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Improving Upland Rice (Oryza Sativa L.) Perfomance throughEnhanced Soil Fertility and Water Conservation Methods atUkiriguru Mwanza, Tanzania
Publication HistoryReceived: 12 September 2016Accepted: 06 October 2016Published: 12 October 2016
CitationMohamed Ibrahim Shemahonge, Cornel L Ryeyemum. Improving Upland Rice (Oryza Sativa L.) Perfomance throughEnhanced Soil Fertility and Water Conservation Methods at Ukiriguru Mwanza, Tanzania. Indian Journal of Science, 2016,23(86), 731-790
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
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Article is recommended to print as digital color version in recycled paper.
Indian Journal of Science ANALYSISThe International Journal for ScienceISSN 2319 – 7730 EISSN 2319 – 7749© 2016 Discovery Publication. All Rights Reserved
Page | 731
Improving Upland Rice (Oryza Sativa L.) Perfomance throughEnhanced Soil Fertility and Water Conservation Methods atUkiriguru Mwanza, Tanzania
Publication HistoryReceived: 12 September 2016Accepted: 06 October 2016Published: 12 October 2016
CitationMohamed Ibrahim Shemahonge, Cornel L Ryeyemum. Improving Upland Rice (Oryza Sativa L.) Perfomance throughEnhanced Soil Fertility and Water Conservation Methods at Ukiriguru Mwanza, Tanzania. Indian Journal of Science, 2016,23(86), 731-790
Publication License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
General Note
Article is recommended to print as digital color version in recycled paper.
Indian Journal of Science ANALYSISThe International Journal for ScienceISSN 2319 – 7730 EISSN 2319 – 7749© 2016 Discovery Publication. All Rights Reserved
Page | 731
Improving Upland Rice (Oryza Sativa L.) Perfomance throughEnhanced Soil Fertility and Water Conservation Methods atUkiriguru Mwanza, Tanzania
Publication HistoryReceived: 12 September 2016Accepted: 06 October 2016Published: 12 October 2016
CitationMohamed Ibrahim Shemahonge, Cornel L Ryeyemum. Improving Upland Rice (Oryza Sativa L.) Perfomance throughEnhanced Soil Fertility and Water Conservation Methods at Ukiriguru Mwanza, Tanzania. Indian Journal of Science, 2016,23(86), 731-790
Publication License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
General Note
Article is recommended to print as digital color version in recycled paper.
Indian Journal of Science ANALYSISThe International Journal for ScienceISSN 2319 – 7730 EISSN 2319 – 7749© 2016 Discovery Publication. All Rights Reserved
Page | 732
IMPROVING UPLAND RICE (Oryza sativa L.) PERFOMANCE THROUGH
ENHANCED SOIL FERTILITY AND WATER CONSERVATION
METHODS AT UKIRIGURU MWANZA, TANZANIA
Mohamed Ibrahim Shemahonge1 Ukiriguru Agriculture Research Institute,
Box 1433, Mwanza- Tanzania.
Prof Cornel L. Ryeyemum2 Sokoine University of Agriculture Box 3006
Morogoro, Tanzania.
Page | 733
ABSTRACT
The experiment was conducted at Agricutural Research Institute (ARI)–Ukiriguru
Mwanza, Tanzania aiming at improving upland rice performance through enhanced
soil fertility and water conservation methods. A split–split plot experiment in a
randomized complete block design with three replications and three factors that were
(a) upland rice cultivars (WAB 450, NERICA1 and NERICA4) (b) fertilizer types,
(Urea 80Kg N/ha, farm yard manure 5 t/ha and control) (c) three water conservation
methods (flat cultivation, open ridge and tie ridge were applied). Rice was sown in
seven rows at 30 cm inter–and intra–row spacing. Data on soil, weather, crop growth,
yield components and grain yield were collected. Rainfall was 651.2 mm during the
cropping season which was poorly distributed. Average temperature was 24oC with
mean relative humidity of 75%. Soil analysis results showed that total nitrogen was
0.08 %, phosphorus 2.09mgP/Kg and organic carbon 0.58%. The soil calcium was
3.38 cmolc/Kg and potassium was 0.36cmolc/Kg, while zinc was 0.39 mg/Kg.
Cultivars had significant effect on yields which were 2856, 2507 and 2140 Kg/ha for
WAB 450, NERICA4 and NERICA1 respectively. Fertilizer types also significantly
affected grain yield in the order of urea (3368 Kg/ha) > FYM (2723 Kg/ha) and >
control (1421 Kg/ha). Further, moisture conservation methods significantly affected
yield in the order of tie ridges (2710 Kg/ha), open ridge (2398 Kg/ha) and flat
cultivation (2394 Kg/ha). Overall the study results indicated low fertility status in the
soil, although it was found to be suitable for upland rice production with further
improvement. It is concluded that rice cultivar, WAB 450 had the highest yield
potential, while application of Urea at 80 Kg N/ha gave high grain yield, and tie
ridges were the best in soil moisture conservation.
Key words: Upland rice Performance Enhanced Soil Fertility Water
conservation Ukiriguru Tanzania
Page | 734
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BacKground Information
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) ranks second after wheat in the world cereals grain
production. More than half of the world’s population depends on rice as food. The
utilization of rice is increasing and the inequity between domestic productions has
been increasing in sub–Saharan Africa (Oikei et al., 2008). About 80% of rice in
Africa is produced by small–scale farmers for their own utilization and local market
(WARDA, 2007).
Population increase, rising of incomes and change in consumer desire in favour of
rice particularly in urban areas has comparatively increased rice demand in Sub–
Sahara Africa than in any other place in the world (Somado et al., 2008). Africa
became a big competitor in the international rice markets collecting up 32% of the
world imports in 2006 with record of 9 million tone in that particular year (WARDA,
2007). In Tanzania, rice is among the mostly grown crops and is the second among
most essential food crop. Apart from meeting local utilization needs, rice also is used
for income generation and as a source of employment for the people in rural areas
(MAFSC, 2009).
According to ARC (2011), Lake zone of Tanzania accounts for about 60% of the rice
cultivated in the country. The inland valley systems offer an important portion of the
rice production area in the Lake zone. Kanyeka et al. (1994) reported that, in
Tanzania rice is grown in three agro–ecosystems which are; rain fed lowland, which
covers 74%, rain fed upland, 20% and irrigated lowland, 6% of the country
production.
In the effort to increase rice production and productivity in the country, the Rice
Research Program (RRP) made many efforts such as, conducting farmers training,
introducing improved varieties and carryout different research aimed at improving
rice production to meet local demand, increase householder’s income and to create
employment (MAFSC, 2009).
Other effort done by the RRP is engagement in introduction of New Rice for Africa
(NERICA) since 2002. The new varieties were not common in the country because
most people who engage in upland rice production used local cultivars, which are
susceptible to diseases and have low yield potential, but have acceptable, palatable,
Page | 735
aroma and cookability to the consumers. The NERICA varieties were developed
purposely for low resource farmers in Africa (Somado et al., 2008).
Upland rice is usually produced under aerobic conditions without irrigation or
paddling. The crop can be found in a range of environments from low–lying valley
bottom to steep sloping land with high runoff, where land preparation and sowing is
done under dry conditions as direct sowing. This rice is also grown either as a mono–
crop or as mixture with other food crops normally without any fertilizer use (FAO,
2009; IRRI, 2009). This type of rice can be grown on wide range of soils varying
from moderately–drained to well–drained soils such as sandy loam to sandy clay,
respectively with soil pH range from 4.7 to 6.8.
Major difference between upland rice and low land rice soil is that upland rice is
grown on un flooded land for a long time during the growing season whereby, rice
plant has to regulate to dry aerobic soil conditions, whilst lowland rainfed rice grows
under flooded land under anaerobic condition and normally in water saturated soils
(Gupta and Toole, 1986).
Varietal effect on rice growth
The varieties have an effect on rice growth due to genetic characteristics. Some
varieties have high nutrient use efficiency due to nature of their roots system
whereby some have long roots or many roots; others have many tillers or small
number of tillers. Further, local varieties of upland rice are known for the
characteristics of having low number of tillers ranging from 2 – 4 while improved
varieties go up to 14 tillers depending on the soil moisture and nutrients (WARDA,
2007). Also this is in agreement with Fageria et al. (1997) who stated that tillering
characteristics among other factors is very much influenced by the genetic
characteristics of the cultivars grown.
