View
217
Download
0
Category
Preview:
Citation preview
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
1/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
Concentric Ideologies in Literacy Theory and Practice reflections on Foucault, Freire and Fairclough
towards a comparison with professional practice
1. Defining Literacy: perspectives of a personal journey
'The meaning of 'literacy' as an object of enquiry and of action
whether for research purposes or in practical programmes is ()
highly contested and () we cannot understand the term and its
uses unless we penetrate these contested spaces.'
(Street and Lefstein, 2007:34)
Current perspectives about the various contested spaces of literacy filter
through diverse philosophies. Reflecting the dominant prevalent ideologies,
they sometimes converge as much as they diverge. Through literacy
acquisition, consequences of literacy and literacy as social practice () we
can begin to understand different approaches and their consequences
(Street and Lefstein, 2007:34). This paper, whilst discussing these domains,
nevertheless takes a more personal perspective. It not only reviews theories
of literacy discussed in previous assignments, but also traces the
development of my ideas as a practitioner, a student and
a writer in the educational field.
This assignment departs from 'the most important ingredient in teaching and
learning literacy, identity', how teachers bring their sense of identity into
classrooms and how this infuses the overall sense of identity negotiatedwithin (Pahl and Rowsell, 2005:98). This is my starting point as an educator.
As a student and pre-service teacher, I was exposed to critical and reflective
practices, further explored in subsequent sections. Prior, my early education
and literacy experiences shaped my 'reflexive self' (Giddens, 1991; Ivanic,
1998) as has my exposure to narratives in both oral and written forms within
Josephine V. Saliba Page 1
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
2/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
family and schooling environments. Thus, my reflexive self has influenced
my sense of identity which 'consists in the sustaining of coherent, yet
continuously revised, biographical narratives' (Giddens, 1991:5),
a 'reflexively organised endeavour' that 'takes place in the context of
multiple choice as filtered through abstract systems' (ibid).
This process has 'discursive features' (Giddens, 1991; Ivanic, 1998) that
impinge on the construction of an individual's social identity 'constructed
socio-culturally, discoursally and through the mechanisms of social
interaction' (Ivanic, 1998:11-12). People interact within intermeshed,
undelineated spaces engaging in different discourse communities. Everyday
literacies are therefore richer than traditional views limiting themselves toconventional reading and writing (Pahl and Rowsell, 2005; Barton, 2007).
Identity is expressed through our social practices (Pahl and Rowsell,
2005:98), injecting layers of meaning through 'a culturally mediated and
practice-infused activity that constantly pulls on the personality of the
speaker, the writer or the reader' (ibid). However, positively or negatively
viewed constructed identities depend on the dominant social practice the
individual is engaging within, on the acknowledgement afforded to the
individual's identity as a literate person.
Identity is clearly yet complexly tied to theories of learning and literacy.
Such recent theories have progressed from the 'empty vessels' traditional
approach, shifting their focus from 'the individual mind and towards more
social practices' (Street and Lefstein, 2007:36). Nevertheless, many theories
retain their basis on 'deeper assumptions about cognition and in particular
regarding the cognitive consequences of learning or acquiring literacy'
(ibid:37). A legacy of the 'great divide' theories has left an embedded
distinction between those we consider illiterate/literate and thus
underdeveloped/developed, a distinction that remains at the basis of many
literacy programmes world-wide (Street and Lefstein, 2007:37). Many such
Josephine V. Saliba Page 2
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
3/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
programmes retain the Western bias in favour of reading/writing as the
dominant modes of desired functional literacy.
Although many theories of literacy exist, the pressures of 'the economic cost
of education, the requirements for a trained workforce, the effects of new
technologies on our lives, the need for adult literacy provision' (Barton,
2007:2) prevail. Thus, 'school-based definitions of literacy' continue to
dominate although people's everyday literacy practices may incorporate
other diverse experiences (ibid:4). Cognitive theorists associate the
development of writing with key advances in societies where
the ability to write distinguishes myth from history and thus oral culture from
the development of a written logic and reasoning (Street and Lefstein,2007:38). It is perhaps the ability to standardise, record and codify language
in its written form that lends writing an ascendancy over speech. Most social
rituals of passage, such as marriages, and transfer of power, like legal
contracts, happen through written practices which reinforce if not replace
formerly oral bonds.
As a reflexive practitioner, aware of these intermingled identities and literacy
practices, I cannot ignore the meaning-making processes I exhibit in class.My baggage of experience is part of the multi-layered narratives occurring
within me and within the social contexts I inhabit. I am part of the
interwoven narrative fabric of the everyday personal, social, cultural and
academic texts. Language constructs 'an identity for ourselves within the
different speech communities that we enter and we exit' (Pahl and Rowsell,
2005:98). Talk supports our identities and relationships in practice (Pahl and
Rowsell, 2005), whereas writing often causes people to 'change their speech'
(Ivanic, 1998:7) to alter their language and take on different identities (ibid)
thus affecting the narrative created, multilayering the meanings constructed
within the resultant text. Therefore, departing from the value of oral literacy
is as good as any for this paper, but perhaps even more relevant would be
Josephine V. Saliba Page 3
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
4/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
placing the issue within the whole discourse between the
divergence/convergence of ideas about oral versus written literacy.
Possibly, this apparent division between the oral and the written may
nonetheless not be all-significant. Despite valid criticisms to Goffman's
metaphor likening everyday behaviour to theatrical performances (1959,
1990), this analogy suits my professional practice. Within my academic
persona, different theories of literacy create a 'performance' which although
not conflict-free create my social character/performer identity. Sometimes
the 'performance' is scripted, others it is an improvisation that departs from
the 'text'. Often it is a blend that reflects the personal and the professional
with whom students and colleagues interact in the narrative/discoursecreated (Goffman, 1969; 1990; Ivanic, 1998), a 'mix' of mutually applicable
oral and literary textual conventions mirroring 'the reality of social uses of
varying modes of communication' (Street, 1985:4).
