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HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT THROUGH THE LIFE SPAN-FROM CHILDHOOD TO OLDAGE
“He who will learn to fly one day must first learn to stand ,walk, run,
climb and dance; one cannot fly into flying”
Lifespan or Periods in Life cycle
• Development psychologist conceptualize human beings growing through Stages
1. Life begins right after conception(Prenatal)
2. Infancy-(0-1yr)
3. Toddler-(2-3yrs)
Lifespan CONT’D
4. Early childhood(3-6yrs)- Preschool
5. Late childhood(6-12yrs)
6. Adolescence(12-18/19yrs)
7. Adulthood-20+
8. Old age or senescence
Development
• Changes in growth and capabilities with time or across the lifespan
• How people change across the lifespanDomains of Development:1. Physical developmenti. Deals with all growth and changes that occur
in a persons bodyii. Motor skills
Domains CONT’D
2. Cognitive development-language, memoryProcesses to acquire knowledge or become aware of the environment3. Psychosocial development- emotions, personality, relationship with other people and interaction b/n individuals and the surrounding culture
Major Issues in Development
• Heredity and the environment i. Nature/Nurture-- Are intelligence ,personality etc acquire or learnt- Is behavior determined by heredity or
environment- Nativistic- Empirist- tabla rasa
Major Issues CONT’D
ii. Interaction or both- Both nature and nurture affects a persons
dev’t- Heredity- Physical env’t
Major Issues CONT’D
iii. Relative importance of Heredity and Environment- How much genetic and biological make up are
contributing - How much social and environmental factors
are contributing
Major Issues CONT’D
2. Maturational Vrs Learning• Certain structure must mature before they can
function• Maturation-sequense of changes in behaviour or
development that result from genetic groupings• Learning refers to changes within the individual
as a result of specific experiences• Maturation results from aging and learning by
experience
Prenatal Development
• It consist of three stagesi. Germinal stage- first two weeks after
conception-zygoteii. Embryonic stage- 2-8 weeks –embryoiii. Fetal Stage- 9weeks till birth-fetus
Germinal Stage
• Begins when a sperm fertilizes an ovum
• Cell division-mass of cell
• Attaching itself to the mother womb
• 10-14days after conception
Embryonic Stage
• Two life support structures are develop:• Placenta-nutrition from mothers blood to
umbilical cord• Umbilical cord-nutrients to embryo and waste
products to the mother• Bodily organs and systems begin to form• By 8 weeks the heart is beating, eye, brain
Fetal Stage
• Muscle strengthen and other body systems develop completely
• 24 weeks the eyes are opened
• 27 weeks fetus is viable
Genetic factors
• Humans consist of 23 pairs of chromosomes or 46 chromosomes
• Chromosomes pairs are called disomy• Chromosomes determine sex• Sex genes are on the 23rd chromosome pair• Male XY and Female XX• Y chromosome determines maleness
Genetics CONT’D
• During the germinal stage some mishaps can happened and the 23 pair may be missing
• Monosomy (XO) -birth deformities e.g is Turners’ syndrome
• Trisomy (XXY)- Klienfelter’s syndrome-males with female x’tics
• XYY-extra masculinity-found in prisons
Other Pathological Genetic Traits
• PKU-Phenylketouria• Galactosemia• Heamophilia• Taysac’s disease• Sickle cell disease• Color blindness• Cretinism
Mothers Contribution
• General health of the mother
• Diet during pregnancy
• Sexually Transmitted diseases(STD’s)
• Emotional State of the mother during pregnancy
General Health Of the Mother/STD’S
Maternal illnesses• Can terminate the pregnancy during the first
three months• Chronic disease such DM,HTN,• STD’s such syphllis, gonorrhea, genital herpes• UTI, influenza, rubella, mumps
Diet
• Severely malnourish mother cannot maintain pregnancy
• Spontaneous abortion• Prematurity• Still birth• Mental retardation and damage to the
nervous system
Drugs
• Cigarettes and other drugs-PMB,SB• Alcohol-fetal Alcoholic syndrome-PMB ,SB,
LBW, Miscarriage• Narcotics-inadequate supply of oxygen-
hyperactivity, infection, withdrawal symptoms, death
• Prescription and over the counter drugs
Emotions
• Massive out pouring of hormones• Health and behavioral problems-irritability,
