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Is Australia culturally attuned to socialinclusion and mobility?1
A paper presented at the
Brotherhood of St Laurence Seminar Series
23 October 2008
by
Professor Alan HayesDirector, Australian Institute of Family Studies
1 The views expressed in this paper are those of the authorand may not reflect the views of
the Australian Institute of Family Studiesor the Australian Government.
Acknowledgements
This presentation has been greatly enriched by the work of mycolleagues
Dr Matthew GrayMs Diana SmartDr Ben EdwardsMs Nancy Virgona
and the many others at the Australian Institute of Family Studieswith whom I am privileged to work.
Introduction
Background to the development of social inclusionapproaches
Is exclusion synonymous with poverty? Or not?
Exclusion involves limited: Social participation Social integration Social capital Access to opportunity Power and agency
Social exclusion themes
Relativity Relative to the norms and expectations of society at a particular point
in time.
Agency Caused by an act of some individual, group or institution. A person
may exclude themselves by choice or they may be excluded by thedecisions of other people, organisations or institutions.
Prospectivity Not a result simply of current circumstances (e.g. unemployment),
but also requires that the person’s future prospects are limited.
(Atkinson, 1998)
Definitions of social exclusion
A shorthand label for what can happen when individuals or areassuffer from a combination of linked problems such as unemployment,poor skills, low incomes, poor housing, high crime environments, badhealth and family breakdown.
(UK Social Exclusion Unit, 1997)
An individual is socially excluded if he or she does not participate inkey activities in the society in which he or she lives.
(Burchardt, Le Grand, and Piachaud, 2002, p.30)
Definitions of social exclusion (continued)
Social exclusion is a complex and multi-dimensional process.
It involves the lack or denial of resources, rights, goods andservices, and the inability to participate in the normalrelationships and activities, available to the majority of people insociety, whether in economic, social, cultural, or political arenas.
It affects both the quality of life of individuals and the equity andcohesion of society as a whole.
(Levitas et al., 2007, p.9)
Definitions of social exclusion (continued)
“Social exclusion” has not featured much in the USdebate
“Social disorganization” has been an influentialconcept
Three forms of exclusion
Wide exclusion refers to the large number of people being excluded on a single or
small number of indicators.
Deep exclusion refers to being excluded on multiple or overlapping dimensions.
Deep exclusion is more entrenched and deep-seated than wideexclusion.
Concentrated exclusion refers to a geographic concentration of problems and to area
exclusion.
(Miliband, 2006)
Dynamic relationship of wide and deepsocial inclusion policies
Relational dimensions of socialexclusion exclusion from social relations:
non-participation in common activities;
the extent and quality of social networks;
support available in normal times and in times of crisis;
disengagement from political and civic activity; and
confinement, resulting from fear of crime, disability or other factors.
(Millennium Survey of Poverty and Social Exclusion in Britain, 2006)
Australian interest in social inclusion
Australian interest in Social Inclusion is more recent
The McClure Report into welfare reform identified threeoutcomes
reduction in the incidence of jobless families and households; reduction in the proportion of those heavily reliant on income
support; and stronger communities that generate opportunities for
participation
But it did not identify an explicit social inclusion policyagenda.
Other Australian landmarkdevelopments in social inclusion South Australia’s Social Inclusion Commission
References include Aboriginal Health, Disability,Homelessness, Mental Health, School Retention, The Parks(a neighbourhood renewal project), Young Offenders, Drugs,International Youth Leadership and Suicide Prevention.
Other states (e.g. Victoria) have related agendas
Community organisations increasingly focus on socialinclusion.
Australia’s focus
securing a job; accessing services; connecting with others in life through family, friends, work, personal
interests and local community; dealing with personal crises, such as ill health, bereavement or the
loss of a job; and being heard.
(Gillard, 2008)
To be socially included requires opportunitiesfor:
Priority aspects
Locational disadvantage
Jobless families
Homelessness
Child poverty
Intergenerational disadvantage
Employment and people with a disability
Children at risk
Children at risk
“modernity’s paradox” unprecedented capacity for wealth creation coexists
with growing perceptions of increased challenges tothe development, health and wellbeing of children.
