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FINAL REPORT
Commerce
Development &
Environment
P r i v a t e
L i m i t e d
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON
TRANSPORT SECTORMINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER
SEPTEMBER 2007
Submitted by:
Author: AHMED ADHAM ABDULLA, MSc
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER II
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states that
due to anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) attributed to
human activity, the global mean temperature could increase between 1.4 and
5.8 degrees Celsius by 2100 and the sea level is projected to rise by 0.09 to
0.88 meter between 1990 and 2100. The focus of international community is
tended on technology based strategies, options or solutions for reducing
anthropogenic GHG emissions to foster human or natural systems to respond
to the indeed already occurring and future global warming consequences.
Maldives is very vulnerable to the associated impacts of climate change,
including sea level rise. The very existence of Maldives is questionable as half
of the country will submerge by 2100 as Maldives has 1 meter at maximum
height, should the projection of IPCC becomes a inconvenient reality. The
current uni-modal transport system in Maldives has evolved in an ad hoc
manner without a comprehensive plan, in which a systematic public transport
is practically non-existent (both in capital city Malé and in Atolls). As a result
GHG emissions have increased and are forecasted to steeply escalate due to
heavy usage of private owned cars and motorbikes, high demand and
consumption of fossil fuels, and traffic congestions.
This In-depth Technology Needs Assessment (In-depth TNA) of transport
sector is in line with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC), Kyoto Protocol and current government regulations in
pertinent areas. The assessment seeks to elucidate the available technology
based sustainable mitigation and adaptation options for the Maldives in order
to diminish GHG emissions and the adverse effects to climatic conditions for
Maldives (and for the Earth in general) from land and transport sectors
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER III
(excluding air transportation), despite the numerous barriers and hindrances
to technology transfer in the Maldives .
The hard and soft technology-based options (underpinned by
comprehensive local and international literature review, internet based
research, and by qualifiable and quantifiable data attained from focus group
discussions and awareness raising campaigns) are recommended based on
key aspects of road transport in Malé and Atolls, Inter-Island Sea Transport,
International Shipping, Seaports, relevance on Air Pollution and Climate
change to transport sector, environmental cost of air pollution, measurement
of GHG transport based inventory, consumption needs of fossil fuel energy
(which Maldives is an importer of), cost of transport, and history and forecast
of GHG emissions.
Hard and soft technology based GHG mitigation options include traffic
management techniques to limit vehicle and vessel fleet such as to promote an
integrated public transport system (for both land and maritime transport),
priority measures, fiscal restraints, traffic management information
technology, market based options for carbon credit point trading.
Furthermore, mitigation options include actions to reduce vehicle emissions
techniques such as to promote use of emissions catalyst neutralizers, testing
devices of gross polluters, natural barriers, alternative fuel configurations for
vehicles (AFVs), alternative lean burn engine configurations for vehicles,
efficient vehicle technology to promote green travel plans, low emission zones,
NOx reduction measures for maritime transport, water injection and water
emulsion, and promote low sulphur distillate fuels for maritime transport.
Hard and soft technology based options to adapt to the mitigations
technologies include actions to reduce travel such as promote public
awareness, demand-side management, institutional strengthening and
capacity building, land-use planning and traffic management schemes, and
promote support of government of Maldives through policies, strategies,
regulations, standards and enforcement initiates.
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS IV Executive Summary II Table of Contents IV Abbreviations and Acronyms VIII List of Figures and Tables X CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION AND METHODOLOGY………………….…. 1 1. 1 Introduction and Subject of Enquiry…………………………………….…….… 1 1.2 Methodology for In-Depth TNA: Participatory and Consultative Approach……. 5 CHAPTER TWO CHARACTERISTICS OF MALDIVES: IT’S DEPENDENCY ON TRANSPORT SECTOR………………….. 7 2.1 Characteristics of Maldives……………………………………………………… 7 2.2 Transportation Sector of Maldives……………………………………………… 11
2.2.1 Evolution and Growth of Transport Sector: Past, Present and Future. 2.2.2 Transport Sector and Energy Needs: Relevance and Implication
2.3 Road Transport in Malé………………………………………………………… 13 2.3.1 Pedestrians 2.3.2 Parking 2.3.3 Traffic Management 2.3.4 Vehicle Ownership
2.4 Road Transport in the Atolls………………………………………………….… 18 2.5 Inter-Island sea Transport……………………………………………………….18 2.6 International Shipping and Seaports…………………………………………….. 20 CHAPTER THREE TRANSPORT SECTOR AND CLIMATE CHANGE: TECHNICAL EVALUATION………………………………………. 21 3.1 Air Pollution and Climate Change: A General Overview……………………... 21 3.2 Climate Change and Air Pollution: Transport Perspective…………………….. 23 3.3 Environmental Costs of Air Pollution: A Brief Highlight……………………... 24 3.4 Energy Consumption of Transport Sector……………………………………… 25
3.4.1 Net Consumption of Diesel / Marine Gas Oil 3.4.2 Net Consumption of Petrol / Gasoline
3.5 Measurement of GHG Emission from Land and Maritime Transport ……….....27 3.6 History and Forecasted GHG Emissions (1994-2011) ……………………….... .31
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER V
CHAPTER FOUR HARD AND SOFT TECHNOLOGY-BASED OPTIONS FOR REDUCING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM TRANSPORT SECTOR……………………….…………….. 32 4.1 Analytical Hierarchy Model: Transport Initiatives to Improve Air Quality……. 32 4.2 Traffic Demand Management Techniques……………………………………….34
4.2.1 Promote Options for Public Transport, Priority Measures and Integrated Transport Systems………………………………………………...34
- Integrated Public Mini Bus Services for Malé, Hulhumalé, Addu Atoll, Laamu Atoll, Fuahmulah and Kulhudhufushi road network - Integrated Ferry Transport System for Male Urban Region
4.2.2 Promote Options for Fiscal Restraints …………………………...……39 - Fuel Taxes - Port Dues Differentiation - Other In-Use Fees
4.2.3 Promote Options for Traffic Management Information Technology ….40 - Electronic Congestion and Toll Collection System
4.2.4 Promote Market Based Options for Carbon Credit Point Trading …….41 - The Stringent Credit-Based Approach - The Consortia Benchmarking Approach
4.3 Actions to Reduce Vehicle and Vessel Emissions ……………………………....43 4.3.1 Promote Option for Use of Emissions Neutralizers, Testing Devices of “Gross Polluters”, and Natural Barriers………………....43
- Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) Converters -Emissions Testing, Sensing and Screening Devices - Prevent Pollutants Dissipation through Natural Barriers
4.3.2 Promote Use of Alternative Fuel Configurations for Vehicles (Afvs).44 - Ethanol -Bio Diesel - Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) -Propane - Electricity - Hydrogen - Methanol - P-Series Fuel - Fuel Cells
4.3.3 Promote use of Alternative Lean Burn Engine Configurations for Vehicles………………………………………………………………………50
- Gasoline Direct Injection - Sequential Spark Ignition - Variable Valve Timing and Lift - Cylinder Deactivation - Variable Displacement - Variable Compression Ratios - Idle Stop - Advanced Transmissions - Supercharging and Turbo-charging
4.3.4 Use of Energy Efficient Vehicles Technology to Promote Green Travel Plans and Low Emission Zones ……………………….……...53
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER VI
- Battery Electric-drive Vehicles (BEVs) - Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) - Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs). - Direct-injection lean-burn diesel engines - Mini-cars
4.3.5 Promote use of Alternative Fuel and Engine Configurations in Maritime Transport………………………………………………...……..58
- Nox Reduction measures from maritime transport - Water injection and water emulsion. - Humid Air Motor (HAM) -Lower Sulphur distillate fuels
CHAPTER FIVE ADAPTATION MEASURES FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF HARD AND SOFT GHG MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES…………………………………………………………..62 5.1 Promote Public Awareness………………………………………………………62 5.2 Promote Demand-Side Management ……………………………………………63
- Telecommuting to work 5.3 Promote Institutional Strengthening and Capacity Building …………………....64 5.4 Promote Private Sector Participation…………………………………………… 64 5.5 Promote Land-Use Planning and Traffic Management Schemes………………..65
- Pedestrian friendly roads 5.6 Promote Support of Government of Maldives through Policies, Strategies, Regulations, Standards and Enforcement Initiatives…………………………………68
5.6.1 National Policies for Land and Maritime Sector. ……………………...68 - 7th National Developments Plan (7th NDP, 2006-2010) - The Domestic Transport Act Of 1978 - Tourism Master Plan (2003) - Strategic Economic Plan (2005) - National Energy Policy (2006), Kyoto Protocol (ratified it in 1998) and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). - Science and technology Master plan (2001) - National Adaptation Plan of Action (NAPA - 2006), - ICT Policy Formulation Project - Telecommunications Policy 2001 - 2005 - Health master plan (1996)
5.6.2 International Policies Specific to Maritime Sector……………………..75 - The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea - The International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships MARPOL 73/78 - IMO’ resolution A.963 (23)
5.6.4 Policy Options for Government of Maldives………………………….78 - Policy on GHG emission indices and standards - Policy on Vehicle Demand Management, fleet restriction, alternative fuel and Public Transport - Policy on fiscal restraints and import duty of vehicles.
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER VII
-Other Policy Support options ………………………………………82 Public Awareness campaigns Institutional strengthening and capacity building Private Sector Participation Fuel quality testing mechanisms Policy on data collection and maintenance Urban Land-use planning, re-engineer road network, limit over
load of vehicles, re-arrange traffic lights and speed breaks Policy on Hybrid cars and battery electric cars Policy on Fuel economy
5.7 Measures to Promote Fuel-Efficient Vehicles around the World ………………84 5.8 Milestones Targets ………………………………………………………………85
-Milestone target for 2015 -Milestone target for 2020
5.9 Barriers to Technology Transfer ………………………………………………...86
CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ………..………...87 6.1 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………..87 6.2 Recommendations………………………………………………………………..88 6.3 Recommendations for Further Research…………………………………………91 LIST OF REFERENCES ANNEX I – MAP OF MALDIVES ANNEX II - PROJECT PROFILE ONE
PUBLIC AWARENESS CAMPAIGNS - Background and goal - Project rationale and objectives: - Expected activities, output and outcomes: - Financing mechanism
ANNEX III - PROJECT PROFILE TWO
INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING BY CAPACITY BUILDING - Background and goal - Objectives and outcomes - Financing mechanism
ANNEX IV - PROJECT PROFILE THREE
DEVELOPMENT OF SUSTAINABLE INTER-ISLAND SEA BASED MASS TRANSPORT TION SYSTEM
- Background and goals - Project rationale and objectives: - Planned activities and outcomes: - Financing Mechanism
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER VIII
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ALS Area Licensing Scheme
BRT Bus rapid transit
CNG Compressed Natural Gas
CO Carbon monoxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas)
CAI-Maldives Clean Air Initiative for Maldives
CDM Clean Development Mechanism
DMC Developing Member Country
DFO Diesel Fuel Oil
DPF Diesel particle filter
EEI Energy Efficiency Initiative
EU European Union
GNI Gross National Income
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GHG Greenhouse gases (gases which contribute to climate
change effects)
GPS Global Positioning System
HC Hydrocarbons
HOV High Occupancy Vehicle
IMO International Maritime Organisation
ICE Internal Combustion Engine
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change
LNG Liquefied natural gas
LPG Liquefied Petroleum gas
NMT Non-motorized transport
NO Nitric oxide
NO2 Nitrogen oxide
NOx Oxides of Nitrogen
PM Particulate Matter
SO2 Sulphur dioxide
SOx oxides of sulphur
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER IX
SCR Selective catalytic reduction
TDM Traffic demand management
TOE Ton oil equivalent
UN United Nations
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change
Units
mg Micrograms (106 grams)
g/km Grams per Kilometer
g/l Grams per Liter
kg Kilogram
km Kilometer
kph Kilometers per hour
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER X
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1: Summary of Chapters in In-depth Technology Needs Assessment
Table 3.2 Externalities of Air Pollution
Table 4.2: Diesel / Marine Gas Oil Consumption
Table 3.3: Petrol/ Gasoline Imports and Export
Table 4.1: GHG Emission from Different Transport Modes
Table 4.2: Quality Service Standards for Mini Buses of Male’
Table 4.2: Summary of Alternative Vehicle Technology and Fuel Options
Table 5.1: Registration Age Restriction
Table 5.2: Measures To Promote Fuel-Efficient Vehicles around the World
LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Research Superstructure
Figure1.2: Methodical Flow Chart of In-Depth TNA Study
Figure 2.1: Projected Mid Year Population of Maldives 2005-2010
Figure 2.2: Percentage Share of GDP by Kind of Activity 2005
Figure 2.3: Transport Sector’s Share for Gross Domestic Product 1995-2005
Figure 2.4: Gross Domestic Product, Growth Rates of Transport Sector, in Percentage
at 2005 Constant Price
Figure 2.5: Consumer Price Index, Percentage Change over Previous Years
Figure 2.6: Growth of Vehicle Fleet, Population and Income in Male’ 1995-2021
Figure 2.7: Vehicle Spilt Male 2006
Figure 2.8: Trip Purpose for Vehicle Use
Figure 2.9: Vehicle Ownership Rate (Per 1000 Persons)
Figure 2.10: Annual Growth Rate of Vehicle Registrations
Figure 2.11; Vessel According to Registration by Locality
Figure 2.12: Maritime Vessels use by Locality, 2005
Figure 2.13: Cargo Throughput by Sea 2002-2005
Figure 3.1: Variations in the Surface Temperature of the Last 140 Years
Figure 3.2: Total Final Energy Consumption by Energy Carriers, 2002
Figure3.3 Overview of Energy Consumption in Transport Sector, 2002
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER XI
Figure 3.4: Import of Diesel
Figure 3.5: History and Forecasted GHG Emissions (1994-2011)
Figure 4.1: Analytical Hierarchy Model
Figure 4.2: Suggested Size and Seating Arrangement of Mini Buses
Figure 4.3: Proposed Ferry Network in Male’ Urban Region
Figure 4.4: Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Figure 5.1: Road Structure as Recommended By MTC
Figure 5.2: Pedestrian Friendly Roads
Figure 5.3: Support of Intervention Proposal
Annex I – Map of Maldives
LIST OF EQUATIONS FOR CALCULATIONS Total Final Energy Consumption for 2002 = 147,721 Toe
Final Energy Consumption in Transport, 2002 = 45,738 Toe
Net Consumption = Imports – Re-exports
Net fuel energy share = Net burnt exhaust (as Fuel stock in Maldives is less than for 3
months)
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 1 of 112
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION AND METHODOLOGY
1. 1 INTRODUCTION AND SUBJECT OF ENQUIRY
It is a consensus of global community that anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse
gases (GHG) to atmosphere are upsetting the thermal balance of the planet and
contributing to a global warming trend. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) states that the global mean temperature could increase by between 1.4
and 5.8 degrees Celsius by 2100, the sea level is projected to rise from 0.09 meter to
0.88 meter between 1990 and 2100. Furthermore there is compelling evidence that
most warming observed in the last 50 years can be attributed to human activity.
In the international and regional policy arena, scientists and policymakers around
have acknowledged that global climate change is likely to disturb regional weather
patterns and that these changes, although difficult to predict with any certainty, pose
challenges and risks to human and natural systems. Therefore their attention has
tended to focus on technology based strategies, options or solutions for reducing
anthropogenic GHG emissions to foster human or natural systems to respond to the
indeed already occurring and future global warming consequences.
Adaptive strategies, options or measures are also important precisely because, given
the 100-year residence time of carbon dioxide (which is the main component in
GHGs) in the atmosphere, climate effects from past, current, and future GHG can be
expected to continue for many years at least through the 21st century and probably
beyond (regardless of the success of near-term emissions reduction efforts).
Adaptation measures (both feasible and implement able) can substantially reduce the
potential for damage, while increasing the likelihood that some regions, communities,
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 2 of 112
or individual entities may even be able to take advantage of financial opportunities
created by climate change.
Maldives is among the most vulnerable and least defensible countries to the projected
impacts of the global problem of climate change, including sea level rise. In fact the
very existence of Maldives is questionable as half of the country will submerge by
2100 according to the 0.88 meter sea level rise projection of IPCC stated above, as
Maldives has 1 meter at maximum height. By successful adaptation of technology-
based mitigation solutions to curb GHG and enhance carbon sequestration, Maldives
shall reduce its vulnerability and enhance its resilience to climate variability,
preferably in ways that contributes to sustainable development of the country.
In the quest to mitigate effects of climate change, Maldives was the first country to
sign the Kyoto Protocol and ratify it in 1998. The country is also a party to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). As a non-Annex I
party to the UNFCCC, the Maldives is not obliged to implement GHG measures, but
the current national environmental policies are based on the need to take an integrated
approach to environmental management and to work towards the goal of sustainable
development.
Maldives is heavily dependent on transport sector, which is a main contributor to air
pollution and GHG is emitted as a by-product of fossil fuel combustion in transport
vehicles and vessels. This In-depth Technology Needs Assessment (In-depth TNA) of
transport sector seeks to elucidate the available technology based sustainable
mitigation and adaptation options for the Maldives in order to eradicate the adverse
effects to climatic conditions for Maldives (and for the Earth in general) from land
and maritime transport sector. Although air transport base technologies are paramount
to mitigate overall GHG emissions from transport sector, air transport technologies
are excluded in this In-depth TNA as it’s beyond the scope of study.
Furthermore the assessment will exemplify policy support options for the Government
of Maldives for successful adaptation of GHG curbing technologies with emphasis on
financing mechanisms, barriers to technologies transfer and key capacity building
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 3 of 112
needs (which paves the way for promotion of technology transfer to Maldives). Lack
of reliable and accurate data was the major hindrance in precision guided calculations
and in providing accurate recommendations.
