Learning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Ecological Learning Observational Learning

Learning

• Classical Conditioning

• Operant Conditioning

• Ecological Learning

• Observational Learning

Definition of Learning

Learning is “any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about through experience.”

– Conditioning: • The acquisition of specific patterns of behavior in

the presence of well-defined stimuli.

Two Types of Conditioning

• Classical (C.C.): – a response naturally elicited by one stimulus

comes to be elicited by a different, formerly neutral stimulus

• Operant (O.C.): – behaviors are emitted (in the presence of

specific stimuli) to earn rewards or avoid punishments

Learning

Pavlov

It all starts with a REFLEX

Automatic

Unconscious

Involuntary

Inborn

REFLEX

Stimulus Response

Causes

REFLEX

Stimulus Response

Leads to

REFLEX

Stimulus Response

Elicits

REFLEX

Stimulus Response

Causes

Puff of airto the eye

REFLEX

Stimulus Response

Causes

Light in the eye

PupillaryConstriction

REFLEX

Stimulus Response

Causes

Pain Withdrawal

REFLEX

Stimulus Response

Causes

Meat Powder in mouth

Salivation

REFLEX

Stimulus Response

Causes

Electric Shock

REFLEX

Stimulus ResponseUnconditionedUnconditioned

REFLEX

UCS UCR

Click ??

Some stimuli do nothing

Footsteps

Metronome

Rabbit

Neutral Stimulus

Learning involves repeated pairing

UCS UCR

NS + UCS UCR

After repeated pairing

NS + UCS UCR CS CR

NS + UCSHiss Puff

UCRBlink

CRBlink

NS + UCSHiss Puff CS

CSHiss

CRBlink

CSHiss

CRBlink

REFLEX

Causes

the organism has formed an association between the once neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.

An example

QuickTime™ and aMPEG-4 Video decompressor

are needed to see this picture.

It all begins with a REFLEX

• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS).– Elicits a response in the

absence of learning.

• Unconditioned response (UCR).– The reflexive response to a

stimulus in the absence of learning.

UCS UCR

• No learning here. Organism is born with this reflex

A relatively simple, automatic, stimulus-response sequence that is mediated by the CNS

Learning

Classical Conditioning

Reflexes

Operant Conditioning

Ecological Learning

Observational Learning

• A neutral stimulus is then regularly paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

New Reflexes from Old Learning

Ecological Learning

• Conditioned stimulus (CS).– An initially neutral stimulus that

comes to elicit a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

• Conditioned response (CR).– A response that is elicited by the

conditioned stimulus.– Occurs after the CS is associated

with the US.– Identical to the US

New Reflexes from OldLearning

Ecological Learning

Classical Conditioning Diagram

NS + UCS UCR

(BELL) (PUFF) (BLINK)

CS CR(BELL) (BLINK)

Reflex

Learning

Ecological Learning

Prior to conditioning

Neutral stimulus(tone)

UCS(food powder in mouth)

UCR(salivation)

Conditioning

Neutral stimulusCS (tone)

UCS(food powder)

CR(salivation)

After conditioningCS

(tone)CR

(salivation)

Learning

Ecological Learning

In Watson’s Little Albert study, the conditioned response was

0% 0%0%

1. Salivation

2. Nausea

3. Fear

In Pavlov’s original experiments, the neutral stimulus was the

0% 0%0%

1. Sound of the footsteps

2. Taste of the meat powder

3. Sight of the white lab coat

In Pavlov’s original experiments, the conditioned stimulus was the

0% 0%0%

1. Sound of the footsteps

2. Taste of the meat powder

3. Sight of the white lab coat

When you first went to the dentist as a child, you heard the high-pitched whine of the drill, and had no reaction. After you’ve had your first filling, the drill causes a nervous reaction - cold hands, increased heart rate and blood-pressure, etc. The drill became the

0% 0%0%

1. Conditioned Stimulus

2. Unconditioned stimulus

3. Conditioned Response

From the last question, the anxiety is the

0% 0%0%

1. Neutral Stimulus

2. Conditioned Stimulus

3. Conditioned Response

The neutral stimulus was the

0% 0%0%

1. Sight of the dentist

2. Sound of the drill

3. Anxiety

Although you’ve never been afraid of flying, the last time you flew the plane went into a nosedive for nearly a minute. Now when you fly, you get extremely nervous. In this example, flying is the

0% 0%0%

1. Conditioned response

2. Conditioned stimulus

3. Unconditioned response

From the previous example, what is the unconditioned response?

