ; has several very narrow roads i n between this two intersecti on with uniform l and use type and traffic pattern
LEGEND :
Land use category
Res i dentia lCommercia l (reta i l ,
office)Indui s tria l
Ins ti tutiona l (school ,
col lege, uni vers ity,
tra ini ng center)
Mixed Adminis tarti veRecreational/ Open
sapceRestricted Specia l
Intensity
No Very l ow Low Moderate Hi gh Very hi gh Absolute
Mode specific traffic intensity with memebership type and score**
Motorised transportNon-motorised
transport
*Land use in order of their ma jority i n the block
** traffic i ntens ity is with reference to the exis ti ng
trend/ future potentia l of the given l and use in
genera ting/ attarcting the vehicle type
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Appendix G: Road functionality analysis
G.1: Sample survey sheet for road functional attribute data collection
Survey date Survey time Name of Surveyor
DESIGN FEATUREFRICTIONAL
FEATUREIMPACT FEATURE
Road
category Type
Right of Way
(ROW)Road type Dominant linkage Connectivity Mobility function Operating speed
Traffic carrying
function
PT service
(availability and
cost)
Access functionPreferred abutting
landuse Traffic sensitivity*
1 Mi rpur road
2 Sat Mas jid road
3Dhanmondi road no.
27
Pi l khana road
4Dhanmondi road no
12/A
5
Road oppos ite of
Dhanmondi road no.
12/A
* measured with reference to surrounding land use
& in terms of expected tolerance of these land use to noise and air pollution
Note: The output of the table is derived based on field survey and precribed qualitative guideline in table 14.3
FUNCTIONAL FEATURE
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G.2: Definition for each criterion of the governing attributes of road
Three broad groups of criteria are usually considered and evaluated for road management and
desirable performance evaluation under hierarchy. They are functional characteristics, frictional
characteristics and impact characteristics (Eppel et al., 2001). A fourth group named design
characteristics is introduced for the comprehensiveness of performance evaluation in this
research, which is derived from the road characteristics analysis literature such as DITS (1994a),
DCC (2002) and Kadiyali (2007).
i) Design criteria: These are the geometric characteristics required by a road element to enable
sufficient traffic carrying space and safe operation for the road type. The sub-criteria under this
broad criterion include,
• right of way- the total width of the roadway including carriageway, median, kerb
and footpath;
• road type – the pattern of physical division, carriageway type and lane
configuration for a corridor.
ii) Functional criteria: These are the characteristics required of a roadway element to achieve its
operational objectives and thereby optimising the traversed mode functionality.
• dominant linkage- the major service area of a corridor;
• connectivity- the major corridor type(s) linked by corridor;
• mobility function-the ease and uninterrupted pattern of movement in a corridor, a
directly proportional attribute of speed;
• operating speed-the typical speed environment of a corridor;
• traffic carrying function- whist volume are not intended to define the category into
which the roadway falls, this criterion may provide some guidance as to the
maximum hourly traffic volume range anticipated;
• public transport service quality- the availability and cost of public transport offered
in a corridor-
iii) Frictional criteria: These are the characteristics that relate to the way the roadside activity
effects traffic use and traffic type.
• access function –frequency of access condition to and from the corridor
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iv) Impact criteria: These are the characteristics to define the relationship between a roadway
element and amenity to adjacent land use, crucial in subsequent choice making for modal
priority at that roadway element level. The sub-criteria under this broad criterion include,
• abutting land use – the type of land use and its relationship to operating traffic
character of a corridor;
• traffic sensitivity (with reference to land use)- Type and degree of tolerance
compatibility of a land use to the operating condition of the adjacent corridor,
with reference to air pollution and noise pollution.
Recommended