Research superstructure of In-depth TNA Figure 1.1, provides a graphic
representation of flow and distribution of study. Details of the chapter are presented in
Table 1.1 below:
TABLE 1.1
NUMBER TITLE DETAILS
CHAPTER
ONE
INTRODUCTION AND
METHODOLOGY
Introduce the subject of enquiry.
Present the research superstructure and main
components of forthcoming chapters.
Illustrate the methodology of research.
CHAPTER
TWO
CHARACTERISTICS OF
MALDIVES: ITS DEPENDENCY
ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
Address characteristics of Maldives and,
evolution, growth and energy needs of transport
Provides highlights on road transport in male,
road transport in atolls, inter-island sea transport,
international shipping and ports.
CHAPTER
THREE
TRANSPORT SECTOR AND
CLIMATE CHANGE:
TECHNICAL EVALUATION
Illustrate the effects of air pollution, climate
change to earth and Maldives.
Address air pollution from transport and
measurement constraints of GHG.
Exemplify energy consumption and, history and
forecast of GHG emissions.
CHAPTER
FOUR
HARD AND SOFT
TECHNOLOGY-BASED
OPTIONS FOR REDUCING
GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSION
FROM TRANSPORT SECTOR
Address the analytic hierarchy model: transport
initiatives to improve air quality.
Provided detail review on traffic demand
management techniques and actions to reduce
vehicles and vessel emissions.
CHAPTER
FIVE
ADAPTATION MEASURES
FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF
HARD AND SOFT GHG
MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES
Address adaptation measures such as public
awareness, demand-side management, private
sector participation, and government policy
support.
CHAPTER
SIX
CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Provide conclusion and recommendations for the
study.
Recommend areas for further research.
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 4 of 112
GOVERNMENT OF MALDIVES
CHARACTERISTICS OF MALDIVES
Chapter 2
Chapter 1Chapter 4
FIGURE 1.1 IN-DEPTH TNA
SUPERSTRUCTURE
TECHNOLOGY-BASED SOLUTIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE MITIGATION OF CLIMATE
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT SECTOR
Technology options for land transport Technology options for Maritime Transport
ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE TECHNOLOGIES
Chapter 5
Strategies, policies and options for transport sector Awareness advocacy and private sector participation, Barriers,
Milestone Targets
TRANSPORT SECTOR
TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE:
TECHNICAL EVALUATION
INTERNATIONAL LEGISLATIONS
Source: Author
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 3
RECOMMENDATIONS
CONCLUSION Chapter 6
RECOMMENDED FURTHER RESEARCH
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 5
1.2 METHODOLOGY FOR IN-DEPTH TNA: PARTICIPATORY AND
CONSULTATIVE APPROACH
The In-depth TNA provides proven and viable technology-based solutions
underpinned by targeted research studies on comprehensive literature, internet based
research, focus group discussions and policy reviews. In order to recommend
successful and sustainable technology based solutions to best suit the special
circumstances of the Maldives, key stake holders such as government representatives,
private sector and business representatives, experts and professionals, technology
suppliers and non-governmental organizations were consulted. Further information on
relevant policies, guidelines and regulatory measures were attained through series of
public and private sector awareness generation campaigns. The Figure 1.2 below
exemplifies the methodical flow chart of In-depth TNA study.
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 6
FIGURE1.2: METHODICAL FLOW CHART OF IN-DEPTH TNA STUDY
Source: Author
PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW
Step 1
Step 2STAKEHOLDER
CONSULTATIONS SESSION 1:
Ministry of Transport and Communications
Ministry of Planning and National Development
Step 4PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR
AWARENESS CAMPAIGNS
SUBMISSION OF FINAL REPORT
Step 6
RECEIPT OF FORMAL COMMENTS
Step 7
RE-SUBMISSION OF FINAL REPORT
Step 8
SUBMISSION OF DRAFT FINAL REPORT
Step 3
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 7
CHAPTER TWO
CHARACTERISTICS OF MALDIVES: IT’S
DEPENDENCY ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF MALDIVES
The Republic of Maldives is a small South Asian developing country, in fact the sixth
smallest sovereign state in the world in terms of land area (Maldives partnership
forum, 2007). Maldives is an archipelago, which consists of approximately 1200
islands (which vary in size ranging from 0.5 km2 to 5.0 km2, enormously in shape and
on average 1 meter above mean sea level) scattered along a chain of 20 administrative
coral atolls (MPND 2004), which makes Maldives among the most vulnerable and
least defensible countries to the projected impact of climate change and associated sea
level rise.
The atoll chain is 860km long and 80-120km wide from latitude 706’35”N to
0042’24”S, and lying between longitude 72033’19”E to 73046’13”E1. The northern
atolls are broad banks, discontinuously fringed by reefs with small reef islands and
with numerous patch reefs and faros in the lagoon (Woodroffe 1989). In the southern
atolls, faros and patch reefs are rarer in the lagoon, the continuity of the atoll rim is
greater, and a larger proportion of the perimeter of the atolls is occupied by islands
(MHAHE 2001).
Maldives located on the 1600km long Laccadives-Chagos submarine ridge extending
into the central Indian Ocean from the south-west coast of the Indian sub-continent,
and shares boundaries of its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) with Sri Lanka and
India on the northeast and the Chagos Islands on the south (see Annex I for map).
1 Further information on Maldives is cited on TNA (2006), Technology Needs Assessment, Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water.
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 8
Maldives is a maritime nation2 with 99% of its territory as sea, which makes the
country heavily dependent on its transport sector (especially sea transport) for
economic and social activities. Transport sector (which predominantly adapts a uni-
modal system of transport3) is developing and will be developing as a multi-modal
transport system to cater for the arising demand for transport from economic and
development trends (primarily due to tremendous upsurge of international trade that
has been revealed during the last two decades), and demographic trends (see Figure
2.1).
FIGURE 2.1
2 All South Asian countries, including Maldives, rightfully consider themselves as maritime nations. The only exception to this statement is the Landlocked Laos (Sein et al, 2003) 3 such as other Asian countries such as Bhutan and Nepal
Projected Mid-Year Population of Maldives 2005 -2010(Both Sexes)
20052006
20072008
20092010
280,000285,000290,000295,000300,000305,000310,000315,000320,000325,000
Source: Analysis by Author, raw data from MPND 2006
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 9
The demand for transport will grow faster than population and GDP in most
developing countries (World Bank 1996). In fact in the Maldives the demand for
transport is expected to grow by more than 9% per annum which is the annual GDP
growth rate. The share contribution of transport sector (in combination with
Communication sector, as provided by MPND 2006) comprises of 18% of GDP (see
Figure 2.2), and has revealed a steep growth trend. See Figure 2.3 for percentage
share of GDP and see Figure 2.4 for GDP growth rate.
FIGURE 2.2
FIGURE 2.3
FIGURE 2.4
PERCENTAGE SAHRE OF GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT, BY KIND OF ACTIVITY, 2005
(Estimated using production approach, in percentage at constant price)
3% 7% 1%7%
4%5%
4%
21%18%
3%
7%
3%15%
2%
Agriculture
Fisheries
Coral and Sand Mining
Manufacturing
Electricity
Construction
Wholesale and retail trade
Tourism
Transport and Communication
Financial Services
Real Estate
Business Services
Government Administration
Education, Health and SocialServices
Source: Analysis by Author, raw data from MPND 2006
Transport Sector's share for Gross Domestic Product 1995 - 2005 (estimated using production approach, in percent at 1995 constant price)
10
13
16
19
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
% S
hare
of G
DP
Transport and Communication
Source: Analysis by Author, raw data from MPND 2006
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 10
FIGURE 2.4
Maldives faces the greatest threat from climate change, rise in sea level and global
warming, such as all low-lying countries and Small Island states (Country Strategy
Paper, 2003). The environment of the Maldives is extremely fragile and vulnerable as
around 80% of the total landmass of the Maldives is less than 1 meter above sea level,
which increases the vulnerability of extremely dispersed and fragmented island
population (7th NDP, 2007). In spite of the overall positive development trends, the
Maldives still faces several key development challenges (Country Strategy Paper,
2003). Hence Maldives has yet to make its best endeavour to adapt fuel efficient
technologies to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions to reduce the impacts on climate
change.
G ro s s D o m e s tic P ro d u c t, G ro w th R a te s o f T ra n s p o rt S e c to r (e s tim a te d u s in g p ro d u c tio n a p p ro c h , is p e rc e n ta g e a t 2 0 0 5 c o n s ta n t p ric e )
-10-505
10152025
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005Perc
enta
ge G
row
th R
ates
T rans port and C om m unic a t ion G D P a t b as ic P ric e
Source: Analysis by Author, raw data from MPND 2006
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 11
2.2 TRANSPORTATION SECTOR OF MALDIVES
2.2.1 EVOLUTION AND GROWTH OF TRANSPORT SECTOR: PAST,
PRESENT AND FUTURE
Transport plays an essential role in economic and social development in our societies.
It ensures access to jobs, housing goods and services by providing mobility of people
and for the opening up of peripheral and isolated regions. However, the continuing
expansion of transport, heavily dominated by sea transport for Maldives in general
and road transport particularly in Male, raises serious concerns about the long-term
sustainability of present mobility trends. In particular the increasing evidence of the
adverse impacts to environment by transport places the need to address effectively
transport-related issues at the top, in-line with the international political agenda
(THEPEP, 2007).
The transport sector has evolved in an ad hoc manner, without a comprehensive plan4.
With a low volume of travel and commerce, this system has worked reasonably well
in the past, though costs are inflated because the full capacity of a vessel may not be
used or because the vessel may return empty on the inbound trip. Since an efficient
transport system is vital for soco-economic development and the provision of essential
services to a widely dispersed population, a planned approach to the development of
the transport sector is urgently needed. However in 2007, most transport is contracted
on an ad hoc basis5.
Public transportation, be it land or sea, is practically non-existent except for some
recent initiatives to link the main island of Malé with some neighbouring islands. The
distances between the islands are quite long and people have to depend on water
transport facilities (powered by diesel) for moving essential commodities such as food
and fuel, and travel for essential services such as healthcare to and from main islands
to the smaller ones (National Energy Policy, 2006).
4 As a result the various projects and activities in the sector lack coordination and efficiency. 5 When someone needs passenger or goods transport, they negotiate with a vehicle or vessel owner and reach agreement on a time and fee.
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 12
In future Maldives requires a balance of high performing and efficient multimodal
transportation system (i.e. combination of land and sea modes of transport, that
supports sustainable economic growth) that will serve as a core of scheduled
passenger and cargo service, without adversely impacting the environment
(Thirumalai 2005, Onakomaiya 2001). New technologies will continue to direct the
evolution of land and sea transport sector.
2.2.3 TRANSPORT SECTOR AND ENERGY NEEDS: RELEVANCE AND
IMPLICATION
At present land and sea modes of transportation is not well organized and there is no
regular public service developed except the ones that have been introduced very
recently around Malé Island. As a result, there is a rapid growth in the number of two-
wheelers and cars in the island, increasing the fuel demand, air pollution and traffic
congestion on the limited available road space (National Energy Policy, 2006).
Maldives is predominantly an energy importer to power transport vehicles and
vessels. The change in oil prices in the international market is a burden the economy
has faced. The most common forms of energy used in the Maldives are petroleum
fuels, which are for power generation, transportation, lighting and food preparation.
These include diesel fuel oil (DFO), gasoline, aviation fuel, kerosene and LPG. DFO
(similar to automotive diesel) is used mainly for power generation (MHAHE 2001).
Together with gasoline, DFO is also used as fuel for automobiles and marine outboard
engines in the transportation sector. It is also consumed by ocean-going ships calling
at Male’.
Diesel prices have gone up by 80% between the period January 2003 –October 2005,
while kerosene prices have gone up by 84% during the period April 2002 October
2005 and petrol prices increased by 68% during January 2002-September 2005 (TNA,
2006). See Figure 3.1 for upward trend curve of percentage change of consumer price
index from 2002 to 2005.
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 13
FIGURE 2.5
2.3 ROAD TRANSPORT IN MALÉ
The Malé road system consists of a paved network of 59.5 kilometres of road, with
carriageways of varying width. In the last six years, the size of the vehicle fleet (see
Figure 3.1) has been growing rapidly at an annual growth rate of 18% and is expected
to continue this steady growth (TMP, 2003). The household survey of Domestic
transport sector development program (phase 1) indicates that the total number of
vehicles in Male Urban Region (see subdivision 4.2.1 for graphic overview) is 22,303.
Of this 77% are motor cycles, while 14% are bicycles. Four wheel vehicles make up
only 9% or around 2000 vehicles (MTC, 2007). See Figure 3.2. It is estimated that
94% of the fleet is operating in Malé, which are used for various purposes (see Figure
3.3).
C O N S U M E R P R IC E IN D E X , P E R C E N TAG E C H AN G E O V E R P R E V IO U S Y E R S
( In d e x -b a s e : J u n e 1 9 9 5 = 1 0 0 )
-4-202468
1 01 2
2 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 2 0 0 4 2 0 0 5
% C
hang
e C
P
T ra n s p o rt a n d C o m m u n ic a tio n (B a s e W e ig h t 1 1 .0 1 )
T o ta l fo r a l l M a jo r S e c to rs (B a s e W e ig h t 1 0 0 )
Source: Analysis by Author, raw data from MPND 2006
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 14
FIGURE 2.6: GROWTH OF VEHICLE FLEET, POPULATION AND
INCOME IN MALE’ 1995-2021
FIGURE 2.7: VEHICLE SPILT MALE 2006
Source: MTC 2007
Source: MTC 2007
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 15
The number of vehicles is surprisingly large given the physical size of Male’ and the
existing problems of population congestion. This concentration of vehicles produces
both air and noise pollution and imposes serious safety risks for both pedestrians and
vehicle operators. A larger transport policy question is why so many vehicles are
needed in such a limited geographical space in the first place. Male’ has rapidly
changed from a walking to a riding population and from bicycles to motorized
vehicles. The small gains in speed and convenience are purchased at a high price in
terms of health and the ambience of the community. It will be difficult for
Government to counter the individual preferences of so many consumers who wish to
acquire and use motorized vehicles or upgrade to a higher standard of vehicle.
Present congestion is due to poor management of existing road space. There are an
estimated 37,500 motor cycle, 12,500 car/taxi return trips per day and more than 1000
pedestrians per day. It is widely held that during school time this would increase
further. The capacity utilisation of the two way roads is poor due to the manner in
which the one-way roads have been deployed. The total cost for all household for
personal travel is thus estimated as MRf 108 million, approx 1% of GDP (MTC,
2007).
2.3.1 Pedestrians
Even though there is considerable pedestrian activity, facilities for pedestrians is
grossly under provided. This has resulted in loss of quality of social interaction
especially for children and the elderly in Male’. This also encourages unnecessary
motorized travel and parking requirements.
Source: MTC 2007
FIGURE 2.8 TRIP PURPOSE FOR VEHICLE USE
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 16
2.3.2 Parking
66% of available road space is utilized by 4 wheeled (or larger) vehicles. This
includes space for both circulation and parking. The net contribution to the transport
effort by these vehicles is around 25%. The absence of a policy on parking has
resulted in 1/4th of vehicles taking up 2/3rd of available road space. Over 70% of
household who own a car does not have own parking for vehicles. Many office
building and commercial establishments are putting up buildings without even a
fraction of the required parking. Every new vehicle that is imported will need
approximately two new parking spaces apart from space for circulation. There is no
parking fee and no effective control of parking at the present times. The single biggest
reason for the present congestion is the haphazard traffic management and lack of
parking management.
2.3.3 Traffic Management
Many roads in Male’ have been made one-way. There is evidence from the traffic
counts that this needs to be revised since directional splits in the two way roads are
disproportionate indicating that road utilisation has become poor. This would mean a
system wide approach to road network planning. This can be done now that the road
inventory survey has been completed. The entire system of one ways should be
looked at after considering the capacity of roads links and junctions and not in a case
by case basis. There is also the need to consider some roads where pedestrian flows
are dominant to be redesigned as pedestrian walkways with limited vehicular access.
2.3.4 Vehicle Ownership
In the case of Male’ vehicle ownership is set to increase to alarming proportions. It is
expected that it will grow by 200% over 15 years (see Figure 3.4 and 3.5). The only
impediment at present is the physical lack of parking space. Introduction of good
quality public transport and pedestrian facilities will reduce this growth rate. Other
forms of measures such as parking fees, high import duties etc will also have an effect
if introduced in parallel to alternative transport modes.
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 17
FIGURE 2.9: VEHICLE OWNERSHIP RATE (PER 1000 PERSONS)
FIGURE 2.10: ANNUAL GROWTH RATE OF VEHICLE REGISTRATIONS
Source: MTC 2007
Source: MTC 2007
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 18
2.4 ROAD TRANSPORT IN THE ATOLLS
Due to the geography of the Maldives (200 inhabited islands of relatively small size),
the present inter-city or rural road network is not expected to be expanded
significantly. There are only two significant island link roads, one in Addu Atoll road
and one in Laamu Atoll, both approximately 14 Km in length. Throughout the
inhabited islands, there is a complex network of urban roads, built generally with
coral sand (except Foammullah Island and Addu link road where they have been
paved). The vehicle fleet in the atolls, outside the Malé urban region is still limited,
accounting for only 8% of the total fleet, with half of them being commercial
vehicles. Taxis in some large islands are available but no systematic public transport
has so far emerged (TMP, 2007).