(Keating and Hertzman, 1999)
Australia, regrettably, reflects this paradox.(Stanley, Richardson & Prior, 2005)
The pathways to poor outcomes in development,health and wellbeing have also been well established.
Social gradients have been observed in several areasof the development, health and wellbeing of Australianchildren.
Australian research on locationaldisadvantage From 1981 to 1996 the level of neighbourhood income
inequality increased in Australia(Gregory & Hunter, 1995; Hunter & Gregory, 2001)
The growth in neighbourhood income inequality sincethe 1970s in Australia also mirrors what has occurred inthe United States and Canada (Hunter, 2003)
Neighbourhood socio-economic status was associatedwith social/emotional and learning outcomes for 4-year-olds. (Edwards, 2005)
Some tentative conclusionsNeighbourhood inequality is increasing…
Source: Hunter, B. (2003). Australian Economic History Review, 43, 22-44
Neighbourhood effect on continuousoutcome index
Source: LSAC, Wave 1
More disadvantaged neighbourhoods have a greaterimpact on boys’ social/emotional outcomes than girls’
Source: LSAC, Wave 1
Effects of neighbourhood on thewellbeing of residents
poorer learning and behavioural outcomes, and physicalhealth outcomes (Leventhal & Brooks-Gunn, 2000)
higher rates of infectious diseases, asthma, smoking,depression, nutritional problems and lower self-ratedhealth (Kawachi & Berkman, 2003)
reduced job and educational prospects. (Galster, Marcotte, Mandell, Wolfman and Augustine, 2007; and
Holloway and Multherin, 2004; and Kling, Liebman and Katz, 2007)
Living in a disadvantaged neighbourhood, comparedto living in a less disadvantaged neighbourhood, hasbeen found to be associated with:
Child poverty and jobless families
Australia’s child poverty rate is not high by OECDstandards
BUT
Australia has a relatively high rate of joblessfamilies.
Poverty rates for childrenOECD countries, about 2000
Notes: Poverty is defined as living in a household with an equivalised household disposable income of less than 50% of themedian for the whole population and is thus a relative measure. To account for possible scale economies in consumption,household income is equivalised using the square root of household size.Source: Whiteford & Adema (2007, Table 1)
Homelessness
100,000 Australians are homeless, including 10,000children under 12 years of age
Domestic violence is a major factor, as is mentalillness.
International comparisons
How does Australia rate?
Why do the UK and US rate so poorly?
And what might explain the differences?
Child well-being and child povertyr=0.75
(Bradshaw, 2008)
Child well-being and social expenditureas % GDP 2003
(Bradshaw, 2008)
Some countries achieve both high performancestandards and an equitable distribution of learningoutcomes
Source: OECD PISA 2000, www.pisa.oecd.org
Student performance and spending perstudent
Source: OECD PISA 2000, www.pisa.oecd.org
Intergenerational mobility of earningsacross OECD countries
d’Addio (2007)
Intergenerational correlation of educationalattainment across OECD countries
d’Addio (2007)
New data on disadvantage
Insights from the Growing up in Australia: TheLongitudinal Study of Australian Children(LSAC); and
A collaborative project with The Smith Family.
Child outcomes, by parental socio-economic position and age of child
Source: LSAC, Waves 1 & 2
“School Readiness”
Language comprehension
Behaviour
Literacy
Numeracy
Recent interest in early childhood developmentas a foundation for social inclusion
Biological hazards in the pre- and post-natal periodhave major impacts on brain development
The effects of abuse and neglect significantlycompromise neurological development
The efficacy of a range of early interventions to addressthe developmental consequences of disadvantage iswell established
Such interventions are considered cost effective andare the basis for the economics of human capitalinvestment
Cost-benefit analysis
Much of the discussion of the cost-benefit of early childhoodeducation and care conflates generic services with targetedinterventions that are really enriched pre-school experiences
Analyses are based upon evidence from a small set of studies ofearly interventions
Mostly very small scale and localised in severely disadvantagedcommunities
e.g. Perry Preschool Program offered in 1962 to 58 3-4 year old children.
Recent interest in early childhood developmentas a foundation for social inclusion
the provision of a quality, universally availablesystem of early childhood experiences that promotespositive developmental outcomes for children
and early interventions that target children at highrisk.
