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International Journal of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:17 No:02 1
170102-5858-IJMME-IJENS © April 2017 IJENS I J E N S
Hot Deformation Characterization of AISI316 and
AISI304 Stainless Steels D.K. Suker
1, T.A. Elbenawy
1,2, A.H. Backar
1,3, H.A. Ghulman
1, M.W. Al-Hazmi
1
1- Mechanical Engineering Department, Umm Al-Qura University, Saudi Arabia
2- Design & Production Engineering Department, Ain Shams University, Egypt
3- Production Engineering Department, Alexandria University, Egypt
ahmedbackar@gmail.com – Phone: +966592244888
Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering,
Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
Abstract-- Austenitic stainless steel types AISI304 and AISI316 are material characterised by their high ductility and toughness.
In this paper, the deformation characteristics of AISI316 and
AISI304 stainless steel are investigated in a temperature range of
850-1050 °C and strain rate range of 0.001-0.1 s-1 using
dilatometer hot compression tests. The tests aimed at producing
hot processing map and TEM images of the alloys. Based on the
deformation results, an empirical model is used to predict the
behaviour of both alloys in terms of the stress/strain
characteristics and the recrystallization dynamics. The developed
model is considered to be a very good tool which can be used to
predict the materials characteristics under predefined
deformation conditions.
Index Term-- AISI316 stainless steel, AISI304 stainless steel, hot deformation, dynamic recrystallization
1. INTRODUCTION
Austenitic stainless steels are frequently used in the
construction of both nuclear and non-nuclear energy systems
and will be subjected to elevated temperatures for long
periods. Types AISI304 and AISI316 austenitic stainless steel
are known for the in high ductility and toughness (Wang et al
2012). Therefore, stainless steels (austenitic) have been tested
in different ways, which includes the deformation
characteristics. An important approach testing for steels is hot
deformation, since it involves a complex microstructural
change, which may optimize the mechanical properties of the
finished product (Dehghan-Manshadi, 2010). In
manufacturing process, defect can be formed during
deformation, such defects can be avoided by studying the
microstructural evolution during hot deformation process
under different conditions, as reported by Tan et al. (2008) and
Belyakov et al. (2000). Recently, different research works
have been conducted on hot deformation behaviour of
austenitic stainless steel, mainly were AISI304 (Kin and Yoo,
2001), and AISI316L steel (Mataya et al 2003). Many
researchers have investigated the materials under a series of
dynamic recrystallization conditions (DRX) for example 304
austenitic stainless steel (Dehghan-Manshadi et al. 2004,
2008).
In this study, an investigation of the hot deformation
parameters effects (temperature, strain rate and strain) on the
microstructural evolution of 316 and 304 austenitic stainless
steel is conducted. In addition, the influences of the process on
the DRX, and grain boundary character distributions were also
discussed and compared based on the electron backscatter
diffraction (EBSD) analysis.
2. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
The materials received have been analysed for their chemical
compositions. The results are reported in Tables 1 for AISI316
and AISI304 respectively.
Table I
AISI316 and AISI304 chemical compositions
C % Si % Mn % P % S % Cr % Ni % Mo
% N %
AISI316 0.04 0.51 1.48 0.021 0.002 17.05 10.53 2.05 0.10
AISI304 0.057 0.376 1.08 0.045 0.03 18.14 8.14 0.146 0.033
The specimen was prepared as a rod to be used on the
machine. The rod is of diameter 5 mm and length of 10 mm.
The materials were heat treated for 1 hour at 1050 °C for steel
and 500 °C for aluminium. The shape is shown in Figure 1a.
Different locates were selected for testing the microstructure
of the material before and after heat treatment as shown in
Figure 1b.
mailto:ahmedbackar@gmail.com
International Journal of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:17 No:02 2
170102-5858-IJMME-IJENS © April 2017 IJENS I J E N S
a) Specimen shape b) sample locations
Fig. 1. Location of samples
The process of homogenisation is usually based on treating the
materials for 1 hour under high temperature. The materials
microstructure is tested before and after homogenisation as
shown in Figures 2 and 3 for AISI316 and AISI306
respectively. The figures show the microstructure at different
scales. The homogenisation process has made the grain
uniformity and distribution more homogeneous.