2.5 INTER-ISLAND SEA TRANSPORT
Domestic maritime such as sea freight and passenger traffic is dominated by
movements directly between Malé and individual Small Island communities. Previous
studies have tended to present the domestic maritime transport system as a “hub and
spoke” system, with the hub in Malé and the spoke radiating out of Male’. This has
been an accurate description of the inter-island transport network in the past, but is
becoming less so as the number of hubs increases. The rapid development of the
regional centres around the country largely centred on the atoll capitals, has reduced
the need for the atoll population to travel frequently to Male as has been the case
traditionally. However the de-centralisation is hampered by lack of basic
infrastructure and poorly developed inter island transportation system (Rasheed,
2004).
Malé is no longer the only point of international cargo landing in the country. The
gradual relaxation of government regulation on the locations designated for
international cargo landing has meant that international cargo now enters the republic
in different locations (S.Hithadhoo and Hd.Kulhudufushi regional ports, Thilafushi
etc.), making these sites into smaller transport hubs for cargo, thereby reducing the
traditional dependence of Malé. However Malé still remains the centre of commerce
and the main transport hub in the country. Currently some 80% of imported cargo is
landed in the Malé Urban area (TMP, 2003).
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 19
Between 2004 and 2005, the number of registered dhonis increased by 4.5% to 4587
and the number of speed boats by 12.5% to 1035. Among the 7016 vessels (sum for
all types) registered for 2005 and 1035 high-speed boats, a noticeable 37.4% and 78%
respectively are categorised for use in Male’ region (MTC, 2006). See Figure 3.1 and
3.2. Regrettably traditional tri-sail dhoni is becoming an increasingly rare sight in the
islands. Over time, diesel engines have replaced sails, fishing vessels have become
larger and changing, new tanker and cargo ships, and passenger vessels have
appeared, larger and faster speedboats have been introduced, and safari boats and
sport and pleasure craft are common sights in the atolls.
Maritime Vessels use by Locality, 2005
Other Atolls 63%
Male' Atoll37%
Male' Atolls
Source: Analysis by Author, raw data from MPND 2006
Vessels According to Registration by Locality 2003-2005
Male'
Atolls
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
2003 2004 2005
Male' Atolls
FIGURE 2.12
FIGURE 2.11
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 20
2.6 INTERNATIONAL SHIPPING AND SEAPORTS
International shipping and sea transport of freight has revealed and promising growth
trend as exemplified by Figure 2.13 (MPA, 2006), and will remain a key part of
Maldives’ economic infrastructure as they are an important source of revenue for the
national economy (TMP, 2003). Inter-island shipping services are operated almost
entirely by the private sector, while the government provides essential infrastructure
such as harbours and regulatory functions such as maritime safety.
FIGURE 2.13
Support transport infrastructure facilities (which includes three major commercial
sea ports and more than 128 island harbours) for sea vessels at ports needs to be
enhanced (Maldives Partnership Forum, 2007). Special attention need to be paid to
extending modern cargo service to more locations, through the application of current
and new technology for safer and cost-effective loading and offloading in order to
increase overall profitability and efficiency. Port activities are strongly dominated by
imports; exports represent only a small proportion of the throughput. Imports at Male’
Commercial Harbour (MCH) is expected to grow from 222,000 tonnes in year 2006 to
322,000 tonne by 2012, with the growth coming mainly from container traffic (i.e.
10,000 tonnes for HDh.Kulhudufushi Regional Port and 25,000 for S.Hithadhoo
Regional Port in 20126). See Appendix I for map for geographic locations.
6 Forecasts presented are based on simple techniques using assumptions emerging from various stakeholders, observations on time trends and simple regression analyses using micro-economic variables. Cited in TMP (2003), National Transport Master plan: Maldives, Ministry of Transport and Communication
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
2002 2003 2004 2005
Cargo Throughput by Sea 2002-2005
Source: Analysis by Author, raw data from MPND 2006
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 21
CHAPTER THREE
TRANSPORT SECTOR AND CLIMATE
CHANGE: TECHNICAL EVALUATION
3.1 AIR POLLUTION AND CLIMATE CHANGE: A GENERAL OVERVIEW
According to international scientists there is extensive evidence that the world is
getting warmer, with an increase in global average surface temperature of about 0.6°C
over the 20th century (ADB 2006, Pachauri 2006, IPCC 2001), See Figure 3.1. While
such a temperature change may seem modest, it is now accepted that this is producing
changes in our climate system that include an increase in precipitation in the Northern
Hemisphere over most mid- and high latitudes, accompanied by a decrease in rainfall
over much of the subtropical land area.
Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2001.
FIGURE 3.1
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 22
Warm episodes of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation phenomenon have been more
frequent, persistent, and intense since the mid-1970s, compared with the previous 100
years. These changes (that are threats for low-lying islands and coastal areas,
especially is Asia, some of which are densely populated), are being demonstrably and
strongly linked to increasing anthropogenic activity and greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions that principally derive from an unprecedented increase in carbon-based
energy consumption (ADB, 2006). In fact the atmospheric concentration of carbon
dioxide (CO2) has increased by 31% since 1750 to levels that have not been exceeded
during at least the past 420,000 years.
Emerging Asian nations are a stakeholder in climate change mitigation that needs
special emphasis as they currently emit 25% of worldwide GHG emissions, and
emissions are projected to increase due to the growth in oil consumption, sound
economic and population growth. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) in its Third Assessment Report estimates a projected sea level rise of 0.09m to
0.88m for 1990 to 2100 (IPCC 1998). The Maldives being a fragile low lying small
island ecosystem, is very vulnerable to climate change and its associated impacts
especially the predicted sea level rise, even though the Maldives contribute less than
0.01% to global emissions of GHGs ( MPND and UNDP 1998, MHAHE 2001).
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 23
3.2 CLIMATE CHANGE AND AIR POLLUTION: TRANSPORT
PERSPECTIVE
Motorized transport is a major cause of air pollution in and around densely populated
cities. Vehicles in and vessels around urban areas are major emitters of greenhouse
gasses (GHG), therefore having a significant impact on climate change. Climate
Change Mitigation through Urban Planning and Development has become
increasingly important since 2007, as 50% of the global population is considered to be
living in urban areas (UNHabitat). Hence, urban planning has a direct impact on
climate change because well-planned cities provide a better foundation to reduce
GHG than do unplanned cities
Fossil fuel combustion from land-use vehicles and maritime vessels have increased
due to increased emissions of GHG including carbon dioxide (Clean Cities, 2006),
which the world's leading scientists believe are causing global climate change
(www.ltscotland.org.uk). All vehicles that are powered by petrol, diesel, natural gas or
any other petroleum product emit, or give out, pollutants by fossil fuel combustion.
Some vehicles are more polluting than others, depending upon the kind and quality of
fuel, how efficiently they burn it, what mechanisms they have in place to “neutralize”
pollutants to less harmful substances such as water vapour and nitrogen (an inert gas).
Air quality of the Maldives is generally considered to be good and is in pristine state.
In the capital city Male’ the increasing number of motor vehicles on the roads and
destructions of cross circulation of GHG by high rise buildings are deteriorating the
urban air quality of Male’. Local air pollution in Male’ is mainly due to particulate
emission from vehicles, power generation, and construction related activities. Though
the pollution is visible in certain times, no numerical measures of the level of
pollution are available (MHAHE, 2001b).
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 24
3.3 ENVIRONMENTAL COSTS OF AIR POLLUTION: A BRIEF
HIGHLIGHT
Air pollution has adverse effects on the environment; see Externalities of air pollution
in Table 3.2 (Rodrigue, 2007). As motorised transport emits GHG heavily it can be
assumed that environmental cost of motorised transport is high is the Maldives. Air
pollutants have a high proficiency to affect the environment as it is widely linked to
biological diversity and sustainability. Environmental cost includes general damage
done to the ecosystem through the atmosphere, except for what may be considered
economically useful to human activities, like crops.
TABLE 3.2
EXTERNALITIES OF AIR POLLUTION
TYPE FIELD POSSIBLE MEASURES
Loss of useful life (amortization) Structures and infrastructure
Replacement and restoration costs
Labour productivity Men-hours-wage losses
Output/surface decrease
Economic Costs
Agricultural productivity Biomass (e.g. timber) restoration time losses
Medical services costs Social Costs Public health
Loss of life expectancy
Environmental Costs Damage to ecosystems Biological diversity and sustainability
Source: Rodrigue J.P.
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 25
3.4 ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF TRANSPORT SECTOR
The transport sector in 2002 used 21% of the worldwide all-sector total energy
consumption and is projected to generate over 60% of the increase in total energy use
through 2025.
In the Maldives, the transport sector accounts for a considerable consumption of
energy (see Figure 3.2) in most common forms such as petroleum fuels, diesel fuel oil
(DFO), gasoline, aviation fuel, kerosene and LPG7. Not having any indigenous fossil
fuels, the country has to depend fully on the import of fossil fuels that increased from
about 74,000 tons in 1994 to 138,000 tons in 2000, the annual increase of almost 11%
over the period concerned. Hence the total final energy consumption amounts to
147,721 toe8, with transport consuming 45,737 toe or 31% (National Energy Policy,
2006). The combined sea transportation for resorts and atolls accounted for more than
57% of the transport sector’s consumption (see Figure 3.3). As a result the cost of
transport remains very high.
FIGURE 3.2: TOTAL FINAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION BY ENERGY
CARRIERS, 2002
7 DFO (similar to automotive diesel) is used mainly for power generation. 8 All basic data on energy consumption and GHG emission calculations will be converted in to “ton oil equivalent”, or toe in order to cite all data in one common unit of measure.
Source: National Energy Policy (2006)
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 26
FIGURE3.3 OVERVIEW OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR, 2002
3.4.2 Net Consumption of Diesel / Marine Gas Oil
Diesel is the main imported energy carrier (National Energy Policy, 2006). Figure 3.4
exemplifies that the import of diesel has remained quite constant between 2002 and
2005, with the highest imported year in 2004.
FIGURE 3.4: IMPORT OF DIESEL
For Calculation Purpose:
Total Final Energy Consumption for 2002 = 147,721 Toe
Final Energy Consumption in Transport,2002 = 45,738 Toe
Source: National Energy Policy (2006)
Im port of die se l
0
50
100
150
200
250
2002 2003 2004 2005
Y ear
ktoe
Source: Energy Balances and Indicators (2006)
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 27
Table 4.2 illustrates the registered imports and exports of diesel (including net storage
of diesel oil and bunkering) are shown below. Net consumption (i.e. 161.366 metric
tons) is derived by deducting re-export from import.
TABLE 4.2: DIESEL / MARINE GAS OIL
DIESEL / MARINE GAS OIL
2003 2004 2005 Measurement Unit
Import 165,233 202,530 178,109 Metric Tonne
Re-Export 17,784 15,500 16,743 Metric Tonne
Net consumption 147,449 187,030 161,366 Metric Tonne Primary data Source: Energy Balances and Indicators (2006), Calculation of Net Consumption by
Consultant
3.4.3 Net Consumption of Petrol / Gasoline
Petrol is the second largest imported energy carrier. Table 4.4 exemplifies that the net
consumption of Petrol and Gasoline is 19,209 Metric Tonnes.
TABLE 3.3: PETROL/ GASOLINE IMPORTS AND EXPORT
Petrol and gasoline
2003 2004 2005 Measurement Unit
Import 12,213 18,461 19,209 Metric Tonne
Export Metric Tonne
Net consumption 12,213 18,461 19,209 Metric Tonne Primary data Source: Energy Balances and Indicators (2006), Calculation of Net Consumption by
Author
For Calculation Purpose:
Formula for Net Consumption
Net Consumption = Imports – Re-exports
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 28
3.5 MEASUREMENT OF GHG EMISSION FROM LAND AND MARITIME
TRANSPORT
The air pollution caused by transport can only be an approximation, due to drastic
fluctuations in pertinent variables and complex nature of calculations. Each number is
subject to change, depending on roads, harbour areas accuracy in recording data etc.
(Rodrigue, 2007). Some of the numbers keep changing all the time due to new
vehicles come on roads, vessels in use, old once are discarded, more fuel efficient
technologies are implemented that changes the amount of pollutants given out of each
kilometre or nautical mile.
In a broader sense, petrol-driven transport (both land and maritime) have a different
pattern of pollution than diesel-powered transport. Petrol-driven transport such as cars
motorcycles and speed boats emit more of un burnt petrol and carbon monoxide (as
they use petrol mixed with lubricating oil9). Whereas diesel-powered vehicles (buses
and lorries, fishing vessels, foreign-going vessels) emit more of soot (the technical
term for which is “suspended particulate matter”) and oxides of nitrogen (APECC,
2006). See Table 5.1 in chapter 5 for GHG emissions from different transport modes.
The main pollutants emitted by maritime transport are oxides of nitrogen and sulphur.
Hence the emission of sulphur from ship engines is proportional to the sulphur content
of the bunker oil. The International Maritime Organisation, IMO’s, International
Convention of Maritime Pollution (MARPOL’s) Annex VI sets limits on emissions of
nitrogen oxides (NOX) and Sulphur from Maritime Transport. The NOX Technical
Code, developed by IMO, requires the issuance of an International Air Pollution
Prevention Certificate shall be issued to any ship of 400 gross tonnages or above
engaged in voyages to ports and sets emissions levels of mandatory value.
All ships concerned must have received its certificate no later than the first scheduled
dry-docking after entry into force of the Annex VI protocol, but in no case later than
three years after entry into force of the protocol in 19 May 2008 (Per Kågeson, 2005).
In a case where the ship-owner has installed a scrubber for cleaning the exhaust fumes
from sulphur, a certificate proving the efficiency of the equipment would be required. 9 The problem is aggravated if petrol and the lubricating oil are not mixed in the right proportion; there is incentive enough to add excess of oil because it is cheaper.
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All different market-based programmes would require participating ships to register
their specific emissions of NOX (g/kWh or g/km) at normal speed to the distance
travelled.
The amount of pollution is taken to be the quantity of pollutants, in tones, emitted
within a day or over one year. To arrive at any meaningful estimates (in terms of
quantity of pollutants, in tones, within a day or over one year) of the emission level of
pollutants each type vehicle, the following transport-related pollution pollutants are
taken into calculation (TERI 2000):
Sulphur Dioxide
Oxides of nitrogen
Carbon monoxide and
Hydrocarbons
Lead
Suspended particulate matter (SPM)
Sulphur content in bunker fuel
Other elements such as airborne dust, pollen grains fine droplets of oil
Measuring emissions and/or registering the specific emissions from different vessels
appear to be a technical problem10. The following information is required (Expressed
in milligram per litre of fuel):
Number of vehicles of each type (i.e. cars, motorcycles) plying regularly
within the city.
Number of vessels of each type (i.e. speed boats, diesel boats) plying intra and
inter atolls
Number of vessels at anchorage
10 The purpose of the AIS system is mainly to help the watch officer on board to take appropriate measures to avoid collisions or other calamities. The system will give him direct up-dated information about all other ships in the vicinity that are also equipped with AIS, as well as the possibility to add it to electronic charts onboard. In addition, the system also transmits information to the shore. This is extremely useful for Vessel Traffic Systems, VTS, i.e. guiding the ship in congested areas, but is equally important for the Marine Rescue Co-ordination Centres, MRCC, in giving actual up-dated information on all ships participating in a rescue action. The heart in the Automatic Identification System is a transponder on board of the ship. The transponder consists of three main components, a GPS-receiver, a VHF-transceiver and in between them a computerised data processor. Cited in Per Kågeson (2005)
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
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Distance travelled (this can be identified with the Automatic Identification
System, AIS, which automatically transmits the identity of the all ships above
300 gross tonnage).
Fuel consumption per distance (km) covered by types of vehicle and vessels
engines.
Type of GHG curbing catalyst neutralizers installed at exhaust
An evaluation and calculation of the air pollution and greenhouse gas (stipulated in
section 3.5 above) emissions level from Maldivian transport sector as result of energy
consumption is a complicated and time consuming task. The Maldives inventory of
GHG emissions is calculated for the year 2004 and is limited to the best information
available for that year. It was assumed that the fuel imported would be consumed in
that particular year, therefore the stock change for the fuels used in the Maldives was
zero.
Due to lack of data, it was impossible to quantify meaningful emissions levels for all
pollutants emitted from transport sector. However an approximation can be made
based on fuel consumption data on the level of GHG emission in Male. The following
subdivision exemplifies the approximation and provides a realistic forecast GHG
emission until 2011.
For Calculation Purpose:
Assumption for transport sector:
net fuel energy share is burnt as exhaust
(as Fuel stock in Maldives is less than for 3 months)
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 31
3.6 HISTORY AND FORECASTED GHG EMISSIONS (1994-2011)
Emissions of greenhouse gases in the transport sector are steadily increasing (Anable
et al 2006) .The transportation sector is a major contributor to local air pollution as a
significant portion of the GHG emissions in the Maldives is generated by the sector
(see figure 3.5 for History and forecasted GHG emissions from 1994 to 2010 (Idris,
2005). A detailed presentation and analysis was presented in the First Communication
to UNFCCC in 2001.
FIGURE 3.5: HISTORY AND FORECASTED GHG EMISSIONS (1994-2011)
Source: Mr. Abdul Razzak Idris,
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 32
CHAPTER FOUR
HARD AND SOFT TECHNOLOGY-BASED
OPTIONS FOR REDUCING GREENHOUSE GAS
EMISSIONS FROM TRANSPORT SECTOR
In the past Maldives has taken policy measures that have a bearing to reduce the
emission of GHGs from business as usual scenarios. Cities such as Malé cannot
(neither any city for in Maldives that matter) can expand its road network to keep pace
with the number of automobiles on its roads; there is neither room nor money for that.
The analysis is limited due to constraints on the availability of necessary data. Hence
Maldives has yet to make its best endeavour to exploit hard and soft technology based
opportunities from the various available options (involving both public and private
activities) to limit emissions from transport sector.