0% 0%0%

1. The sight of the airplane

2. Salivating

3. Fear

Basic Rules of Conditioning

• The more association trials, the better the conditioning

• CS and US must be closely linked in time

• Physically intense stimuli are conditioned more easily

• Some responses are more easily conditioned than others

Learning

Ecological Learning

Learning

Contingency

Ecological Learning

Contingency

Extinction –

Weakening of a conditioned association in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer

Spontaneous recovery –

Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay

Learning

Ecological Learning

Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery Learning

Spontaneous Recovery

Ecological Learning

• Higher order conditioning

• Stimulus generalization

• Discrimination learning

Learning

Ecological Learning

Higher-Order Conditioning

• A neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus (CS) by being paired with an existing conditioned stimulus (CS).

Learning

Higher-Order Cond.

Ecological Learning

Stimulus Generalization

• Occurs when a new stimulus that resembles the conditioned stimulus, elicits the conditioned response.

Learning

Stimulus Generalization

Ecological Learning

Stimulus Discrimination

• The tendency to respond differently to two or more similar stimuli.

• In classical conditioning, it occurs when a stimulus similar to the condition stimulus (CS) fails to evoke a conditioned response (CR).

Learning

Discrimination

Ecological Learning

• Drug overdoses

• Smoking: environmental cues

• Systematic desensitization

• Advertising: sex appeal

• Taste aversion

• Conditioning and the immune system

Real-Life ExamplesLearning

Examples

Ecological Learning

Abnormal Behavior and CC

CS CR(Dog) (Fear)

NS + UCS UCR

(Dog) (Pain from Bite) (Fear)

Learning

Ecological Learning

Learning

The consequences that follow a behavior make that behavior more or less likely to occur in the future.

•Make behavior more likely – Reinforcement

•Make behavior less likely - Punishment

Learning

Ecological Learning

•Operant behaviors are different from the responses involved in classical conditioning

–They are voluntarily emitted

–Those involved in classical conditioning are elicited by stimuli.

Learning

Ecological Learning

ALL reinforcers increase the

likelihood that a response will become more

frequent

Reinforcement

• What is a reinforcer?– Definition: a reinforcer is any stimulus

which, when delivered to a subject, increases the probability that a subject will emit the most recent response.• Primary reinforcers, e.g., food

• Secondary reinforcers, e.g., praise

– One can only know if a stimulus is a reinforcer based on the increased probability of occurrence of a subject’s behavior

Learning

Ecological Learning

Reinforcement

Positive reinforcers –

Stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior, that increases the probability of that response happening again

Negative reinforcers –

Removal of an unpleasant stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior, that increases the probability of that response happening again

Learning

Ecological Learning

Examples of Consequences

Positive Negative Behavior

ReinforcementGive food for

correct responseRemove shock for correct response

Increases

PunishmentGive shock for

incorrect responseRemove food for incorrect reponse

Decreases

Learning

Ecological Learning

Primary reinforcers – Reinforcers, such as food and sex, that have an innate basis because of their biological value to an organism

Secondary reinforcers – Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that acquire their reinforcing power by their learned association with primary reinforcers (also called conditioned reinforcers)

ReinforcementLearningClassical ConditioningOperant ConditioningEcological LearningObservational Learning

Learning

Ecological Learning

Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced

Partial reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced (also called intermittent reinforcement)

Learning

Ecological Learning

Ratio schedules – Provide reward after a certain number of responses

Interval schedules – Provide reward after a certain time interval

Fixed Ratio (FR)Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval (FI)Fixed Interval (FI)

Variable Ratio (VR)Variable Ratio (VR)

Variable Interval (VI)Variable Interval (VI)

Learning

Ecological Learning

Fixed Ratio (FR)Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval (FI)

Variable Ratio (VR)

Variable Interval (VI)

Rewards appear after a certain set number of responses

e.g. factory workers getting paid after every 10 cases of product are completed

Learning

Ecological Learning

Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval (FI)

Variable Ratio Variable Ratio (VR)(VR)

Rewards appear after a certain number of responses, but that number varies from reinforcer to reinforcer

e.g. slot machine pay-offs

Learning

Ecological Learning

Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval Fixed Interval (FI)(FI)

Variable Ratio (VR)

Rewards appear after a certain fixed amount of time, regardless of number of responses, as long as the response occurs during the interval.

e.g. weekly or monthly paychecks

Learning

Ecological Learning

Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval (FI)

Variable Ratio (VR)

Variable Interval Variable Interval (VI)(VI)

Rewards appear after a certain amount of time, but that amount varies from trial to trial, as long as the response occurs during the interval.

e.g. random visits from the boss who delivers praise

Learning

Ecological Learning

• Simple reinforcement schedules produce characteristic response patterns

• Steeper lines mean higher response rates

• Ratio schedules produce higher response rates than interval schedules

Learning

Ecological Learning

Partial ReinforcementLearning

Ecological Learning

A rat is given a food pellet every time it presses a bar 7 times.