Considerable academic discussion revolves on what is actually meant by
text, whether it is restricted to the written or whether other forms of
communication may be thus called. Barton (2007:76) comments that most
western societies prefer to describe speech and language as codified writtentext. Coulthard (1977) states that labeling text is difficult because its
meaning is culturally defined. Synthesising this debate, Gonzalez (2004:13-
16) concludes that oral and written communication are both subject to
discoursive narrative and so 'suprasentential analysis' is required. Gonzalez
(ibid:14) also describes how her studies have indicated that 'there is a
relationship between two methodological schools and two distinct research
interests: text linguistics, that follows the written tradition, and discourse
analysis, that follows the oral one'; however, the author's stance is to
differentiate 'discourse-as-process from text-as-product'
(ibid).
Josephine V. Saliba Page 4
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
5/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
This assignment tends to concur with this, viewing text as meaning, a
semantic whole. Language in its many forms creates equally diverse genres
of text, be it spoken, visual, written or in any other form used for
communication purposes (Barton, 2007:76) and 'understanding literacy
involves studying both texts and the practices surrounding the texts' (ibid).
Instead of simply defining literacy, there is a need to examine the
metaphors and theories we are starting from', countering myths surrounding
aspects of literacy by focusing on an interdisciplinary approach that instead
of struggling over meanings of words offers different views
about 'common myths and widely accepted but wrong truths
about reading and writing' (Barton, 2007:6).
Therefore, this assignment explores Street and Lefstein's (2007) strands of
enquiry focusing on the trends emerging from my academic writing. My
identity as an academic writer is closely tied to the themes of oral/written
literacies; discourses of truth and power;
bilingualism/multilingualism/translingualism; Critical Literacy and the New
Literacy Studies; and Critical Discourse Analysis within ecological contexts.
This paper does not purport to discuss the whole complex facets of thesethemes but rather discusses those educational experiences and theoretical
influences that have shaped my stance vis a vis these themes both as a
literate adult and a practitioner who is trying to help others express their
literacies in whichever form these might exist. This assignment does not
attempt to dissect, analyse or investigate how traditional literacy
deficiencies can be solved but rather explores the interactions between
my thoughts on the theories of literacy that have influenced my practice
within my discourse communities.
2. Established Theories of Literacy: traditional and social practice
stances
Josephine V. Saliba Page 5
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
6/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
'No one practitioner necessarily adopts all of the characteristics of
any one model but the use of the concept helps us to see what is
entailed by adopting particular positions, to fill in gaps left by
untheorised statements about literacy, and to adopt a broader
perspective than is apparent in any one writer on literacy.'
(Street, 1985:3)
Education is part of the social experience of the majority of people, therefore
perceptions, beliefs and opinions abound. In Westernised societies,
traditional cognitive theories emphasise that the 'cognitive consequences' of
learning and acquiring literacy are significant for 'a societys functioning,
economic development and scientific potential' (Street and Lefstein,
2007:37). Such certainty leads various governments and education
authorities to adopt 'scientific-based approaches that can provide sound
evidence of which methods and approaches are superior
and that can claim to soundly refute some hypotheses
in favour of others' (Street and Lefstein, 2007:35).
This Cartesian belief that since 'I think therefore I am; I read and write
therefore I am literate' drives traditional schooling systems and national
development policies. It is so ingrained that in times of economic difficulties
the media often highlight alleged 'literacy problems'. Often using
sensationalist, simplistic terms that are divorced from educational research
and based on popular assumptions, the media exert more pressure on policy
makers to solve the problem and produce the statistics to prove it (Barton,
2007; Street and Lefstein, 2007). Autonomous models of literacy are thus
trusted to transmit defined skills to various individuals across different
contexts in value-free ways for the benefit of the individual and the nation - if
this can be considered to be an actual value-free system (Street, 1985;
Larson and Marsh, 2009).
Josephine V. Saliba Page 6
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
7/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
Although traditional theories of literacy focus on individual development,
such systems have not devised fool-proof programmes that turn out 'happy
well-educated people' (Barton, 2007:1). Autonomous models of literacy
often contain keywords such as skills, knowledge, understanding and
outcomes to describe linear methods of teaching concepts related to reading
and writing at specific ages during childhood, assuming that 'children
progress in similar ways and acquire specific skills in sequence' (Larson and
Marsh, 2009:4-5). Children and adults who miss out on any prescribed
cognitive stages are variously labeled as being at risk, illiterate, deficient and
similar terms defining their problem with normal traditional literacy
acquisition (Barton, 2007; Street and Lefstein, 2007; Larson and Marsh,
2009). Models of visible corrective pedagogy such as proposed by Bernstein
(1974) assume that teachers have explicit control to transmit 'the tastes and
experiences of a specific section of society () which possesses sufficient
cultural, economic and symbolic capital () to assert its authority' over the
whole curriculum (Larson and Marsh, 2009:6-8). This transmitted
indoctrination alienates, at worst violates, individuals' sense of identity and
belonging. It also creates and reinforces misunderstandings about diverse
literacy practices and the strategies practiced when interacting in different
discourse communities (Gee, 2004).
Ideological models of literacy contrast autonomous models (Street, 1985;
Larson and Marsh, 2009). Such theories vary in how they are shaped by
particular social, cultural, economic and political contexts
yet all acknowledge literacy as social practice. They are
ideological models because they embody particular meaning and power
relations (ibid). The most influential of the twenty-first century theories are
arguably New Literacy Studies, Critical literacy, New technologies and
literacy, and Socio-cultural -historical theory (Larson and Marsh, 2009:3-4).
