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Learning
How do we learn?
1. Classical conditioning
2. Operant conditioning
3. Learning by Observation
How Do We Learn?
Learning
Relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience
Associative learning
Learning that certain events occur together
When two stimuli occur together we call it
When there is a response and its consequence, we call it
classical conditioning
operant conditioning
Learning
Classical conditioning
Type of learning in which we learn to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
Operant conditioning
Type of learning in which we learn to associate a response and its consequence
Thus, we learn to repeat acts followed by good results and to avoid acts followed by bad results
Let’s take a closer look.
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Classical & Operant Conditioning are not the only forms of learning
Observational learning, another form of cognitive learning, is learning from others’ experiences
Why are habits, such as having something sweet with that cup of coffee, so hard to break?
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
“Experimental investigation should lay a solid foundation for a
future truescience of psychology” (1927).
PAVLOV’S CLASSIC EXPERIMENT
Let’s make sure all the definitions are clear.
Classical Conditioning Terminology
Neutral Stimulus:
Unconditioned Stimulus:
Unconditioned Response:
Conditioned Stimulus:
Conditioned Response:
A response (reaction) that happens naturally (involuntary)
A stimulus that NATURALLY brings about a response.
A stimulus that doesn’t bring about a response
A US causes a UR
A response (reaction) that happens due to being conditioned (trained)
(involuntary)A CS causes a CR
A stimulus that, through association (pairing repeatedly)
brings about a response.
Can you define each of these more completely?
Neutral stimulus (NS)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that evokes no response before conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response (UR)
Unconditioned response (UR)
In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)
Conditioned response (CR)
In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff to your blinking eye.
After several repetitions, you blink to the tone alone. What is…
The NS?
The US?
The UR?
The CS?
The CR?
tone (before conditioning)
air puff
blink (to air puff)
tone (after conditioning)
blink (to tone)
Classical Conditioning
Acquisition
First stage in classical conditioning
Place where link between the NS and US is learned
AN UNEXPECTED CS
Psychologist Michael Tirrell (1990) recalled: “My first girlfriend loved onions, so I came to associate onion breath with kissing. Before long, onion breath sent tingles up and down my spine. Oh what a feeling!”
In horror movies, sexually arousing images of women are sometimes paired with violence against women. Based on classical conditioning principles, what might be an effect of this pairing?
Classical Conditioning
Extinction and spontaneous recovery
Extinction -
the weakening of a conditioned response
happens when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus (no longer give food after bell)
Spontaneous recovery
Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
The rising curve (simplified here) shows that the CR rapidly grows stronger as the NS becomes a CS as it is repeatedly paired with the
US (acquisition).
The CS weakens when it is presented alone (extinction). After a pause, the CR reappears (spontaneous recovery).
ACQUISITION, EXTINCTION, AND SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
The first step of classical conditioning, when an NS becomes a CS, is called________. When a US no longer follows the CS, and the CR becomes weakened, this is called ________ .
Classical Conditioning
Generalization
The tendency, after conditioning, to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus
Discrimination
ability to tell the difference between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli
If the aroma of cake baking makes your mouth water, what is the US? The CS? The CR?
Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life
Pavlov’s principles influence human health and well- being in a variety of ways
Examples
Patients can develop classically conditioned side-effects to drugs given as cancer treatments
Former drug users often feel a craving when they are again in the drug-using context
In Watson and Rayner’s experiments, “Little Albert” learned to fear a white rat after repeatedly experiencing a loud noise as the rat was presented. In this experiment, what was the US? The UR? The NS? The CS? The CR?
loud noise
fear response Rat (before paired)
Rat (after paired)
fear
https://youtu.be/FMnhyGozLyE
Sensitivity To Punishment or Rewards?
Give yourself 1 point for each odd yes = total
Give yourself 1 point for each even yes = total
0-24
Sensitivity to Reward (even)
Higher score = greater sensitivity toward reward
Sensitivity to Punishment (odd)
Higher score = greater sensitivity toward punishment
High punishment likely to be
vulnerable to anxiety
High reward likely to be impulsive
Consideration of Future Consequence Scale
Circle #3,4,5,9,10,11,12
Cross out the number you put and put it’s opposite…
Total all 12 / Range 12-60
Higher score…greater concern for future consequence
average 42.5
1=52=43=34=25=1
Differences: Classical and Operant Conditioning
Classical
• not controlled by learner
• Automatic responses to stimuli
Operant
• Involves learning associations between behavior and resulting events
• Association with one’s own actions with consequences
https://youtu.be/H6LEcM0E0ioDifference Between Classical &
Operant Conditioning
With ________ conditioning, we learn associations between events we do not control. With ________ conditioning, we learn associations between our behavior and resulting events.
Operant Conditioning
Skinner’s experiments
Rewarded behavior is likely to be repeated
Shaping behavior
Teach a behavior in small steps
Successive approximations
Reinforcer
An event that increases the frequency of a preceding response
CAT IN A PUZZLE BOXThorndike used a fish reward to entice cats to find their way out of a puzzle box (right) through a series of maneuvers. The cats’ performance tended to improve with successive trials (left), illustrating Thorndike’s law of effect. (Adapted from Thorndike, 1898.)
Types of Reinforcers
Positive reinforcement
Increases behaviors by presenting positive stimuli
Is anything that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
Negative reinforcement
Increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli
Is anything that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response
Is not punishment
WAYS TO INCREASE BEHAVIOR
A SKINNER BOX Inside thebox, the rat presses a bar or button for a food reward. Outside, a measuring device (not shownhere) keeps records of the animal’s responses.
