How to use verbs throughout a research paper to use verbs throughout a research...Tenses not common...

How Verbs Change Your Meaning Throughout Your Research Paper

Dr. Steve Wallace

Overview of speech

• How to report facts, opinions and implications using the correct verbs and verb tenses

• How to use tentative verbs to express probability, possibility or doubt

• How to use verbs in 5 parts of the Introduction, in 2 parts of the Methods, in 4 parts of the results and in 5 parts of the discussion

• How to use the correct verb to show that you agree, disagree or are neutral toward previous literature in your Introduction.

• How to indicate the strength or weakness of a previous study through your word use

• How to avoid anthropomorphism in verb use

Today’s talk

• Today’s talk first time we have held our own free talk on new material

• Top questions from teaching, speaking and editing

• Plan to do this in the future

Researchers as builders

• Students like the idea of publishing and graduating but not writing

• Students like the idea of building

• Physical metaphor to describe an abstract process

Roof: Discussion

Foundation: Introduction

Walls: Results

Door: Methods

Tool box=English

Building material=research Blue print=article structure

The editor and reviewers are building inspectors for our paper

• Poor paper building (English) is used as a common reason for rejection and major revision

• Rejection and major revisions take time

• Careless English suggests careless research

• Editor and reviewers don’t have time to rebuild paper

English skills - a tool set for building our paper

• Poor house building starts with poor tools and using those tools poorly

• The materials may be good but if they are not fit

• Everyone basically knows how to use and hammer and saw

• Master craftsman continues to learn his whole life - Pride

Upgrading complex language tools necessary to present research well

• Academic Writing must use precise tools for complex ideas – Professional development

• Difficult to use our elementary level grammar to communicate with PhDs or higher

How do we learn to “build” better papers?

• One tool at a time

• “I don’t need that tool. I seldom use it.”

• As craftsmen we want to be familiar with all the basic tools and learn advanced uses for them

• Good materials is not enough

Today’s Talk • We will discuss some fundamental tools you

need in scholarly writing

• We will skip details and exceptions to make this memorable, practical, applicable with the greatest benefit

• Verbs =

• Punctuation = Hammer and Nails

Why Discuss Verb Tense? • Verb tense is a fundamental tool used in every

sentence like a saw

• Verb tense controls research impact and meaning

• Extremely high value area to focus our time

• Nine years explaining in class, writing lab, to editors, and to clients

Common tenses in academic writing (99% of tense usage)

• Simple Present

• They discuss

• Present Perfect

• They have discussed

• Simple Past

• They discussed

• Past Perfect

• They had discussed

• Future

• They will discuss

Tenses not common in the research paper (1% - we won’t discuss today)

• Future Perfect • They will have discussed • Present hypothetical • (go back to the past to

discuss the present) • If they discussed…, they

would know… • If they had discussed…, they

would have known…

• Future prediction • (go back to the present to

discuss the future) • If they discuss…, they will

know… • Subjunctive • (go back to the present to

discuss the future) • If they were discussing…,

they would know… • If they had been discussing,

they would have known

General Principles of Tense Use in Academic writing

When to use the present tense

Use the present tense when stating or referring to an established fact

• Fine motor skills require integrating muscular, skeletal, and neurological functions.

• The salt in most oceans is approximately 97% sodium chloride (Ritchie, 1999).

Use the present tense when explaining the essential details of

conventional (unmodified) materials

• The scanning electron microscope (SEM) generally contains a tungsten hairpin filament, which serves as an electron source.

• Silicon is the core component of most semiconductor devices, and demonstrates electrochemical properties in aqueous solutions.

Use the present tense for facts about a general population

• The population density of Shanghai is approximately 2,657 people per square kilometer.

• Nearly 80% of Singaporeans are literate in English as either their first or second language.

Use the present tense to explain and describe equations and variables

• This equation illustrates the expected behavior of the spin system as a function of time and initial conditions.

• Equation (3) shows how solitary waves are generated at the bump and run upstream.

Use the present tense to express other scholars opinions or theories

• Jones (2005) stresses….