4.1 ANALYTICAL HIERARCHY MODEL: TRANSPORT INITIATIVES TO
IMPROVE AIR QUALITY
Hard and soft technology-based GHG emissions mitigation options exists today that
has the potential to substantially reduce demand for imported fossil fuel and increase
energy efficiency in generating the utilising electricity and improving the efficiency of
the transport mechanisms (MHAHE, 2001).
According to analytical hierarchy methods (in Figure 4.1) there are three fundamental
hard and soft technology based ways to reduce carbon emissions from the
transportation sector, which are:
(i) Traffic Demand Management Techniques
(ii) Reduce Need to Travel
(iii) Actions to Reduce vehicle and vessel emissions
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 33
FIGURE 4.1: ANALYTICAL HIERARCHY MODEL
Source: West Yorkshire LTP (2000)
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 34
4.2 TRAFFIC DEMAND MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
This subdivision entails the technology based “predict and provide” options for traffic
demand management in Maldives to reduce the country’s emission of GHGs, but as a
step towards achieving greater independence for sustainable development.
Stakeholders consulted for this In-depth TNA highlighted a series of specific
problems with the current transportation system such as lack of public transport
service, lack of management policies, lack of integration (including traffic flow and
traffic lights and with other modes of transport such as ferries), lack of capacity of
roads network. As a result accident rates and air pollution are worsening on daily
basis.
4.2.1 PROMOTE OPTIONS FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORT, PRIORITY
MEASURES AND INTEGRATED TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
- Integrated public Mini Bus services for Malé, Hulhumalé, Addu Atoll, Laamu
atoll, Fuahmulah and Kulhudhufushi road network.
Mass and alternative public transport mini bus service for the above mentioned road
networks is an option that will reduce the reliance on personal vehicles and reduce
travel time (UNHabitat). Establishment of an quality intergraded mini-bus system
shall increase the efficiency in providing mobility as it shall essentially reduce
congestion by taking a large proportion of cars, taxies, motor cycles and pedestrians
off the road. Therefore it will eventually reduce GHG emission. According to Table
4.1 below diesel articulated or battery powered bus emits approximately 11% less of
of CO2 per person compared to emissions from motorcycle (which accounts for more
than 70% of total vehicle fleet in Male’)
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 35
TABLE 4.1: GHG EMISSION FROM DIFFERENT TRANSPORT MODES
Mode
CO2-equivalent emissions
(grams/vehicle-km)
Maximum Capacity
(passengers)
Average capacity
(passengers)
CO2-equivalent emissions
(grams/passenger-km)
Pedestrian 0 1 1 0 Bicycle 0 2 1.1 0
Gasoline Motor Scooter (2-Stroke) 118 2 1.2 98
Gasoline Motor Scooter (4-Stroke) 70 2 1.2 64
Gasoline Car 293 5 1.2 244 Gasoline Taxi Car 293 5 0.5 586
Diesel Car 172 1.2 1.2 143 Diesel Minibus 750 20 15 50
Diesel Bus 963 80 65 15 Compressed
Natural Gas Bus 1050 80 65 16
Diesel Articulated Bus 1000 160 130 7
Source: Climate Change Mitigation in the Urban Transport Sector (2003), Priorities for the World Bank, Johnson T.M.
Land transport demand is felt mainly in Malé and other large regional growth centres
in the atolls. In reality a drive on the city roads is qualitatively different from that on
long stretched of straight roads as car speeding along highway at about 45km per hour
burns fuel more efficiently than a car in a city that has to slow down and stop
frequently. Therefore the consultants of Domestic Transport Sector Development
program (phase 1, 2007) analysed the “driving cycles” (i.e. the representative for
tropical journey) of Malé road network and proven a mini bus public transport is
feasible (see case study 1 below).
As expected, the roads in Male’ are far from smooth and efficient. Within the time it
took to cover only 4 kilometres, a car had to repeat the entire cycle of picking up
speed, driving at a steady speed, slowing down to a halt, and idling (waiting at traffic
lights, for instance) as many as six times (MTC, 2007). Although the number of
vehicles used in Male has reached the carrying capacity of the island, there is potential
and need for the number of vehicles to expand in other regional growth centres of the
country. It is not just the number of vehicles but the way they are driven on city roads
that contributes to air pollution.
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 36
If a minibus service is to be successful the mini-buses need to be small about 16-20
seater with high roof, with a low floor and wide doors. 5-10 passengers may need to
stand during peak periods (see Figure 4.1). If minibus service to be successful, the
frequency has to be 1 bus every 3 minutes, further information is tabulated in Table
4.1 (MTC, 2007). Or else people will not wait as distances are relatively short and
they would walk. In order to achieve this target this would require a fleet of around 15
minibuses for two services (clockwise and anti-clockwise) preferred. The mini bus
system shall be integrated to other modes or systems of transport (such as the ferry
system).
Furthermore the bus service shall need dedicated lanes and dedicated bus roads
(especially in narrow road areas for easy access for passengers and avoid traffic jams,
by pertinent authorities of the government.
CASE STUDY REVIEW 1: SURVEY BY MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION (2007) TO
ANALYSE PASSENGER DEMAND FOR MINI BUS SERVICE IN MALE’
The potential passenger demand for the bus service from the survey results are calculated below:
Ferry passengers who presently walk –estimated y 30% from 11,000 = 3,300. Ferry passengers who presently take a Motor Cycle or Taxi – estimated 10%
from 7,000 = 700. General pedestrians who travel outside their ward- estimated5% of 44,000 = 2,200.
Total Demand per day = minimum of 6,200 passengers. Minimum passengers per trip = 10 Approximate fare maybe between MRf 1 to 2 (max).
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 37
FIGURE 4.2SUGGESTED SIZE AND SEATING ARRANGEMENT OF MINI
BUSES
TABLE 4.2: QUALITY SERVICE STANDARDS FOR MINI BUSES OF
MALE’
- Integrated ferry transport system for Male Urban region
Developing of an appropriate integrated transport system combining the land, and sea
transport system is important to further the development of the country as islands and
population of Maldives are extremely scattered. On average, 18 boats travelled to atoll
capital at least three times in a month and 29 boats travelled once or twice to male
from atolls (MPND & UNDP, 1998), and most of these boats are powered by the
imported fossil fuel.
PARAMETER AVERAGE RECOMMENDED VALUE
MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE VALUE
Waiting time 2-3 minutes Not more than 5 minutes
Distance to the nearest bus stop 80 to 100 meters Not father than 120
meters
Journey times 5 to 8 minutes Not more than 10 minutes
Expenditures of travel (as a percentage of household income)
10% -
Source: MTC, 2006
Source: MTC, 2006
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 38
Currently regular ferries operate between Malé, Vlingili and Hulhumale’ on a Hub-
and spoke system, where Male is the hub and other Vlingili and Hulhumale’ are
spokes. Establishment of a regular scheduled ferry service between the islands (that
has direct connection to islands in the urban region, without transiting in Male’) shall
reduce the need for ad hoc hiring of ferries , which will improved the efficiency of
transportation between these islands (see figure 4.2). Developing similar ferry
services in other atolls, between the growth centres in the atoll and islands, as well as
between atolls, would reduce the ad hoc movement of boats that shall reduce emission
of GHG from maritime vessels (MTC, 2007).
FIGURE 4.3 PROPOSED FERRY NETWORK IN MALE’ URBAN REGION
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 39
4.2.2 PROMOTE OPTIONS FOR FISCAL RESTRAINTS
Generally, vehicle taxes and fees can be divided into three different categories: excise
taxes on manufacturers or consumers, fuel taxes, and utilization taxes and fees on
consumers (APECC, 2006). As Maldives does not manufacture vehicles, the
following fiscal restrictive options are available:
- Fuel Taxes
In stark contrast to policies in many developed countries, Maldives does not presently
have a fuel tax to take into account the environmental externalities and energy
security concerns of the consumption of oil. Collection of a portion of vehicle
insurance fees as a surcharge on motor fuel could reduce GHG emissions from motor
vehicles by 8 to 12 percent and could improve the overall economic efficiency
transportation (Greene D.L. and Schafer A, 2003).
Fuel taxation is extremely effective at limiting vehicle & vessel use and encouraging
the use of fuel-efficient modes of transport, as it is the highest and most visible
variable cost incurred during vehicle use. Since fuel use per kilometre travelled rises
slightly with congestion, measures to alleviate traffic congestion also tend to increase
fuel economy. Additionally, taxing fuel is the most direct method of taxing
consumption and, for fossil-fuel based fuels, CO2 or carbon emissions11.
- Port dues differentiation.
A system of differentiated port or fairway dues that some countries already impose,
charges the vessels that use port facilities and waters. Differentiated charges in
Maldivian context would involve setting port dues collected through a revenue-neutral
system based partly on emissions of various pollutants12, although some countries
have developed similar programmes that impose dues differentiated on the basis of
environmental criteria. The voluntary differentiated port dues approach would provide
ports with an environmentally differentiated framework, with ports free to use the
framework or not (Per Kågeson, 2005).
11 Current fuel taxes around the world range from around 20c/liter in the United States to 50-70c/liter in Europe and Japan. 12 Such a system of differentiated dues has been used in various Swedish ports since 1998 to encourage reductions in NOX and SO2 emissions.
IN-DEPTH TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT ON TRANSPORT SECTOR
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 40
- Other In-Use Fees
In-use vehicle fees include road and parking pricing schemes and vessel fees include
harbour fee schemes. Such fees are intended to restrict the use of personal vehicles
and vessels, discourage long stay parking, discourage long stay at harbours etc. Road
pricing includes the use of congestion, parking, toll roads and toll bridges (for
example the suggested toll for Hulhumale’ bridge). Vessel fees include harbour
congestion charges and anchoring charges. All fees shall be ideally implemented by
an integrated system to penalize drivers for using specific zones at specific times (e.g.
daily fees imposed on drivers in and around the congested Malé north harbour area,
such as in London’s city centre). Malé could potentially benefit greatly from
congestion pricing systems or even no-car zones or no-car days. These fiscal
restraining options would also encourage the use of public transport, walking, and
bicycles in congested areas.
4.2.3 PROMOTE OPTIONS FOR TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
- Electronic congestion and toll collection system
Electronic toll collection and congestion charge systems linked to central databanks
make it possible to pay toll charges without the car having a stop. Users buy a small
device located behind the wind shield. A sensor at the toll gate reads the tag,
automatically deducts the appropriate amount, and lets the vehicle pass. Users are also
automatically alerted when it is time to recharge the device. The signals can even be
linked to a bank account, which is debited automatically (see case study review one
for e-toll system in Singapore). The e-toll collection system can be implemented in
Male’, despite the heavy cost of initial establishment, periodic maintenance and
enforcement.
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 41
4.2.4 PROMOTE MARKET BASED OPTIONS FOR CARBON CREDIT
POINT TRADING
- The stringent credit-based approach
The stringent credit-based approach is a credit-based trading programme. Credit
programmes provide tradable “credits” to facilities that voluntarily reduce emissions
below their “business as usual” (BAU) levels. These credits can be traded and counted
toward compliance by facilities that would face high costs or other difficulties in
meeting their emissions requirements. In the shipping context, a credit-based program
would allow ship owners to reduce emissions and sell the emission reduction credits
to land-based sources assumed to be subject to a cap-and- trade programme. A
stringent approach would require shippers to achieve emission rates below BAU
levels - in order to provide net emissions reductions- and also to provide clear
evidence of BAU levels in order to avoid “anyway tons,” i.e. reductions that would
occur without the programme. Continuous monitoring (Per Kågeson, 2005).
CASE STUDY REVIEW 1:
THE VEHICLE QUOTA SYSTEM IN SINGAPORE FOR ADAPTATION OF
VEHICLE DEMAND STRATEGY
The vehicle quota system in Singapore employs an open bidding process for certificates of
entitlement to own a vehicle; this is combined with a high initial registration cost (around 150% of
the vehicles market value), an annual road tax that increases with engine capacity and has a
surcharge for older vehicles, and an Electronic Road Pricing based on a spatial and temporal pay-
as-you-use principle to control the movement of vehicles and ensure that congestion does not
worsen. In other cities, road and congestion pricing programs, park and ride schemes and even
parking fees may be used to control the movement of private motor vehicles to areas with high
vehicle concentration like business districts to address congestion and access problems. At the
same time this makes available an auxiliary source of funds for public transport improvements.
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 42
- The consortia benchmarking approach.
Benchmarking programmes identify a specific emissions rate to apply to covered
activities and require that the average emission rate from these activities does not
exceed the benchmark level. In contrast to the credit-based approach, benchmarking
has to be mandatory rather than a voluntary programme. The benchmark rate
establishes a baseline. Sources subject to the programme can trade credits amongst
each other and thereby lower the cost of meeting the emissions rate target. In the
shipping context, a benchmark trading programme would set an emission rate for
ships subject to the programme and allow ship owners (or operators) to buy and sell
credits based upon a formula linking emission rates to credits.
The most promising variety of benchmarking is to allow consortia of ship-owners to
band together to reduce the cost of meeting more stringent limits. This would provide
gains both to shippers and to the environment. The more stringent limits would yield
environmental gains, as would the development of differential ratios based upon
vessel location and stricter emissions monitoring and reporting regimes. This
approach, however, would still face legal and political challenges (i.e. changes would
required in the IMO and fuels directive).
There are several options for recycling the money saved. To design a ‘cap and trade’
scheme, where the average ship would have to comply with a baseline or benchmark
value (kg/kWh) that is successively lowered over a period of years, a trading platform
for emission permits has to be established. The revenue could be returned to the
owners of the vessels that invest in NOX and/or sulphur abatement technologies in a
way that does not disturb the function of the charge. It could be done based on the
ship’s annual net-energy consumption or on the number of gross registered tonne
kilometres produced in the designated area by each ship owner. Ship owners that
invest in NOX and/or sulphur abatement technologies would receive more than they
pay, and owners of high polluting ships would pay more than they get back. For the
industry as such it would be a zero sum game (Per Kågeson, 2005).
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 43
4.3 ACTIONS TO REDUCE VEHICLE AND VESSEL EMISSIONS
4.3.1 PROMOTE OPTION FOR USE OF EMISSIONS NEUTRELIZERS,
TESTING DEVICES OF “GROSS POLLUTERS”, AND NATURAL
BARRIERS
- Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) converters
Selective Catalytic Reduction converters fitted near the exhaust pipes of diesel-
powered cars and vessels, neutralize three major pollutants namely carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, oxide of nitrogen. These convert the harmful gases, namely carbon
dioxide (CO2), water vapour and nitrogen (an inert gas). Diesel particulate filter with
additives (a mixture of iron and strontium), which can work only ultra-low-sulphur
diesel (0.005% sulphur), are “treatment” devices that trap pollutants emanating from
diesel-powered vehicles (especially buses and lorries).
Cars fitted converters cannot run on petrol that contains lead because it “poisons” the
catalyst. Petrol vehicles are fitted with advanced three-way catalysts with
sophisticated electronic controls for spark timing and air-fuel management (ADB,
2006). However converters begin to work only when the exhaust is warm, which
happens only after the engine has been running for a while. At the start point of
engine, when emissions are maximum, the converters are ineffective.
Existing international regulation (particularly MARPOL adopted in 1997) stipulate
limitations for air pollution and NOx emissions from ships and sulphur content in
Bulk Liquids and Gases (BLG). In the effort to comply with such regulations more
than fifty ships world-wide have been fitted with Selective Catalytic reduction (SCR)
converters by 2004 (FEI 2006, EEB 2004).
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 44
-Emissions testing, sensing and screening devices
Vehicles and vessel roadworthiness and seaworthiness inspectorates respectively need
to be equipped with emission remote testing, sensing and screening devices to identify
the level of “Gross Pollutants” emission from engines. Such technology shall prevail
the enforcing the minimum emission standard stipulated by government.
- Prevent Pollutants Dissipation through Natural Barriers
Reducing the extent to which pollutants are exposed through national barriers,
planting leafy trees for example, is a low cost options that can remove dust from
atmosphere13.
4.3.2 PROMOTE USE OF ALTERNATIVE FUEL CONFIGURATIONS FOR
VEHICLES (AFVS)
Improving technology makes vehicles and vessels more fuel efficient (House of
Commons, 2006). Stabilizing and reducing atmospheric greenhouse gas
concentrations is essential to global sustainability and this will require intensified and
ongoing efforts to increase overall global energy efficiency and a shift from fossil
fuels to non-carbon energy sources (ADB, 2006).
Effectively reducing the carbon intensity of transportation energy will require use of
alternatives to petroleum, such as fuels mentioned below (that will continue to be
viable in niche markets), and require consideration of GHG emissions over the full
fuel cycle. Lower-carbon replacement fuels, such as alcohols or ethanol produced
from biomass can be blended with gasoline to displace several percent of petroleum
use. If methods of producing ethanol from cellulose can be commercialized,
renewable liquid fuels blended with petroleum fuels could reduce transportation’s
CO2 emissions by 2 percent by 2015 and 7 percent by 2030 (ADB, 2006). However
improvements within energy efficiency of different means of transport and the
introduction of renewable fuels are not sufficient to offset the growth of transport
volumes (European Environment agency 2007, Wright & Fairley 2006, Fulton 2005,
T&E and North Sea 2004).
13 Face masks are also used as a bastion barrier in the battle against pollution.
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 45
Lead-free petrol is also widely used in many countries as it emits less GHG than
normal petrol. Although Lead-free petrol is free of lead it contains benzene, which
increases the amount of another pollutant, known to be carcinogenic, namely
polyaromatic hydrocarbons. More practically, lead free petrol may not be available or
affordable in outer atolls of Maldives. Other alternative fuels for vehicles are
exemplified below:
- Ethanol
Ethanol is an alternative energy source created from sugar or carbohydrate vegetable
stocks, most often sugar cane or corn, and is being pushed aggressively in Brazil and,
to a lesser extent, the United States. Ethanol is a gasoline substitute and may be
blended with conventional gasoline up to about 10% without required engine
modifications for the existing, gasoline-powered fleet (APECC (2006). Vehicles that
run on ethanol have lower CO2 emissions than traditional vehicles. Flexible-fuel E85
vehicles can operate using gasoline, or any mixture of the two.