Cultural Practices of Rice Crop in Tanzania
Production of rice in Tanzania is carried out mainly by small–scale farmers. More
than 90 % of rice in the country is produced by small–scale farmers mostly using
Page | 736
conventional agricultural systems on small scale fields ranging between 0.25 and 2
ha, under cultural practices involving hand hoe ploughing and paddling, dry nursery
establishment, transplanting, fertilization, hand weeding, harvesting and winnowing
(Kanyeka et al., 1994; Kajiru, 2006). Small–scale paddy farming practiced in
lowlands through traditional or improved small scale irrigation facilities which are
completely depend on rainfall (Kashenge et al., 2012). Normally, upland rice in
Tanzania is grown under intercropping systems such as maize, sorghum or cassava
intercrops (FAO, 2002).
Upland Rice Cultivation
This is the rice produced on flat fields without bunds, where land preparation and
seeding are done in dry and in aerobic conditions. Upland rice growing areas of
Tanzania normally receive bimodal rainfall with short, low intensity rains commonly
known as “vuli”. These rains start in mid of October to December while long heavy
rains known as (masika) start from March to May. Short rains are utilized for
production of short duration crops includes rice. Normally these areas experience
high temperature 28oC or more from July to September while October to June is a
moderate to cool period varying from 18 to 22oC (Mghase et al., 2010).
Site selection and land preparation under upland rice
Soils for upland rice normally are well drainage, fertile with good capacity to retain
moisture such that contains some organic matter and or clay. In Tanzania, most of
the areas producing upland rice have soil ranging from sandy loam to clay soil with
soil pH range of 4.7 to 6.5, these areas experience rainfall ranging between 1 062 and
2 925 mm annually (Mghase et al., 2010).
Land preparation for new farm should start before the rains by uprooting stumps,
roots and trees before ploughing. Plough should be done once using tractor, animal
traction hand hoe or by new introduced technology of power tiller, this should be
followed by fine two harrows. Harrowing should be done two weeks after plough
(Oikeh et al., 2008). In Tanzania about 95% of rice produced by small–scale farmers
whose use hand hoe in land preparation (MAFCS, 2009).
Page | 737
Sowing methods under upland rice
Direct sowing is the most common practice in upland rice. Sowing can be by dibble
method where by 4 to 6 seeds per hill dropped in the depth of 2 – 3cm, planting
space of 30 x 30 cm. Other method is seed drill, seeds are drilled sparsely in the
small furrow in the interval of 25 – 30 x 5cm and then covered with a soil.
Broadcasting is another method of direct sowing whereby seeds are broadcasted in
the prepared seedbed. The estimated seed rate for these methods are dibble 50 ‒ 60
Kg, drill 75 – 80 Kg and 80 –100 Kg ha-1 for broadcast.
Thinning can be done 2 – 3 weeks after sowing; 2 – 4 seedlings per hill should be
maintained to give 22 – 44 plants per m2 for 30 x 30 cm spacing and 50 – 100 plants
per m2 for 25 – 30 x 5cm (Somado et al., 2008). In Tanzania the most common used
methods are dibbling and broadcasting methods; sowing is done between November
and March. In the Lake Zone, planting of both low and upland rice is done between
December and January (Kajiru, 2006).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 General Description of Study Area
This study was conducted at Agricultural Research Institute (ARI) Ukiriguru at
Machafu block in Misungwi district, Mwanza region, Tanzania. According to
Nyambo, B.T. (1983) the Institute lies between latitude 2042ʹS and longitude 330.1ʹE
at an elevation of 1 236 m above sea level. The Institute is located south east of the
Mwanza city and east of the Lake Victoria shore. The area experiences short and
long rainfall whereby short rains start during the second week of October to the end
of December while long rains start during the second week of March to the end of
May. Ukiriguru experience a mean annual rainfall ranging between 800 and 1200
mm and temperature ranges from 18 to 31.5oC.
The ARI–Ukiriguru lies within dry savannas’ area and its soils range from granitic
hillsands to heavy clays in the valley bottoms, such that all major cotton soils in
Western Cotton Growing Areas (WCGA) are represented.
Page | 738
3.2 Experimental Materials
Planting materials used during the experiment were upland rice varieties that were
NERICA 1, NERICA 4 and WAB 450. Rice varieties were collected from the
Department of Crop Science and Production at Sokoine University of Agriculture
(SUA) include NERICA 1 and NERICA 4 and from Kilombero Agricultural
Training and Research Institute (KATRIN) Ifakara that include WAB 450 both
institutions are in Morogoro region. These are short duration rice varieties which
were found to adapt well in Lake Zone environmental. Inorganic fertilizers used were
urea (46% N) and, triple super phosphate (46% P205. Cattle manure was collected
from farmers’ boma’s at ARI–Ukiriguru.
3.3 Methods
3.3.1 Soil sampling and analysis
Soil sampling was done as recommended by Okelebo et al. (1993) at a depth of 0–30
cm and one composite soil was prepared and taken to SUA at the laboratory of the
Department of Soil Science for physical and chemical analysis. The composite soil
sample was analyzed for soil pH, particle size distribution, organic carbon, cation
exchange capacity (CEC), total N, available P, exchangeable bases namely K, Ca,
Na, and Mg and for Micro nutrients Cu, Zn, and Mn.
The soil pH was determined electrometrically in 1:2.5 soil–water suspension as
described by McLean (1982). The available P was analyzed using Bray –1 method
because a pH of the soil was below 7 (Oisen and Sommers, 1982). Organic carbon
was established by wet digestion method of Walkley and Black (Nelson and
Sommers, 1982). The total N was determined by the micro–Kjeldahl digestion–
distillation method (Bremner and Mulvaney, 1982). The CEC was determined by the
buffered ammonium acetate saturation method (Chapman, 1965). The quantity of
exchangeable bases K+ and Na+ determined by Flame photometer while Ca2+ and
Mg2+ by atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) as described by Thomas
(1982).
Page | 739
Particle size distribution was determined by the hydrometer method (Juo, 1979) and
textural classes by using the USDA textural triangle. Available Cu, Zn, Fe, and Mn
measured by AAS (Baker and Amacher, 1982). However, bulk density (g/cm–3) was
determined at ARI–Ukiruguru, (due to its characteristics) in the Department of
Natural Resource Management by using core method as described by Okelebo et al.
(1993). Details on soil physical and chemical characteristics determined are shown in
Table 2. Farm yard manure was dried at 70oC to constant weight and grounded to 0.5
mm sieve. The composite sample was analyzed for pH in water at manure solution of
1:2.5, total nitrogen (Bremner and Malvaney, 1982) P, K and total carbon (Andeson
and Ingram, 1993).
3.3.2 Land preparation, experimental layout and treatment application
3.3.2.1 Land preparation
Land preparation was done as described by Kanyeka et al. (2007) that included
ploughing and harrowing using an oxen drawn implement. Construction of ridges
was done by using hand hoes at interval of 0.3 m apart which is the recommended
inter- rows spacing for upland rice.
3.3.2.2 Experimental layout and treatment application
A split–split plot experiment in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) as
described by Kuelh (2000) was applied. The main plot size was 85.05 m2, sub–plot
size was 28.35 m2 and sub–subplots size was 9.45 m2. Main treatments (factor A)
were three upland rice varieties that included (i) NERICA 1 (ii) NERICA 4 and (iii)
WAB 450. Direct seeding was done on 3rd December 2011. Seeding was done by the
dibbling method whereby 5 – 8 seeds per hill were sown as describe by Kanyeka et
al. (2007). The sub treatments (factor B) were different fertilizer types. (i) Farm yard
manure (FYM) at the rate of 5 t/ ha, (ii) urea 46% N at a rate of 80 Kg N/ha and (iii)
no fertilizer application (control). Farm yard manure was applied by broadcasting
and incorporated in the soil before sowing, while urea was applied as top dressing in
two splits; first at tillering initiation [i.e.30 Days After Planting (DAP)] and second
Page | 740
application was done at panicle initiation i.e. 65 DAP as describe by Kanyeka et al.
(2007).
3.3.3 Other agronomic practices
Other agronomic management practices as described by Kanyeka et al. (2007) were
applied including application of triple super phosphate (TSP) by broadcasting at a
rate of 20 Kg P/ha at sowing. Thinning was done to two plants per hill at 14 days
after planting to retain two plants per hill. Weeding was done four times at 21, 35, 54
and 70 DAP. Supplementary irrigation was applied once at 68 DAP i.e. at heading
stage to rescue crop from drought. There were no incidences of diseases or insects; a
small threat from birds was controlled manually by scarring– off the birds
3.4 Data Collection
3.4.1 Weather data
Daily rainfall (mm), minimum and maximum temperature (oC) and percentage
relative humidity (RH%) were recorded from the Tanzania Meteorology Agency
(TMA) situated at ARI–Ukiriguru on daily basis (TMA, 2012).