• Morison (2000) advocates….

• Zhang (2007) claims….

• Zhambhi (2008) argues….

• Collingwood (1999) claims that Elgar’s music has been overrated as it is technically lacking and devoid of feeling.

Use the present tense to describe what your figures and tables show

• The vital signs upon presentation are summarized in Table 1.

• Figure 1 shows the relationship between age and incidence of dementia.

• Exception:

• X affected Y (Fig. 2).

Use the present tense when referring to your paper overall

• The aim of this paper is to determine the principal mechanical parameters of thin film deposited on a circular glass substrate.

Introducing the tentative present tense

Shows approximation, probability, doubt

1) Modal auxiliaries

2) Tentative words

Modal auxiliaries

• Will

• Would

• Should

• May

• Might

• Could

Examples of the tentative present tense using modals

• Generalized results could substantially alter the course of research in this field.

• If applied as recommended herein, the proposed method would mitigate the uncertainties that have thus far hindered progress.

Examples of tentative words • Adjectives: apparent, consistent with, few, many, most,

possible, presumed, probable, several, some, supposed

• Adverbs: about, apparently, arguably, fairly, in general, largely, likely, more or less, mostly, often, perhaps, possibly, presumably, probably, quite, rather, somewhat, unlikely, usually

• Nouns: appearance, indication, inference, likelihood, possibility, probability, suggestion, tendency, to our knowledge

• Verbs: aim, appear, assume, can, could, estimate, indicate, infer, intend, may, might, presume, propose, seem, seen as, should, speculate, suggest, suppose, tend

Examples of the tentative present tense using tentative words

• “X appears to affect Y.”

• “X has a tendency to affect Y.”

• “This phenomenon indicates that X affects Y.”

When to use the tentative present tense

Use the tentative present tense for the implications of your findings

• This antigen seems to behave as an adhesion molecule in NK-target cell interaction.

• Spirochetes appear to grow preferentially on the external surface of subgingival plaque.

Use the tentative present tense to express uncertainty, approximation

and doubt • Managerial accountants seem to be generally

averse to outsourcing.

• Managerial accountants might be generally averse to outsourcing

Use the tentative present tense when expressing expected outcomes or offering future recommendations

• This research may provide an alternative to the common field measurement of soil erosion and runoff.

When to use the present perfect tense

Use the present perfect tense when referring to multiple previous studies

• Several researchers have studied the relationship between classroom lighting and standardized test performance (Jens, 2006; Kirby et al., 2008; Milner, 2009).

• Hahn et al. (2009) and Thomas (2010) have investigated the economic performance and management quality of banks in Taiwan.

• Previous research on the superconductivity of degenerate materials has been rare.

In responding to reviewer comments, use the present perfect tense when

referring to your manuscript revisions.

• We have added a reference to Smith (2006) as reviewer two suggested.

How to use the past tense

Use the past tense when describing the methods of your study

• A questionnaire was administered to evaluate the current impact of nursing innovation in neonatal intensive care units.

Use the past tense when describing materials in your study that you modified, altered, or changed

• “A scanning electron microscope (SEM) was modified by adding large-field vector deflection to examine remote radioactive specimens.”

• “The silicon used in this study was an n-type silicon obtained from 100 mm diameter ingots grown using the Czochralski method.”

Use the past tense when reporting data obtained through your research

or your literature review

• “According to a 2009 survey conducted by the Institute of Higher Education, Keio was the top-ranked private university in Tokyo; the next highest were Juntendo, Waseda, and Nihon.”

• “One-third of Internet users in Europe were infected by malware in 2010.”

• “The students surveyed in this study were not a randomly selected population and may not, therefore, be representative of all students at NCTU.”

Use the past tense to refer to the findings, results or suggestions of a

single, previous study

• “Johnson & Lin (2002) determined that calcium, zinc, and iron levels were higher in wild rice than in white rice.”

• “Taggert (2007) reported that in 85% of cases, the kidneys are affected by Wegner’s glomerulonephritis.”

