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As pre-service teachers and assistants, you’ve already come into ourclassrooms with some knowledge and theoretical background about reading andwhat you should be teaching to our younger children. lease re!ect on this"uestion #or about a minute or so and then take two minutes to turn to theperson on your right-hand side to talk about your responses. $ope#ully, we willhave a #ew volunteers to share their ideas%

Slide & and ':

(omments:

)e#ore we delve into the de*nition o# +learning diculties+, speci*cally inphonological awareness, would like to use the ayner et. al /2001 article tode*ne reading and the meta-analyses o# on3a /2011, to give everyone a brie# background o# skills children need to become success#ul readers. will then link itin to our particular conte4t as early childhood teachers at St. 5ohn’s.

eading is 6the process o# gaining meaning #rom print7 /ayner et.al, 2001, p.&'. t is a 6comple4 and dicult task7 that seems e8ortless #or us adults butre"uires 6tremendous e8ort7 in children //ayner, ollatsek, Ashby 9 (li#ton,2012, p. &0. ;hey have identi*ed 6#oundational competencies that readingbuilds upon7 /p. &' - phonological awareness, phonics !uency /automaticity,and comprehension. ;his is rein#orced by on3a /2011 who looked into empiricalstudies completed around the world on what constitutes an 6e8ective readingprogramme7 and #ound +the big si4 components that support learning to read+/p.1. ;hese are:

<ral =anguage http:>>www.decd.sa.gov.au>literacy>*les>links>link?1@@2.pd#

honological Awareness

http:>>www.decd.sa.gov.au>literacy>*les>links>Bt?1?2?v2.pd#

honics http:>>www.decd.sa.gov.au>literacy>*les>links>link?1@@2.pd#

Cocabulary http:>>www.decd.sa.gov.au>literacy>*les>links>Bt?1?'?v2.pd#

Dluency http:>>www.decd.sa.gov.au>literacy>*les>links>Bt?1?@?v&.pd#

(omprehension http:>>www.decd.sa.gov.au>literacy>*les>links>Bt?1?E?v2.pd#

Speci*c to the early childhood setting, there has been an evolution in theteaching o# literacy skills and the recognition that 6(hildren learn about the#unction and process o# reading long be#ore they pick up a book and decode thete4t7 /ohde, 201@, p. 1. ;his is called FGmergent =iteracy’ and is composed o#

early skills such as knowledge and abilities related to the alphabet, phonologicalawareness, symbolic representation, and communication. ayner et al /2012have "uestioned the broad use o# the term Femergent’ though as they have#ound that research does not seem to support the premise that literacy skills6develop spontaneously without instruction7 /p. &1'. $owever, ohde /201@has said that FGmergent =iteracy’ has already evolved #rom when Harie (lay *rststarted studying early reading behaviours in 1EE. t has progressed to combinewith intentional teaching in developmentally appropriate practise. At St. 5ohn’s,we aim to immerse children in a literacy and print-rich environment while alsotaking into account current research that best practice supports 6e4plicitinstruction7 in teaching literacy skills like phonological awareness and phonics.

t is beyond the scope o# our presentation today though to discuss eachcomponent and skills o# what makes success#ul readersI what will do is pass

around print-outs and leave you with links to descriptions and strategies #oreach.

Slide @

;oday’s session will #ocus primarily on one particular component o# reading-honological Awareness. Jou will discover that honological Awareness is a bigumbrella that includes di8erent skills related to the 6sound structure o# alanguage7 /ayner, et al, 2012, p. &11I Hc)ride-(hang, 200', p. 2' like theconcept o# a word and rhyming. <ne o# its components, honemic Awareness,has been identi*ed as being one o# the most essential skills in learning to read.

Jou will also *nd out some diculties students may e4perience when it comes tounderstanding the sound #eatures or structure o# a language and strategies toaddress these. <verall, at the end o# the session, hope you will realise the keyrole you play in encouraging and nurturing success#ul readers. will also beproviding you with a list o# suggested readings and resources #or you to use inthe classroom.

Slide E

)e#ore we get into de*nitonsm thought, let’s have a look at two videos. <ne withAlly and another #or ;homas. lease use this simple assessment sheet to assesstheir reading behaviours. t assesses *ve skills: concept o# a word, syllable,rhyme, phoneme and alliteration /repetition o# the same beginning sound in aphrase /$ill, ??? p. .

As you watch the video, consider the #ollowing points:

Khat are the early signs that Ally is beginning to readL ;homasL

Khat challenges might ;homas #ace in early readingL

Khat do you think could be the underlying reason #or diculties in ac"uiring

awareness o# soundL

Khat can you do to help students improve their phonological awarenessL

lease re!ect on these "uestions #or about two minutes and then take anothertwo minutes to turn to the person on your right-hand side to talk about yourresponses. $ope#ully, we will have a #ew volunteers to share their ideas as wemove along the session%

Dirst, can anyone please describe Ally’s honological awareness skillsL Kould you

say it’s well-developedL <r, is she in the beginning stagesL Khat clues #rom thevideo gives you that ideaL /$ope#ully, the participants will be able to answer thatshe hears beginning sounds in words, picks out rhyming words like say and lay,and segments words like Fhappy’. $ow about ;homasL

t seems like ;homas has more diculties than Ally in terms o# picking up on thedi8erent structures o# sound. ;his type o# assessment we completed perhapsidenti*es ;homas as being 6at risk7 #or developing diculties in learning to read.