-Bio diesel
Bio-diesel is an ester (similar to vinegar) and is a generic name given to any diesel
fuel created from high lipid-content biomass and designed to function in existing
diesel engines. Bio-diesel is different from ethanol as it can be produced not only
from virgin crop feed-stocks, but also from waste oil, grease, vegetable oils, animal
fats recycled cooking oils and soybean oil. Each year about 30 million gallons of bio
diesel are produced in the United States from recycled cooking oils and soybean oil.
Because bio diesel emits less particulate matter than diesel, interest is growing in
using the fuel where workers are exposed to diesel exhaust, in school buses, and in
public transportation.
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 46
Although vehicles can run on 100% bio diesel with some fuel system modifications
and can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by as much as 90% compared to regular
diesel, depending on quality of the bio diesel (GTZ, 2006). A blend of 20% bio diesel
and 80% petroleum diesel (called B20) is more common because it can fuel a diesel
engine with minimal modifications (APECC, 2006).
- Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is a mixture of hydrocarbons, mainly methane, found
in gas wells or produced in conjunction with crude oil, natural gas. CNG is a
transportation fuel that is appealing because it is a more efficient fuel than gasoline, is
less carbon intensive, and burns much cleaner (WRI, 2005). CNG is a domestically
produced fuel that generates significantly less CO, CO2, particulate matter, and NOX
than similar fossil fuel vehicles. It is used in vehicles as compressed natural gas
(CNG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG). Nearly one of every five new transit buses
produced for domestic use runs on natural gas14. Estimates of the performance of
CNG vehicles are a 25% reduction in carbon dioxide, 90-97% reduction in carbon
monoxide, and 35-60% reduction in nitrogen dioxide as compared to a gasoline
equivalent.
14 According to the Natural Gas Vehicle Coalition, more than 110,000 natural gas vehicles are on U.S. roads today and more than 1.5 million are in use worldwide.
CASE STUDY REVIEW:
USE OF COCONUT OIL TO FUEL TRANSPORT The government of Fiji explored the opportunities for the development of a bio-diesel refinery. It
considered four key topics: the use of coconut oil and or coconut- derived fuels for power
generation in large diesel gensets. The results of the study suggest that coconut oil should not be
used simply as a fuel additive in refineries, because it is likely to cause corrosion and other
problems. However, the study points out that vegetable methyl ester (VME), a fuel made from
coconut oil in combination with other vegetable oils, could possibly used as a fuel additive with
very positive results.
With respect to the use of coconut- based fuels for transport and for small gensets, the study points
out the problems encountered with attempts to utilize coconut oil-based fuels for these purposes in
the Philippines. It recommends that the government of Fiji conduct more extensive evaluations of
coconut oil-based fuel use for these purposes.
Source: GSEII (2005)
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 47
-Propane
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), commonly called propane, consists mainly of
propane, propylene, butane, and butylene in various mixtures. It is a by-product of
natural gas processing, and petroleum refining. Propane has been used around the
world in both light- and medium-duty applications since the 1920s. A propane-
powered vehicle emits fewer reactive organic compounds, less NOX, and less CO
than a similar gasoline vehicle. LPG is the most publicly accessible alternative fuel
and more than 500,000 vehicles are travelling the America using propane (California
Energy Commission, 2007).
In Maldives LPG is also used in industries such as sea water desalination, cement and
LPG bottling industry in Thilafushi (island near the capital Male’). Most urban
households use LPG and kerosene for cooking. In the outer islands, the main source
of energy for domestic purposes has been biomass. Nowadays, more outer island
households are now using kerosene and LPG for cooking instead of biomass materials
(shrubs and coconut husks).
- Electricity
Various types of batteries and other energy storage mechanisms are used to store the
electricity that powers an electric vehicle (EV). Although the electricity production
process may make a small contribution to air pollution, an EV itself does not,
resulting in much lower emissions per mile travelled.
- Hydrogen
Hydrogen has considerable potential as an alternative fuel for transportation, but at
this point it has little market presence. Hydrogen can be mixed with gasoline, ethanol,
methanol, or natural gas, effectively lowering emissions. Perhaps more significantly,
hydrogen is hoped to power electric fuel cell vehicles in the future.
Producing hydrogen from fossil fuels (the most economical method today) would
generate substantial GHG emissions unless the carbon were captured and sequestered.
When produced from renewable energy sources or nuclear energy, the use of
hydrogen can result in nearly zero carbon emissions.
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- Methanol
Methanol is alcohol-based fuel, which is usually produced from natural gas. Because
auto manufacturers are not currently producing methanol-fuelled vehicles, its market
presence is minimal. Methanol-powered vehicles emit smaller amounts of air
pollutants, such as hydrocarbons, particulate matter, and NOX, than their gasoline
counterparts (Bioenergy, 2007).
- P-Series Fuel
P-Series is a relatively new alternative fuel that is a blend of ethanol,
methyltetrahydrofuran (MTHF), and pentane (with butane added for blends used in
severe cold weather). Both the ethanol and the MTHF can be produced from
renewable biomass resources, so net emissions from producing and using P-Series are
substantially less than those from gasoline.
- Fuel Cells
Fuel cells are a promising new energy technology under development today. A fuel
cell is a device that chemically combines hydrogen and oxygen to provide electrical
energy without combustion. The fuel cells in use or planned for power plant and
building applications are: phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs), molten carbonate fuel
cells (MCFCs), proton-exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells, and solid oxide fuel
cells (SOFCs). A fifth type, the direct methanol fuel cell, is being developed and
tested for transportation applications, to be used with PEM fuel cells, PAFCs, and
SOFCs (States and local climate change program, 2000).
Fuel cells have tremendous potential, but only if their fuel source provides the best
options for carbon dioxide reductions (Suzuki Foundation, 2007). Fuel cells produce
electricity much like batteries do, but fuel cells require a steady supply of a hydrogen-
rich fuel such as natural gas. Fuel cells can be used to produce electricity, heat, and
hot water with high efficiency, exceptionally low emissions, and low noise. When
used to generate combined heat and power, or when running on hydrogen produced
without the use of fossil fuels, fuel cells can reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
by 40 to 100 percent compared with conventional power plants or engines. While fuel
cells are touted as the pollution-free power source for automobiles, some fuel cell
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 49
processes (i.e. those that use fossil fuels to produce hydrogen) result in greenhouse
gas emissions.
Technological advances in fuel cells, hydrogen production, and hydrogen storage are
needed to accomplish a transition to a largely hydrogen-powered transportation
system. Such a transition will also require intensive planning, major commitments by
government, industry, and the public, and supportive public policies. If achieved,
however, a transition to hydrogen produced from renewable or nuclear energy or from
fossil resources with carbon sequestration, could eliminate most of transportation’s
GHG emissions sometime after 2030 (Greene D.L and Schafer, 2003).
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 50
4.3.3 PROMOTE USE OF ALTERNATIVE LEAN BURN ENGINE
CONFIGURATIONS FOR VEHICLES
The amount of pollutants emitted by an engine depends not only on the quality of fuel
but also on how efficiently that the fuel is burnt. Lean burn engines, for example,
achieve better combustions by ensuring that air and fuel are mixed in the right
proportion in the combustions chamber of an engine. Types of alternative engines are:
- Gasoline Direct Injection
As the name implies, fuel in a gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine is injected
directly into the combustion chamber. The main advantage of this technology is that it
enables lean operation of the engine, reducing fuel consumption by up to 15%
compared to a conventional engine.
- Sequential Spark Ignition
Sequential spark ignition engines offer another option for controlling the combustion
process. With this technology, each cylinder incorporates 2 ignition plugs in a
diagonal layout; one near the intake valve and the other near the exhaust valve. The
spark plugs ignite the high swirl gas/air mixture at different places, optimizing the
combustion. The ignition timing between these plugs also varies depending on the
driving conditions. Due to this rapid, high pressure, and more complete combustion,
an increase in torque can be realized as well as a decrease in hydrocarbon emissions.
A 10% to 15% increase in fuel efficiency is possible with this technology.
- Variable Valve Timing and Lift
This technology utilizes advanced electronic, hydraulic, pneumatic and mechanical
means to vary the intake and exhaust valve timing and lift of an engine. This enables
the volumetric efficiency of the engine to be optimized while meeting the torque and
horsepower demands of the driver. This can often be accomplished with a smaller
engine. Most recent developments of this technology have permitted the elimination
of the traditional intake throttle on gasoline engines. Fuel consumption improvements
of 6% to 8% are possible.
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- Cylinder Deactivation
The advent of more advanced computers and engine management systems and
controls has made cylinder deactivation a more attractive option for both diesel and
gasoline engines. The deactivation is accomplished by closing the intake and exhaust
valves of the target cylinders using electronically controlled hydraulic, pneumatic or
electric actuators. This means that an eight-cylinder engine could be operated on six
or four cylinders at times of light power demand. The transition from 8 to 6 or 4
cylinders and back would be seamless to the driver. Fuel consumption could be
reduced by 7% to 10%.
- Variable Displacement
Variable displacement differs a little from cylinder deactivation. This process involves
changing the swept volume of the engine without changing the number of operational
cylinders. This can be achieved by modifying the stroke of each cylinder through the
use of a pivoted lever arm attached at the crankshaft. This produces an elliptical path
for the connecting rod big end and modifies the stroke compared to a conventional
engine. Manufacturers of these engines have claimed a 40% cut in fuel consumption;
however, no commercial models are yet available for passenger vehicle applications.
- Variable Compression Ratios
Variable compression ratio engines are able to modify the compression ratio, as a
function of the vehicle performance needs. The variable compression ratio engines are
optimized for the full range of driving conditions, such as acceleration, speed, and
load. At low power levels, these engines operate at high compression to deliver fuel
efficiency benefits, while at high power levels; the compression ratio is lowered to
prevent knocking. Near-future engines are being designed with compression ratios
ranging from 9.6:1 to 21:1. Improvements in fuel consumption of up to 30% are
claimed.
- Idle Stop
Idle Stop technology shuts off the engine during periods of idle when it is not
necessary to have the engine running and restarts the engine when there is a power
demand. This feature is particularly useful in city traffic where lots of stop-and-go
driving is typical. The idle stop feature can reduce overall fuel consumption by 6% to
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8%. This technology is most effective with large capacity starter/generators as found
on today’s hybrid vehicles but also works with conventional starter motors.
- Advanced Transmissions
The most common transmission types in Canada for light vehicles are the four-speed
automatic and the five-speed manual transmission. For the 2002 model year, about
67% of passenger cars were equipped with 4-speed automatics and 25% with 5-speed
manuals. For light trucks the statistics were 80% with 4-speed automatics and 6%
with 5-speed manuals. Adding more gears to either of these transmission types
improves fuel consumption performance. Adding an infinite number of gears, as is
done with a continuously variable transmission (CVT), is another approach. CVTs can
reduce vehicle emissions and fuel consumption by better matching vehicle operational
demands with engine output. In many cases, engines can be downsized without
degrading vehicle performance. A new twist on the traditional manual transmission
has been to take clutch operation duties away from the driver and turn them over to
the vehicle on-board computers and electro-hydraulic systems.
- Supercharging and Turbo-charging
The output of an internal combustion engine is proportional to the amount of fuel it
can burn. To completely burn fuel, the engine requires 14.7 parts air to 1 part fuel.
Since fuel can easily be pressurized and forced into the combustion chamber, an
engine’s output is extremely dependent on its ability to flow large quantities of air in a
short amount of time. In conventional engines, the piston's movement to the bottom of
the cylinder creates a vacuum, drawing in air. Superchargers and turbochargers are
forced induction systems that incorporate compressors to force more air into an
engine. More air means that more fuel can be burned producing more power.
Superchargers are typically driven off an engine's crankshaft and produce boost in
direct relation to engine speed. Turbochargers are driven by waste heat and pressure
in the exhaust gas exiting the combustion chamber.
By using superchargers and turbochargers, engines can be downsized without loss of
output. This can yield fuel savings of 10%. Aggressive driving will significantly
reduce the savings or eliminate them altogether.
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4.3.4 USE OF ENERGY EFFICIENT VEHICLES TECHNOLOGY TO
PROMOTE GREEN TRAVEL PLANS AND LOW EMISSION ZONES
Transportation offers huge opportunities for advancement. Using the “Activity-
Structure-Intensity-Fuel (ASIF)” analytical framework carpooling and the use of
energy-efficient vehicles are encouraged through incentives/disincentives (e.g.:
offering parking lots near office buildings to those who use these transport methods)
is one strategy that will reduce GHG emissions (Focus on Development Policy 2006,
UNHabitat). Many new vehicle technologies also contribute to improvements in GHG
emissions; reducing vehicle weight and aerodynamic drag with new structure design
and materials, smaller engines, light-duty hybrids, low rolling-resistance tires, low
friction lubricants, idle-stop features and advanced air conditioning technology are all
leading to improvements.
The limits to the higher fuel economy performance of light duty vehicles in some
countries are currently defined by the restricted acceptance amongst consumers of the
smaller, lighter cars. Long-term innovations are envisaged for hybrid heavy-duty
vehicles, alternative fuels and the use of hydrogen fuel cells that will achieve
important improvements in per-vehicle GHG emissions (ADB, 2006).
Available options for new technology based vehicles are: (i) Hybrid Electric Vehicles
(HEVs), (ii) Diesel Engines, (iii) Mini-cars, (iv) Electric-drive Vehicles (including
battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrids and Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs),
which are briefly highlighted below:
- Battery Electric-drive Vehicles (BEVs)
The present electric cars in development are expensive (both in original price and
operation cost) relative to petrol cars, but the gap between the two is narrowing. In
addition, if one considers the environmental cost of internal combustion engines, in
terms of air quality and noise effects, especially in a confined area such as the islands
of Maldives, it is easier to justify consideration of the electric option in the long run.
Battery Electric vehicles (BEVs) tend to have lower overall primary energy
requirements per kilometre than gasoline cars of the same size, depending on primary
energy sources. Electric-drive vehicle may not perform as fast as conventional
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gasoline cars, thus indirectly contributing to energy savings. However, current, purely
battery electric vehicle (including battery powered bicycles) are generally only
suitable for travelling short distances due to limitations on energy storage (battery)
capacity. Technologies such as smart cards are used to unlock the BEVs and also to
maintain a log its activities for security reasons.
- Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)
A hybrid-electric vehicle (HEV) combines an electric drive with a down-sized internal
combustion engine. HEVs consume less energy by regenerating energy while braking,
using smaller engines, allowing the engine to run at its optimal efficiency through
computer control, and allowing the engine to be turned off during stops, braking, and
coasting. Depending on driving conditions and specifics of hybrid technologies (see
figure 4.6), HEVs can achieve fuel efficiency gains of 25% or higher than
comparable, gasoline-powered vehicles.
FIGURE 4.5 HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES
- Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs).
Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs) are electric vehicles whose electricity power source comes
from a hydrogen fuel cell. Although a large amount of effort has gone into research
and development of fuel-cell vehicles in developed countries, there are still important
technical hurdles to be overcome including a cheap and reliable source of hydrogen
fuel, the safe and convenient on-board storage of hydrogen gas, and the creation of a
hydrogen re-fuelling infrastructure. When using pure hydrogen produced through
electrolysis by renewable or nuclear energy technologies, fuel cells generate no direct
CO2 emissions15.
15 States and local climate change program (2000), Fuel cells, Climate change Technologies, January
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- Direct-injection lean-burn diesel engines
Direct-injection lean-burn diesel engines generally offer an approximate 20-25%
efficiency gain when compared to a similar gasoline engine. However, diesel engines
are inherently more polluting, particularly for the criteria pollutants NOx and PM10.
Therefore, while pushing widespread diesel use can improve vehicle fleet energy
efficiency, it can also lead to greater air pollution, especially in congested urban areas.
Though technologies do exist for retrofitting diesel engines to decrease the criteria
pollutant emissions, these technologies are more expensive and generally require the
use of clean, low-sulphur diesel fuel. For this reason, there has been a marked split in
dieselization implementation in developed countries are availability (APECC, 2006).
- Mini-cars
Mini-cars generally weigh less than 800kg and have an engine displacement below
800cc. As such, they are ideal for space-constrained and energy conscious urban
settings. Typical fuel efficiencies achieved by mini-cars are approximately 40-60mpg
on par with current HEV technologies (Wright and Fulton, 2005). However, mini-cars
carry with them none of the increased cost of the HEV technology and therefore, from
a price perspective, are likely to penetrate the Maldivian market more easily than
HEVs. One primary reason mini-cars have not gained significant headway into
developed automobile markets is that, in areas where the per capita automobile
ownership rate is already high, expectations about how a car should look and feel are
already highly developed. Perceptions on vehicle safety have also suppressed the use
of mini-cars in developed countries. Table 4.2 provides a summary of technology/
alternative fuel options stipulated above.
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TECHNOLOGY/
FUEL ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES GHG/ ENERGY
SAVINGS SUPPORTING POLICIES
REQUIRED
INTERNATIONAL INVESTMENT
OPPORTUNITIES
Hybrid electric vehicles
Technology mature, precedent in US
and Japan Increase cost
> 25% improvement over petrol
Fiscal policies to reduce cost, green procurement
policies, mandates or targets for market
penetration
Assistance to develop local capacity and technology,
manufacturing improvement to bring cost
down
Diesel Engines Technology mature, strong precedent in
EU
Increased pollution requires significant investment to create low sulphur diesel.