• Common verbs in the past tense: investigated, studied, compared, analyzed, found, and examined

When writing research-focused statements (referring to your own

study), use the past tense

• “The purpose of this study was to determine whether or not a genetic correlation exists between performance levels at high and low temperatures.”

How to use the future tense

The future tense is rarely used in research submitted for publication

• Commonly incorrectly used

• Possibly use for future work or projections

• Should be used in proposals

• Can be used in protocols and standard operating procedures

• Can be used in thesis and dissertations

How to apply tenses throughout the research paper

Overview of the tenses in the Introduction

Stage one: Current knowledge or previous studies - Present or Present perfect tense

Stage two: Literature review - Present, Present perfect or Past

Stage three: Knowledge gap – Present or Present perfect,

Stage four: Problem statement – Present or Past, Stage five: Rational for study – Tentative present

tense

Introductions Stage one: Present tense or Present perfect

• “Motor skills require action based on rapid change in the environment.”

• “Clean water is a basic human need”

• “Previous studies have indicated the need for further research in X.”

Introduction stage two: Literature Review

• Fact citation – Present tense - “In most deserts of the world, transitions between

topographic elements are abrupt (Kramer, 1993).” Multiple study citation – Present perfect tense - “Several researchers have studied the relationship

between classroom adjustment and mobility (Smith, et al. 2002; Johnson and Willard, 2003; Madsen, 2009).”

Single study citation-Past tense - “Allington (1998) found that teachers allocated

equal time to all groups.”

Tenses in single study citation: present, past or tentative present tense

• “Johnson found that X affects Y.”

• “Johnson found that X affected Y.”

• “Johnson suggested that X may affect Y.”

Introduction stage three: Knowledge gap Present or present perfect tense

• “However, few studies have reported on the effects of computer assisted instruction.”

• “However, few studies have investigated the effects of antioxidant seeds on the endocrine system.”

• No previous work on the relationship between X and Y currently exist in the literature.

Introduction stage four: Objective Past or present tense

• “The purpose of this study was to determine whether or not genetic differences exist at low temperatures in pepper species.”

• “The aim of this paper is to determine whether and automatic measurement system can be applied to educational settings.”

Optional introduction stage five: Implications Tentative present tense

• “This research may contribute an alternative approach to the problem of manually demonstrating instrumentation principles in classroom environments.”

• “This research may provide an alternative to the common field measurement of soil erosion and runoff.”

Overview of tenses in the Methods

• Describing multiple previous studies: present perfect tense

• Describing conventional material: Present tense

• Describing modified material: Past tense

• Describing general populations: Present tense

• Specific samples: Past tense

• Procedures: Past tense

Use the present perfect tense when referring to multiple previous studies

• “Hahn et al. (2009) and Thomas (2010) have investigated the economic performance and management quality of banks in Taiwan.”

• “Previous research on the superconductivity of degenerate materials has been rare.”

Findings, results or suggestions of a single, previous study: Past tense

• “Johnson & Lin (2002) determined that calcium, zinc, and iron levels were higher in wild rice than in white rice.”

• “Taggert (2007) reported that in 85% of cases, the kidneys are affected by Wegner’s glomerulonephritis.”

Describing conventional material: Present tense

• “The scanning electron microscope (SEM) generally contains a tungsten hairpin filament, which serves as an electron source.”

• “Silicon is the core component of most semiconductor devices, and demonstrates electrochemical properties in aqueous solutions.”

• “A typical chemical reactor includes a helical, tube-in-tube heat exchanger.”

Describing modified material: Past tense

• “For the testing program this collector was protected from weather by an outer window of .10 mm tedlar.”

• “A scanning electron microscope (SEM) was modified by adding large-field vector deflection to examine remote radioactive specimens.”

• “The silicon used in this study was an n-type silicon obtained from 100 mm diameter ingots grown using the Czochralski method.”

Describing populations: Present tense

• “All students who apply for admission to NCTU take the General English Proficiency Test.”

• “Nearly 80% of Singaporeans are literate in English as either their first or second language.”