3.4.2 Crop vegetative growth phase
Crop vegetative growth and development stages from emergency to panicle initiation
were recorded as described by Wopereis et al. (2009). These included days to 50 %
emergence, plant population at thinning, days to first tiller, number of leaves and
total number of tillers.
i. Days to 50% emergence were determined by observing and counting plants
when 50% of them had emerged from sowing to 15 DAP (Two to four
leaves).
ii. Plant population was determined by observing and counting plants that had
emerged in each plot at 21 DAP (.Two to four leaves).
Page | 741
iii. Days to first tillering were obtained by determining a number of days from
sowing to when 50% of plants tillering.
iv. Number of leaves per plant determined by counting a number of leaves per
plant at the first tiller formation.
v. Number of tiller was determined by observing, counting and recording all
emerging shoots in the hill from the time of planting to when 50% of plants
reached flowering stage.
3.4.3 Reproduction phase
Data pertaining to reproductive phase were recorded as described by Gomez (1972);
Wopereis (2009) as shown below.
i. Days to 50% plants heading were determined by counting the number of days
from planting to 50% of plants reach heading stage
ii. Days to 50% flowering were determined by counting number of days from
planting to day when 50% of the plants in the plot had flowed.
iii. Days to initial panicle formation were determined by counting number of
days from planting to panicle initiation.
iv. Leaf area index (LAI) was determined by taking randomly 10 plants from the
middle of plot and determining the variable as follows.
Leaf area was determined as length of the leaf (cm) x width of the leaf (cm) x 0.75 as
recommended by Gomez (1972). Leaf area from each leaf was multiplied by the
number of leaves per plant and per sampled area cm2. Leaf area index (LAI) was then
calculated using the following ratio follow.
Total leaf area (cm2)/ Total ground area (cm2) from where the plants were sampled.
Page | 742
3.4.4 Ripening phase
Data for ripening phase were collected from flowering stage to maturity stage as
described by Gomez (1972) as indicated below:
i. Panicle number was obtained by counting all developed panicles from
randomly selected 10 hills from the centre of each plot. The average number
of panicle was computed.
ii. Panicle length (cm) was measured from the middle panicle using a meter rule
iii. Total number of spikelets was determined from randomly selected middle
panicle and the average was computed.
iv. The 1000 seeds were weighed using electric balance (Model RB 153–
A4ZA10a. 1500g) and weight recorded.
v. Percent (%) unfilled grains were obtained by threshing middle panicles,
counting filled and unfilled grains. Then percentage of unfilled grains was
obtained through the relationship between the number of unfilled and total
number of grains.
vi. Grain yield weight obtained by harvesting rice from one meter square area in
the middle of each plot and threshed accordingly. The paddy were then
adjusted at 14% moisture content using the formula that follows, and then the
grain weights for each plot were recorded and converted in to Kg/ha as
described by Gomez (1972).
Adjusted grain weight=(A ×W)………………………………… (1)
Adjustment coefficient computed by
A=100-M
86……………………………………………………………… (2)
Page | 743
Where A is adjustment coefficient, M is the moisture content (%) of the harvested
grains and W is the weight of the harvested grains.
vii. Total dry matter accumulation was determined using the method described by
(Gomez, 1972). At physiological maturity, plants from 1m2 area in each plot
were harvested at ground level, oven dried at 70oC for 72 hours and then
weighed to get dry matter accumulation per plot.
viii. Harvest index computed as described by (Fageria, 2001) as follows below:
Harvest Index = Grain yield (g)
Total biomass (m– ……………………………(3)
3.5 Data Analysis
Data collected were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the following
statistical model version:
Yijk = µ+Ri +Vj+(Ea)ij +(F)k +(VF)jk +(Eb)ik +(W)l + (VW)jl +(FW)kl + (VFW)jkl
+(Ec)ijkl
Where;
Yijkl = Response,
µ = General mean,
Ri = Replication effect (ith)
(V)j = jth effect of varieties,
(Ea)ij = Main plot error (error a),
(F)k = ith effect of fertilizer,
(VF)jk = Interaction of varieties and fertilizer,
(Eb)ik = sub–plot error (error b)
(W)l = Water conservation method effect,
(VW)jl = interaction of varieties and water conservation method
(FW)kl = Interaction of fertilizer and water conservation method,
Page | 744
(VFW)jkl = Interaction of varieties, Fertilizers and Water conservation
method,
Ec)ijkl = Experimental error.(error c)
The mean separation test was done using Student Newmans Kuels (S–N–K) at P≤
0.05. All computations were done using the Genstat statistical software version 14.
Simple correlations were calculated and analyzed at P≤ 0.05 where the numbers of
observations were 81 while the degrees of freedom used were n–2 (Gomez and
Gomez, 1984).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Soil Characteristics
4.1.1 Physical characteristics
The physical analysis results of the composite soil sample collected from the
experimental area is presented in Table 1. The soil composition was found to be 71%
sand, 23% clay and 6% silt. According to Gerakis and Baer (1999), this soil can be
classified as Sand Clay Loam. The soil had bulk density 0.934g/cm3, buck density is
an indication of a soil compaction USDA (2008). The low bulk density reported in
this study indicates that the soil has high soil porosity and low soil compaction.
4.1.2 Soil chemical properties
4.1.2.1 Soil pH
The soil pH was found to be 6.07 which can be classified as medium. The optimum
soil pH for upland rice is 4.7 – 7.0 (Somado et al., 2008). Based on these findings,
soils at Ukiriguru were found to be suitable for upland rice cultivation.
4.1.2.2 Total nitrogen
The percentage of total nitrogen recorded was 0.08% which is very low according to
Landon (1991). Nwilene et al. (2008) revealed that N < 1.0 g of total N/Kg was rated
as low. Low amount of total nitrogen reported in this study may be associated with
continuous cultivation without addition of any soil amendments such as use of
Page | 745
organic or inorganic fertilizers. From this result the amendments of the soil suggested
for optimal upland rice production.
4.1.2.3 Available phosphorus
The available phosphorus in the soils at the site was 2.09 mg/Kg which is rated as
low (Landon, 1991). Wopereis et al. (2009) rated P as low when it was 3 – 6 mg/Kg.
Although rice is a low P demanding crop, current results indicate that soils used
would not satisfy the phosphate requirement for the crop. Therefore, it is important
for rice growers in the area to abide by P recommendation given by researcher such
as Kanyeka et al. (1997).
4.1.2.4 Potassium (K)
The exchangeable K in the soil was found to be 0.36 cmolc (+) Kg–1 of soil, which is
rated as medium (Landon, 1991). Pillai (2005) reported the minimum absolute level
of exchangeable K in soils to range between 0.07 and 0.2 cmolc K Kg–1 soil. Thus the
soil K value of 0.36 cmolc +) Kg–1 soil at the site used was above the minimum levels
of 0.07 and 0.2 cmolc K Kg–1 soil. Basing on these results, the area does not need
application of K. These results have also been reported by Kanyeka et al. (2007) for
rice growing areas in Tanzania.
4.1.2.5 Organic carbon
The organic carbon content in the soil was 0.58 %, The value rated as being very low
Landon (1991) for rice production as is less than 2%. For improvement of the soil
condition for upland rice production amendment of the soils should be done through
incorporating manure and plant residues in the soils. According to Nwilene et al.
(2008) N is rated as low when in < 1.0g total N/Kg, medium when 1.0 – 2.0g total
N/Kg and high when >2.0g total N/Kg.
4.1.2.6 Cation exchange capacity
The cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the area was 9.6 cmlc (+) Kg–1, which is
rated as low (Landon, 1991). The low to medium CEC of the soils could be attributed
to the low organic matter content in the soils as well as the nature of the parent
materials from which the soils were developed and the type of the layer silicate clay
Page | 746
minerals in the soils. The physical and chemical characteristics of the soils showed
low percentage of clay and very low organic matter. Since the CEC value was low,
the results also show low nutrients content and low capacity of soils to hold moisture,
which are important for upland rice production. To improve the soil CEC,
amendment of soil is suggested such that application of organic fertilizers in the soil.
Heilligmann (1994) reported that, organic matter and clay mineral of the soil have
negative charged sites on their surfaces which adsorb and hold positive charged ions
(cations) by electrostatic force. This electrical charge is critical to the supply of
nutrients to plants because many nutrients exist as cations dissolved in the soil water
and adsorbed on the surface of the soil colloids. The CEC might be viewed as
reservoir of plant nutrients i.e. the higher the CEC, the larger the reservoir (Koelling,
1995).