These approaches combined with increasing interdisciplinary research and
'the impact of multimodal studies and discourse analysis have broadened
Josephine V. Saliba Page 7
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
8/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
what counts as literacy and challenged claims for its consequences thus
contributing towards a more balanced approach that
recognises the strengths of different
perspectives (Street and Lefstein, 2007:34-35).
Interdisciplinary studies progressively favour 'a more decontextualised
account of the learning process' while others 'attempt to link cognitive
processes with social practices' or 'locate the teaching of literacy within
broader social and political contexts () rather than imposing a single
standard on all' (ibid:34-35). Rapidly changing technologies are also
acknowledged by theorists who focus on multimodalities or multiliteracies in
a globalised world (Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2001). A common trait that such
research has is the study of issues of power and social
hierarchy as these forces, whether explicitly or implicitly, affect 'definitions
and their outcomes for practice' (Street and Lefstein, 2007:34-35).
More traditional theorists acknowledge that new globalised economies are
changing educational contexts as 'the production, distribution and circulation
of knowledge' is increasingly tied to market forces bringing about the
'secular concept of knowledge' (Bernstein, 2000:xviii). Bernstein (2000:xxiii),
particularly, retains a highly political stance towards the education of the
individual but acknowledges that traditional schooling creates a discourse
'which generates () horizontal solidarities whose object is to contain and
ameliorate vertical (hierarchical) cleavages between social groups'.
Bernsteins persistent view of traditional education as a means of upholding
democracy and social justice within a stratified social class system
nevertheless recognises the existence of a 'mythological discourse' between
mutually reinforcing stances attempting to produce a unified common
national consciousness for the common good whilst trying to 'disconnect
hierarchies within the school from a causal relation with social hierarchies
outside the school' (ibid). This symptomises 'policy technologies' in a
Josephine V. Saliba Page 8
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
9/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
globalised context where a 'one-size-fits-all' model aims at the
'transformation' and 'modernisation' of vocational education, mainly through
traditional models of educational management intended to organise human
skills and resources into 'functioning systems'
(Ball, 2010:41-43).
From another theoretical perspective, Barton (2007:6) declares the need to
deconstruct the myths associated with aspects of literacy, especially those
used to justify traditional literacy programmes. These myths and metaphors
render literacy to simple psychological variables that can measure and
assess the transferability of skills, problematising individuals and
labeling them as successes or failures according to dominant values
(ibid:11). When this view spills into the rest of society, social cleavages
rather than individual identities are upheld and reinforced. Focus remains on
employment, entrepreneurship, market forces, management and
performativity (Ball, 2010:45-53). A critical analysis of these processes is
necessary as socially identified 'figured worlds', positional stances linked to
power, status and rank and 'the space of authoring' orchestrate 'identifiable
social discourses/practices that are one's resources' and 'voice' in a bid toreach 'social efficacy' (Holland et al, 2001:271-2). Instead of being the
economy's task-masters, cultural and collective symbols, values and
resources transmitted between individuals through contextualised
and meaningful social practice should become the tools of self-management
and identity formation (Holland et al, 2001).
Actualising this necessitates 'more reflective' social sciences 'focusing on the
particular, and () interdisciplinary' countering accepted 'truths' and
building views representing multiple realities (Barton, 2007:6). Different
literacy theories, models and research serving as 'ideal types' would 'help
clarify the significant lines of cleavage in the field of literacy studies' thus
providing 'a more explicit theoretical foundation for descriptions of literacy
Josephine V. Saliba Page 9
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
10/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
practice and for cross-cultural comparison' (Street, 1985:3). For instance,
'critical discourse analysis explores how discourse in local sites and in larger
social structures constructs and positions and is constructed and positioned
by human subjects' (Larson and Marsh, 2009:12). Consequently rejecting
specific definitions that create myths (Barton, 2007) and analysing contexts
of D/discourse (Gee, 1999; Larson and Marsh, 2009) within educational
practice can reveal social practices interconnecting public and private
worlds. Hence my personal theory of literacy is based on a critical analysis
of truths about interconnecting power, language and identity issues in
public/private discourses. If these are manipulated, so are literacy spaces
and contexts of identities.
3. Constructing a Personal Theory/Theories of Literacy: Foucault,
Freire and Fairclough
'People tell others who they are, but even more importantly, they
tell themselves and then try to act as though they are who they say
they are.'
(Holland et al., 2001:3)
Figured worlds are spaces and narratives where individuals create a
portrayed identity within social encounters (Holland et al., 2001). Through
retelling and re-narrating 'stories' to others, new personal and communal
identities are created (ibid). Identities in practice within figured worlds are a
result of 'the accumulation of history' (Pahl and Rowsell, 2005:110). People
create different identities depending on context and discourse, the
intertextuality actuated between narrative, identity and ideology (Fairclough,
Josephine V. Saliba Page 10
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
11/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
1992, 1995) where 'discourse is the mediating mechanism in the social
construction of identity' (Ivanic, 1998:17). The discoursal self or identity
becomes, 'a culturally recognised way of representing a particular aspect of
reality from a particular ideological perspective' (ibid).
Ivanic's (1998) theory of 'writer identity' validly describes the development
of authorhood in any kind of discoursal narrative. Distinguishing the
autobiographical self, the discoursal self, the self as authorandpossibilities
for self-hood, it links Bourdieu's (1977) notion of habitus within the
autobiographical self and Goffman's theory (1959, 1990) of the creation of a
character/performer within discourse. It also encompasses elements of
Bakhtin's (1973) theory of social language and speech genres, Fairclough's
(1992) theory of voice, identity and intertextuality and Kress's notion of
multimodality of text construction (1989), amongst others (Ivanic, 1998:23-
55). It also can be used to illustrate the narrative text of
personal/professional identities, the mix of oral and literary conventions
described by Street (1985).