Explain and describe equations and variables: Present tense

• “This equation illustrates the expected behavior of the spin system as a function of time and initial conditions.”

Specific samples: Past tense

• “The students surveyed in this study were not a randomly selected population and may not, therefore, be representative of all students at NCTU.”

• “The subjects were 18 Chinese-speaking students attending at NCTU.”

Procedures: Past tense

• “Stress was applied to the rubber segments.”

• “A questionnaire was administered to evaluate the current impact of nursing innovation in neonatal intensive care units.”

Results

• Locating figures: Present tense

• Presenting the findings: Past tense

• Comparing results with the results of other studies: Present tense and modals

• Commenting on results: Present tense and/or tentative verbs

Locating figures: Present tense

• “Results of the t-tests are presented in Table 1.”

• “Table II lists the results of the independent t-test.”

• “Figure 3(c) displays the chemical reaction scheme used to synthesize the copolymer.”

Presenting the findings: Past tense

• “Subjects in this study spent more time engaged in activities that matched their interests and skill levels.”

• “Participants in each reward trial selected the high-probability stimulus significantly more often than the low-probability stimulus (P < 0.05).”

• “As a group, divorced mothers spent over twice as much time in employment as married mothers (Figure 2).”

Presenting different types of results: Past Tense

• “The highest incidence of Otitis Media was found among Australian Indians.”

• “Prices showed a tendency to increase over the three year period.”

• “Dry weight of top growth was not highly related to total nitrogen.”

Comparing results with other studies: present tense

• “As opposed to previous research using noncontact specular microscopy, our Orbscan II measurements are significantly smaller.”

• “Conversely, our results demonstrate improved performance over previously proposed methods.”

Commenting on results: Tentative present tense

• “Hyperactive children may be generally responsive to amphetamines.”

• “Hyperactive children appear to be generally responsive to amphetamines”

• “Managerial accountants seem to be generally averse to outsourcing.”

• “Managerial accountants might be generally averse to outsourcing.”

Overview of tenses in the Discussion

• Referring to the purpose, Referring to the hypothesis, Restating the findings: Past tense

• Explaining findings: Past or tentative present tense

• Limiting findings: Past or tentative present tense

• Comparing findings: Present tense • Implications: Tentative present tense • Recommendations and applications:

Tentative present tense

Referring to the purpose, Referring to the hypothesis, Restating the findings: Past

tense • “In this research we attempted to assess two

theories of behavior.” • “We originally assumed that physical decrements

would be more apparent in speed jobs that in skill jobs.”

• “The principle of readability was not followed in the income tax booklet on any of the counties studied except Hsinchu.”

Explaining findings: Tentative present tense with past or present in second verb

• “These results indicate that microbial activity caused some immobilization of labial soil phosphorus.”

• “These results indicate that microbial activity cause some immobilization of labial soil phosphorus.”

Comparing findings to previous findings: Present tense

• “These results are in substantial agreement with those of Bates (2).”

• “This outcome corresponds with that of Rundle et al. (2008).”

• “Our findings agree with those of both Cherundolo (2002) and Dempsey (2010).”

Limiting findings: Past or Tentative present tense

• “The sample was small.”

• “Other industries may produce different results.”

• “The sample involved only children aged three to five years old.”

Implications: Tentative present tense

• “Squatter housing markets seem to behave as economically rational entities.”

• “This antigen could behave as an adhesion molecule in NK-target cell interaction.”

• “Spirochetes appear to grow preferentially on the external surface of subgingival plaque.”

Recommendations and applications: Tentative present tense

• “The approach outlined in this study should be replicated in other manufacturing plants.”

• “We recommend that the approach outlined in this study be replicated in other manufacturing plants.”

How to use reporting verbs

Reporting Verbs

• A reporting verb introduces information that is written by another author

• An author's name is often the subject of the verb

• The object or complement of a reporting verb usually contains information from an academic text

Three reasons for using a reporting verb

1) to present the aim of the study you are summarizing

“Smith (2010) examined the relationship between research and scholarly writing.”