4.1.2.7 Exchangeable bases (Ca, Mg and Na)
Calcium availability at the experimental site was 3.38 cmolc+Kg, which rated as high
>2 cmolc Ca Kg–1 soil (Landon, 1991). From these results the soils in the study area
have sufficient Ca for the production of rice. According to WARDA (2007) adequate
supply of Ca increase resistance to disease such as bacteria leaf blight or leaf spot.
Deficient of Ca results in chlorotic – necrotic and impaired root function which may
predispose the rice plant to Fe toxicity. The exchangeable Mg in the soil (Table 1)
was 0.85 cmolc(+) Kg–1
. The value rated as high (>0.5 cmolc(+) Kg–1 soil), according
to Landon (1991). Following the results the soil in the study area had enough amount
of exchangeable Mg for rice production. Magnesium activates several enzymes. It is
a constituent of chlorophyll and thus is involved in CO2 assimilation and protein
synthesis, it also activator of several enzymes and is a constituent of chlorophyll.
Magnesium also regulate cellular pH and cation - anion balance, Mg is retranslocated
easily from old leaves to young leaves (WARDA, 2007). The exchangeable Na in the
soils was 0.4 cmolc Na Kg–1 soil, this value was rated as low (Landon, 1991). Based
on the results the level of sodium in the experimental area is not sufficient for the
production of rice, therefore amendments of the soil is suggested.
Page | 747
4.1.2.8 Micronutrient
The available Zn in the soil was 0.39 mg/Kg (Table 1) which is rated as low, Landon
(1991). Zinc rated as low when it is 0.5 to 1.0 (De Datta, 1989). Similar values were
reported for upland crops by Gupta and Toole (1986). The availability of both
resident soil zinc and applied zinc is much higher in upland soils than in submerged
soils. Soil submergence causes a substantial decrease in the zinc concentration in the
soil solution; however, some rice varieties differ in their ability to grow on zinc–
deficient soils (Gupta and Toole, 1986).
Page | 748
Table 1: Some of the physical and chemical properties of the soils at 0 – 30
cm depth at Machafu block, Ukiriguru
Soil characteristic Method Value Remarks
Physical
characteristics
Soil particle analysis Hydrometer
Sand 71 % Textural class
Silt 6 % Sand clay
loam
Clay 23 %
Bulk density Core Method 0.938g/cm3 Low
Chemical
characteristics
Soil pH Electrometrical in 1:2:5 soil H2o 6.07 (H2O) Medium
Total Nitrogen Micro Kjeldhl 0.08 % Very Low
Available Phosphate Bray 1 2.09 mgP /Kg Low
Potassium (K+) Flame photometer 0.36 cmol(+) /Kg Medium
Organic carbon Walkley and Black 0.58 % Very low
CE C Buffer ammonium acetate 9.6 cmol(+) Kg Low
Exchangeable Bases
Calcium (Ca 2+) Atomic
absorptionspectrophotometer
3.38 cmol(+)/Kg High
Magnesium (Mg 2+) Atomic
Absorptionspectropotometer
0.85 cmol(+) /Kg High
Sodium (Na+) Flame photometer 0.14 cmol(+) /Kg Low
Micro nutrients
Copper (Cu2+) DTPA extract measured by ASS 0.35 mg/ Kg Low
Zinc (Zn2+) DTPA extract measured by ASS 0.39 mg/ Kg Low
Manganese (Mn2+) DTPA extract measured by ASS 56.34 mg/ Kg Very high
Remarks according to Landon, (1991)
Page | 749
4.1.2.9 Chemical properties of the FYM
Some of the chemical properties of FYM used in this study are presented in Appendix 2.
The results showed nitrogen content of 0.95% and organic carbon of 6.89% which were
low according to Locomte (1980). The low values of these nutrients could be attributed to
the types of feeds given to the animals, digestion efficiency of the animals and FYM
handling. Available phosphorus was high as its value was 1.48 mg/PKg–1, while potassium
was 1.38 cmolc(+)/Kg–1 was also high. With respect of Zn, and Mg the values were found
to be 165.5 and 0.75 cmolc(+) Kg–1. These values of Zn an Mg were high according to
Weller and Willetts (1977). This could probably be associated with the types of feed
supplements given to the animals. The pH 8.4 of FYM was within the range from 6.5 to
8.5 accepted as reported by Locomte (1980).
4.2 Weather Data during Growing Season
4.2.1 Rainfall (mm)
Primary weather data on rainfall, temperature and relative humidity were collected from
the Tanzania Meteorology Agency (TMA) at Ukiriguru Research Institute. The rainfall
amount during the growing seasons is as indicated in Table 3. The rice test crop was
planted 3rd on December 2011, the time when rainfall amount and distribution were good.
Total monthly rainfall amount were 125 and 173.3 mm during the month of November and
December 2011, respectively. The rainfall distribution had good impact in crop growth and
establishment on all treatments. However, the situation was worse in January 2012 when
total monthly rainfall received was 11.4 mm. Upland rice grows and develops well to give
the optimal yield when 1000mm well distributed rainfall is obtained during the growing
season (Somado et al., 2008). During the growing season, amount of rainfall received and
its distribution were not adequate in some of the months (Fig. 1) as some week had 0 or
less than 5.0 mm especially during the months of January, February and March 2012.
4.2.2 Temperature (oC) and Relative humidity
The atmospheric temperature has considerable effect on growth and development of rice.
The recorded mean maximum temperature during growing season was 29.3 while the mean
minimum temperature during the period was 18.6oC, respectively. This recorded
temperature was optimum for rice growth and development (Yoshida, 1976). According to
Page | 750
the author for higher rice grain yield, a day temperature of 25 to 32oC and night
temperature range from 15 to 20oC are preferred.
Relative humidity (RH) at experimental site ranged from 60.8 to 89.4% in December 2011
to March 2012 as shown in (Table 2, Fig 1). The recorded RH was 89.4 in December 2011
was received at the time of planting and 67.4% in May 2012 at the time of harvest. The
mean RH during the growing season was 75%. According to Oikech et al. (2008) optimum
RH range from 60 to 70% are beneficial for crop development. The observed RH was
above the preferred value required for rice production.
Page | 751
Table 2: Weather data for 2011/2012 growing season at Ukiriguru
Month/Year Temperature (oC)Nov 2011 Rainfall (mm) Max (Min) RH (%)Week 1 6.2 27.9 19.0 83.0Week 2 16.1 27.4 18.4 90.4Week 3 60.4 26.4 18.6 90.8Week 4 42.3 25.3 18.5 90.3Total 125 – – –Mean 31.3 26.8 18.6 88.6Dec 2011Week 1 38.1 26.6 18.2 92Week 2 6.6 27.5 18.9 87.4Week 3 82.5 27.3 18.5 88.4Week 4 46.1 28.4 18.8 89.6Total 173.3 – – –Mean 43.3 27.5 18.6 89.4Jan 2012Week 1 1.8 29.2 17.5 88.6Week 2 1.8 29.5 19.2 84.6Week 3 6.7 28.5 18.4 87.6Week 4. 1.1 31.1 18.9 77.4Total 11.4 – – –Mean 8.9 29.6 18.5 84.6Feb 2012Week 1 0.0 32.5 18.8 53.9Week 2 5.3 32.1 20.4 51.3Week 3 27.6 34.9 18.2 71.2Week 4 24.1 30.5 18.6 71.7Total 57 – – –Mean 14.3 32.5 19.0 62.0
Page | 752
Table 3 Continued
Month/Year Temperature oC
March 2012 Rainfall (mm) Max Min RH (%)Week 1 29.5 26.4 17.7 66.9Week 2 0.4 30.5 18.5 64.9Week 3 3.8 31.1 18.5 56.6Week 4 2.8 34.9 19.8 55.0Total 36.5 – – –Mean 9.13 30.7 18.8 60.8April 2012Week 1 32.6 28.7 18.6 75.5Week 2 29.7 32.7 18.7 68.1Week 3 16.5 28.1 18.4 74.9Week 4 113.6 27.6 17.9 71.5Total 192.4 – – –Mean 48.1 29.3 18.4 72.5May 2012Week 1 22.8 28.2 18.7 71.4Week 2 16.5 28.6 18.4 68.4Week 3 13.6 28.7 18.9 70.2Week 4 2.7 29.9 18.3 59.4Total 55.6 – – –Mean 13.7 28.8 18.6 67.4Annual total 651.2 – – –Annual mean 93.03 29.3 18.6 75Source: Tanzania Meteorological Agency; Ukiriguru station 2011/2012
Page | 753
Figure 1: Weather condition during cropping season (Nov 2011 – May 2012)
4.3 Upland Rice Growth Pattern of Selected Cultivars
The crop growth patterns observed during the cropping season are as shown in Table 4.