Fig. 2. AISI316 homogenisation
10 mm
International Journal of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:17 No:02 3
170102-5858-IJMME-IJENS © April 2017 IJENS I J E N S
Fig. 3. AISI304 homogenisation
3. PROPERTIES MODELLING
3.1. Stress/Strain Characteristics
In hot deformation conditions, the flow stress/strain
relationship for most alloys is based on the Zener–Hollomon
parameter, Z = έ exp Qdef / RT, where έ is equivalent strain
rate, Qdef is a constant activation energy for deformation, R is
the gas constant and T is the absolute temperature. Many
laboratory tests are used to develop empirical equations to
model the flow stress at specific Z values which are usually
constant. However, during industrial rolling, constant Z cannot
be realized due to the continuous changes in temperature and
strain rate.
Many researchers reported such results, such as MacDonald et
al. (2000) who reported a series of tests on austenitic
(AISI304) stainless steel channel columns. Equations were
developed using Ramberg-Osgood curves to model the
stress/strain obtained from the column and tension testing
using different stresses. The fitted Ramberg-Osgood results
have experienced significant error at strains exceeding the
0.2% total strain which was modified to the following
equation:
k
i
i
ji
oE
)(
)(002.0
where the constants i, j and k are in the range of 2.5 to 6 which
depends on the material thicknes. The suggested equation has
shown very good accuracy., however, it was limited to specific
alloys and thicknesses. Furthermore, Olsson (2001) studied
stainless steel plasticity models under different tests condition,
namely uniaxially and biaxially loading conditions. The
results which presents the stress/strain curves shown that the
stress can be s straight line under large strain conditions. The
proposed model is based on the true-stress versus engineering
strain using the equations for a total strains up to 2%. The
constant stress is chosen as the best fit to the measured
stress/strain curve. It was not necessary to consider the true
ultimate tensile strength (σtu) at the ultimate total strain (εu).
Acknowledging the relationship between the true and
engineering stresses.
σt =σ (1 +ε )
and observing that dσ/dε→0 for σ→σu, it is apparent that as
σ→σu the true stress vs engineering strain curve asymptotes to
the line,
σt =σ (1+ε ). u
Observably, the gradiaent of this line and the intercept of the
line with the stress axis both equal σu. The gradiaent of the
line is different from the gradient of the line through the true
2% proof stress and true tensile strength.
3.2. Recrystallization
The stress-strain curves obtained under DRX conditions
display characteristic shapes. A considerable amount of strain
softening is evident, which leads eventually to the
establishment of a steady state. More particularly, the shapes
of the curves change from the single peak to the multiple peak
type as the strain rate is decreased. The equivalent effects of
decreasing the strain rate and increasing the temperature have
long been observed under hot working conditions; this permits
a temperature corrected strain rate Z, or Zener-Hollomon
parameter (Zener and Hollomon, 1944), to be defined:
Z = exp (Q/RT)
where is the strain rate, T the absolute temperature, R the
gas constant, and Q an apparent activation energy.
The flow stress curve conversion from multiple peaks to single
peak behaviour can be influenced by a critical Zener-
Hollomon parameter Zc: when Z < Zc (or Z > Zc) the flow
curve shows multiple peaks (or a single peak, respectively).
However, in the case when several initial grain sizes are used
As-received:
After homogenization:
International Journal of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:17 No:02 4
170102-5858-IJMME-IJENS © April 2017 IJENS I J E N S
in the testing, the transition in the flow stress behaviour occurs
over a range of Z values rather than at a particular Zc.
The influence of the Zener-Hollomon parameter on particular
points of the DRX flow curve has been a matter of
investigation. In particular, variations in the peak stress σp and
steady state stress σs have been investigated at various
temperatures T, strain rates and initial grain sizes do. Both
have been suitably related to the Zener-Hollomon parameters,
Zhw and Zs, respectively, through power law equations:
σp = BZhwm
σs = CZsm
where B and C are material constants and m is the strain rate
sensitivity (m 0.1 to 0.2). The constant B is dependent on the
initial grain size Do, especially if the initial grains are coarse.
The Zener-Hollomon parameters Zhw and Zs are associated
with two different activation energies Qhw and Qs,
respectively. Qhw is called the apparent activation energy for
hot working and, on the other hand, Qs is called the apparent
activation energy for DRX. In 304 stainless steel, Qhw ranges
between 390 and 430 kJ/mol and Qs between 290 and
310 kJ/mol (Ryan and McQueen, 1990).