1 2 3 4

0% 0%0%0%

1. Fixed Ratio

2. Variable Ratio

3. Fixed Interval

4. Variable Interval

An instructor gives an exam every Friday afternoon.

1 2 3 4

0% 0%0%0%

1. Fixed Ratio

2. Variable Ratio

3. Fixed Interval

Another instructor gives pop quizzes at random times.

1 2 3 4

0% 0%0%0%

1. Fixed Ratio

2. Variable Ratio

3. Fixed Interval

A migrant worker gets $3.00 for every ten baskets of cherries he picks.

1 2 3 4

0% 0%0%0%

1. Fixed Ratio

2. Variable Ratio

3. Fixed Interval

Every time Mary puts her Charlie Card into the turnstile, she is allowed on the T

1 2 3 4

0% 0%0%0%

1. Fixed Ratio

2. Variable Ratio

3. Fixed Interval

A salesman makes calls on 14 potential customers per day.

1 2 3 4

0% 0%0%0%

1. Fixed Ratio

2. Variable Ratio

3. Fixed Interval

You call your best friend from high school, and keep getting a busy signal.

1 2 3 4

0% 0%0%0%

1. Fixed Ratio

2. Variable Ratio

3. Fixed Interval

John stands at the T stop and peeks around the corner to see if the train is coming.

1 2 3 4

0% 0%0%0%

1. Fixed Ratio

2. Variable Ratio

3. Fixed Interval

Coming to work on Friday results in a paycheck for work completed during the week

1 2 3 4

0% 0%0%0%

1. Fixed Ratio

2. Variable Ratio

3. Fixed Interval

A friend of yours wants you to study more, so she comes to your room with chocolate cookies every so often. If she

finds you studying then you get a cookie.

1 2 3 4

0% 0%0%0%

1. Fixed Ratio

2. Variable Ratio

3. Fixed Interval

Persistence of Avoidance Learning

• Negatively reinforced responses show slower extinction than positively reinforced responses

Learning

Ecological Learning

Problems with Punishment

• Too uninformative – only tells learner what NOT to do, not what TO do.

• Tends to work well only when punisher present (unlike reinforcement) - this often accidentally leads to a partial schedule of reinforcement.

• Tends to cause fear in learner - (who stops ALL behavior) – classically conditioned response

• Constant effectiveness requires escalation

• Often the easiest and quickest consequence, but rarely the most effective at changing behavior.

Learning

Ecological Learning

Alternatives to Punishment

• Extinction

• Reinforcing preferred activities–Premack principle

• Shaping

Learning

Ecological Learning

Shaping

• To teach complex behaviors, may need to reinforce successive approximations of a desired response.

• For example, training animals, getting children to make their beds.

Learning

Ecological Learning

ShapingLearningClassical ConditioningOperant ConditioningEcological LearningObservational Learning

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are needed to see this picture.

The Death of Behaviorism

Tolman’s Latent Learning

Learning

Limitations to Pavlov’s andSkinner’s Theories of Learning

• Preparedness– some associations are learned more

easily than others (e.g. associating taste with nausea is easier than associating noise with nausea).

– One-trial learning– Spider and snake phobias are easier to

condition than flower and rock phobias.– Species specific behaviors sometimes

hard to modify

Learning

Ecological Learning

Conditioned Taste Aversions

Biological tendency in which an organism learns to avoid food with a certain taste after a single experience, if eating it is followed by illness

Learning

Ecological Learning

Application of psychology: Learning the wrong things

• What is superstitious behavior?– non-contingent reinforcement– examples of superstitions

• Learned helplessness– the cessation of all behavior as a result of

intense punishment– dog’s behavior in electrified cage– wife’s behavior in an abusive marriage

Learning

Ecological Learning

Learning

LearningClassical ConditioningOperant ConditioningEcological LearningObservational Learning

Social Learning

• Social cognitive theories emphasize how behavior is learned and maintained:– through observation and imitation of others,

– positive consequences,

– cognitive processing such as plans, expectations, and beliefs.

• Observational learning involves learning new responses by observing the behavior of another rather than through direct experience.

Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963).

• Nursery school children watched a film of 2 men (Johnny and Rocky) playing with toys.

• Johnny refuses to share and Rocky hits him, ending up with all the toys.

• Children who watched the video were significantly more violent than children in a control group.

• Bandura’s Bobo doll study

Bandura’s ResultsLearningClassical ConditioningOperant ConditioningEcological LearningObservational Learning

Learning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Ecological Learning Observational Learning

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