Social and discoursal history shaped my autobiographical self, my root
identity, as a creator of text through oral family history, narratives and
literacy practices. This is my 'truth', communicated both orally and in writing.
The voice I choose to convey my narrative is mydiscoursal self,
socially constructed as I choose to adopt characters suiting particular
contexts. My self as author is my discoursal self expressed in writing. The
possibilities of selfhood, my personal/professional identity, is a result of this
mix which although theoretically unlimited, is bound by social and discoursal
contextual boundaries. Currently, my selfhood and the texts I create are
highly influenced by my positionality as an academic writer and student of
literacy theory as well as a practitioner within traditionalist educational
structures. Subsuming certain aspects of identity, some professional 'subject
Josephine V. Saliba Page 11
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
12/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
positions' tend to be more privileged over others as the educational
institution 'accords them more status (Ivanic, 1998:27).
Nevertheless, as a literacy practitioner and student/researcher, 'it is not just
a question of occupying one subject position or another, but rather of being
multiply positioned by drawing on possibilities (...) on several dimensions
(ibid:27-28). Consulting Larson and Marsh's model on the construction of the
curriculum (2009:150) aided an identification of those dimensions that have
determined which theories of literacy I consider fundamental to my own
pedagogical practice and academic writing the internal and external
influences, sociocultural and structural influences, and input of subject-
knowledge/pedagogical content. These key beliefs are transversally referred
to and evident in all domains of my identity discussed above and I believe
they are based on the theories of three principal academics: Foucault, Freire
and Fairclough.
Applying Larson and Marsh's model reveals a socio-historical view of the
development of identity, a retrospective search for 'truth' influenced by
issues of power, language and identity, issues central to Foucault's
philosophy. Analysing the internal influences on
my personal theory of literacy highlights dilemmas questioned by Foucault.
Family history and oral literacy practices are essential to my identity,
awarding freedom to be but constraining my
freedom to become because of the social conditioning that is part of the oral
literacy process. It is arguable to what extent my beliefs and attitudes result
from individuality of identity or family/social conditioning. This necessitates
a re-evaluation of personal 'truths'. Foucault states it is 'not wrong to avoid
identification, but wrong to seek to reinforce it' (Williams,
2005:109) as there is no final truth in genealogies.
Josephine V. Saliba Page 12
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
13/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
It is a challenge to 'not seek to know who you are, but work with and vary
your pleasures' after understanding the necessary relation of the individual
to historical structures (Williams, ibid). This in essence means that the
individual needs to 'find space for movement within the
inherited determinations of power' (ibid), to be aware of how structures
have the power to determine identities, behaviours, values and norms. It
should be a pleasure to transgress this power.
Foucault provides 'new ways of thinking about our relation to the past, () in
terms of times and social conditioning () a new, poststructuralist form of
historical critique' (Williams, 2005:106). Foucault's poststructuralism looks at
social structures and individuals to transform our idea of identity in terms of
freedom and power, emphasising free will and how this is influenced by
external social structures, language and time (ibid). These external
influences, are mainly traditional theories of literacy and
schooling. They influenced my subsequent identity, language
development/use and literacy practices, practices carried on throughout my
university and pre-teaching service years which focused more on aspects of
subject-knowledge, in my case History teaching. Pedagogically, theemphasis was on traditional teaching methods, with class control and
assessment as prerogatives and functional literacy and 'the influence of
normalizing factors' (Foucault, 1977) as standards indicatively, Pavlov's
Theory of Behavioural Conditioning is my foremost pre-service training
recollection. External inputs on my subject
knowledge/pedagogical content were 'shaped by sociocultural discourses
that influence what is considered to be appropriate or not within an
educational domain' (Larson and Marsh, 2009:151).
However, other external factors on my subject knowledge/pedagogical
content challenged this behaviourist stance. Freire's Pedagogy of the
Oppressed (1996), his approaches to theatre, critical thinking and education,
Josephine V. Saliba Page 13
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
14/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
combined personal interests in politics, orality and alternate literacy theory.
To read the world besides the word (Freire, ibid) reinforces aspects of
Foucault's theory, that 'every human being is capable of looking at the world
critically in a dialogue with others () to transform their world,
to bring radical self-awareness to the forces
of oppression' (Street and Lefstein, 2007:243).
Critical literacy 'ensures taken-for-granted practices, authorized texts and
commonsense knowledges are subject to question'; it 'creates dialogic
spaces to interrogate, question and learn how other people think and live'; a
process that is 'educative, rather than simply going through the motions and
rehearsing familiar scripts' (Comber, in Larson and Marsh, 2009:63).
Yet, the traditionalist influence persists. Freire has been criticised for
favouring autonomous literacy models, based on assumptions between
cognition and literacy (Street, 1984:14). Hence many Freirian adaptations of
adult and functional literacy programmes have been domesticated' by
traditionalist, oppressive systems (Lankshear and Knobel, 2011:12),
especially in developing countries (Barton, 2007). Indeed, as a literacy
practitioner, my context is intermeshed with the identity of a small bi-partisan nation state. Split between hybrid socialist and demo-christian
nationalistic socio-cultural historical traditions, I am working through a
traditional, post-colonial education system shifting towards European
agendas in response to globalisation's education and employment
challenges. My personal theories of literacy are further affected by an
increasing shift from bilingual to multilingual contexts which further
problematise literacy education, employment, economic and citizenship
issues of families and students from designated disadvantaged sections of
the local population.