2) to talk about the results that the author you are summarizing

“Jones (2002) showed that deaths per capita in accidents are particularly high in developing countries.‘”

3) to give the opinion of the author you are summarizing

“Smith (2002:96) argues that 'the adoption of just-in-time delivery systems was the decisive factor for Japanese economic success in the 1980's.”

Reporting verbs for the Aim of Study

• investigate

• examine

• analyze

• focus on

• identify

• report (on)

Reporting verbs for the Results

• show (that)

• find (that)

• identify (x) as

• reveal (that)

• establish (that)

• confirm (that)

• conclude (that)*

Reporting verbs for Opinion

• state (that)

• believe (that)

• argue (that)

• point out (that)

• consider (that)

• hold (that)

• claim (that)

Reporting verbs for main points and supporting points

• Common verbs for reporting claims (i.e. statements) based on theory or research

• Main points Supporting points

• assert note

• claim observe

• state point out

Example of reporting a main point followed with a supporting point

“Smith (2010) stated that poor diet was a key cause of obesity. He noted that obesity was a major issue in developing countries.”

Example of reporting a result followed with a conclusion drawn

from that result • “In a study to investigate obesity, Smith (2012)

showed that young people who ate fast food more than 3 times a week were heavier than young people who ate meals at home. This finding suggests that obesity is associated with eating fast food.”

Poor reporting verbs: Mention

• The verb 'mention' is unsuitable for reporting the results of experiments and studies

• “Smith (2010) mentioned three factors which can lead to obesity.”

• The verb 'mention' makes the 'three factors' seem unimportant and not supported by evidence or analysis.

Poor reporting verb: Say

• Can use 'say' to introduce a direct spoken quotation

• “Johnson says that further research into the causes of X is needed.”

• Frequent use of the verb 'say' can make writing informal.

Using reporting verbs to show opinion

Reporting verbs show your opinion of others’ ideas

1) a belief that the literature is correct (stronger position)

2) a belief that the literature is incorrect (weaker position)

3) a neutral attitude towards the veracity of the literature (i.e. neither correct nor incorrect – neutral position)

Positive reporting verbs for agreeing with an author’s opinion

• Acknowledges

• Affirms

• Certifies

• Explains

• Identifies

• Observes

Example of expressing a positive opinion about cited information

• “Gardner (1994) observes that what turns good teaching material into good learning material is what teachers do with it.”

Negative reporting verbs for disagreeing with an author’s opinion

• Accuses

• Claims

• Guesses

• Proclaims

• Expects

• Hopes

Example of expressing a negative opinion about cited information

• “Gardner (1994) claims that what turns good teaching material into good learning material is what teachers do with it.”

Neutral reporting verbs for citing an author’s opinion

Adds

Concludes

Describes

Maintains

Says (for spoken quote)

States

Example of expressing a neutral opinion about cited information

• “Gardner (1994) states that what turns good teaching material into good learning material is what teachers do with it.”

Examples of strong, neutral and weak reporting verbs by function

Verb function: agreement

• weaker position: admits, concedes

• neutral position: accepts, acknowledges, agrees, concurs, confirms, recognizes

• stronger position: applauds, congratulates, extols, praises, supports

Verb function: argument and persuasion

• weaker position: apologizes

• neutral position: assures, encourages, interprets, justifies, reasons

• stronger position: alerts, argues, boasts, contends, convinces, emphasizes, exhorts, forbids, insists, proves, promises, persuades, threatens, warns

Verb function: disagreement and questioning

• weaker position: doubts, questions

• neutral position: challenges, debates, disagrees, questions, requests, wonders

• stronger position: accuses, attacks, complains, contradicts, criticizes, denies, discards, disclaims, discounts, dismisses, disputes, disregards, negates, objects to, opposes, refutes, rejects

Verb function: discussion

• weaker position: comments

• neutral position: discusses, explores

• stronger position: reasons

Verb function: presentation

• weaker position: confuses • neutral position: comments, defines,

describes, estimates, forgets, identifies, illustrates, implies, informs, instructs, lists, mentions, notes, observes, outlines, points out, presents, remarks, reminds, reports, restates, reveals, shows, states, studies, tells, uses