4. MICROSTRUCTURE CHARACTERISATION
The batch of steels are commercially supplied as 72 mm
square ingots. These were annealed for 1 hrs at 1200 oC to
eliminate δ-ferrite, then hot rolled to bars of 10 mm thickness
and 50mm width. The final pass at 1050 oC and subsequent
annealing at 1050 oC resulted in a microstructure free from δ-
ferrite, with a grain size of 27 μm.
EBSD imaging was performed on the materials after
homogenisation to test the grain size and uniformity of the
grains. The following sections show for the two steels
(AISI316 and AISI304) EBSD images as whole and
microscopy images at different locations.
4.1. AISI316 Stainless Steel
The homogenisation process was base on treating the materials
being heat treated for 1 hour under 500°C temperature. Figures
4 and 5 show the microstructure of AISI316 at different scales.
The process has made the grain uniformity and distribution
more homogeneous.
Fig. 4. AISI316 EBSD of the homogenisation material
Homogenized
International Journal of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:17 No:02 5
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Edge middle
Fig. 5. AISI316 homogenisation
4.2. AISI304 Stainless Steel
Figures 6 and 7 show the microstructure of AISI304 at
different scales. The homogenisation process has made the
grain uniformity and distribution more homogeneous.
Fig. 6. AISI304 EBSD image of the homogenised material
Homogenized
International Journal of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:17 No:02 6
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Edge middle
Fig. 7. AISI304 homogenisation
5. Experimental Deformation Results
The effects of different strain rates are studied in respect to
two parameters variations, namely the flow stress and the
temperatures, and from the effects on the kinetics of static
recrystallisation, which are sensitive to the total stored energy
and to the stored energy distribution in the microstructure. For
these measurements, specimens were water quenched after
deformation and cut into eight pieces, so that a full
recrystallisation curve could be obtained from each specimen,
Annealing of the pieces was carried out at 900 or 950 oC
which were dependent on the deformation conditions.
Specimens were then mechanically polished on faces that were
at 0.21 of the specimen breadth, and were electroetched in
10% oxalic acid. Recrystallised grains were easily recognised
by their smaller size and strain-free microstructure. The
fraction recrystallised was determined by point counting over
all the section, excluding the regions within 0.5 mm depth
from each surface, using a step size of 0.1 mm.
5.1. AISI316 Stainless Steel
The results of deforming AISI316 at different temperatures
and strain rates as shown in Table 3 and Figure 8, while the
recrystalised grain size is shown in Figure 9.
Table III
AISI316 deformation conditions.
Initial size
(mm) Sample
AISI316 Post-
deformation size (mm)
AISI304 Post-
deformation size (mm)
D = 5
L = 10
850 oC , 0.001 s-1 D=5.07, L=9.82 D=5.07, L=9.80
850 oC , 0.01 s-1 D=5.05, L=9.82 D=5.06, L=9.83
850 oC , 0.1 s-1 D=5.06, L=9.79 D=5.05, L=9.82
950 oC , 0.001 s-1 D=5.03, L=9.85 D=5.05, L=9.83
950 oC , 0.01 s-1 D=5.10, L=9.76 D=5.05, L=9.83
950 oC , 0.1 s-1 D=5.08, L=9.79 D=5.05, L=9.83
1050 oC , 0.001 s-1 D=5.04, L=9.84 D=5.08, L=9.75
1050 oC , 0.01 s-1 D=5.11, L=9.73 D=5.10, L=9.72
1050 oC , 0.1 s-1 D=5.15, L=9.70 D=5.11, L=9.71
International Journal of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:17 No:02 7
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Fig. 8. AISI316 strain/stress results
Edge middle
Fig. 9. Deformed AISI316
5.2. AISI304 Stainless Steel
The results of deforming AISI304 at different strain rates and
temperatures (Table 3) are shown in Figure 10, while the
recrystalised grain size is shown in Figure 11.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 1 2 3
Stre
ss (
MP
a)
Strain
SS316
850C, 0.1/s
850C, 0.01/s
850C, 0.001/s
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0 1 2 3
Stre
ss (
MP
a)
Strain
SS316
950C, 0.1/s
950C, 0.01/s
950C, 0.001/s
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0 1 2 3
Stre
ss (
MP
a)
Strain
SS316
1050C, 0.1/s
1050C, 0.01/s
1050C, 0.001/s
International Journal of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:17 No:02 8
170102-5858-IJMME-IJENS © April 2017 IJENS I J E N S
Fig. 10. AISI304 strain/stress results
Edge middle
Fig. 11. Deformed AISI304 strain/stress results
6. MODELLING
In hot deformation conditions for most alloys, the flow stress
at defined can be described using the Zener–Hollomon
equation (Zener and Hollomon, 1944), Z = έ exp Qdef / RT,
where έ is equivalent strain rate, Qdef is a constant activation
energy for deformation, R is the gas constant and T is the
absolute temperature. For most of tests done in the laboratory,
a nominal constant Z conditions are usually used to obtain the
constitutive equations. However, as indicated earlier, under
industrial rolling conditions, there are major changes of strain
rate and temperature, which lead to Z being variable.