These socio-cultural influences have shaped my professional decision-making
and the choice of theories on which to base my literacy practice and
Josephine V. Saliba Page 14
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
15/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
curriculum development. Family literacy action with
economically disadvantaged families and present in-class work with
traditionally-viewed lower ability learners with low traditional functional
literacy skills has brought to the foreground my interest in ideologies and
their link to power and language struggles of bilingualism/multilingualism in
a country whose 'language problem' has always been linked to economic
development (Mayo, 1994). Hence, my personal theory of literacy agrees
with countering 'ideology as common sense' (Fairclough, 2001), the power
that regulates society and the individual (Foucault, 1977).
By looking at texts, or discourses, and the social forces that produce them
'linguistic and non-linguistic symbols which are regularly used to obtain
particular ideological effects' can be identified (Fairclough, 2001:27). Most
cultural contexts pressurise individuals 'to conform to
dominant values, beliefs and practices, as they appear to be the means
of achieving social, and often financial gain, although they usually reinforce
the status and serve the interests of the privileged few' (Ivanic, 1998:42). A
critical theory of literacy deconstructs those competing ideologies that use
socially constructed language and resources such as the
media and knowledge-power technologies to shift power relations
in specific linguistic interactions (Fairclough, 1992). Through the production
and interpretation of texts, values, practices and beliefs are understood,
reinforced, contested or changed, depending on the participants. Identifying
texts of 'social reality' and 'social relations and social identities' combined
with an analysis of those metaphors that reinforce modes of ideology
(Fairclough, 1992, 2001) provides 'useful ways of thinking about the relation
between symbolic forms and social effect' (Janks, 2009:37) especially where
dominant societal discourses use symbols and processes to constitute them
'as knowledge, that is, as truth' (ibid:50).
Josephine V. Saliba Page 15
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
16/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
Thus my personal theory of literacy can be summarised as an investigation
of 'truths' (Foucault, 1980) to regain individual identities,
revolutionising these into agents who can transform their social situation
(Freire, 1996). Dialogic critical discourse processes such as text analysis,
processing analysis and social analysis help describe, analyse and explain
these 'truths' (Fairclough, 1995). The thoughts of these three theorists focus
on how language and literacy discourse processes 'produce truth, how they
are produced by power and how they produce effects of power' (Janks,
2009:37). Together with an awareness of the structural influences on my
habitus and the influence of Foucault and Freire on my thinking, this search
for the ideology behind my personal theory of literacy and practice is an
effort to denormalise dominant ideologies and social relations that
problematise rather than liberate individual identities.
4. Em/Powerment: implications of Critical Literacy theories on
Functional Literacy
'The idea of empowerment often surfaces as a kind of magic
bullet for fighting educational causes on behalf of disadvantaged
groups () on the grounds of social justice, equity, and like ideals
() or a principle for enabling learning to take place. But ()
empowerment is all too rarely given adequate conceptual or
theoretical attention by those who set most store by it.'
(Lankshear and Knobel, 2011:104)
A common theoretical thread throughout the works of Foucault, Freire and
Fairclough is the link between identity, language and power and the need to
Josephine V. Saliba Page 16
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
17/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
be critical of this relationship. Although the discussion in this assignment is
by means exhaustive of their work, it confirms my personal and professional
discourses and identity as being steeped in theories of critical and
socio-cultural historical theory. Basing my work on Foucault, Freire and
Fairclough's theories helps me facilitate my students' understanding of their
positionality vis a vis texts and social practices whilst engaging with them as
a co-learner in goal-oriented activities intended to transform them as equal
participants in the learning process (Larson and Marsh, 2009:131-132).
Nevertheless, although my literacy support practice may not run the risk of
having too little theoretical basis regarding empowerment, my personal
stance risks overloading the concept with significance. Also, the texts and
discourses engaged in are part of wider secondary Discourses embedded
within an institution imposing how to 'name the space where theoretical
work is needed, rather than to fill that space' (Lankshear and Knobel,
2011:104) consequently making me an accessory to this process. Vocational
literacy programmes for empowerment thus inadvertently run the risk of
being associated with self-evident benefits or positive values that have little
substantive meaning (ibid). Such typical associations often linkempowerment with freedom and functional literacy or showing people
'how to work within a system from the perspective of people in power'
(Delgado-Gaitan, 1990:2; in Lankshear and Knobel, 2011:105-106).
Before engaging in critical literacy programmes, Knobel and Lankshear
(2011:105) advise analysing the embedded political, social and economic
ideals behind the notions and be clear about the subject of empowerment;
the power structures hindering empowerment; the processes through which
empowerment is to occur; and, the outcomes that are envisaged to follow
empowerment. Gee's work on D/discourse, on how Discourses and literacies
'constitute us as persons and situate us in society' (1990:153), further
explains how our words through speech and writing, our acts, attitudes,
Josephine V. Saliba Page 17
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
18/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
beliefs and identities identify individuals as members of socially meaningful
groups or players of meaningful social roles (Gee, 1990:142-143).
Considering these implications upon the theories I incorporate into my
practice, it is valid to further elaborate this reasoning.
Gee (1990) states people participate in primary and secondary Discourses,
where the former is based within oral language and its connotative use, how
we first learn to communicate in our immediate social group. Secondary
Discourses refer to how we learn to communicate in other social groupings to
which we have access. This necessitates we learn their codes of
communication in order to function in wider society, including the use of
various writing genres (Gee, 1990). Participants need master a secondary
language consisting of various communication modes enabling the individual
access to those resources enjoyed by these often dominant Discourses which
distribute 'social power and hierarchical structure in society (Gee,
1990:4-5). Functional literacy may thus be another entry into secondary
Discourses through learning a secondary language or learning to read or
write, or using information technology or attaining standardised outcomes of
learning necessary to gain employment, thus embodying material as well assymbolic power. Through certain functional literacy programmes, dominant
literacies 'empower certain groups (and depotentiate others), by making
what they already have (or have privileged access to) into currency for
acquiring social goods and benefits' (Lankshear and Knobel, 2011:111).