Operant Conditioning; Types of Reinforcers
Primary reinforcers
Unlearned; innate
Conditioned reinforcers (secondary reinforcers)
Learned associaitions with primary reinforcers
Delayed reinforcers
Delayed
Can you think of examples for each of these?
Telemarketers are reinforced by which schedule? People checking the oven to see if the cookies are done are on which schedule? Airline frequent-flyer programs that offer a free flight after every 25,000 miles of travel are using which reinforcement schedule?
Punishment
Ways to decrease behavior
Major drawbacks of physical punishment
Punished behavior suppressed; punishing behavior reinforced
Discrimination among situations taught
Generalization occurs; fear taught
Aggression may be increased by modeling
Dav
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Skinner’s Legacy
B. F. Skinner “I am sometimes asked, ‘Do you think of yourself as you think of the organisms you study?’ The answer is yes. So far as I know, my behavior at any given moment has been nothing more than the product of my genetic endowment, my personal history, and the current setting” (1983).
• Urged people to use operant principles to influence the behavior of others
• Criticized for neglecting people’s personal freedom and advocating for external control of others
Sam
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Applications of Operant Conditioning
At school
Many of the ideas for education are used today
Electronic adaptive devices are often Skinnerian
At work
Many organizations used reinforcers to influence productivity
At home
Reinforcement is used and abused in many parenting situations
Reinforcement can be used effectively to help children change and manage their behavior
Ethan constantly misbehaves at preschool even though his teacher scolds him repeatedly. Why does Ethan’s misbehavior continue, and what can his teacher do to stop it?
Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning
Classical
• Form of associative learning
• Associate different events that one cannot control
• Respond automatically
Operant
• Form of associative learning
• Links behaviors to act on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing events
Using Operant Conditioning to Build Your Own Strengths
State your goal in measurable terms and announce it
Decide how, when, and where you will work toward your goal
Monitor how often you engage in your desired behavior
Reinforce the desired behavior
Reduce the rewards gradually
Salivating in response to a tone paired with food is a(n) behavior; pressing a bar to obtain food is a(n) behavior.
Biology, Cognition, and Learning
Biological limits on conditioning
Humans are biologically prepared to learn some things rather than others
Humans are naturally disposed to learn associations favored by natural selection
Garcia and Koelling’s taste aversionresearch ended the belief that environments rule out behavior.
Findings help disprove the belief that almost any stimulus could serve equally well as a conditioned stimulus.
How did Garcia and Koelling’s taste aversion studies help disprove the belief that almost any stimulus (tastes, sights, sounds) could serve equally well as a conditioned stimulus? Explain.
Biology, Cognition, and Learning
Limits on operant conditioning
Each species has a limit on their capacity for operant conditioning
Our biology predisposes us to learn associations that are naturally adaptive
ROMANTIC RED In a series of experiments that controlled for other factors (such as the brightness of the image), men found women more attractive and sexually desirable when framed in red (Elliot & Niesta, 2008).
Cour
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of K
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Cognitive Influences on Conditioning
Watson
Rejected mentalistic concepts
Maintained that the basic laws of learning are the same for all animals
Contended that psychology should be objective science based on observable behaviors
Watson’s view of learning underestimated two sets of influences:• Way biological predispositions
limits learning• Effect of cognitive processes
on learning
Cognitive Influences on Conditioning
Cognition and operant conditioning
Skinner rejected the premise that cognitive processes are integral to learning
Cognitive maps
Latent learning
LATENT LEARNING Animals, like people, can learn from experience, with or without reinforcement.
Will
& D
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Cognitive map
Mental image of the layout of one’s environment
Latent learning
Learning that is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Intrinsic motivation
Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
Extrinsic motivation
Desire to perform a behavior to gain a reward or avoid a punishment
Learning by Observation
Thinking critically about: Does viewing media violence trigger violent behavior?
Learning by Observation
Observational learning
Learning by observing others
Modeling
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Vicarious reinforcement or punishment
Learning to anticipate a behavior’s consequences in situations like those being observed
ALBERT BANDURA “The Bobo doll follows me wherever I go.”
Learning by Observation
Mirrors and imitation in the brain
Mirror neuron
Fires when we perform certain actions and when we observe others performing those actions
Provides a neural basis for imitation and observational learning
EXPERIENCED AND IMAGINED PAIN IN THE BRAIN
Brain activity related to actual pain (left) is mirrored in the brain of an observing loved one (right). Empathy in the brain shows up in areas that process emotions, but not in the areas that register physical pain.
Wel
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Neu
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Applications of Observational Learning
Prosocial effects
Prosocial behavior models can have a prosocial effect
Effectiveness is related to consistency in actions and words
Antisocial effects
Observational learning can have adverse effects
Early childhood environments with high levels of aggression, TV, and videos are powerful sources of observational learning
Correlational studies
In U.S. and Canada, homicide rates doubled as TV was introduced and spreading
Elementary schoolchildren exposed to media violence fought more and had a greater risk for violent behavior as teens.
Experimental studies
Violence-viewing effect stems from two factors
Media models prompt imitation
Prolonged exposure to violence desensitizes viewers
DOES VIEWING MEDIA VIOLENCE TRIGGER VIOLENT BEHAVIOR?
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