crying and later MH problems• Elevation in GI disorders
Fathers Contribution
• Fathers contribute half of the baby’s genes
• Defective sperms can results in birth defects
• Sperms detoriate with age- Marfan’s syndrome
• Exposure of pelvic area to high temperatures ,chemicals and drugs
Abortion
• Termination, expulsion or the removal of the developing organism b/4 the 28 week
• Three types:• Miscarriage• Spontaneous Abortion• Induced Abortion
Abortion CONT’D
• Miscarriages and abortions are natures way of eliminating abnormal fetuses
• Higher incidence of abnormality• Male fetuses are spontaneously aborted than
females• Premature death rates are higher than males
than females• Following birth females resist infection and
survive more than males
Premature Birth
Two criteria are used• Length of pregnancy• Size of the baby• An infant weighing less than 5.5 lbs or 2.5kg• Chdn born before the 37 week of gestationTwo types• Low birth weight: small- for- date• Pre-term babies
Causes of Prematurity
• Real cause is unknown-These factors contribute:
• Overcrowding in the uterus• An illness or disease• Mother health or nutrition prior to pregnancy• Mothers age height and weight• Smoking and use of drugs• Uterine problems and lack of prenatal care
Consequences of Prematurity
• More likely to show intellectual and learning difficulties
• May be found in classes for retarded chdn
• Social difficulties-hyperactivity
• Neurological problems
Consequences CONT’D
• Likely to die in first month of life
• Premature males are more likely to experience learning difficulties and school related problems
• More likely to be abused by parents
• Not all of them will suffers these setbacks
Physical Development: Infancy to Adolescence
Principles • Cephalo-Caudal-growth proceeds from head
to foot-baby gains control of the muscles of the head and neck then the abdomen then the legs
• Proximo-distal-physical growth and motor development proceeds from the centre of the body towards the periphery
Factors Affecting Physical Development
• Nutrition
• Health or disease
• Heredity
• Ecology: equator-artic
• Race-cultural and maturational factors
INFANCY
• At birth infant weighs 6-9lbs (2,700-4000g) • 19-21 inches long (48-53cm)• Head circumference 13-14 inches(33-35cm)• Chest 12-13 inches(30.5-33cm)• By the end of infancy or second year the
normal weight is equal to ¼ of his adult weight• Height is 1/2 of his expected adult height
Preschool
• Growth in weight and height is less rapid
• Both ht and wt continuous to increase at a faster rate
• Weight gain slows down or may even stop
Toilet and bladder training
• Bowel training precedes bladder training• Girls achieve toilet training earlier than boys
but will continue to wet the bed longer than boys
• Some train themselves by just telling parents its time to go to the bathroom
Toilet Training CONT’D
Those who continue to wet the bed or soil themselves may suffer from:
• Late development of the muscular system
• Emotional problems
• Combination of both
Retardation in Walking
• Most chdn walk by 18months or by the end of infancy
Factors1.Nutrtional deficiency 2. Disease or illness3. Obesity4. Tight clothing5. Unsuitable shoes
Walking CONT’D
6. Emotional blocking e.g.• Fear of walking –slight accident• Ridicule at first attempt• Domestic tension and hostility• Parental attitude• Mental retardation
Late Childhood
• By age 6 most chdn have lost their soft contours and heavy structure that make them appealing to adults
• In late childhood-arms and legs grow faster than the trunk-spindly appearance
• Girls mature early than boys but boys are more taller and heavier
Adolescence
There is a rapid increase in: • Body size
• Changes in body proportion and composition
• Swift development of reproductive organs and other sexual x’tics
• “Growth spurt”-girls first-11-13 than boys
Keywords
• Primary sexual x’tics-genital and inter reproductive organs
• Secondary sexual X’tics-special features other than the above
• Pubescence-stage of physiological growth when reproductive functions become mature
• Puberty-point at which an individual is sexually mature and is able to bear chdn
Sequence of Growth
Boys• Penis doubles in length and volume of testes