Political change frequently imposes versions of Freirian critical and functional
literacy programmes on population groups deemed illiterate because (my
emphasis) they are poor or live in economically underprivileged,
underdeveloped areas. That is certainly my experience of local
family/vocational literacy programmes funded under the aegis of the
Josephine V. Saliba Page 18
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
19/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
European Union or the United Nations. Currently, as a vocational literacy
support practitioner, I often need to re-evaluate my positionality on
'literacy', 'support', 'functional skills', 'empowerment and employability' and
similar labels. While it is my experience that numerous students display
gaps in traditional literacy skills, it is the infrequent minority who are really
illiterate by traditional standards, even those pertaining to emotional, oral
and similar communicative skills. This, regardless of the need to
value different literacies. Therefore, the discrepancy in touting vocational
courses as 'true' functional literacy programmes is real.
Functional literacy has different meanings in diverse cultures, ranging from a
passive, coping state of survival to acquiring the knowledge and skills in
reading and writing necessary to engage effectively within prevailing
dominant Discourses (Lankshear and Knobel, 2011:7). Common to most
institutionalised functional literacy programmes is a set of tangible outcomes
to be reached to become ideal, employable citizens, logically assumed
beneficiaries of intangible advantages such as heightened self-esteem and
the like (ibid:10). However, viewing functional literacy 'as a
rescuing savior is the height of naivety' (ibid:11) because the political andfinancial needs of dominant Discourses in ever-changing job markets,
affecting projected better standards of living, render other intangible benefits
relative to politico-economic situations. This functional
literacy becomes another kind of dehumanising, domesticating ideology
instead of what Freire intended to be the means for transforming people into
critically informed and transformed individuals (ibid:11-15).
Therefore, professional re-evaluation of critical literacy skills teaching in the
Freirian sense is necessary, especially when critiquing and analysing texts
and dominant discourses dealing with functional literacy and employability
'are my students responding to texts or to me?' (Lankshear and Knobel,
2011:64).
Josephine V. Saliba Page 19
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
20/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
Answering this question involves engaging people in transformative
processes 'in dialogue facilitated by reading and writing' to enable
'intellectual access to their world and their place within that world, a
conception of their unique human status and vocation, and the commitment
to pursue their vocation' (Lankshear and Knobel, 2011:17-18). This ongoing
'radical alternative conception' should transform literacy theory into active
practice creating critical, conscious relationships between all players where
individuals build on their existant knowledge, skills and understanding to
become 'ever more functionally literate' (ibid). Consequently, re-evaluating
the theories of Foucault, Freire and Fairclough within this discussion, it is
worth considering the applicability of these theories on the functional literacy
programmes I work within to actually emphasise the really functional and
revolutionary aspect of our relationship rather than the dehumanising aspect
of traditional programmes.
5. Different Literacies, Different Ecological Contexts: A Critical
Analysis of Discourse
'Like other polarities in literacy, 'one literacy versus many' turns outto be too gross a simplification of the processes we are trying to
understand.'
(Hannon, 2000:38)
Although the view that 'some literacies can be regarded as more valuable
than others' (Hannon, 2000:33) persists, academics recognising literacy as
social practice conclude that one precise definition for the term literacy is an
impossible myth (Hannon, 2000; Barton, 2007). Problematisation remains
not in the conflict between the different literacies but in drawing boundaries
between different co-existing literacies. However, strict definition may not
be necessary as the interaction between different literacies lead to 'the
Josephine V. Saliba Page 20
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
21/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
emergence of new patterns, features and structures, which are generated
from the constitutive elements of the system but cannot be reduced to them'
(Barton, 2007:31). The concept of concentric ideologies and theories might
thus be preferable when discussing 'literacies' as 'it takes you further, it
provides new insights and makes new connections' (Barton, 2007:18).
Talking about the ecologic nature of literacy/literacies is another useful way
of showing that 'skills and social practices are not opposite conceptions'
(Hannon, 2000:38). An ecological approach does
not isolate 'literacy activities from everything else in order to understand
them' (Barton, 2007:32) and hence may also be an ideal way of observing
the main theories discussed in this paper in actuation as it 'aims to
understand how literacy is embedded in other human activity, its
embeddedness in social life and in thought, and its position in history, in
language and in learning' (Barton, ibid). Therefore, instead of trying to
compare oral literacy with conventional reading and writing skills within the
diverse contributions of unitary versus pluralist views of literacy, it would
perhaps be preferable to study the 'social practices associated with
particular symbol systems and their related technologies' (ibid).I find this approach particularly relevant to issues pertaining New Literacies
and bilingualism/multilingualism practices during my in-class practice and
interaction with my students given our local context.
Such an ecological study could be paired with Critical Discourse Analysis
(CDA). As previously discussed in other papers, CDA has the potential for
transformation by bringing further understanding to the intertextuality
between language, utterance-type meanings, situated meanings and social
practices (Freeman, 1998; Rogers, 2008), hence analysing the symbol
systems and technologies associated with local bilingualism, taking up the
issue beyond traditionalist arguments revolving around language skills. CDA
focuses on the different ideological stances towards different literacies and
Josephine V. Saliba Page 21
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
22/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
languages and the diverse social and cultural backgrounds which ultimately
provide different people with different educational, linguistic
and literacy goals (Freeman, 1998).