Days from sowing to 50% emergence ranged between 6 and 7 Days after planting (DAP).
First tillering among the cultivars used was between 30 and 35 DAP, while days to 50%
heading ranged between 75 – 83 DAP. Finally DAP to 50% physiological maturity was
between 110 – 119 with a range of 9 days between cultivars.
Cultivar WAB 450 was the earliest to flower taking 79 DAP while cultivar NERICA 1 was
the latest taking 86 DAP. The same pattern was observed for number of days taken to
mature. Although radiation data could not be collected as stated in subsection 3.4.1, the
characteristics may have been influenced by both the cultivars genetic characteristics
expression and environmental condition. According to Atera et al. (2011) day to maturity
for NERICA 1 and NERICA 4 in Kenya were reported to be 102 and 105 DAP
respectively. The NERICA varieties in Kenya were planted in western Kenya at 0o 29′N
latitude and 34o.07′E longitude, at 1189m above sea level. The area experience annual
0
50
100
150
200
250
Nov-11 Dec Jan-12 Febr March April May
Tem
p (0
C),
Rai
nfal
l (m
m)
and
RH
(%
)
Months 2010/11
Rainfall(mm)
Max temp(oC)
Min temp(oC)
RH (%)
Page | 754
rainfall ranging from 653.5 to 848mm, while it has been reported by the Ministry of
Agriculture and Co operatives Zambia (MACZ) (2010) that days to maturity for NERICA
1 ranged between 105 and 115 while NERICA 4 was 110 – 120 DAP, under low lying area
at 1700m above sea level, the area received annual rainfall ranging from 450 to 500mm
under crop rotation cultural.
Table 1: Crop growth pattern as affected by cultivars used
Growth stages NERICA 1 NERICA 4 WAB 450 Range Average
Days at planting 0 0 0 0 0
Days to 50 %
Emergence
7 7 6 1 6
To first tiller initiation 35 33 30 5 32
Days to 50 % heading 83 77 75 8 78
Days to 50 % flowering 86 81 79 7 82
Days to 50 %
Physiological maturity
119 114 110 9 114
Inferential statistical analysis not done for these data
4.3.1 Effects of varieties, fertilizer and water conservation methods on growth
characteristics
4.3.1.1 Effect of treatments on plant height and leaf area index (LAI)
The results in this study showed that among three cultivars used, cultivar WAB 450 had
significant effect (P≤ 0.05) in plant height. The plant height was in this order WAB 450
had 73.04cm, NERICA 4 had 64.48 and NERICA 1 had 64.18cm (Table 5). Furthermore,
the results indicated that there was no significant effect in leaf area index among the three
cultivars. However, differences among the cultivars existed such that NERICA 4 had 1.48,
WAB 450 had 1.45 and NERICA1 had 1.31. The different in plant height could be
attributed to genotypic differences.
The effect on application of different fertilizer types on plant height and Leaf Area Index
(LAI) showed that application of urea at a rate of 80KgN/ha resulted into the highest plant
height of 68.27cm while the shortest plant height of 65.82cm was observed from control
Page | 755
plots. Moreover, the same trend was observed in the LAI such that urea resulted into 1.93,
FYM had 1.59 and control had the value of 0.70. The increase in plant height with urea
application compared to FYM and control could have been associated with the fact that
nitrogen from inorganic sources have ammonium and nitrate which was available to plant
use instantly after being applied compared to FYM which had to be decomposed and
converted to ammonium and nitrate before being used by plant, this was also reported by
Mattson et al. (2009).
The use of different water conservation methods indicated that there was no significant
effect at P≤0.05 on LAI such that tie ridges had 1.49, flat cultivation had 1.46 and open
ridges had 1.28, respectively. The effects on plant height were significant (P ≤ 0.05) among
the conservation methods. Tie ridges had the highest plant height of 68.20 cm, flat
cultivation had 66.85 cm while open ridges had 66.66 cm. These differences in plant height
could attributed to the ability of tie ridges in conserving moisture which was utilized by
plants in drought condition. The present results are also supported by Allahyar (2011) who
reported that moisture and nitrogen fertilizer had significant influences on plant height,
total dry matter, a number of tillers, days to flowering and days to physiological maturity.
4.3.1.2 Effects of treatments on total dry matter and harvest index
Total dry matter was significantly affected at (P≤ 0.05) by the cultivars used in this study
as indicated in Table 5. Cultivar WAB 450 had highest Total Dry Matter (TDM)
production of 488.42 g/m2 while NERICA 4 had the lowest TDM production of 437 g/m2
at 115 DAP. The effect of cultivars on harvest index indicated that cultivar WAB 450 had
the highest harvest index of 0.58 followed by NERICA 4 with 0.57 which statistically was
not significantly different from that of WAB 450, while NERICA1 had lowest harvest
index of 0.54 at 115 DAP. The results could have been attributed to cultivar growth
characteristic as results of cultivars genotypic difference.
The application of urea at 80 Kg N/ha had significant effect (P≤ 0.05) on TDM with the
value of 569.30 g/m2, while as expected the lowest amount was found in the control plots
that was 349.25 g/m2. The effect of application different fertilizer types on harvest index
indicated that application of FYM had highest HI value of 0.61, followed by application of
Page | 756
urea at 80KgN/ha 0.58 and the lowest value of HI observed in control plots that was 0.50.
The results could have been attributed to the fact that inorganic fertilizers are readily
available to plant after being applied.
The effect of the use of different water conservation methods on TDM production and HI
resulted on significant effect (P≤ 0.05) on total dry matter production such that tie ridges
had the highest TDM of 498.69 followed by open ridges 468.89 and lowest was flat
cultivation 415.68. While tie ridges again had significant effect (P≤ 0.05) on HI 0.60
compared to the use of open ridge 0.56 and flat cultivation 0.54. These results are
supported by Rahma et al. (2002) who reported that plant height, number tiller, number
panicle, panicle length, number of filled grains per panicle, 1000–grain weight, harvest
index (HI), total dry matter (TMD) and yield were decreased with increasing moisture
deficient. On the other hand, Sarvestani et al. (2008) reported that plant height was
significantly affected by water stress at booting, flowering and grain filling stages over the
control. Information with regards to agronomical and socio economic factors influencing
upland rice productivity and NERICA adaptation in Tanzania is inadequate (Mghase.
2010). This means few research on upland rice particularly on NERICA have been
conducted and results reported in Tanzania.
Page | 757
Table 2: Effects of cultivar, fertilizer and water conservation method on rice
growth characteristics
Treatment effect LAI PH(cm) TDM(g/m2) HI(115 DAP)
Varieties (A)NERICA 1 1.31a* 64.18a 457.42a 0.54aNERICA 4 1.48a 64.48a 437.41a 0.57bWAB 450 145.a 73.04b 488. 42b 0.58bMean 1.41 67.23 436.6 0.56SE± 0.35 0.46 15.32 0.02CV (%) 24.6 1.0 3.5 4.1Fertilizer (B)Control 0.70b 65.82 a 349.25a 0.50aUrea 1.93c 68.27 c 569.30c 0.58bFYM 1.59a 67.62 b 464.70b 0.61cMean 1.41 67.23 436.6 0.56SE± 0.09 0.45 18.32 0.03CV(%) 6.5 0.7 4.2 4.8W CMFlat 1.46a 66.85a 415.68a 0.54aOpen ridge 1.28a 66.66a 468.89b 0.5.6cTie ridge 1.49a 68.20b 498.69c 0.60bGrand Mean 1.41 67.23 436.6 0.56SE± 0.14 0.44 17.84 0.01CV (%) 10.1 0.7 4.1 1.7
*Means in the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P≤ according toStudent New Keul test (P ≤ 0.05)Note LAI = Leaf area index, PH=Plant height(cm), TDM= Total dry matter(gm–2) and HI= Harvest index
Page | 758
4.4 Effects of Cultivars, Fertilizer Types and Water Conservation Methods on
Rice Yield components and Yields (Kg ha–1)
4.4.1 Effect of treatments in number of tillers and number of panicles per plant
The values recorded in this study on number of tillers (NT) and numbers of panicles (NP)
at flowering were the same within the treatments applied. Among the rice cultivars used in
the study, cultivar WAB 450 had significant (P≤ 0.05) effect on number of tillers Table 6.