increase in 10 folds(17 years)• Followed rapidly by secondary sexual x’tics:- Pubic hair- Facial and axillary hair- Deepening of voice- First ejaculation(nocternal emissions)
Sequence CONT’D
Girls• Breast begins to develop followed by:• Development of uterus, labia and vagina• Enlargement of hips, breast and pelvis• Pubic hair• Axillary hair• Menarche-first menstruation
Play Development
Age characteristics
• Exploratory-(holding toys: age 0-1)
• Toys as adult tools-(imitation: age 1-7)
• Games and hobbies(age 8-12)
Play CONT’D
Social Characteristics
• Solitary play(infancy) -alone, but enjoys presence of others, interest centered on own activity
• Parallel play (toddler) –plays alongside, not with another, but can occur in other age groups
Play CONT’D
• Associative play (preschool) - no group goal; often follows a leader
• Cooperative play (School age) -organized, rules, leader/follower relationship established
Screening Tests
• Denver II-evaluates children from birth to 6yrs in 4 skill area: personal-social, fine motor, language, gross motor
• Standford-Binet
• IQ
Physical Development and Psychological Development
• Body build and personality• Body build and socialization:i. Goals and needsii. Type of groups we joiniii. How others react to us• Body build and self satisfaction
Cognitive Development
Piaget• Chdn pass through distinct stages in intellectual
development• Same stages in the same order• Chdn and adults are diff in terms of thinking• Chdn endowed with a structure of schema and
scheming• Basic unit of knowledge or building block of
intellectual development
Cognitive CONT’D
• Intellect develops or grows in two complimentary processes
• Assimilation- the use of old ideas or existing cognitive structures to deal with new situations: assimilate the new object into existing schemas
• Accommodation- modification of old ideas or creation of new ones to deal with new experiences: existing ideas are modified to be used to solve new problems
Stages
Sensorimotor-(0-2) • Use senses and motor activities
• Intellectual development is non-verbal
• Schema present at birth are for survival and adaptation e.g. grasping, sucking
• Forms schemas on objects present
Sensorimotor CONT’D
• Cannot deal with abstracts or mental representation of objects/activities
• Do not think-just behave
• This stage end when they begin to have object permanence
Stages CONT’D
Pre-operational(2-7)• Do not understand logical operations• Ability to think is symbolical and language• Thinking is intuitive• Make guesses(2nd stage)• Not able to differentiate b/n mental pictures and reality• Dominant by evidence of their eyes• Do not understand reversibility• Focus on one dimension, most salient
Pre-operational CONT’D
• Imaginative play-new meanings are attached to objects
• Deferred imitation-recreats components of parental behavior long after they were first observed
• Learning, perception and memory are present at this stage
• Behave in an intelligent manner
Pre-operational CONT’D
• Confuse words with objects-preocupied with name calling
• Transductive reasoning-makes no distinction between general and particular
• Phenomenalistic Causality-thinking that there is a causal relationship b/n two thgs that happens to occur together
• Animism-Inanimate world is alive
Pre-operational CONT’D
• Purposivism-everything has a purpose
• Egocentrism-self centered-stubborn
• Lack of conservation-amount of a substance remains the same irrespective of changes in shape
Why do Pre-operation Children fail to Conserve
• Their thinking is irreversible
• Centration-thoughts and thinking are centered
• Stasis-static and fragmented
• Can not form stable images in their head-finger counting
• Cannot direct you to a place but can lead you there
Stages CONT’D
Concrete operational(7-11)• Develop ability to conserve numbers and matter• Thoughts include concept of time, space and number• Simple logic and simple mental imagination• Sort objects-fruits, vegetables, tools, cars• See and understand• Can not perform abstract operations-freedom, and
justice• They acquire universal reversibility
Concrete CONT’D
• Dynamism-act of transfering one object to another
• There is decentralization
• They can perform problems on things that are present