Critical literacy practices combined with CDA challenges domesticated
versions of functional literacy promoting utilitarian vocational meanings
(Rassool, 1999:8). CDA supports Freire's
(1996) arguments by encouraging people to co-read behind the literal text
and reflect on their society and the struggles of power, engaging
'in a critical discussion of the positions a text supports (Papen, 2005:11).
It can also throw more light on the multimodal entity of language
'both over new ways of using language, and over linguistic representations of
change' (Fairclough, 2001:204). An ecological CDA study in the classroom
enables critical reflection on political choices such as the language and texts
used for instruction and the content that is included or excluded from the
classroom, who imposes the curriculum and how, who decides what to teach,
and the nature of student involvement in such decisions (Janks, 2009:23).
It thus highlights the 'positioned and positioning' (Fairclough, 2001) within
the 'political question () truth itself' Foucault,1980:133). It also marries theory and practice through
participative research.
CDA offers an explanation of why and how discourses, including
bilingual/multilingual discourses, work. It aids the understanding of
relationships between language, the economy, national policies, and
educational practices (Gee, 2008; Rogers, 2008). Apart from its research
aspects, it encourages active functional literacy practices in which
participants are confident of their literacy skills (Barton, 2007). Thus, CDA is
not solely a theoretical exercise but complements theories of literacy through
empirical means (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). Within a bilingual/multilingual
ecological approach it counters a monocultural view of language and
Josephine V. Saliba Page 22
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
23/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
encourages diversity where it 'is a source of strength, the roots of the
possibilities of the future () maintaining diversity; () the range
of variation in language' (Barton, 2007:31, 32).
Ecological diversity of language is evolving fast through new information and
communication technologies that have irrevocably changed views about and
uses of literacy (Kress, 2003; Larson and Marsh, 2009). New communication
technologies are changing the balance of languages and cultures through
previously unconsidered and sudden, irreversible ways (Barton, 2007:32).
The traditional dominance of writing is being transformed into literacies
where 'the ability to decode, encode and make meaning
using a range of modes of communication including print, still and moving
image, sound and gesture' is mediated through new technologies (Larson
and Marsh, 2009:69). This may include 'written, oral, visual and corporeal
forms of making-meaning' (ibid), often used contemporaneously in various
ways. New multiliteracies, or new multiple ways of making
meaning, thus arise.
Ecological research into these new social practices paired with CDA can help
give a glimpse of other literacies beyond school-based ones leading to
reconsideration of traditional theories and practices as well as implications
on the roles of education professionals at all hierarchical levels. Larson and
Marsh (2009:75) discuss these implications, making a case for them as
aiding meaningful situated learning that is 'responsive to the discursive
worlds of learners' enabling them to 'bring their funds of knowledge' within
classroom situated social and cultural practices that 'provide opportunities
for learners to experience and respond critically to a range of discursive
practices, identities, texts and so on' (ibid).
Although there is diverse and often divided theory and research about
teaching and learning literacy in a new media age (Larson and Marsh, 2009),
Josephine V. Saliba Page 23
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
24/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
a microecological approach studies the linguistic, social,
political and pedagogical practices in the classroom (Jaffe, 2003) and opens
up 'ideological and implementational space in the environment' (Hornberger,
2002) for as many languages and literacies as possible. Such a critical,
ecological approach 'considers the already established with the
new' including the 'development of new languages alongside the
development of existing languages' (Blackledge and Creese, 2009:201-202).
Within this scenario, the interrelationship between teacher and learners
develops a 'wide panoramic view of self', 'new identity
positions' and new possibilities' of self-hood for both teacher and
learners (ibid:202).
Consequently, such an approach would appear to be a natural progression
from my core theoretical base towards more practical
and empirical research into theories of literacy. This would seemingly involve
taking my concept of literacy and identity, comparing them
with the theories of literacy discussed in this paper and through CDA and
ecological approaches, work out how they translate into classroom practices
taking into account the new stances posed by New Literacy Studies. Suchresearch would provide 'rich and theorized accounts of cultural
practices' enabling me as participant-practitioner-researcher 'to experience
them from the inside' (Lankshear and Knobel, in Larson
and Marsh, 2009:95), thus expanding my
'knowledge and theory relevant to teaching and learning, and the learning
goals and outcomes' I believe in (ibid).
Hence, with the thoughts of Foucault, Freire and Fairclough as the kernel of
my concentric theoretical stance from which I departed at the beginning of
this paper, I can use this theory as a base of informed judgement from which
to move towards truly critical enquiry. Hence, I can endeavour to
find my own voice within the multiplicity of interconnected theories of
Josephine V. Saliba Page 24
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
25/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
literacies and by comparing them to my own values and experience I can
engage in critical self-reflection leading me from theory to critical
action. Departing from the vision of Foucault, Freire and Fairclough and
engaging my texts with theirs may also eventually lead me further afield
than my current centred position to explore other interlinked or even
opposing views that may ultimately challenge and transform my current
ideology and theory of literacy.
References
Bakhtin, M.M. (1973) Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics. Trans. By R.W.Rotsel. Ann Arbor, MI: Ardis. In Ivanic, R. (1998) Writing and identity:The discoursal construction of identity in academic writing.Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.
Ball, S. (2010) The Education Debate: Policy and Politics in the Twenty-
First Century. Policy and Politics in the Twenty First Century. Bristol:Policy Press.
Barton, D. (Ed.) (1994) Sustaining Local Literacies. Reading:Education for Development.
