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ACKNOWLEDGMENTSWewouldliketothankthemanypeoplewhoprovidedinputandfeedbacktowardsthecompletionofthisreport.Withouttheinsightfulfeedbackthattheseindividualsgenerouslyprovided,thisreportcouldnothavebeencompleted.WewouldliketogivespecialthankstotheCaliforniaSmartGridCenter,CollegeofEngineeringandComputerScienceattheCaliforniaStateUniversity,SacramentoandtotheUniversityofCalifornia’sCenterforInformationTechnologyResearchintheInterestofSociety(CITRIS).ThisreportwasconductedwiththeoversightofaCCSTSmartMeterProjectTeam,whosemembersinclude:RollinRichmond(Chair),EmirMacari,PatrickMantey,PaulWright,RyanMcCarthy,JaneLong,DavidWinickoff,andLarryPapay.WealsothankJ.D.StackforhistechnicalcontributionsandLoraLeeMartinfortheoverallcoordinationofthisreportresponse.WeexpressgratitudetoCCST’smembersandcolleaguesfortheirmanycontributionstothereport.CommentsontheJanuary2011draftofthisreportweresolicitedfromthepublic.Manyverythoughtfulandinformedcommentswerereceived.Allpubliccommentswerereviewedandtakenintoconsiderationasthisfinalreportwascompleted.COPYRIGHTCopyright2010bytheCaliforniaCouncilonScienceandTechnology.LibraryofCongress
CatalogingNumberinPublicationsDataMainEntryUnderTitle:HealthImpactsofRadioFrequencyExposureFromSmartMeters
April2011ISBN‐13:978‐1‐930117‐42‐6
CCSTisanon‐profitorganizationestablishedin1988attherequestoftheCaliforniaStateGovernmentandsponsoredbythemajorpublicandprivatepostsecondaryinstitutionsofCaliforniaandaffiliatefederallaboratoriesinconjunctionwithleadingprivate‐sectorfirms.CCST'smissionistoimprovescienceandtechnologypolicyandapplicationinCaliforniabyproposingprograms,conductinganalyses,andrecommendingpublicpoliciesandinitiativesthatwillmaintainCalifornia'stechnologicalleadershipandavigorouseconomy.Note:TheCaliforniaCouncilonScienceandTechnology(CCST)hasmadeeveryreasonableefforttoassuretheaccuracyoftheinformationinthispublication.However,thecontentsofthispublicationaresubjecttochanges,omissions,anderrors,andCCSTdoesnotacceptresponsibilityforanyinaccuraciesthatmayoccur.Forquestionsorcommentsonthispublicationcontact:CaliforniaCouncilonScienceandTechnology1130KStreet,Suite280Sacramento,California95814(916)492‐0996ccst@ccst.us
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TableofContentsLetterfromCCST ............................................................................................................................ 3Keyreportfindings ......................................................................................................................... 4Otherconsiderations...................................................................................................................... 4Legislativerequest.......................................................................................................................... 6Approach ........................................................................................................................................ 6Twotypesofradiofrequencyeffects:ThermalandNon‐thermal................................................. 7Findings .......................................................................................................................................... 7Whataresmartmeters? .............................................................................................................. 10WhyaresmartmetersbeinginstalledthroughoutCalifornia?.................................................... 12Whathealthconcernsareassociatedwithsmartmeters?.......................................................... 15FCCguidelinesaddressknownthermaleffectsonly,notnon‐thermaleffects............................ 16Powerdensity(andexposurelevel)declinesrapidlywithdistance............................................. 19Comparisonofelectromagneticfrequenciesfromsmartmetersandotherdevices .................. 20WhatisdutycycleandhowdoesitrelatedtoRFexposure?....................................................... 23Whataboutexposurelevelsfromabankofmetersandfromjustbehind thewallofasinglemeter?........................................................................................... 24IstheFCCstandardsufficienttoprotectpublichealth? .............................................................. 24Areadditionaltechnology‐specificstandardsneeded? ............................................................... 24Publicinformationandeducation................................................................................................ 25Alternativestowireless? .............................................................................................................. 25Keyfactorstoconsiderwhenevaluatingexposuretoradiofrequencyfromsmartmeters?....... 26Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................27AppendixA–LettersrequestingCCSTassistance........................................................................ 28