Many researcher have proposed different models to describe
the relationship between the strain/stress. Barbosa’s Model is
one particular model which is based on estimating the stress at
different stages (Barbosa, 1992). The flow curve behaviour
can be described by a critical Zener-Hollomon parameter Zc:
when Z < Zc (or Z > Zc) the flow curve displays multiple
peaks (or a single peak, respectively). The recrystallization of
AISI316 was also modelled by Barbosa (1992), which is
presented in terms of the time for 50% recrystallization and
the recrystallized grain size.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0 1 2 3
Stre
ss (
MP
a)
Strain
SS304
850C, 0.1/s
850C, 0.01/s
850C, 0.001/s
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 1 2 3
Stre
ss (
MP
a)
Strain
SS304
950C, 0.1/s
950C, 0.01/s
950C, 0.001/s
0
10
20
30
40
50
0 1 2 3
Stre
ss (
MP
a)
Strain
SS304
1050C, 0.1/s
1050C, 0.01/s
1050C, 0.001/s
International Journal of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:17 No:02 9
170102-5858-IJMME-IJENS © April 2017 IJENS I J E N S
6.1. AISI316 Stainless Steel
The model has been utilised to model the AISI316 material which the following equations are obtained:
Activation Energy (Q) = 460 kJ/mol
Zener Holomon Constant = strain rate Q/RT
R = 8.31
T = Temperature in Kelvin
5.0
0)(0 )]/exp(1)[(( ress
045.00832.8 Zp
))]/()[(1(ln10 2001.0 seC 0.0log000 (Z) - .
6389.7log 4448.11.0 (Z) -
35129 45485 .log. (Z) - p
857.18log 0888.5 (Z) - ss
874.40log 9351.5 (Z) - se
})]exp(1)[({0.1 5.000 Ce )7.0( p
4.1
)7.0
(49.0exp1)(0.1p
p
sse
)7.0( p
0.13.0
0
1.0470 dZd rex ( < c)
1.02650 Zdrex ( >= c)
3.0
018.0 dc
The results are shown in Figure 12 for setting the parameters, Figure 13 for the flow stress curves, and Figure 14 for the
recrystallised grain size.
y = 8.0832x-0.045
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
1E+12 1E+14 1E+16 1E+18 1E+20 1E+22
Stra
in
Z
Peak Strain
y = 5.4548x - 29.351
0
20
40
60
80
100
12 14 16 18 20 22
Stre
ss (
MP
a)
log(Z)
Peak Stress
International Journal of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:17 No:02 10
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Fig. 12. AISI316 parameters modelling
Fig. 13. AISI316 strain/stress modelling
y = 5.0888x - 18.857
0
20
40
60
80
100
12 14 16 18 20 22
Stre
ss (
MP
a)
log(Z)
Steady State Stress
y = 5.9351x - 40.874
0
20
40
60
80
100
14 16 18 20
Stre
ss (
MP
a)
log(Z)
Steady Evolved Stress
y = 1.4448x - 7.63890
5
10
15
20
25
12 14 16 18 20 22
stre
ss (
MP
a)
log(Z)
0.1 Stress
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
90.00
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Stre
ss (
MP
a)
Strain
AISI 316
850C, 0.001/s
850C, 0.01/s
850C, 0.1/s
950C, 0.001/s
950C, 0.01/s
950C, 0.1/s
1050C, 0.001/s
1050C, 0.01/s
1050C, 0.1/s
International Journal of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:17 No:02 11
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Fig. 14. AISI316 recrytillisation modelling
6.2. AISI304 Stainless Steel
The model has been utilised to model the AISI30 material which the following equations are obtained:
Activation Energy (Q) = 266 kJ/mol
Zener Holomon Constant = strain rate Q/RT
R = 8.31
T = Temperature in Kelvin
5.0
0)(0 )]/exp(1)[(( ress
064.0 0095.4 Zp
))]/()[(1(ln10 2001.0 seC 0.0log000 (Z) - .