• stronger position: announces, promises

Verb function: suggestion

• weaker position: alleges, intimates, speculates

• neutral position: advises, advocates, hypothesizes, posits, postulates, proposes, suggests, theorizes

• stronger position: asserts, recommends,

Verb function: emphasis

• weaker position: (none)

• neutral position: accentuates, emphasizes, highlights,

• stronger position: stresses, underscores, warns

Verb function: believing

• weaker position: guesses, hopes, imagines

• neutral position: believes, claims, declares, expresses, feels, holds, knows, maintains, professes, subscribes to, thinks

• stronger position: asserts, guarantees, insists, upholds

Verb function: evaluation and examination

• weaker position: (none)

• neutral position: analyses, appraises, assesses, compares considers, contrasts, critiques, evaluates, examines, investigates,

• stronger position: blames, complains, ignores, scrutinizes, warns

Anthropomorphism

• “An interpretation of what is not human or personal in terms of human or personal characteristics” (Merriam-Webster, 2010)

• "Do not attribute human characteristics to nonhuman animals or to inanimate sources" (APA; 2010, section 3.09)

• "An experiment cannot attempt to demonstrate, control unwanted variables, or interpret findings, nor can tables or figures compare (all of these can, however, show or indicate)" (p. 38).

APA (2010) manual provided the following examples:

• Correct: “Pairs of rats (cage mates) were allowed to forage together.”

• Incorrect: “Rat couples (cage mates) were allowed to forage together.” (p. 69)

• Problem: Rats cannot be rightly described as a couple; that term is used with reference to people.

• Incorrect: “This experiment will attempt to

demonstrate that laughter leads to long life.” • Correct: “The purpose of this experiment is to

demonstrate that laughter leads to long life.”

More APA examples

• Incorrect: “The community program was persuaded to allow five of the observers to become tutors.”

• Correct: “The staff for the community program were persuaded to allow five of the observers to become tutors.”

• Incorrect: “The National Education Association (NEA) feels that school reform is inappropriate.”

• Correct: “Officials of the National Education Association (NEA) feel that school reform is inappropriate.”

Some anthropomorphisms found in student writing

• Incorrect: “The article discussed issues related to CBU in TFT-LCDs.”

• Correct: “Rogers (2010) discussed issues related to CBU in TFT-LCDs.”

Some anthropomorphisms found in student writing

• Incorrect:“This experiment will attempt to demonstrate that X can affect Y.”

• Correct:“The purpose of this experiment is to demonstrate that X can affect Y.”

Some anthropomorphisms found in student writing

• Incorrect:“The statistics argued in favor of adding X to Y.”

• Correct:“The statistics indicated that X should be added to Y.”

Some anthropomorphisms found in student writing

• Incorrect:“The university wanted to discover a way to increase student enrollment.”

• Correct:“The university administrators wanted to discover a way to increase student enrollment.”

More examples of antropomorphism

• “When the drillstring feels the weight,”

• “TSMC stock enjoyed a 2% rise today”

Using the verb “feel” in academic writing

• “We feel that the best answer is X”

• “We feel that this conclusion is incorrect”

• “Feel” has an emotional and not rational meaning

• Using this term can make you look uncertain, especially when you use it with quantities or conclusions

Verb tense: Humanities (MLA)

• Books, Poems, Plays, Movies • When you are discussing a book, poem, movie, play, or song

the convention in the humanities is to use the present tense:

“In An Introduction to English Grammar (2006), Noam Chomsky discusses several types of syntactic structures.”

“In Paradise Lost, Milton sets up Satan as a hero who changes the course of history.”

Verbs for Historical Contrast

• To contrast ideas from different periods, you can use the past and the present or present perfect tense. The past tense implies that an idea has lost its validity, while the present tense conveys the current state of acceptance.

• “Stanley Fish (1993) maintained a reader-response stance in his analysis of Milton's L'Allegro and Il Penseroso. However, recent literary critics consider/have considered this stance to be inappropriate for the two poems.”

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