The average highest number of tillers per plant on WAB 450 recorded was 10.37 while
cultivar NERICA1 had the lowest number of tillers 8.56 at flowering. This is in agreement
with Fageria et al. (1997) who stated that tillering characteristics among other factors is
very much influenced by the genetic characteristics of the cultivars grown.
Under application of different fertilizer type, urea (46%) produced the highest number of
tillers per plant (10.68); followed by FYM (9.25) and lastly control plots (7.89). These
results are similar to those by Fairhurst et al. (2007) in which application of N and P
nutrients resulted into increase in numbers of tillers and panicle, panicle length (cm),
number of spikelets and consequently increase in grain yield (Kg/ha). Fageria and Baligar
(2001) also reported that increase in number of tillers resulted from the increased levels of
nitrogen applied. This could be the reason for getting the lowest number of tillers in plots
where fertilizer was not applied in this study. According to various literatures, including
that of Califonia Fertilizer Foundation (2011), FYM (cow manure) is reported to supply
nutrients around 1.91% and also improves soil structure leading to improvement of soil
Page | 759
water holding capacity. Therefore these two factors inorganic and organic fertilizers have
influence on tillering ability of rice crop.
The use of tie ridges resulted into the highest number of tillers per plant (10.34) followed
by flat cultivation with (8.97) and lastly open ridges (8.50). The highest number of tillers
under tie ridging may have influenced by moisture conserved by the ties. Similar trend of
results was observed from the numbers of panicle per plant and panicle length (cm) were
reported. The influence of soil moisture management also resulted into similar results on
number of tillers and panicle as each developed tiller produced a panicle.
4.4.2 Effect of treatments on panicle length (cm)
The effect of treatments on panicle length showed that cultivar WAB 450 had significant
effect at (P≤ 0.05) on panicle length (cm), had the longest panicle length with 19.29 cm,
while cultivar NERICA 4 had the shortest panicle length with 17.79 cm. This could have
been influenced by both environmental factors and genetic characteristic of the cultivar. On
the other hand, application of urea as fertilizer resulted into longest panicles with 19.73 cm
while control had the shortest panicles of 17.54 cm, and FYM had average panicle length
of 18.24 cm (Table 6).
Page | 760
Table 3: Effects of cultivar, fertilizer and water conservation methods on grain
yield components and yield
Treatment effect NT
Plant–1
NP
Plant–1
PL(cm) NS
Panicles–1
UG (%) GY
(gm–2)
GY
Kgha–1
Variety
NERICA 1 8.56a* 8.56a 18.24a 25.75b 21.70c 0.2140a 2140a
NERICA 4 8.88b 8.88b 17.97a 25.23a 18.26a 0.2506b 2507b
WAB 450 10.37c 10.37c 19.29b 35.66c 19.15b 0.2855c 2856c
Mean 9.27 9.27 18.50 28.88 19.70 0.2500 2500
SE± 0.33 0.33 0.55 0.61 3.26 0.01 58.3
CV (%) 3.5 3.5 2.9 2.1 16.5 2.3 2.3
Fertilizer
Control 7.89a 7.89a 17.54a 26.92a. 24.33c 0.1411a 1412a
Urea 10.68c 10.68c 19.73b 31.89b 16.37a 0.3367c 3368c
FYM 9.25b 9.25b 18.24a 27.84a 18.41b 0.2722b 2723b
Mean 9.27 9.27 18.50 28.88 19.70 0.2500 2500
SE± 0.08 0.08 0.45 0.29 2.75 0.01 62.8
CV (%) 0.9 0.9 2.4 1.0 14.0 2.5 2.5
WCM
Flat cultiv 8.97b 8.97b 18.22b 28.03a 22.30b 0.2394a 2394a
Open ridge 8.50a 8.50a 17.96a 27.47a 22.52b 0.2397a 2398a
Tie ridge 10.34c 10.34c 19.33c 31.15b 14.30a 0.2710b 2710b
G/mean 9.27 9.27 18.50 28.88 19.70 0.2500 2500
SE± 0.23 0.23 0.18 0.39 1.97 0.004 42.3
CV(%) 2.5 2.5 1.0 1.4 10.0 1.7 1.7
*Means in the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly different according to StudentNew Keul test (P≤ 0.05)
Page | 761
Note: NT=Number of tillers, NP= Number of panicle plant–1, PL=panicle length, NS =number of spikelets–1,UG= unfilled grain(%), GY= grain yield Kgha–1, WCM = water conservation method, FYM= farm yardmanure.
The use of different moisture conservation methods indicated that the use of tie ridges gave
the longest panicle length (19.33 cm) followed by flat cultivation (18.22 cm) and lastly
open ridges (17. 96 cm). These results might have been influenced by the ability of tie
ridges to conserve moisture which was made available for plant use. Sikuku et al. (2010)
reported increases in panicle length with increase of soil moisture availability, the
condition that may have influenced the results reported in this study.
4.4.3 Effects of treatments on number of spikelets and unfilled grains (%)
The effect of treatment on number of spikelet showed that WAB 450 had significant effect
(P ≤ 0.05) on spikelets with mean of 35.66 spikelets per panicle. NERICA 4 had the lowest
number of spikelets, averaging 25.23 per panicle, while NERICA 1 was in the middle with
average spikelets number of 25.75. On the other hand NERICA 4 had significant effect (P
≤ 0.05) on percentage unfilled grains with (18.26 %) followed by WAB 450 (19.15), while
NERICA 1 had the highest (21.70%) unfilled grains. These results could have been
influenced by both environmental and genetically characteristics of cultivars as stated in
sub sections 4.4.1 and 4.4.2, such that some cultivars have high nutrient use efficiency due
to nature of their roots system, some have long or many roots. However, some cultivars
have either many or few numbers of tillers these factors may contribute in nutrients, water
and light competition which may have an impact on grain filling and yield.
On the other hand the application of urea had highest number of spikelets per panicle
(31.89) while control plots had the lowest (26.92) and FYM had average of (27.84)
spikelets per panicle. These results may have been influenced by the application of
Page | 762
inorganic fertilizer as described by Mattson et al. (2009) reported on the presence of
ammonium and nitrate in inorganic fertilizer which can be available for plant use
immediately after being applied compare to FYM which needs to decompose before be
available for plant uptake. Chaturvedi (2005) reportedon increase of yield components in
rice with the use of urea.
The use of tie ridges as water conservation measure showed promising results on number
of spikelets per panicle with average of (31.15) spikelets per panicle while open ridge had
the least number (27.47) and flat cultivation ranked the second after tie ridge with 28.03
spikelets per panicle. These results could have been associated with low ability of open
ridges and flat cultivation to retain or conserve water in the soil, while the capacity of tie
ridges to hold water and let it infiltrate hence increasing soil moisture availability. Mutune
et al, (2011) also reported on the efficiency of tie–ridges in conserving soil water and
raising the level rice of production. Furthermore, NERICA1 had the highest (%) of unfilled
grain 21.70 followed by WAB 450 19.15 while NERICA 4 had the lowest 18.26 %. These
results could have been contributed by environmental and genetic characteristic of the
cultivars. With regard to fertilizer application urea had the lowest percentage unfilled
grains (16.37) followed by FYM (18.4) and control (24.33). These results also supported
by Califonia Fertilizer Foundation (2011) reported that cow manure is reported to supply
nutrients around 1.91% and also improves soil structure leading to improvement of soil
water holding capacity. Therefore these two fertilizers; inorganic and organic have
influence on grain filling of rice crop.
With regard to different water conservation methods, tie ridges had lowest percentage
unfilled grains (14.30) followed by flat cultivation (22.30) and open ridges (22.52). These
results contributed by the moisture stress which had impact on plant chemical and
physiological processes, like photosynthesis, transpiration and nutrient uptake which are
important in sink production and partition in the plant. The importance of tie ridges was
described in sub section 4.4.2.
4.4.4 The effects of treatments on rice grain yield
Rice cultivars differed significantly in grain yield. Cultivar WAB 450 giving the highest
grain yield of 2856 Kg/ha followed by NERICA 4 which had 2507 Kg/ha and lastly
Page | 763
NERICA 1 with 2140 Kg/ha (Table 6). The present results could have been influenced by
cultivar genetic characteristics since WAB 450 had the highest number of tillers, panicles
per plant, spikeletes per panicle and panicle length (cm). These yield components had high
significant (P ≤ 0.05) correlation with r = 0.823*** to grain yield (Appendix 4). Other two
rice cultivars, i.e. NERICA 1 and NERICA 4 had the lowest values in the number and size
of the yield components. Fageria et al. (2011) found that yield components, like number of
panicle, numbers of tiller, number of spikelets and panicle length (cm) were significantly
and positively associated with grain yield in upland rice.