There is a need to differentiate the policy andpractice implications of
A model of promotion, prevention andearly intervention in early childhood
Use of formal child care, by parentalsocio-economic position and age of child
Source: LSAC, Waves 1 & 2
Childcare use, infants
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Lowest
SEP
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Highest
SEP
Parental socio-economic status (deciles)
%
Long day care Family day care Informal care only
Source: LSAC, Waves 1 & 2
Childcare use, 2-3 year olds
Source: LSAC, Waves 1 & 2
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Lowest
SEP
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Highest
SEP
Parental socio-economic status (deciles)
%
Long day care Family day care Informal care only
Potential benefits of a social inclusionagenda Broadening the definition of disadvantage from an
exclusive focus on poverty
Emphasising social problems beyond the traditionalconcept of poverty
Focusing the discourse on the most disadvantaged
Bringing greater policy coherence and focus
Emphasising the importance of addressing themultiple barriers disadvantage presents
Underscoring the importance of joined-up services
Potential benefits of a social inclusionagenda (continued)
Highlighting the localised nature of disadvantage, themultiple disadvantages faced by the socially excludedand the process that has led to social exclusion
Identifying the role of social institutions in systematicallyexcluding certain groups or communities.
Potential limitations and risks of a socialinclusion agenda Overlooking the cumulative nature of disadvantage,
including across generations of the same family
Stigmatising groups and communities identified asbeing socially excluded
Distinguishing between the “deserving” and“undeserving” poor
Diffusing responsibility for addressing specific issues
Lacking coordination of multiple services
Potential limitations and risks of a socialinclusion agenda (continued)
Regenerating disadvantaged urban areas that canresult in gentrification and displacement of the poor toneighbourhoods which have less access to servicesand the labour market
Re-labelling existing government programs under thesocial inclusion agenda without reforming or bettercoordinating these, and
Shifting policy attention away from other forms ofinequality, including income inequality.
Building an Australian social inclusionapproach
A very wide range of policies has the potential toassist in reducing social exclusion and increasing thelevel of social inclusion.
In order to reduce social exclusion, both active andpreventive policies are needed to prevent deep socialexclusion
Features of productive approaches tosocial inclusion Addressing multiple disadvantages that the socially
excluded experience
Recognising that the most socially disadvantaged andexcluded often do not access conventional services
Centralising coordination, targets and monitoring
Localising coordination across government and non-government organisations to achieve an integratedapproach to social inclusion
Features of productive approaches tosocial inclusion (continued)
Implementing social inclusion initiatives at multiple points acrosslife cycles, from early childhood onwards and strategies to breakthe intergenerational cycles of disadvantage, deprivation andsocial exclusion
Forming partnerships between government and the non-profitsector
Changing attitudes, values and beliefs of those experiencing socialexclusion and the broader community
Features of productive approaches tosocial inclusion (continued)
Identifying the extent of the problem and theunderlying causes
Re-examining the evidence base to identify newsolutions, and
Developing performance measures and robustevaluations that capture both wide, deep andconcentrated disadvantage to measure outcomesover the long term.
Some tentative conclusions
Social inclusion agendas require webs of services andpackages of policies
Policy integration needs to be both horizontal (acrossareas of policy priority) and vertical (across life andspanning generations)
The three pillars of social inclusion are: Accessible quality lifelong learning opportunities to promote life
capabilities and employment chances Social and economic mobility Family and relationship supports
Some tentative conclusions (continued)
Priorities include:
Reducing social disorganisation Enhancing social and economic mobility Facilitating personal agency and participation Building community capacity and cohesion Facing collective responsibility.
Social Inclusion: Origins, concepts andkey themesThis presentation is, in part, based on the paper
Social Inclusion: Origins, concepts and key themes
ByAlan Hayes, Matthew Gray and Ben Edwards
Prepared forThe Social Inclusion Unit, Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet October2008
which can be found atwww.aifs.gov.auandwww.socialinclusion.gov.au
Is Australia culturally attuned to socialinclusion and mobility?1
A paper presented at the
Brotherhood of St Laurence Seminar Series
23 October 2008
by
Professor Alan HayesDirector, Australian Institute of Family Studies
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