• AssemblyMemberHuffman’sLetter ............................................................................... 28• AssemblyMemberMonning’sLetter ............................................................................... 30• CityofMillValleyLetter ...................................................................................................31
AppendixB–ProjectProcess ....................................................................................................... 33AppendixC–ProjectTeam .......................................................................................................... 35AppendixD–WrittenSubmissionAuthors.................................................................................. 38AppendixE–MaterialsConsulted ............................................................................................... 39AppendixF–Glossary .................................................................................................................. 46AppendixG–CCST2010BoardMembers ................................................................................... 48AppendixH–CCST2010CouncilMembers ................................................................................. 49AppendixI–ReportCredits ......................................................................................................... 50
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LetterfromCCSTWithrapidlyemergingandevolvingtechnologies,lawmakersattimesfindthemselvespressedtomakepolicydecisionsoncomplextechnologies.Smartmetersareonesuchtechnology.Smartmetersarebeingdeployedinmanyplacesintheworldinanefforttocreateanewgenerationofutilityservicebasedontheconceptsofasmartgrid,onethatisagile,efficientandcosteffective.Theelectricitycrisisof2000and2001helpedforcetheissuehereinCalifornia,lendingsignificanturgencytotheneedforbettermanagementofpowergenerationanddistribution.In2006,theCaliforniaPublicUtilitiesCommissionauthorizedthePacificGasandElectricCompanytoimplementarelativelynewtechnology,smartmeters,togathermuchmorepreciseinformationaboutpowerusagethroughoutthestate.Theprocessofinstallingthemetersthroughoutthestateisstillunderway.Aswithanynewtechnology,thereareunknownsinvolved.Smartmetersgenerallyworkbytransmittinginformationwirelessly.Somepeoplehaveexpressedconcernsaboutthehealtheffectsofwirelesssignals,particularlyastheybecomevirtuallyubiquitous.Theseconcernshaverecentlybeenbroughttotheattentionofstatelegislators,withsomelocalmunicipalitiesoptingtobanfurtherinstallationofthemetersintheircommunities.WearepleasedthatAssemblyMembersHuffmanandMonninghaveturnedtoCCSTforinputonthisissue.ItisCCST’schargetoofferindependentexpertadvicetothestategovernmentandtorecommendsolutionstoscienceandtechnology‐relatedpolicyissues.Inthiscase,wehaveassembledasuccinctbutcomprehensiveoverviewofwhatisknownabouthumanexposuretowirelesssignalsandtheefficacyoftheFCCsafetystandardsforthesesignals.Todoso,weassembledaprojectteamthatconsultedwithovertwodozenexpertsandsiftedthroughoverahundredarticlesandreports,providingathorough,unbiasedoverviewinarelativelyrapidmanner.Insituationswherepublicsentimenturgespolicymakerstomakepolicydecisionswithpotentiallylong‐termconsequences,accesstothebestinformationpossibleiscritical.ThisistherolethatCCSTwascreatedtofulfill.
SusanHackwood RollinRichmondExecutiveDirector,CCST ProjectTeamChair,CCST
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HealthImpactsofRadioFrequencyfromSmartMetersResponsetoAssemblyMembersHuffmanandMonning
CaliforniaCouncilonScienceandTechnology
April2011
KEYREPORTFINDINGS
1. Wirelesssmartmeters,wheninstalledandproperlymaintained,resultinmuchsmallerlevelsofradiofrequency(RF)exposurethanmanyexistingcommonhouseholdelectronicdevices,particularlycellphonesandmicrowaveovens.
2. ThecurrentFCCstandardprovidesanadequatefactorofsafetyagainstknownthermallyinducedhealthimpactsofexistingcommonhouseholdelectronicdevicesandsmartmeters.
3. Todate,scientificstudieshavenotidentifiedorconfirmednegativehealtheffectsfrompotentialnon‐thermalimpactsofRFemissionssuchasthoseproducedbyexistingcommonhouseholdelectronicdevicesandsmartmeters.