Hany other children, like ;homas, show early signs o# e4periencing somediculties in understanding basic phonological awareness skills like clappingsyllables and rhyming. ;he ne4t #ew slides will talk about phonological awarenessand answer some "uestions #rom above #rom the research pro#essionals’

standpoint% lease can you let me know by touching your nose i# something theresearchers say matches your thoughts and ideas. t will talk about challenges

children may #ace which may later on lead to diculties in learning to read, and*nally, strategies and resources you can use to e8ectively meet the needs o# students like ;homas.

Slide M

Khat is phonological awarenessL

honological Awareness is a more comprehensive term /or an umbrella% whichcovers di8erent 6sound #eatures o# language7 /Kestwood, 2001, p. 1&. ;hesesounds #eatures are said to develop in a hierarchical manner /on3a, 2011 andinvolves an individual’s awareness that a 6continuous stream o# speech can bebroken up into separate words7, that words are made up o# syllables, and thatsyllables consist o# phonemes or 6separate single sounds7 /on3a, 200E, p.&E. talso includes an understanding o# sounds at the 6intrasyllabic level7 /p. &&, ormore commonly known as onset-rime awareness /Nillon, 200'.

Khat does research say about phonological awarenessL

A number o# researchers have identi*ed phonological awareness as a criticalcomponent in learning to read /;orgesen, 2000I ;unmer 9 (hapman, 1 ascited in Kestwood, 2001I ullen 9 5ustice, 200&I Anthony 9 Drancis, 200@, mostespecially phonemic awareness /ayner, et al, 2012I Adams, 10 as cited inHc(ormack 9 as"uarelli, 2010.

esearch has come to a consensus about how honological Awareness helps a

child read:

t 6gives children an understanding o# the structure o# sound, so that they canlearn #rom e4periences with print and direct instruction on letter-soundrelationships7 /Schumm, 200E, p. '. honemic awareness promotesunderstanding o# letter-sound correspondence and the alphabetic principle. # children are unable to distinguish individual sounds in spoken words, they willhave diculty Fsounding out’- decoding and spelling words. ;heir inability toblend and segment words, to 6discriminate speech sounds as well as otherchildren7 puts them 6at risk #or becoming poor readers7 /ressley, 200, p. EE.

;hese diculties may be due to instrinsic #actors- a Speci*c learning disorder/Sp=O or e4trinsic #actors- a general learning diculty/http:>>mn.abedisabilities.org>abe-disability-manual>learning-disabilities>overview.

S=Os can either be dysle4ia /reading, dyscalculia /mathematics and dysgraphia/writing and are normally diagnosed in school-aged children or children in theearly years o# primary school. t #ollows strict guidelines within the Oiagnosticand Statistics Hanual o# Oisorders and can normally be diagnosed a#ter a batteryo# standardised tests by a psychologist. ecent research has indicated aneurobiological dys#unction as a possible cause o# S=Os

/https:>>www.psychology.org.au>publications>tip?sheets>learning>.

Neneral learning diculties, on the other hand, to borrow #rom Kestwood’s/200M de*nition is a term:

applied to students whose learning problems in school are not directly related toany speci*c physical, sensory or intellectual impairment /although in some casestheir intelligence may be somewhat below average. nstead, the learning

diculties may be due to e4ternal #actors /p. 2.

;he possible cause o# reading diculties seem to be hard to determine as it may bebrought about by several #actors:

Gnvironmental

such as socio-cultural disadvantage, limited opportunities to learn, a lack o# support #rom home, an inappropriate curriculum, or insucient teaching in theearly years /p. 2.

◗ students with diculties due to socioeconomic, cultural, o linguistic disadvantage #or

whom intervention o# a compensatory nature is needed

students with learning diculties not attributable to any disability or impairment P thelearning problem is regarded as arising within the conte4t o# the teaching and learningsituation

the <G(O /1I 2000I 200@ as cited Kestwood, eter. Khat ;eachers Qeed to nowabout =earning Oiculties Ronline., p.

reading and learning diculties westwood p. &2

as having limited experiences with spoken or written text prior

to school entry, coming from a low socioeconomic background, or – more alarmingly for

educators – not receiving the most effective and evidence-based reading instruction once

atschool (Buckingham et al., 2!"# Buckingham, $heldall, % Beaman, 2!2# &riend et al.,

2'. )n Children with reading problems: Missed opportunities to make a

difference Australian Journal of Education April 201559: 22-34, first published on October1, 2014

*he underlying cause of dyslexia is difficulty processing the sounds in one+s language, or

phonological processing .