Application of urea gave significantly different on grain yield of 3368 Kg/ha, followed by
FYM (2723 Kg/ha) and lastly the control (1412 Kg/ha). The significant effect of urea
application could be associated with the ability of ammonium to be readily available
immediately after application. Elsewhere, Saidu et al. (2012) reported that nitrogenous
fertilizers in the form of ammonium are known to have the peculiarity of fast release of
their nutrient contents compared to FYM which release nutrients gradually as they need to
be converted to ammonium before being released for plant. Similar results were reported
by Fageria et al. (2011) in which use of urea resulted into the highest grain yield of 4.49
Kg/ha.
The use of tie ridges resulted into highest grain yield. The grain yields were in the
following order 2710> 2398 > 2394 Kg/ha for the tie ridges, open ridges and flat
cultivation, respectively. According to these results (Table 6) the use of tie – ridges,
application of urea and sowing cultivar WAB 450 gave high grain yield as to compare with
other treatments such that use open or flat cultivation, FYM or control and use of Cultivars
NERICA 1 or NERICA 1 The results indicated the ability of tie ridges in water
conservation when combine with urea and WAB 450 cultivar in grain yield. This is
supported by observed greater number of tillers per hill, number of panicle per plant,
panicle length and number of spikelets per panicle in the tie–ridge, urea and WAB 450
plots compare to flat and NERICA 4 or NERICA 1 and FYM or without fertilizer
(control). Also by compared with open ridges practices and NERICA 4 or NERICA 1 and
plus FYM or control respectively.
Page | 764
The increase of number and size of yield components is attributed to grain yield as they
have significant correlation of r = 0.823*** for the number of tiller, r = 0.535 *** for the
number of spikelets and r = 0.8238*** for number of panicle in grain yield (Appendix 4).
The results are supported by Mutune et al. (2011) who revealed that tie–ridges were found
as the most effective method in conserving soil water and raising the level of production
for mainly field crop in most part of Sub–Sahara areas. The efficiency of ties was also
reported by Odunze et al. (2010) who found that significantly rice grain yield was obtained
under contoured + cross banded ridges (1.68 t/ ha) where contoured ridge produced 1.64
t/ha and flat planting 1.36 t/ha. The results suggested that contoured + cross banded ridges
would result in 50% higher grain yield up – down in slope ridging whereas contoured
ridging alone had 46% more grain yield than up–down slope ridging.
4.5 Interaction Effects of Varieties, Fertilizer Types and Moisture Conservation
Methods
4.5.1 Effects interaction on number of tillers and panicle length
The effect of interaction of treatments such that three cultivars of upland rice, three
fertilizer types and three water conservation methods indicated the significant effect (P ≤
0.05) in number of tillers per plant in plots where cultivar WAB 450 interacted with urea at
80 Kg N ha-1 and tie – ridges, had average of (14.00) tillers, followed by interaction of
WAB 450 and NERICA 4 each had (11.70) tillers when interacted with urea and tie –
ridges. The lowest number of tillers per plant was (6.73) observed in plots where NERICA
1 interacted with no fertilizers (control plot) and flat cultivation. On the other hand the
interaction of WAB 450, urea at 80 Kg N ha-1 and tie – ridges had significant effect (P ≤
0.05) in panicle length (21.53 cm) followed by interaction of NERICA 4, urea at 80 Kg ha-
1 and tie – ridges (20.30) while the shortest length of panicle observed in interaction
between NERICA 1, FYM and flat cultivation (17.03). These results could have been
associated with cultivar genetic characteristics; ability of ammonium to be readily
available immediately after application as supported by Saidu et al. (2012) reported that
nitrogenous fertilizers in the form of ammonium are known to have the peculiarity of fast
release of their nutrient contents compared to FYM which release nutrients slowly. Also
Page | 765
results showed the ability of tie – ridges to conserve moisture this is supported by observed
greater number of tillers and longest length of panicles per plant, increase number of
spikeletes per panicle and high grain yield in the tie – ridge plots.
4.5.2 Effects of interaction on number of spikeletes and grain yield
The effects of interaction of three factors used in this study in number of spikeletes and
grain yield showed the significant effect (P ≤ 0.05) in number of spikeletes (42.57) where
cultivar WAB 450, urea at 80 Kg ha-1, and tie – ridge interacted, followed with interaction
of WAB 450, urea and open ridge (37.50), while the lowest number of spikeletes (19.27)
found in plots where NERICA 1 interacted with flat cultivation and no fertilizer (control)
the reason contributed for these results were discussed in sub section 4.5.1 in paragraph
one
The effect of interaction in grain yield showed significant effect (P ≤ 0.05) such that (4179
Kg ha-1) when cultivar WAB 450, urea 80 kg N ha-1 and tie – ridge interacted, followed by
interaction of WAB 450, urea 80 Kg N ha-1 and open ridge (3767 Kg ha-1) while the lowest
amount of grain yield (1072 Kg ha-1 ) was found in the plots where NERICA 1 interacted
with no fertilizer and flat cultivation, the results might be attributed by genetical
characteristic of cultivar WAB 450 to adapt environmental condition, application of
inorganic fertilizer which has been showed the high ability of immediately release nutrient
for plant after application, also the ability of tie – ridge to conserve moisture which was
utilized by plant in drought condition as supported by Allahyar (2011) who reported that
moisture and nitrogen fertilizer had significant influence on plant height, number of tillers
days to flower panicle size, number of spikeletes and grain yield in rice.
Page | 766
Table 7: Interaction effect of variety, fertilizers and water conservation methods inyield and yield components
Treatment No oftillers1
No ofpanicle
Paniclelength(cm
No-Spikelet’s
Total drymatter
% Unfilliedgrain
Grainyiedkg/Ha
NERICE1,NF,WC1
6.73a 6.733a 17.911ab 20.97ab 241.3ab 29.00i 1072a
NERICA1,NF,WC2
6.77a 6.77a 17.67ab 19.27a 316.5abcd 28.33hi 1101a
NERICA1,NF,WC 3
7.37abc 7.37abc 18.03ab 23.20bcd 230.4a 19.67abcdefghi 1221a
NERICA1,Urea,WC1
9.43def 9.43def 18.10abc 28.47fghi 501.2ghij 23.67defghi 2741e
NERICA1,Urea,WC2
8.73cde 8.73cde 18.00ab 25.50def 484.7ghi 23.33 def g hi 2718e
NERICA1,Urea,WC3
11.17gh 11.17gh 19.36abc 30.80gj 519.3ghij 20.33bcdefghi 3006ef
NERIA1,Fym,WC1
8.933def 8.93def 17.03abc 23.93cde 425.8cdefgh 23.00cdefghi 2257d
NERICA1,Fym,WC2
8.27bcde 8.27bcde 18.13ab 27.70fg 406.3cdef 23.67defghi 2338d
NERICA1,Fym,WC3
9.67def 9.67def 18.80abc 30.93gij 422.1cdefg 13.67abc 2809e
NERICE 4,NF,WC1
6.97a 6.97a 17.33ab 27.73fgh 271.4ab 26.00fghi 1261a
NERICA.4,NF,
7.20ab 7.20ab 17.10a 25.63def 256.0ab 26.00fghi 1265a
Page | 767
WC2NERICA4,NF,WC 3
8.60cde 8.60cde 18.13abc 27.83fgh 269.3ab 20.33bcdefghi 1415ab
NERICA4,Urea,WC1
9.47def 9.47def 18.03abc 27.83fgh 553.8ij 17.00abcdef 3237f
NERICA4,Urea,WC2
9.57def 9.57def 18.07abc 26.63ef 549.4hij 16.33abcde 3240f
NERICA4,Urea,WC3
11.70h 11.70h 20.30cd 31.27ij 607.8jk 11.33ab 3687g
NERICA4,Fym,WC1
8.70cde 8.70cde 17.60ab 20.83ab 465.6efghi 19.00abcdefgh 3000ef
NERICA4,Fym,WC2
8.20bcd 8.20bcd 17.27ab 20.77ab 443.4efghi 17.67abcdef 2704e
NERICA4,Fym,WC3
9.53def 9.53def 18.13abc 22.53bc 453.8efghi 10.67a 3251f
Page | 768
Table 7 continued:
Treatment
No oftillers1
No ofpanicle
Paniclelength(cm
No-Spikelet’s
Total drymatter
% Unfilliedgrain
Grainyieldkg/Ha
WAB450,NF,WC1
9.03def 9.03def 18.50abc 32.77jk 347.5bcde 25.00efghi 1719bc
WAB450,NF,WC2
8.40bcde 8.40bcde 18.07abc 33.23jk 315.6abc 27.67ghi 1680c
WAB450,NF,WC3,
9.90ef 9.90ef 18.67abc 35.27kl 355.3bcdef 17.00abcdef 1970c
WAB450,Urea,WC1
11.70h 11.70h 19.50bc 37.50l 635.7k 16.00abcde 3737g
WAB450,Urea,WC2
10.33fg 10.33fg 2020cd 35.40kl 594.3jk 18.33abcdefg 3767g
WAB450,Urea, WC3
14.00i 14.00i 21.53d 42.57m 660.9k 10.33a 4179h
WAB450,Fym, WC1
9.80def 9.80def 18.60abc 34.93kl 466.3efghi 22.00cdefghi 2799e
WAB450,Fym, WC2
9.07def 9.07def 18.43abc 33.33jk 472.2fghi 21.33cdefghi 2827e
WAB450,FymWC3
11.10gh 11.10gh 19.27abc 35.53klj 459.0efghi 14.67abcd 3021ef
Mean 9.272 9.272 18.423 28.98 435.7 19.70 2501
SE± 0.5622 0.5622 0.4952 1.307 45.28 3.255 126.6CV(abc)%
6.1 6.1 4.2 4.5 10.40 16.5 5.1
*Means in the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly different according to StudentNew Keul test (P≤ 0.05)
Note: NT=Number of tillers, NP= Number of panicle plant–1, PL=panicle length, NS =number of spikelets–1,UG= unfilled grain(%), GY= grain yield Kgha–1, WCM1 = Flat cultivation,WCM2= Open ridge, WCM3=Tie- ridge FYM= farm yard manure.