• Cannot think hypothetically
Stages CONT’D
Formal operation(11 and above)• Thinking is abstract
• Think and reason abt thgs not present
• Think hypothetically, logically
• Weigh diff alternatives
• Make predictions of the future
Formal CONT’D
• Question social institutions and policies
• Understand issues of love, morality, law, politics, religion
• Strongly linked with school attendance
• Western world- about half of the people reach formal operation
• Reflective thoughts
Erickson’S Psychosocial Stages
• Personality is shaped more by society, culture and other people
• He describe 8 stages of developmental stages
• People face new social situations • Encounter new problems called psychosocial
crisis
Erickson CONT’D
• Conflict b/n personal impulses and the social world
• These conflicts are resolved either negatively or positively
Infancy(0-1)-Trust vrs Mistrust
• Sense of trust-depends on how caring is done• Child feels secure and believes the world is
safe• If baby care is haphazard, unpredictable and
harsh• Child develops mistrust
Toddlerhood(1-3)Autonomy Vrs Shame &Doubt
• Exhibit control over the environment• Try out new things-develop a sense of
autonomy• Some parents are over protective• Chdn develop shame and doubt about their
capabilities and abilities
Preschool Age(3-6)-Initiative Vrs Guilt
• Takes initiative in planning, organizing and executing it
• There is a sense of purpose
• They are curious
• If parents encourage them initiative develops but if they criticize then guilt develops
Late Childhood(6-12)Industry Vrs Inferiority
• Productive to meet challenges or new situations
• Try to help parents at home• Need is to do something worthwhile• Praise and encourage-industrious• Ridicule-inferior and scared
Adolescence(12-20)-Identity Vrs Role Confusion
• Individual defines self in relation to the society
• Who am I?
• If they get right social conditions-identity
• If conditions are limited- identity crisis
Moral Development
Rules and conventions in interpersonal interactions
3 related issues needs to be understood:
1. Cognition in children
2. Children’s behavior in moral circumstances
3. Child’s feelings about moral matters
Moral CONT’D
• Children think in two ways
• It also depends on the level of maturity
1. Heteronomous morality(4-7)- judge by considering consequences of behaviour
-Does not consider the intentions of others -Don’t think rules and conventions can be altered
Moral CONT’D
Autonomous Morality(7-10)-• Rules are made by humans• Can be modified when not convenient• Begin to consider the actors intentions• Rules are socially convenient at a particular time• Develops sophisticated thinking patterns• Acquire thru give and take interactions• Rules are handed down in an authoritarian
manner
Kohlberg’s Moral Development
• Goes thru a series of stages
• Based on three levels with each level having two stages
• Chdn acquire a body of standards and principles as they grow
• Controlled externally
• They become internalized and forms morality
Level 1-Preconventional
• No Internalization of moral values
• Moral reason controlled by external values, rewards or punishment
Stage 1-Punishment and Obedience-
Moral reasoning based on punishmentObey adults because they don’t want punishment
Level 1 CONT’D
Stage 2- Individualism and Purpose
• Rewards and self interest
• Obey when is in their interest
Level 2-Conventional Reasoning
• Abide and obey rules
• Rules and regulations of others eg. schools, church, society
Stage 3-Interpersonal Norms
• Morality is being trustworthy
• Caring and being loyal to others
Level 2 CONT’D
Stage 4- Social System Morality
• Begin to acquire social norms, justice, duties and responsibilities
• Laws are for effective social organization
• Prevents chaos
Level 3-Post Conventional
• Morality is completely internalized
• Based on personal standards
• Universal principles of equality, justice and respect for others
• Individual rights can override society
Level 3 CONT’D
Stage 5-Community rights vrs Individual rights
• Morality can vary from person to person
• Law can be changed when no longer useful or suitable
• Issues of justice and liberty are more important than law
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