esearch has identified three phonological processing abilities. Phonological memory refers

to coding information in a sound-based representation system for temporary storage. Phonological access to lexical storage refers to the efficiency of retrieving phonological

codes from memory. Phonological awareness refers to one+s degree of sensitivity to the

sound structure of oral language. *hese abilities are highly interrelated, are strongly related to

reading acuisition, and are highly stable individual differences from late preschool on.

nthomy and francis

Jopp, $. ., 9 Jopp, . $. /200. honological awareness is childTs play%YC Young Children, 64/1, 12-1M,21. etrieved #romhttp:>>e3pro4y.ecu.edu.au>loginLurlUhttp:>>search.pro"uest.com>docview>1@&MLaccountidU10E@

=earning diculties may be caused by biological #actors or it may have developedbecause o# the child’s e4ternal environment, such as having limited e4posure to alanguage and print- rich environment. Khether it is biological or environmental, though,what is important is that we identi#y children who are likely to be 6at risk7 #or developinglearning diculties so they can get the intervention they need. n the early years, wehave a big responsibility to provide children with the best start in their school li#e. ;hiscannot be stressed enough. Ke get the opportunity to 6catch em be#ore they #ail7 asresearch has shown that children who begin the cycle o# reading #ailure "uite early intheir school careers has a disadvantage as it potentially could e4acerbate as they moveup /Strickland, 2000 as cited by westwood, 200', p. &'.

<ur assessment background as early childhood teachers gives us an advantage.Assessment is not Vust #or reporting to parents how 5ack and 5ill are doing in class% t alsoserves as a method #or us to identi#y children who may be 6at risk7 #or developing

learning diculties /like we did with ;homas. Ke would then use these observations toplan =iteracy activities based on best-practice.

http:>>www.decd.sa.gov.au>limestonecoast>*les>pages>newW20page>(urriculum>1120?Assessmt?Dinal?lite.pd#

G4emplary literacy teachers use their 6*ne grained knowledge o# children’s literacyper#ormance7 to regularly assess children in their class and use these assessments to6guide their planning and teaching7 /=ouden et al, 200@ as cited by

http:>>www.decd.sa.gov.au>limestonecoast>*les>pages>newW20page>(urriculum>1120?Assessmt?Dinal?lite.pd#

As teachers, it is dicult #or us to look into neurobiological #actors or more e4ternal#actors such as our children’s home environment. <ne thing we directly have in!uenceover is our approach to teaching reading. Ke help create success#ul readers and writersby providing a =iteracy-rich environment based on best-practice.

n recent years, best practice sees prevention and intervention as occurring in 6threetiers7:

◗ First wave: Prevention. $igh-"uality *rst teaching to ma4imise success #or all

children and minimise learning problems. )est practice, according to my readings, ise4plicit and direct instruction o# phonological awanress skills:

esearch during the past several decades has provided a great deal o# insightinto the variables that contribute to success in learning to read and write.honological awareness is a critical skill that contributes to literacy ac"uisition,and the integration o# this knowledge in educational settings can be witnessed inthe inclusion o# phonological awareness instruction in preschool and kindergarten

curricula. Dor children who are not able to develop levels o# mastery inphonological awareness skills through e4posure to classroom curricula only,intervention that targets these skills is critical. S /5ustice 9 Schuele, 200'

◗ Second wave: Early intervention. Small group tuition to help some children

catch up. Gstimated to be necessary #or up to 20 per cent o# children. All

children still #ailing a#ter this second-wave intervention re"uire more intensive

and #re"uent teaching represented by the third wave. t is hypothesised that

children who do not respond ade"uately to this level o# additional support

are probably the students with genuine learning disabilities. ;he revised

Individuals with Disabilities Education ct /OGA /BS Oepartment o# Gducation, 200' now recommends that poor response to intervention be

used to identi#y Sp=O, rather than a discrepancy between X and attainment.

;he (hild Oevelopment nstitute at the Bniversity o# Qorth (arolina has

devised an interesting intervention approach based on rate o# response to

intervention /; /Yimmerman

!hird wave: Intensive su""ort# =onger-term support #or individuals who do not

respond "uickly to second-wave tuition. Gstimated to be necessary #or some

@ per cent o# students.

First-wave teaching

t is now generally agreed that the * rst-wave instruction should utilise

proven, research-based teaching methods. ;his implies that e4plicit and

direct instruction will be used in the early stages #or teaching reading,

writing, spelling and arithmetic skills, accompanied by much guided and

independent practice. n the teaching o# reading and spelling due attention

will be given to the development o# phonic skills.

K$A; ;GA($GS QGGO ;< Q<K A)<B; =GAQQN ODD(B=;GS

lanning honoogical awareness activities based on best-practice is the second strategyin our toolkit.

Assessment

: Kho is at

Gvaluate

lan Oocument

Ke need to have knowledge o# appropriate strategies in the classroom to deliverinstruction that is o# high-"uality and is designed to creccess#ul readers and writers.

t is clear in literature that children who *nd learning to read and write dicult are bestserved by designing and delivering intensive high-"uality instruction, rather than byidenti#ying them with a label /Glliott, 200M as cited by Kestwood, 200M, p. 1& .

Slide M

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