Page | 769
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDETIONS
5.1 Conclusions
Regarding the soil suitability for the upland rainfed rice production, the soil used was
found to be moderately suitable for upland rice production due to its soil texture of sand
clay loam and its low bulk density of 0.94 g/cm–3 which plays essential role in increasing
the capacity of the soil to hold water for plant use. The soil chemical characteristics of the
site was low in total nitrogen (0.08 %), organic carbon (0.58%) and available phosphorous
(2.08 mgp/Kg) and cation exchange capacity (9.6 cmol(+)/Kg were found to be low. The
soil pH is in the range of 6–8 which is suitable for upland rice production.
Results observed from application of different types of fertilizers showed that the
application of urea in a rate of 80 KgN/ ha had an increase in number of tiller per plant,
panicle per plant, panicle length and number of spikelets which contributed on higher grain
yield of 3.4 t/ha in comparison to application of farm yard manure at a rate of 5t/ha and
control that gave 2.7 and 1.4 t/ha respectively.
Based on the use of different moisture conservation methods on upland rice production
particularly in areas with unreliable and poor rainfall distribution, the use of tie–ridges
resulted on improved crop growth characteristics that were plant height (cm), leaf area
index, harvest index and total dry matter (gm–2). The increase of number of tiller and
panicle per plant, panicle length (cm) and number of spikelets per panicle attributed an
increase of grain yield in (gm–2) compared to those obtained from open ridges and flat
cultivation practices.
Among three upland rice varieties used in this study that were NERICA 1, NERICA 4 and
WAB 450, rice variety WAB 450 out yielded two NERICAs in both yield components and
grain yield in Kg ha-1, from applied treatments, that were fertilizer types and water
conservation methods. This should be based on the interaction results noted in the analysis
results.
Based on interaction among treatments the interaction of WAB 450, tie – ridge and use of
urea fertilizer out yielded other interaction on number of tillers, plant height, panicle
length, number of spikeletes, and grain yield 4179 Kg ha-1.
Page | 770
5.2 Recommendations
Based on the results it advised that farmers around Ukiriguru should use variety WAB 450
for upland rice production by applying inorganic (Urea at 80 Kg Nha–1) and phosphorous
at 20 kg P2O5 ha2 under tie– ridge, soil moisture conservation method application.
The use of tie ridges in upland rice production within the areas experiencing low rainfall
should be encouraged because the technology helo to conserve moisture in the soil
Further studies on socio–economic component of recommended practices i.e. the use of
inorganic (urea), organic fertilizer and use of tie–ridges as methods in order to come up
with a firm and acceptable recommendation by the upland rice farmers.
Also participatory varieties assessment to observe others attributes farmer consider in
choosing variety to adopt (e.g. aroma, grain quality, palatability, etc) should considered.
Page | 771
Page | 772
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Summary of analysis of variance (ANOVA) of three factors used (Rice varieties, types of fertilizer and water
conservation methods)
Source ofvariation
Varieties (A) fertilizertypes (B)
Variety.X Fertilizer(AB)
Moisture regime(C)
VarietyX.Mcm(AC)
FertilizerX..MoistureRegime (BC)
VarietyX.Fertilizer .xMCR(ABC)
Days to 50%booting
*** Ns Ns *** Ns Ns ns
1000 grain weight(g)
*** Ns ** *** Ns Ns ***
Days to 50%flowering
*** * Ns *** Ns Ns ns
Days to 50%Physiologicalmaturity
*** * Ns *** Ns Ns ns
Plant height (cm) *** *** ** *** Ns ** nsNumber of tiller atpanicledevelopment
*** *** * *** * *** ns
Number of panicle/hill
*** *** * *** Ns *** ns
Panicle length(cm)
*** *** * *** * *** ns
Number ofspikelet / panicle
*** *** *** *** Ns *** ***
Leaf Area Index ns *** * ns Ns Ns **Harvest Index ns *** Ns *** Ns Ns ns% unfilled grains ns *** Ns *** ** Ns nsTotal dry matteraccumulation
ns ** Ns ns Ns Ns ns
Grain yieldKg/ha
*** *** *** *** Ns ** ns
Page | 788
*** significant at 0.001, significant at ** 0.01 and * significant at 0.05, ns= not significant.
Page | 789
Appendix 2: Chemical characteristics of Farm Yard Manure used
Remarks according to Palm et al. (1997)
Farm yard manure characteristics Value Re marksChemical characteristicsFarm yard manure pH 8.4(H2O) Moderately alkalineTotal Nitrogen 0.95 % LowOrganic carbon 6.89 % LowExtractable Phosphate 1.48 mgp Kg–1 HighCalcium 1.07 cmolc
(+) Kg–1 MediumMagnesium 0.75 cmolc
(+) Kg–1 LowPotassium 1.38 cmolc
(+) Kg–1 LowSodium 8.13 cmolc
(+) Kg–1 HighCopper 8.60 mg Kg–1 HighZinc 165.50 mg Kg–1 High
Page | 790
Appendix 3: Correlation coefficient of rice growth characteristics, yield components
and grain yield
GW %UG GY HI LAI NP NS NT PL PH PP TDM
GW
1
%UG
0.2876**
1
GY
0.3663***
0.6725***
1
HI 0.3054NS
0.5662***
0.6654***
1
LAI
0.1013***
0.4349***
0.7146***
0.4506***
1
NP 0.5131***
0.6741***
0.8233***
0.5359***
0.5741***
1
NS 0.6878***
0.3082*
0.5354***
0.3075*
0.2233*
0.7341**8
1
NT 0.5132***
0.6741***
0.8233***
0.5359***
0.5741***
1.0000***
0.7341***
1
PL 0.3481*
0.5897***
0.7178***
0.3686***
0.4749***
0.8077***
0.6930***
0.8077***
1
PH 0.8286***
0.2792*
0.5104***
0.36198***
0.2478*
0.6634***
0.8705***
0.6634***
0.5749***
1
PP 0.0191 NS
0.2853**
0.1693 NS
0.0316NS
0.1959NS
0.1249NS
0.0294NS
0.1249*
0.1683NS
0.0129NS
1
TDM
0.2842NS
0.5775***
0.9209***
0.3895***
0.6728***
0.7610***
0.4870**
0.7610***
0.6916***
0.4477***
0.1867NS 1
n= 81, df= n–2
*** significant at 0.001, **significant at 0.01 and * significant at 0.05 and NS refers to non–significant
Note: GW –1000 grain weight, UG– % unfilled grain, GY–grain yield, HI– harvest index, LAI–leaf area index,NP–number of panicle, NS–number spikelet, NT–number of tillers, PL– panicle length, PH– plant height, PP –plant population, TDM – total dry matter
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