Diesel supply is limited
20-25% improvement over petrol
Subsidies to promote diesel fuel, develop ultra
low sulphur diesel (ULSD) fuel
Engine retrofit solutions for pollution control.
Investment is refining low-sulphur diesel
Mini-cars Technology mature,
cheaper can help alleviate congestion
Contrast with traditional image of
passenger car, concerns about
safety
30% improvement over standard-size vehicles
Market mandates, green procurement policies,
traffic or parking policies to encourage urban use
Bringing existing models and technology to Chinese
market
Electric vehicles
Significant urban air pollution improvement
Increase cost concerns about
battery life, short driving range
Depends on efficiency of power plan,
probably significant
Similar to mini-cars plus technical mandates and
support
Bringing existing models and technology,
transferring technology, manufacturing, assisting in
technical development
Fuel cell vehicles
Significant urban air pollution improvement
Increased cost technology far from mature, supporting
infrastructure required
Significant potential, but will depend
on the source of hydrogen
fuel
Research and development investment, continued pilot studies
Research and development technology transfer
TABLE 4.3 SUMMARY OF ALTERNATIVE VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY AND FUEL OPTIONS FOR MALDIVES
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CNG Air pollution improvement,
Some GHG saving
Cost required to convert vehicles
and develop delivery
infrastructure, limited supply
Up to 25% Fiscal policies to convert
engines, green procurement policies
Engine retrofitting
Ethanol
Air pollution improvement,
improved energy security, precedent in US and Brazil
Limited on blending unless
vehicles are converted.
Concerns regarding food security
Depends on feedstock and blending ratio,
can be 30-70%
Some subsidies exist already, need further assistance to alleviate
food security concerns, alternative fuel mandates
Technology development capacity, development
consulting
Bio-diesel
Air pollution improvement,
promotes energy security, precedent in EU, waste grease
and oil can be recaptures
Concerns about food security,
requires blending with limited
petroleum based diesel supply
Depends on feedstock and blending ratio,
can be 30-90%
Subsidies, fuel quality standards, alternative fuel mandates, ultimately may require passenger vehicle
dieselization
Technology development capacity, development
consulting
Source: APECC (2006),
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4.3.5 PROMOTE USE OF ALTERNATIVE FUEL AND ENGINE
CONFIGURATIONS IN MARITIME TRANSPORT
Emissions from ships also contribute to global warming. An estimate of radioactive
forcing due to CO2 emissions from ships indicates that ships may account for 1.8 per
cent of the global. Moreover, according to a study made for the IMO Marine
Environment Protection Committee, the radioactive forcing resulting from increased
levels of ground-level ozone due to NOx from international shipping “are highly
likely to produce positive forcing effects that will contribute to global warming and
that could be in the same range as (or larger than) direct forcing from CO2”
(Henningsen, 2000). Ozone is also associated with climate change, as is black carbon,
one of the constituents of PM emitted by ships (IPCC, 2001b). Emissions from
shipping contribute significantly to the concentrations and fallout of harmful air
pollutants. There are however technical means by which these pollutants could be cut
by as much as 80-90 percent, and very cost-effectively compared with what would
have to be done to achieve similar results by taking further measures on land-based
sources (EEB, 2004).
Maritime shipping in the Maldivian territorial waters is expected to grow between 70
to 100 per cent between 2005 and 2015. In order to prevent economic growth from
having adverse effects on the natural environment, further measures to reduce
emissions from shipping are urgently needed. Maritime transport differs from road
transport by having much higher infrastructural costs (for developing harbours, break
waters etc. for each inhabited island). The idea is to try to develop a regime that
internalises the social costs of sea transport in a similar way to what has been
proposed for road transport. A distance-related en-route charge proves feasible it
should be possible to extend the scheme to additional pollutants or hazards.
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- Nox Reduction measures from maritime transport
A larger variety of Nox reduction measures available, which are classified as engine
modifications, pre-engine technologies and after-treatment technologies. Engines
modifications such as engine de-rating, injection timing retard, fuel injector upgrades,
etc., have been reported to reduce Nox by 15-20%, but may have the disadvantage of
increasing PM emissions and fuel consumption (Fischbeck and Farrow 2002, Naval
Engineers Journal 2002, Corbett and Fischbeck 2001).
A further opportunity exists to reduce emissions from ships at berth. Ships at dock
operate either their auxiliary or main engines to meet their electrical and power needs.
These hostelling emissions can be substantial, even if they are produced by
auxiliary engines running on cleaner distillate fuel (rather than HFO). These
emissions can be reduced through the use of shore-side electrical power, often
called “cold ironing”. In areas such as California, where the local shore side power is
generated by relatively clean sources, cold ironing can reduce emissions by up
to 90% or more (New England Governors 2001, FEI 2005)
NOX emissions from ships cause acid depositions that can be detrimental to the
natural environment and also contribute to eutrophication. Shipping is among the
largest contributors to NOX deposition in certain parts of the world. NOX also
contributes to the formation of ground level ozone, which are a major health hazard as
well as a very important greenhouse gas. The average sulphur content of marine HFO
(so-called bunker fuel) is now between 2.5 and 3 per cent. Cost difference between
High-sulphur marine HFO and low sulphur HFO is minimal (Beicip-Franlab 2002,
NTM, 2007)16.
16 Emissions are average for Cargo vessel: bunker oil with and average sulphur content of 2.6 per cent, no cleaning of NOx. Source: www.ntm.a.se.
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- Water injection and water emulsion.
Water is injected into the combustion chamber or mixed with the fuel in order to
lower the temperature of combustion and hence reduce Nox formation. The potential
for emission reduction is at most around 50 per cent, but at the cost of increased fuel
consumption (Kågeson, 1999). The installation cost is however lower than for either
of the following methods.
- Humid Air Motor (HAM)
A technique for preventing the formation of Nox during combustion by adding water
vapour to the combustion air. Performance is unaffected either by the quality of the
bunker oil or by engine workload. By reducing the consumption of fuel and
lubricating oil, HAM has the advantage of lowering operating costs instead of
increasing them. The method is able to reduce Nox by 70-80 per cent (Kågeson,
1999).
-Lower Sulphur distillate fuels
The most common classes of marine fuels are heavy fuel oil, sometimes called bunker
fuel, or residual or heavy fuel oil (HFO), and the lighter marine distillates. HFO is
most often used to fuel the main engines of large ocean-going vessels, while
distillates are used to fuel smaller coastal vessels and harborcraft, as well as the
auxiliary engines of ocean-going vessels that are typically operated when
manoeuvring or lying in port. The global average sulphur content of HFO is about
2.7% while distillate fuels used by ocean-going ships generally exceed 1% sulphur.
One of the most important initial actions that can be immediately taken to reduce
shipping emissions is to lower substantially the sulphur level in marine fuels.
Because SO2 emissions are directly proportional to the sulphur content of the fuel
combusted, reducing the sulphur content of fuel will produce immediate reductions of
SO2. For instance, reducing the sulphur level of marine fuel used by ocean-going
ships from the current average of 2.7% to 0.5% would reduce SO2 emissions from
those ships by about 80%.
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The highest portion of PM from large marine diesels operating on HFO is from ash,
metals, oxides and sulphates (about 65% on a medium-speed engine). As a result,
sulphur fuel reductions will also reduce sulphate formation and therefore PM
emissions (by about 40%). Finally, deep cuts in sulphur fuel content will permit
additional and dramatic reductions of Knox and PM from both new and existing
engines using certain after-treatment emission control devices that do not work as
effectively in the presence of high sulphur levels.
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CHAPTER FIVE
ADAPTATION MEASURES FOR
IMPLEMENTATION OF HARD AND SOFT GHG
MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES
Adaptation options that shall foster sustainable development in low-lying islands of
the Maldives, which have been identified as especially vulnerable, are limited and
response measures to climate change or its adverse impact are potentially very costly.
Adaptation in this chapter covers two main types of activities. The first being actual
physical adaptive measures and secondly to enhance capacity to adapt in the
Maldives. Currently the Maldives lacks the capacity both technically and financially
to undertake actual adaptive measures such as public awareness and education
(MHAHE, 2001).
5.1 PROMOTE PUBLIC AWARENESS
Public education and information are powerful and important tools to sway the
vehicle market by creating mental connections between environmental externalities
and particular sizes, kinds, or models of vehicle. Public information and education
programs can help to successfully communicate benefits of pedestrian friendly road
networks, public transport, and cleaner low-cost transport alternatives for public and
help markets to function more effectively. This is important as the private sector must
be involved in the mitigation of climate change. Involvement of private sector may
lead to significant voluntary efforts to curb emissions as they understand the dangers
of GHG emissions to climate change with the increasing levels of transport related air
pollution dispersed to the atmosphere.
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5.2 PROMOTE DEMAND-SIDE MANAGEMENT
In “Demand-side management”, transport planners seek to check demand instead of
affecting supply. Demand-side management in the context of transport in cities (such
as Male’) includes such measurers as staggered working hours and staggered weekly
off days, providing alternative means of transport, promoting safer and high-quality
services to transport schoolchildren etc. In broader terms, demand-side, management
is all about analyzing what makes people travel in the first place, what factors
influence transport choices of people, and the basis on which they choose one “mode”
of transport over the others, instead of simply estimating travel requirements and then
providing for them.
Greater dependency on private vehicles creates a vicious cycle whereby the streets
become more dangerous. As the cycle progresses from generation to generation,
people develop new car-based cognitive maps of their surroundings, further
reinforcing the inevitability use of car. An important policy objective would be to help
children and young adults develop new cognitive maps of their world based on a
number of different transport modes, which would necessarily allow children to
experience non-car-based mobility”.
The increased use of vehicles in Male’ is causing not only congestion on the narrow
street system but is deteriorating the urban air quality as well (MPND & UNDP
1998). Therefore it is logical to give priority in development of public transport over
the modes of transport as they carry more passengers in the effort to make streets safer
for cyclists and pedestrians, which can effect substantial saving in the use of petrol
and diesel, thereby reducing both pollution and traffic congestion.
Travelling to school ranks (in other words work related travel next to travelling to
place of work as the most common purpose of travel in Male’ as parents’ fear of
traffic accidents or public transport not arriving on time affect the modal choice
whether schoolchildren use public transport (including school buses) or are ferried by
their parents in cars of on motorcycles etc. Thus can have a substantial impact on the
transport scenario in urban areas such as Male’.
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As the extent of important environmental impacts such as climate change, noise and
landscape fragmentation are closely linked to transport volumes, addressing them
requires the management of transport demand. By reducing the need to travel in the
first place – by relocating offices etc. by enduring that newer cities are better planned,
by encouraging “telecommuting” and so on – or by providing such alternative means
of transport as public mini buses, the total number of kilometres covered by a given
fleet of vehicles can be drastically reduced.
- Telecommuting to work
Telecommuting, which allows people to work from home instead of in an office, is
another of the futuristic technology that have a bearing on city traffic, at least in
theory. In practice, it is a question of traffic patterns: cities in which the “white collar”
workforce is significant and trade, services, and the knowledge-industry” are major
activities that stand to gain more from telecommuting that those with predominantly
“blue collar” workforce in which manufacturing is the major industry.
5.3 PROMOTE INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING AND CAPACITY
BUILDING
Strengthening the institutional and capacity building is an essential requirement for
the successful implementation of the adaptation strategies. This includes
strengthening the legal institutional and administrative arrangements of transport
agencies. Furthermore this includes human resources capacity development to
regulate, implement and enforce clean transport and low-emissions technology in the
country, and strengthen data collection and monitor emissions levels.
5.4 PROMOTE PRIVATE SECTOR PARTICIPATION
Private investment flow makes between 60-70% of Gross Domestic Investment (GDI)
in developing countries. Even though the private investment is far too low in most
developing countries it is still of utmost importance. It is also important that these
private investment flows continue to contribute to the sustainable development of the
developing countries by considering the UNFCCC objectives (UNFCCC 2005,
UNFCCC 2000).
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Most of the investment in the transport sector and many of the actions required to
reduce the climate change effects of on-road and off-road transport will be made by
the private sector. Thus, it is essential that a clear long-term signal be given for the
way forward, with predictable and transparent regulations and policies. It is
paramount to provide legal security to the investments by private sector on clean
technologies and provide legal right to trade their carbon credit point in the carbon
training platforms. Such that the private sector will be in a position to invest and act in
a timely manner and to the required extent, which will foster sustainable nation’s
development of Maldives.
Although private sector must stay within the rules and regulations set by government,
this is not their only role. They must be given incentive to continually research and
create alternatives to the harmful technologies and products/services currently on the
market. A profitable approach that the private sector should use is the creation of
business opportunities that promote sustainable urban development and the use of
technologies/products/services that reduce their impacts and save them money.
Partnering with the public sector will make the transition to sustainable business
practices much easier and more successful.
5.5 PROMOTE LAND-USE PLANNING AND TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
SCHEMES
No matter how successful the transport policies are it is virtually impossible to
completely cut total travel of motorized vehicles. Therefore it’s imperative to find
ways to make travel less polluting. Good land-use planning traffic management (e.g.
disciplined parking, synchronized traffic lights, and priority for buses) in the key to
managing travel demand. Use road space equitably to focus more on moving people,
not vehicles, more efficiently.
Effective land use planning gives priority to space efficient and eco-friendly vehicles
modes and public transport. Furthermore it provides safer roads for pedestrian
activities, especially for children and elderly who cannot use motor vehicles, re-design
roads that provide physical designs to control vehicle speed and as a place of
community social interactions (see figure 5.1 below). Roads should be redesigned to
accommodate mini buses and provide fast travel. Operating a bus service without
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redesign would not yield the desired results. Effective land-use planning eliminate
congestion by introducing traffic management and traffic calming measures such as
moving parking to multi-storey garages and limit on-street parking.
At present transportation is not well organized with any systematic and planned public
transport (both in Malé and outer atolls). As a result usage of privately owned cars
and motorbikes, demand for fossil fuel (Maldives Country Paper 2004), cost of
transport air pollution and traffic congestions has increased drastically over the years.
FIGURE 5.1
Source: MTC, 2007
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- Pedestrian friendly roads
The current road network is predominantly for cars, but parking limitation acts as a
self-regulator for new imports. However, motor cycles seems exempted from this
limitation. Due to limited road space, a large amount of road capacity used for vehicle
parking. Male’ has flat demand patterns. Therefore peak period congestion should not
exist. But heavy on street parking, lack of sufficient pedestrian facilities and poor
traffic circulation systems result in congestion on several links and nodes. Rapid
increase in population (due to migration, expatriate workers and natural growth) &
income will result in motorcycle fleet on Male’ increasing by 200% in the next 15
years. It is essential to move parking away from streets in order to make more road
space. Otherwise less space will be available for walking and moving or even stand
MTC, 2007).
FIGURE 5.2
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5.6 PROMOTE SUPPORT OF GOVERNMENT OF MALDIVES THROUGH
POLICIES, STRATEGIES, REGULATIONS, STANDARDS AND
ENFORCEMENT INITIATIVES
Polluted air by GHG emission is a symptom, not a cause of absence of coherent,
integrated transport policies of government. The continued growth of carbon
emissions from transport remains one of the most serious environmental problems,
and the government’s commitment to sustainable development will be called into
question unless it takes steps to confront this issue17. The overall success of policies
therefore still hinges on limiting (growth in) transport volumes (European
environment agency, 2007). This report has largely addressed the comparison of
technology-based solutions with behavioural (mode-shifting) solutions.
Policy measures represent another potential means for achieving greenhouse gas
emission reductions from the transport sector. A large number of old reconditioned
vehicles were imported to the country because these were available cheaply within the
region. From 1990, the import of motorcycles has increased to an average of 51%.
The rapid increase of vehicles has induces the traffic problem in Malé. As a means of
reducing the traffic problem and improving the air quality in Male’, the government
banned the importing of reconditioned motorcycles which have engine capacity of les
that 150cm3 into the country, from December 2000 (MTCA Directive No. 9-
B4/2000/94).
5.6.1 NATIONAL POLICIES FOR LAND AND MARITIME SECTOR.
Policy actions include measures to promote fuel efficient vehicles- the manufacture of
light weight sub compact vehicles, research support for increasing fuel efficiency and
development of alternative fuels vehicles- and improve overall efficiency through the
development of an environmentally friendly transportation and distribution
infrastructure.
The government plans to tighten automobile fuel efficiency standards to stimulate
technology development. It provides R&D funds to private automobile makers and
research institutions for technology to improve fuel efficiency and develop low/ zero 17 Steps in other countries such as UK. Source: Road block, Briefing on road transport and climate change, www.roadblock.org.uk
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emission vehicles. The government also provides funds for deployment of the
compressed natural gas CNG) bus—both the purchase of buses and installation of
CNG distribution networks.
The increased use of cars in Male is causing a similar problem and under the above
mentioned regulations there is a ban on importing of cars which are more than 5 years
old into the country (MTCA Directive no. 9-B4/2000/94).
TABLE 5.1: REGISTRATION AGE
Vehicle Maximum age for registration
Pick-up/ cars 5 years
Motor cycles (below 150 CC) New
Motor cycles above 150 CC) 3 years
Lorries for male Use 7 years
Lorries and construction vehicles 15 years*
* Exemption given until 2011
Importing new vehicles would have the potential to reduce the emission of GHGs
from the transport sector, as the efficiency of the imported vehicles would be better
that the old reconditioned vehicles (MTC, 2007b). See table 5.1 for age structure.
Briefs of other pertinent policies are presented below to attain the strategic direction
of Maldives:
- 7th National Developments Plan (7th NDP, 2006-2010)
The broad national development objective upon which the 7th NDP is based includes
the following elements: Develop a sustainable and cost-effective transportation and
telecommunication infrastructure to facilitate economic social and regional
development (7th NDP, 2007).