Barton, D. (2007) Literacy: An Introduction to the Ecology of Written
Language. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Bernstein, B. (1974) Class, Codes and Control. Vol.1. 2nd ed. London:Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Bernstein, B. (2000) Pedagogy, Symbolic Control and Identity: Theory,
Research Critique. Revd. ed. London: Taylor and Francis. Blackledge, A. and Creese, A. (2009) Multilingualism: A Critical
Perspective (Advances in Sociolinguistics). London: ContinuumInternational Publishing Group Ltd.
Bourdieu, P. (1977) Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Comber, B. (2009) Interview. In Larson, J. and Marsh, J. (2009) Making
Josephine V. Saliba Page 25
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
26/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
Literacy Real. London: Sage Publications Ltd. p.61-67.
Coulthard, M. (1977) An Introduction to Discourse Analysis. London:
Longman.
Delgado-Gaitan, C. (1990) Literacy for Empowerment: The Role of
Parents in Children's Education. London: Falmer Press. In Lankshear,C. and Knobel, M. (2011) Literacies: Social, Cultural and Historical
Perspectives. New York: Peter Lang Publishing Inc.
Denzin, N. K. and Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.) (2008) Collecting and
Interpreting Qualitative Materials. Los Angeles: Sage Publications Ltd.
Fairclough, N. (1992) Discourse and social change. London: Polity.
Fairclough, N. (1995) Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study ofLanguage (Language in Social Life). Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd.
Fairclough, N. (2001) Language and Power (Language in Social Life).
Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd.
Fairclough, N. (2003) Analysing Discourse: Textual Analysis for SocialResearch. New York, London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Ltd.
Foucault, M (1977) Discipline and Punish, New York: Pantheon.
Foucault, M (2003) Society Must Be Defended, (Trans. David Macey).Bertani, Mauro & Fontana, Alessandro (eds.).New York: Picador.
Foucault, M (1980) Two Lectures, in Colin Gordon, ed.,Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews, New York: Pantheon.
Freeman, R. D. (1998) Bilingual Education and Social Change.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Freire, P. (transl. by M. Bergman Ramos) (1996) Pedagogy of theOppressed. London: Penguin Books.
Gee, J. P. (1990). Social linguistics and literacies: Ideology indiscourses. Critical perspectives on literacy and education. London:Falmer Press.
Gee, J. P. (1999) An introduction to Discourse analysis: theory andmethod. London and New York: Routledge.
Gee. J. P. (2004). Situated language and learning: A critique of
traditional schooling. London: Routledge.
Gee, J. P. (2008) Discourse Analysis: What Makes It Critical? In: Rogers,
R. (Ed.) (2008) An Introduction to Critical Discourse Analysis in
Education. New York: Routledge. p. 19-50.
Giddens, A. (1991) Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the
Late Modern Age. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press.
Josephine V. Saliba Page 26
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
27/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
Goffman, E. (1959, 1990) The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life.London: Penguin Books Ltd.
Gonzalez, M. (2004) Pragmatic Markers in Oral Narrative: the Case of
English and Catalan. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.
Hannon, P. (2000) Reflecting on Literacy in Education. London:RoutledgeFalmer.
Holland, D., Lachicotte, W. S., Skinner, D. and Cain, C. (2001) Identityand Agency in Cultural Worlds. Cambridge, Massachusetts: HarvardUniversity Press.
Hornberger, N. (2002), 'Multilingual language policies and the continuaof biliteracy: An ecological approach'. Language Policy, 1, 27-51.
Ivanic, R. (1998) Writing and identity: The discoursal construction of
identity in academic writing. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing
Co. Jaffe, A. (2003) Misrecognition Unmasked? 'Polynomic' language,
expert statuses and orthographic practices in Corsican schools.International Pragmatics Association: Pragmatics, 13(4), 515-537.
Janks, H. (2009) Literacy and Power (Language, Culture, and TeachingSeries). New York, London: Routledge, Taylor & FrancisLtd.
Knobel, M. and Lankshear, C. (2009) Interview. In Larson, J. and Marsh,J. (2009) Making Literacy Real. London: Sage Publications Ltd.p.92-98.
Kress, G. (1989) Linguistic Processes in Sociocultural Practice (SecondEdition). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kress, G. (2003) Literacy in the New Media Age. London: Routledge.
Kress, G. and Leeuwen, T. van (2001) Multimodal Discourse: themodes and media of contemporary communication. London: Arnold.
Lankshear, C. and Knobel, M. (2011) Literacies: Social, Cultural andHistorical Perspectives. New York: Peter Lang Publishing Inc.
Larson, J. and Marsh, J. (2009) Making Literacy Real. London: Sage
Publications Ltd.
Mayo, P. (1994) State Sponsored Adult Literacy Programmes in Malta:A Critical Review. In Barton, D. (Ed.) (1994) Sustaining Local Literacies.Reading: Education for Development.
Pahl, K. and Rowsell, J. (2005) Literacy and Education: Understanding
the New Literacy Studies in the Classroom. London: Sage Publications
Ltd.
Josephine V. Saliba Page 27
8/4/2019 Josephine v Saliba EdD Assignment 5
28/28
Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates inLiteracy and Education
Papen, U. (Ed.) (2005) Adult Literacy as Social Practice. London:
Routledge.
Rassool, N. (1999) Literacy for Sustainable Development in the Age ofInformation. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Rogers, R. (Ed.) (2008) An Introduction to Critical Discourse Analysis inEducation. New York: Routledge.
Street, B. (1984) Literacy in Theory and Practice. New York:Cambridge University Press.
Street, B. V. (1985) Literacy in theory and practice. Cambridge: CUP.
Street, B. V. and Lefstein A. (2007) Literacy: an advanced resource
book. London: Routledge.
Williams, J. (2005) Understanding Poststructuralism. Bucks: Acumen
Publishing Ltd.
Recommended