779.5log 2843.11.0 (Z) -
35129 45485 .log. (Z) - p
629.40log 591.12 (Z) - ss
834.48log 921.12 (Z) - se
})]exp(1)[({0.1 5.000 Ce )7.0( p
4.1
)7.0
(49.0exp1)(0.1p
p
sse
)7.0( p
10
100
1000
10000
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
dre
x (u
s)
Strain
AISI 316
850C, 0.001/s
850C, 0.01/s
850C, 0.1/s
950C, 0.001/s
950C, 0.01/s
950C, 0.1/s
1050C, 0.001/s
1050C, 0.01/s
1050C, 0.1/s
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0.13.0
0
1.023 dZdrex ( < c)
1.0132 Zd rex ( >= c)
3.0
018.0 dc
The results are shown in Figure 15 for setting the parameters, Figure 16 for the flow stress curves, and Figure 17 for the
recrystallised grain size.
Fig. 15. AISI304 parameters modelling
y = 4.0095x-0.064
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
1.00E+04 1.00E+06 1.00E+08 1.00E+10
Pe
ak S
trai
n
Zener Holomon Constant
Peak Strain
y = 12.921x - 48.834
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Stre
ss (
MP
a)log(Z)
Peak Stress
y = 12.591x - 40.629
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Stre
ss (
MP
a)
log(Z)
Steady State Stress
y = 12.921x - 48.834
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Stre
ss (
MP
a)
log(Z)
Steady Evolved Stress
y = 1.2843x - 5.779
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Stre
ss (
MP
a)
log(Z)
0.1 Stress
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Fig. 16. AISI304 stress/strain modelling
Fig. 17. AISI304 recrystallisation modelling
6. DISCUSSION
The engineering stress-strain curves of both 316 and 304
specimens are shown in Figures 13 and 16 respectively. It can
be seen that 304 sample experience lower tensile mechanical
properties compared to the 316 sample. For both specimens,
the behaviour of the materials indicate that strain hardening
occurs throughout the duration of the stress application.
However, the amount of strain hardening for the observed
increment in the stress decreases as stress increases.
The results show that the yield stress (σ) and Young’s
modulus (E) are improved due to the grain refinement in
comparison to the raw sample. In cold-work conditions,
crystalline defects like dislocations and porosity will increase
with the degree of deformation and decrease the mechanical
properties. Furthermore, the sample size can affect the
mechanical tests results. The combined effect of crystalline
defects and the size of tested samples has an influence on the
reduction of mechanical properties.
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Stre
ss (
MP
a)
Strain
AISI 304
850C, 0.001/s
850C, 0.01/s
850C, 0.1/s
950C, 0.001/s
950C, 0.01/s
950C, 0.1/s
1050C, 0.001/s
1050C, 0.01/s
1050C, 0.1/s
10.000
100.000
1000.000
10000.000
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
dre
x (u
s)
Strain
AISI 304
850C, 0.001/s
850C, 0.01/s
850C, 0.1/s
950C, 0.001/s
950C, 0.01/s
950C, 0.1/s
1050C, 0.001/s
1050C, 0.01/s
1050C, 0.1/s
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7. CONCLUSIONS
The investigation carried out in this study on the hot
deformation behaviour and microstructural evolutions of the
316 and 304 austenitic stainless steel, it was observed that the
static recrystallization curves have led to work hardening and
recovery, but not dynamic recrystallization, generally conform
to recrystallization kinetics. The power law tends to decrease
for coarse initial grain sizes. This is attributed to non-uniform
deformation across the grains in these materials. Furthermore,
recrystallization times and recrystallized grain size decrease
with decrease in initial grain size, with increase in strain and to
a lesser extent with increase in strain rate and decrease in
temperature of deformation. Recrystallization time also
decreases rapidly with increase in deformation temperature.
The effects of these variables on both recrystallization time
and recrystallized grain size can be satisfactorily described by
relatively simple parametric equations for the entire range of
conditions studied experimentally. Finally, at high strain rate
and temperature, the true stress/strain curves exhibited tiny
serrations effects due to the interaction of the recrystallization
and precipitation
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge with gratitude King Abdulaziz City
for Science and Technology (KACST), Saudi Arabia for the
financial support (project no.: 10-ADV1247-10) and the
Science and Technology Unit (STU) at Umm Al-Qura
University for the logistic support throughout the project.
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