The 7NDP lays down the development policies and strategies of the Government for
the period 2006 to 2010. All the policies and strategies in the 7NDP are targeted at
improving the quality of life for the people living in the Maldives, particularly the
poor, the disadvantaged and the vulnerable groups. The specific goals of the 7NDP
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are (i) Eliminate extreme poverty, increase equity and promote gender equality, (ii) A
stronger diversified economy (iii) Improved access and expanded opportunity, (iv)
Better, effective and affordable education and health care (v) Stronger families and
communities (vi) Protecting the environment and making people and property safer
(vii) Promote justice, human rights and good governance (NAPA, 2006).
The land and Sea transport Road Map of the draft 7th NDP (policy 1, strategy 1.3)
notes “harbour charges between Malé North Harbour and Malé South Harbour shall
be harmonized as a first measure to relive the congestion and to introduce economic
pricing. Moderate fee structure at both North and Villingili harbour will bring about
harmonized use of all harbours.
- The Domestic Transport Act Of 1978
In the improvement of domestic transport management, The Domestic Transport Act
of 1978 States that the regulating authority for domestic maritime transport is the
Ministry of Transport and Communication (MTC). Whist responsibility for
implementing maritime regulations is extended to MNDF-coast Guard and the
Ministry of Atoll Development (MOAD), the responsibility for formulating regulation
rests with the MTC (TMP, 2003).
- Tourism Master Plan (2003)
Tourism Master Plan (2003) identified Transportation sector as a major area that is
most crucial for the tourism industry, which has developed in response to the demands
of the industry. It is identifies in the plan that the limited resources, the small and
dispersed nature of islands hinder transport activities (Tourism Master plan, 2003).
- Strategic Economic Plan (2005)
The strategic thrust clusters includes Ports and Logistics cluster (PLS), primarily to
establish a reliable inter-region and intra-region transportation system to support the
development of core economic clusters in Maldives and to extend the role of the
commercial ports in the South or/and North to complement other ports in South Asia
for Cargo trans-shipment in the long term (Strategic Economic Plan, 2005).
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- National Energy Policy (2006), Kyoto Protocol (ratified it in 1998) and the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
The Vision of the National energy policy is to ensure the socio-economic
development goals of the country are met through the sustainable supply and use of
energy. Main Energy Policy Goal is underlined in the importance of availability,
reliability accessibility and affordability of energy to fuel the socio-economic
development requirements of the Maldives in a sustainable and environmentally
friendly manner.
Energy Policy Objectives (i) Ensure a continuous and economically viable diversity of
energy supplies to sustain socio-economic development, (ii) Guarantee accessibility
of affordable and reliable energy services to all people, (iii) Enhance national energy
security by promoting indigenously available renewable sources of energy through
removal of implementation barriers and provision of incentives while creating new
jobs and strengthening the economy, (iv) Protect the environment and health of the
people by ensuring environmentally sound energy supply and usage. (v) Establish and
implement the energy conservation and energy efficiency program and institutional
arrangements to achieve optimum economic use of renewable and non-renewable
sources of energy and reduce consumption without lowering the quality of service
rendered, and (v) Ensure transparency of energy sector planning and operations to
attract both national and international investors where appropriate (National Energy
Policy, 2006).
The formulation of the energy policy is also a response to the country’s commitment
to regional co-operation. The current national environmental policies are based on the
need to take an integrated approach to environmental management and to work
towards the goal of sustainable development. Unless immediate measures are put in
place, the trend of continuing vulnerability of the Maldives economy will
continuously increase as the trend of dependence in imported fuels will persist. It is
therefore of prime urgency to deal with the issue, to adopt a comprehensive national
energy policy and to set up the implementing institutional arrangements and programs
to deal with this issue
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The Maldives is a party to the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC), having signed the Convention on 12 June 1992
and ratified it on 9 November of the same year. The Maldives played a very
important role within the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) in the
negotiation process, which began in Berlin and culminated in Kyoto. The
Maldives was the first country to sign the Kyoto Protocol on 16 March 1998
and it ratified the Protocol on 30 December of hat year. UNFCCC (1992)-
article 4 states that
(c) Promote and cooperate in the development, application and diffusion,
including transfer, of technologies, practices and processes that control,
reduce or prevent anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases not
controlled by the Montreal Protocol18 in all relevant sectors, including the
energy, transport, industry, agriculture, forestry and waste management
sectors.
The first National Communication of the Maldives to the UNFCCC was
submitted at the 7th
Session of the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC,
held in Marrakech in 2001. Preliminary findings of the National Greenhouse
Gas Inventory, National Mitigation Plan, Vulnerability Assessment, and
Adaptation Options were all included in that communication (Maldives
Partnership Forum, 2007).
- Science and technology Master plan (2001)
Transport, by land, sea and air, will remain a crucial policy concern in Maldives for
the foreseeable future. For improved health care, education, and political and
economic development, Maldives will be dependent on its transport infrastructure. As
new transport technologies develop (increasing speed and capacity and reducing
costs), they will need to be adapted to the Maldivian context. In that way, science and
technology improvements will be applied to improve the welfare of Maldives’
18 The Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer is a landmark international agreement designed to protect eh stratospheric ozone layer. The treaty was originally signed in 1987 and substantially amended in 1990 and 1992. the Montreal proposal stipulates the production and consumption of compounds that deplete ozone in the stratosphere – chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, Carbon tetrachloride and methyl Chloroform (www.ciesin.columbia.edu)
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dispersed population. The plan identifies that science and technology can assist in
improving land, air, and sea transport conditions in Maldives and allow transport to
play an even stronger part in the integration of the nation (Science and technology
Master plan, 2001).
- National Adaptation Plan of Action (NAPA - 2006),
The goal of the NAPA is to present a coherent framework to climate change
adaptation that enhances the resilience of the natural, human, and social systems and
ensures their sustainability in the face of predicted climate hazards. Synergy with
national development goals is one of the objectives of the NAPA and in the selection
and prioritization of adaptation activities NAPA uses development goals stated in
Vision 2020, Seventh National Development Plan (7NDP) and the Millennium
Development Goals (NAPA, 2006).
- ICT Policy Formulation Project
The formulation of the National ICT policy is currently underway. The national ICT
policy is to ensure the maximization of the potentials of ICT by providing over-
arching policies, incentives and legislative to advance throughout the country, so that
people in the Maldives can have better access to various opportunities in all aspects of
life such as health, education, administration, business, etc. The development of a
national ICT Policy and Strategies will have significant influence over all aspects of
ICT projects in the Maldives. ICT Policy will be the basis for e-government and e-
commerce with supporting legal framework.
The e-government initiative along with initiatives to develop an ICT enabled
community as a cornerstone of its initiatives to narrow the digital divide, delivering a
better quality of life to the people of the Maldives and to bring the facilities, services
and opportunities to its people. With this regard, the government has initiated a
number of projects including the e-government initiative called the Information
Technology Development Project (ITDP) and the Information Communication
Technology (ICT) Policy Formulation Project (Rasheed, 2004)
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- Telecommunications Policy 2001 - 2005
The “Maldives Telecommunications Policy 2001 - 2005” is aimed at the development
of Maldives telecom sector towards achieving the targets of 6th National
Development Plan and ultimately the economic and social developmental objectives
envisaged in the Maldives Vision 2020. It would also guide the sector to develop the
info-communication services so that it would link the dispersed communities and
reduce the impact of the geographical isolation and physical separation that exists
between the island communities. The most prominent aspect of the policy, in relation
to the digital divide issues is opening up of the telecommunication market to more
investors.
- Health master plan (1996)
The Government is committed to the goals of Health for All. The Government of
Maldives considers that the enjoyment of the highest attainable level of health is a
basic right of every citizen. Thus the health policy of the Government aims to improve
the health, well being and quality of life of present and future generations by reducing
disease, suffering and disability, and to increase life expectancy further by reducing
preventable deaths such as road accidents (Health Master Plan, 1996).
Elevated particulate levels are implicated in a range of respiratory problems such as
Asthma, allergic respiratory responses, bronchitis and emphysema. The Health Master
Plan identifies outdoor air pollution as a major contributor to respiratory problems in
The Maldives (MoH 1998). The evidence on the health effects of sulphur, and
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and other pollutants resulting directly from the combustion of
fossil fuels is similarly unclear. Ozone (O3) has been independently associated with
reductions in lung function, increased bronchial reactivity and admissions to hospital.
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5.6.2 INTERNATIONAL POLICIES SPECIFIC TO MARITIME SECTOR
International policies specific to mitigate air pollution from Maritime transport are
presented in this subdivision as such international policies specific to land transport
are non existent. The three international conventions that are important with regard to
the right of passage and the abatement of air pollution emissions:
- The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provides a
universal legal framework for the management of marine resources and their
conservation. It is a result of the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the
Sea that was convened in New York in 1973. It ended nine years later with the
adoption in 1982 of the convention.
Navigational rights, territorial sea limits, economic jurisdiction, legal status of
resources on the seabed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction, passage of ships
through narrow straits, conservation and management of living marine resources,
protection of the marine environment, and a marine research regime are among the
features of the treaty. UNCLOS regulates the right of innocent passage. Part XII of
the convention provides the legal framework for the protection and preservation of the
marine environment. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) and MARPOL.
According to the Convention on the International Maritime Organization, among the
main purposes of IMO includes to provide machinery for co-operation among
Governments in the field of governmental regulation and practices relating to
technical matters of all kinds affecting shipping engaged in international trade, and to
encourage the general adoption of the highest practicable standards in matters
concerning maritime safety, efficiency of navigation and prevention and control of
marine pollution from ships.
UNCLOS’ Article 26 states that no charge may be levied upon foreign ships by
reason only of their passage through the territorial sea, and that charges may be levied
upon a foreign ship passing through the territorial sea as payment only for specific
services rendered to the ship. UNCLOS does not limit the right of coastal states to
introduce non-discriminatory charges on voluntary port calls. When designed in this
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manner and collected only in the ports of participating States, the introduction of a
distant-related en-route charge is neither conditional on amendments to MARPOL nor
on the approval of non-participating States (Per Kågeson, 2005).
UNCLOS Article 211:4 gives coastal states, in the exercise of their sovereignty within
their territorial sea, the right to “adopt laws and regulations for the prevention,
reduction and control of marine pollution from foreign vessels exercising the right of
innocent passage”. However what is sanctioned for internal waters may not
necessarily be allowed for enforcement on traffic in the economic zone of a coastal
state.
However, Article 211:6(a) provides an opportunity for additional measures in a case
where the international rules and standards mentioned in Article 211:1 are
“inadequate to meet special circumstances and coastal states have reasonable grounds
for believing that a particular, clearly defined area of their respective exclusive
economic zones is an area where the adoption of special mandatory measures for the
prevention of pollution from vessels is required for recognized technical reasons in
relation to its oceanographically and ecological conditions”.
- The International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships
MARPOL 73/78
Emissions and discharges from maritime shipping are regulated by IMO’s
International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships, 1973 as
modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78). As the 1973
Convention had not yet entered into force, the 1978 MARPOL Protocol absorbed the
parent Convention. The combined instrument - MARPOL 73/78 - finally entered into
force on 2 October 1983 (for Annexes I and II).
Non-CO2 emissions are particularly governed by the Marpol Annex VI regulations.
Existing environmental regulations under Marpol Annex VI (which contains
provisions on Sulphur Oxide Emission Control Areas and nitrogen oxide emissions
standards for ships' engines) are extremely weak. For example the maximum sulphur
content of fuels is set at 4.5% while the world average for shipping fuel is already
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2.7%19. The last revision of Marpol Annex VI was agreed at IMO level in 1997 but
only entered into force in 2005, a delay of eight years for member states to ratify the
new rules. The excessively long time frames and weak ambition levels of international
regulations have led environmental groups to call for urgent action on shipping
pollution at all levels
Globally air pollution from ships is regulated by Annex VI on Regulations for the
Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships, which will enter into force 19 May 2005.
Annex VI covers ozone-depleting substances, nitrogen oxides (NOX), sulphur oxides
(SOX) and volatile organic compounds (VOC).
The IMO initiative is to reduce NOx emission of about 90% for both existing and new
ships, no later than 2015; reductions in SOx emissions of 70-90% by 2015 and
substantial reductions in particular matter (PM), both through the side-effects of
reducing NOx and SOx, but also by working on specific targets for PM in Marpol
Annex VI (to be adopted no later than 2009).
The environmental scope of the two conventions (i.e. UNCLOS and MARPOL 73/78)
were originally limited to the negative impact on the marine environment of pollution
and accidents. The IMO, however, has in recent years adopted MARPOL’s Annex VI
and a resolution on greenhouse gases. Annex VI introduces SOX emission control
areas, where the adoption of special mandatory measures for SOX emissions from
ships is required in order “to prevent, reduce and control air pollution from SOX and
its attendant adverse impacts on land and sea areas”.
- IMO’ resolution A.963 (23)
In 2003, IMO adopted a resolution A.963(23) on policies and practises related to the
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from shipping, and in 2004, its Marine
Environment Protection Committee agreed on draft guidelines on a CO2 indexing
scheme. It makes sense that IMO, being the only existing global organisation with
responsibility for shipping, has stretched its mandate to cover emissions that are
harmful to terrestrial ecosystems and human health (IMO, 2005).
19 Sulphur has been virtually eradicated from petrol and diesel fuels used by road vehicles in Europe.
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5.6.4 POLICY OPTIONS FOR GOVERNMENT OF MALDIVES
The policy options available to the Government of Maldives to directly and indirectly
reduce GHG emissions from transport sector, which falls in to the following two
fundamental policy categories, which are:
(i) Policies on Transportation Demand Management (TDM) and
reduce need to travel – such policies, and its associated strategies, focus on
encouraging the use of less energy-intensive forms of transportation. These
include promoting public transportation, encouraging people to drive less, and
developing effective sustainable urban planning to minimize transportation
needs. Further to reduce negative externalities such as air pollution, traffic
congestion, and traffic-related injuries
(ii) Policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from automotive sector –
such policies, and its associated strategies, focus of improving the energy
efficiency of the vehicle fleet. This includes policy category includes fiscal
policies encouraging people to buy and use more efficient vehicles, more fuel
efficient vehicle technologies, and vehicle fuel economy standards. Furthermore
this category will include policies to replace transportation energy sources with
greenhouse gas minimizing alternative or renewable fuels, such as bio-fuels.
Consumers and businesses acting according to self-interest will not fully consider the
need to reduce GHG emissions when they purchase vehicles and fuels and decide how
much to travel. Economists call this a public good externality, because the costs and
benefits of controlling it are external to market decision-making. If the market does
not fully value reducing GHG emissions, firms will under-invest in research and
development (R&D) to create new, less polluting technologies. Without collective
action to curb public good externalities, market economies will produce excessive
amounts of environmental pollution. A wide variety of policies and measures are
available to governments to correct this problem. Governments can directly invest in
R&D or can partner with industry to accelerate technological progress.
Market forces can be harnessed through emission cap-and-trade programs or by using
fiscal policies (taxes, subsidies, and incentives) to “internalize” the value of reducing
carbon emissions. Regulations, such as fuel economy standards, can be used to
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increase the efficiency of energy use or to change the properties of transportation fuels
(House of Commons, 2006). Policy support of the government of Maldives is
paramount for the successful implementation and sustenance of the above mentioned
mitigation and adaptation options provided in this in-depth TNA. Selective policies
are briefly highlighted below:
- Policy on GHG emission indices and standards
Development of a central pollution control board and a policy of GHG emission
indices and standards (and its associated strategies) sets emissions indices
implemented by a central pollution control board. The board can regulate and propose
differentiation formulas for vehicles, vessels (such as NOx reduction methods
stipulated in Chapter 4 of this In-depth TNA), harbours and ports to use in a given
area for a specified period of time. Maldivian Government would require additional
strategies and legal elements to be put into place in order for the policy to be
politically acceptable, implement able and be feasible for the country.
- Policy on Vehicle Demand Management, fleet restriction, alternative fuel and
Public Transport
Policy on vehicle demand management, fleet restriction, alternative fuel and public
transport (and its associated impacts) regulates car-restriction, complementary
measures in supporting public transport and non-motorized transport options,
transport planning studies and data collection, quality and capacity of vehicles. The
policy shall also focus on measure to improve the quality and speed of a commuter
journey, Synchronising office working hours with school studying hours in order to
limit number of trips (and number of traffic jam hours) thereby providing an efficient
alternative to the car.
Such measures should reduce the number of vehicles entering urban areas, leading to
an overall reduction in vehicle emissions (West Yorkshire, 2000). For example, as a
traffic demand management technique the Government may provide some
concessions in start up phase or underwrite risk for efficient public transport bus, ferry
and taxi services in order to encourage the mode shift to Public Transport and reduce
car dependency.
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Furthermore the policy regulates land use controls and planning is also another option
used to reduce the use of private motor vehicles. These policies include the restriction
and pricing of parking spaces, the use of pedestrian zones and parks, and land use
zoning strategies which need to be carefully integrated into a public transport system.
For example, it has been found in many large cities that limiting the supply of inner
city parking spaces can be effective at reducing traffic congestion and encouraging the
use of public transport.
The policy should support the introduction of alternative fuel that suits Maldivian
environment and make the use of lead-free petrol mandatory will ideally form a part
of a packaged approach to emission reductions20. Furthermore the policy should limit
loading and unloading heavily vehicles at dedicated times (for example before
6pm).high engine capacity vehicles, the government shall reduce costumes duty for
fuel efficient mini cars, and introduction of solar powered cares, hybrid cars powered
with CNG.
The domestic transport sector development study (phase 1) identified the support by
the public for government interventions for traffic management in Male Urban
Region. See Figure 5.3 below:
20 WRIGHT L and FULTON L (2005), Climate Change Mitigation and Transport in Developing Nations, Transport Reviews, Vol. 25, No. 6, 691–717, November
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FIGURE 5.3: SUPPORT OF INTERVENTION PROPOSAL
- Policy on fiscal restraints and import duty of vehicles.
Fiscal policies, including vehicle and fuel taxes as well as road and parking pricing
schemes (such as taxes for importation, parking space requirement, parking fees,
harbour usage), are an important way both to affect manufacturer and consumer
behaviour and to generate revenue to invest in transportation infrastructure. The
policy shall regulate a high import tax was levied on importing recondition vehicles,
primarily as a measure to potentially reduce the demand for vehicles and hence reduce
the growth of GHG emissions from the transport sector. Other fiscal restraints such as
fuel and vehicle taxation will have a less than direct impact on traffic demand (e.g.: a
10% increase in fuel prices may change the litters of fuel sold by less than 6% and
vehicle-kilometres travelled by even less) and thus other measures are required as
well to stem the tide of explosive growth in personal motorization and the
externalities it produces (ADB, 2006).
A fundamental political difficulty in implementing policy on fiscal restraints is that
these would require unanimous agreement by the Government of Maldives.
Moreover, the tax might be subject to challenge on legal grounds under UNCLOS
Article 26, which guarantees innocent right of passage for foreign-flag vessels without
being subject to charges except for services received.
Source: MTC, 2007
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-Other Policy Support options
Policy support of the Government of Maldives is required for the following categories
Public Awareness campaigns: to successfully communicate benefits of
pedestrian friendly road networks, public transport and cleaner low-cost
transport alternatives for daily use and to communicate the level of GHG and
air pollution from transport, and dangers of GHG emissions to climate change.
As public awareness grows concerning the level of ship emissions of air
pollution especially compared to land-based sources like cars and trucks and
as awareness grows concerning the public health and environmental damage
caused by these emissions, political pressure on national and local regulators
will become increasingly stronger for steep reductions.
Institutional strengthening and capacity building: to strengthen transport
related institutions and develop human resources capacity to regulate,
implement and enforce clean transport and low-emissions technology in the
country.
Private Sector Participation: to ensure effective private sector participation in
adapting to new low-emission technologies in vehicles and vessel for
sustainable national development. Furthermore to ensure the investments by
vehicle and vessel owners for clean technologies are secured and they have
legal right to trade their carbon credit point in the carbon training platforms.
Fuel quality testing mechanisms: to regulate exhaust emission standards,
establish a specialised inspection authority for emission control and for
mandatory inspection to identify GHG emissions from vehicle and vessel
emissions. Furthermore to ensure higher grade of petrol and diesel imported
and consumed in Maldives.
Policy on data collection and maintenance: The lack of available data and
data management has been identified as one of the main issues when assessing
the vulnerability of the Maldives to climate change. Hence, stringent
procedures for data collection and management (to avoid omissions,
duplication and repetition) needs to be established in all concerned agencies to
provide easy access to required information.
Urban Land-use planning, re-engineer road network, limit over load of
vehicles, re-arrange traffic lights and speed breaks: to re-engineer one-way
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roads, synchronise traffic lights and speed breakers in order to reduce number
of trips and limit travel journey time.
Policy on Hybrid cars and battery electric cars: Running a pilot program with
hybrid taxis by offering subsidies for hybrid cars (for example tax exemptions
for green taxis) and fuel taxes to emphasize the benefit of fuel savings. Most
electric vehicles are, in fact, designed specifically to operate over short
distances and at low speeds; this makes them very suitable for the Maldives.
Combining alternative energy generation with electrical vehicles might well be
a project that would attract international support and strengthen the
environmental image of Maldives.
Policy on Fuel economy: to regulate the so-called “rebound effect” which
theorizes that by improving fuel economy of vehicles and vessels, consumers
will be inadvertently encouraged to drive more and thus offset the benefits of
fuel savings promised by improved efficiency. However, empirical research
has shown that this is a small secondary effect with minimum impacts.
Various studies usually put the impacts of rebound effects between zeros to
ten percent of the fuel savings.
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5.7 MEASURES TO PROMOTE FUEL-EFFICIENT VEHICLES AROUND
THE WORLD
The following measures are adapted to promote Fuel-efficient vehicles in countries
such as United States, Japan, Australia, China, Taiwan, South Korea and other
countries in the European Union.
TABLE 5.2: MEASURES TO PROMOTE FUEL-EFFICIENT VEHICLES
AROUND THE WORLD
FUEL EFFICIENT
APPROACH MEASURES/FORMS COUNTRY/REGION
Fuel economy standards Numeric standard in mpg, km/L, or
L/100-km
United States, Japan, Canada,
Australia, China, Taiwan,
South Korea
GHG emission standards Grams/km or grams/mile European Union, California
High Fuel taxes Fuel taxes at least 50% greater than
crude oil base price European Union, Japan
Fiscal incentives
Tax relief based on engine size,
efficiency and carbon dioxide
emissions
European Union, Japan
R&D programs Incentive for particular technologies
and alternative fuel
United states, Japan,
European Union
Traffic control measures Hybrid allowed in special lanes, band
on SUVs United States and France
Source: An, Feng and Sauer, Amanda (2004).
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5.8 MILESTONES TARGETS
Success may be assessed in the process of technology transfer using the following
milestone targets:
-Milestone target for 2015
Maintain the GHG emissions level less than or equal to 2007 level (exemplified in
chapter 3 of this assessment). This is achievable, however based on:
Use of proven energy efficiency technologies and low-carbon replacement
fuels
levels of efficiency improvement at which the value of the fuel saved is greater
than or equal to the cost of technology
Fiscal and other policies that do not increase the overall cost of transportation.
Establishment of a carbon cap-and-trade system
-Milestone target for 2020
Reduce the GHG emissions level to 2005 level (stipulated in chapter 3 of this
assessment). This is achievable, however based on:
Establishment of GHG emissions control independent authority for time
regulation and systematic monitoring
Efficiency improvements and technological progress with focused R&D
innovation effort by 2015.
Continuation or moderate extensions of pricing and behavioural policies
adopted for 2015.
Timely implementation of stringent energy efficiency standards.
Implementation of a tight carbon emissions cap
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5.9 BARRIERS TO TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
A number of barriers hinder the development and implementation of clean
technologies transfer in the Maldives. Among the greatest impediments to the
widespread use of GHG reducing technologies is the limited capacity of key decision
makers and technicians. In addition, utility officials and engineers lack the
information necessary to select, develop, and use GHG reducing technology within
their system. Likewise, gaining technical capacity in the operation and maintenance of
GHG reducing technology would make it much more likely that the systems installed
would be successful and achieve their full potential.
Other barriers for technology transfer includes
Lack of involvement of private sector due to lack of awareness on advantages
of GHG mitigating and adaptation technologies.
Lack of institutional mechanisms to support development, implementation and
management clean technologies.
Lack of financial and economic incentives to the private sector to adapt to
GHG mitigation technology and undertake carbon cap and trade ventures.
Lack of information and essential data of vehicle and vessel usage and
emissions levels.
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 87
CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 CONCLUSION
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states that due to
anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) attributed to human activity, the
global mean temperature could increase between 1.4 and 5.8 degrees Celsius by 2100
and the sea level is projected to rise by 0.09 to 0.88 meter between 1990 and 2100.
The focus of international community is tended on technology based strategies,
options or solutions for reducing anthropogenic GHG emissions to foster human or
natural systems to respond to the indeed already occurring and future global warming
consequences.
Maldives is very vulnerable to the associated impacts of climate change, including
sea level rise. The very existence of Maldives is questionable as half of the country
will submerge by 2100 as Maldives has 1 meter at maximum height, should the
projection of IPCC becomes a inconvenient reality. In the past the transport sector has
evolved in an ad hoc manner, without a comprehensive plan or direction. Therefore
public transportation, be it land or sea, is practically non-existent except for some
recent initiatives to link the main island Malé with some neighbouring islands. The
distances between the islands are quite long and people have to depend on water
transport facilities (which are mainly powered by diesel) for moving essential
commodities such as food and fuel, and travel for essential services such as healthcare
between main islands and smaller ones. Hence the establishment of an efficient
integrated transport system (developed under a planned approach) is urgently needed
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 88
for sustainable and soco-economic development of the widely dispersed population.
However in 2007, most transport is still contracted on an ad hoc basis.
The hard and soft technology-based options provided in this In-depth TNA are
underpinned by comprehensive local and international literature review, internet
based research, and by qualifiable and quantifiable data attained from focus group
discussions and the awareness raising campaign. The assessment exemplifies key
aspects of road transport in Malé and Atolls, Inter-Island Sea Transport, International
Shipping, Seaports, relevance of air pollution and climate change to transport sector,
environmental cost of air pollution, measurement of GHG transport based inventory,
consumption needs of fossil fuel energy (which Maldives is predominantly an
importer of), and history and forecast of GHG emissions.
In future Maldives shall take full advantage of available GHG mitigation technology
based options and develop a balance high performing and efficient multimodal
transportation system (i.e. combination of land and sea modes of transport) in order to
systematically manage traffic and reduce demand for travel. This shall reduce GHG
emission from transport sector to the atmosphere and hence reduce the vulnerability
of Maldives to adverse effects of climate change, including sea level rise.
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
The national and international plans, policies, guidelines, resolutions, codes and
conventions paves a clear cut path to transfer the GHG mitigation and adaptation
technologies in transport sector. At the national level the Ministry of Transport and
Communication (MTC) and/ or Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water (MEEW)
shall first and foremost create a Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)21 in line with
UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol and MARPOL convention as a policy instrument that will
provide incentives to encourage sustainable urban development by both land and
maritime transport private sectors.
The official role of the public sector in relation to investments should be the creation
of an enabling environment for private sector investment in support of sustainable
21 As worded by GSEII (2005)
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 89
development, which takes due account of potential synergies with the UNFCCC
objectives. Such that private investors shall take business decisions that in future will
lead to low trends in emissions compared to business as usual scenarios. The public
investment, whether domestic or foreign, will only play a role in those areas where it
has a clear comparative advantage. From this point of view public grants to non-
Annex I countries will remain rather limited, but it may have a catalytic effect.
It is recommended to implement the hard and soft technology based GHG mitigation
options which includes traffic management techniques to limit vehicle and vessel fleet
size such as to promote an integrated public transport system, for both land and
maritime transport, utilising alternative fuel configurations for vehicles and vessels.
Government may also reduce the customs duties on vehicles and vessels to be used
for public transport as an incentive to improve demand management, such that the
supply of efficient integrated public transport system may decrease demand for
private transport. Hence this shall keep public transportation costs down, reliable, fast
and frequent and thereby provide incentives for its greater use.
It is recommended to implement mitigation options such as priority measures, fiscal
restraints, telecommuting, traffic management information technology, market based
options for carbon credit point trading. Furthermore it is recommenced to implement
actions to reduce vehicle emissions techniques such as to promote use of emissions
catalyst neutralizers, testing devices of gross polluters, natural barriers, alternative
lean burn engine configurations for vehicles, efficient vehicle technology to promote
green travel plans and low emission zones
Amongst the key stakeholders consulted, it is a wide consensus that the establishment
of an integrated public transport system which consists of mini buses for Malé,
Hulhumalé, Addu Atoll, Laamu Atoll, Fuahmulah And Kulhudhufushi road networks
(with 16-20 seat, high roof, low floor vehicles powered by hybrid structure combining
electricity and hydrogen or electricity and petrol), and a integrated ferry network in
Male’ Urban Region shall reduce the GHG emission level from transport sector
considerably.
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The Government of Maldives must also act decisively and promptly to reduce
substantially emissions of air pollution from ships (which are substantially less
regulated than land based transportation) in the effort to promote the Clean Ship
Concept22 by setting environmental criteria that should include minimum
requirements, for instance the use of low-sulphur fuel (or ultra low sulphur fuel –
ULSF) for operation of ships at sea and berth within the Maldivian archipelagic
baselines and Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Such policy measures shall reduce
environmental risk in all ports and standardize key pollutants emitted to air (such as
SOx, NOx, particulate matter, CO2), water from anti-fouling, operational discharge of
ballast water). Furthermore, tightening of shipping emission limits is likely spur and
hasten the development of these control technologies, which will reduce the
associated impacts to public health and environment. Hence the existence of
incentives schemes for quality shipping, like differentiated port dues, shore-side
electricity supply and environmental management systems shall be an added
advantage in reducing GHG emissions.
It is also recommended to implement hard and soft technology based options to adapt
to the mitigations technologies in order to reduce travel such as to promote public
awareness, demand-side management, regulation of fuel economy, institutional
strengthening and capacity building, land-use planning and traffic management
schemes, and promote support from Government of Maldives as national air control
policies, strategies, regulations, standards and enforcement initiates.
Henceforth Maldives have to make its best endeavour to adapt technologies based
solutions for effective GHG mitigation recommended above, reduce resilience to
technology change by eliminating key barriers to transfer and enhance political will
though stringent policies, in order to mitigate emission of GHG from transport sector,
achieve milestone targets and hinder devastating effects to Maldives due to the global
problem of climate change.
22 As worded in the European Federation for Transport and Environment T&E (2004), Motorways of the Sea – Implementation through Article 12a TEN-T, Joint NGO Comments on the Consultation Document
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 91
6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
It is highly recommended to conduct an In-depth Technology Needs Assessment to
identify the technology based GHG mitigation solutions and adaptation measures for
air transport sector as the current wide air transport network in the Maldives consumes
a large portion of imparted GHG emitting fossil fuels. Hence Air transport
technologies should be incorporated in the effort to mitigate the overall GHG
emissions from transport sector.
All of the hard and soft technologies addressed in this In-depth TNA can be
implemented to successfully reduce GHG emissions (at different levels for various
technologies) in the Maldives with sufficient political will, effective private sector
participation, sufficient financial mechanisms and public awareness campaigns.
However it is highly recommended to conduct a prioritising exercise (among key
stakeholders and potential financers) to identify which GHG mitigation and
adaptation technologies addressed in this In-depth TNA should be implemented first
and which technologies to be forthcoming in order to successfully reduce GHG
emissions in a fashion that does not hinder sustainable development of Maldives.
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 92
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 98
ANNEX I – MAP OF MALDIVES
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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, ENERGY AND WATER 99
ANNEX II - PROJECT PROFILE ONE
PUBLIC AWARENESS CAMPAIGNS
Background and goal
Public Awareness campaigns are an powerful and important tool to educate the
general public on dangers of GHG emissions and vulnerability of Maldives, and
dissipate vital information on available clean technologies, alternative fuel
configurations, alternative engine configurations, hybrid vehicle and vessel
technology, land-use planning etc. in order to sway the private transport market by
creating mental connections between environmental externalities and particular sizes,
kinds, or models of transport.
Project rationale and objectives:
Public awareness and education programs can help to successfully communicate
benefits of pedestrian friendly road networks, public transport, cleaner low-cost
transport alternatives for public and hence help markets to function more effectively.
Private sector must be involved as they play an important role (in-terms of
investments and public opinion) in the effort to successfully mitigate adverse effects
of climate change.
Expected activities, output and outcomes:
Public awareness campaigns may lead to significant voluntary efforts to curb
emissions as they understand the dangers of GHG emissions to climate change due to
the increasing levels of transport related air pollution dispersed in to the atmosphere.
Financing mechanism
The public awareness campaigns can be funded by national budget of Maldivian
Government (irrespective of its allocated ministry of agency) and by assistance from
UNFCCC affiliated international agencies.
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ANNEX III - PROJECT PROFILE TWO
INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING BY CAPACITY BUILDING
Background and goal
Institutional strengthening by capacity building is an essential requirement for the
successful implementation of the adaptation strategies. This also includes
strengthening the legal institutional and administrative arrangements of transport
agencies.
Objectives and outcomes
The main objective and outcome it to strengthen pertinent institution by developing
skilled human recourse capacity in transport technology and legal studies (with
specializations in transport and climate change legal aspects) in order to successfully
develop, regulate, implement and enforce clean transport low-emissions technology
and GHG emission standards in the country. Furthermore human recourse
development will strengthen data collection and monitor emissions levels, which are
areas that needs urgent attention in the Maldives.
Financing mechanism
Due to heavy cost implications, the human resource capacity building component can
only be financed by an or a combination of external donor agencies such as Asian
Development Bank, World Bank etc.
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ANNEX IV - PROJECT PROFILE THREE
DEVELOPMENT OF SUSTAINABLE INTER-ISLAND SEA BASED MASS
TRANSPORT TION SYSTEM
Background and goals
One of the main sectors, which contribute to GHG emission, is the transport sector.
The sea transport systems, which currently exist, is not operated on a scheduled basis.
The National Development Plan identifies regions to be developed as regional centres
in the Maldives. Establishing a mass transportation network between these regions
can develop a sustainable transport system in the Maldives and reduce GHG emission.
Project rationale and objectives:
The development of a scheduled transport system would reduce the need for the ad
hoc movement and has the potential to reduce the emission of GHG from the transport
sector. Development of such network work would help to achieve the goals of
sustainable development. The main objective of this project is to establish a mass
transportation network for passengers and cargo between the regional centres in the
country.
Planned activities and outcomes:
Obtain efficient, large, fast ferries to set up a national ferry service network.
Build harbours across the nation, with the capacities to handle cargo.
Establish a feeder service from neighbouring islands to the harbours using the
existing fleet of small dhonis and vessels.
Financing Mechanism
Due to heavy cost implications, inter-island sea based mass transportation system
component can only be financed by an external donor agency such as Asian
Development Bank, World Bank etc.
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