4. Notenoughiscurrentlyknownaboutpotentialnon‐thermalimpactsofradiofrequencyemissionstoidentifyorrecommendadditionalstandardsforsuchimpacts
OTHERCONSIDERATIONS
Smartelectricitymetersareakeyenablingtechnologyfora“smartgrid”thatisexpectedtobecomeincreasinglyclean,efficient,reliable,andsafeatapotentiallylowercosttotheconsumer.TheCCSTSmartMeterProjectTeamoffersthefollowingforfurtherconsiderationbypolicymakers,regulatorsandtheutilities.Weappreciatethateachoftheseconsiderationswouldlikelyrequireacost/benefitanalysis.However,wefeeltheyshouldbeconsideredastheoverallcumulativeexposuretoRFemissionsinourenvironmentcontinuestoexpand.1. Aswirelesstechnologiesofalltypesincreaseinusage,itwillbeimportantto:(a)
continuetoquantitativelyassessthelevelsofRFemissionsfromcommonhouseholddevicesandsmartmeterstowhichthepublicmaybeexposed;and(b)continuetoinvestigatepotentialthermalandnon‐thermalimpactsofsuchRFemissionsonhumanhealth.
2. ConsumersshouldbeprovidedwithclearlyunderstoodinformationabouttheradiofrequencyemissionsofalldevicesthatemitRFincludingsmartmeters.Suchinformationshouldincludeintensityofoutput,durationandfrequencyofoutput,and,inthecasesofthesmartmeter,patternofsendingandreceivingtransmissionstoandfromallsources.
3. TheCaliforniaPublicUtilitiesCommissionshouldconsiderdoinganindependentreviewofthedeploymentofsmartmeterstodetermineiftheyareinstalledandoperatingconsistentwiththeinformationprovidedtotheconsumer.
4. Considerationcouldbegiventoalternativesmartmeterconfigurations(suchaswired)inthosecaseswherewirelessmeterscontinuetobeconcerntoconsumers.
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Figure1. Instantaneous RadioFrequencyPowerDensityLevelsofCommonDevices(inmicroWatts/cm2)Aboutthisfigure:ThisfigurewasdevelopedbytheCCSTprojectteam.QuantitiesfordifferentdistancescalculatedusingInverseSquareLaw.Assumesdistancesinfar‐field,wherepowerdensityreducesasthe
squareofthedistancefromthesource.Smartmeterpowerscaledtoobtainoutputfor50%dutycycle.ThesourceforthevariousstartingmeasurementscamefromElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI),Radio‐
FrequencyExposureLevelsfromSmartMeters:ACaseStudyofOneModel(February2011)
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LegislativeRequestOnJuly30,2010,CaliforniaAssemblyMemberJaredHuffmanwrotetotheCaliforniaCouncilonScienceandTechnology(CCST)torequestthattheCouncilperforman“independent,science‐basedstudy…[that]wouldhelppolicymakersandthegeneralpublicresolvethedebateoverwhethersmartmeterspresentasignificantriskofadversehealtheffects.”CaliforniaAssemblyMemberBillMonningsignedontotherequestwithhisownlettertoCCSTonSeptember15,2010.TheCityofMillValleyalsosentaletteronSeptember20thsupportingAssemblyMemberHuffman’srequestforthestudy.ApproachReflectingtherequestsoftheAssemblyMembers,CCSTagreedtocompileandassesstheevidenceavailabletoaddress:
1.WhetherFederalCommunicationsCommission(FCC)standardsforsmartmetersaresufficientlyprotectiveofpublichealth,takingintoaccountcurrentexposurelevelstoradiofrequencyandelectromagneticfields.2.Whetheradditionaltechnology‐specificstandardsareneededforsmartmetersandotherdevicesthatarecommonlyfoundinandaroundhomes,toensureadequateprotectionfromadversehealtheffects.
CCSTconvenedaSmartMeterProjectTeamcomposedofCCSTCouncilandBoardmemberssupplementedwithadditionalexpertsinrelevantfields(seeAppendixAforProjectTeammembers).TheProjectTeamidentifiedandreviewedover100publicationsandpostingsaboutsmartmetersandotherdevicesinthesamerangeofemissions,includingresearchrelatedtocellphoneRFemissions,andcontactedovertwodozenexpertsinradioandelectromagneticemissionsandrelatedfieldstoseektheiropiniononthetwoidentifiedissues.ItisimportanttonotethatCCSThasnotundertakenprimaryresearchofitsowntoaddresstheseissues.ThisresponseislimitedtosolicitinginputfromtechnicalexpertsandtoreviewingandevaluatingavailableinformationfrompastandcurrentresearchabouthealthimpactsofRFemittedfromelectricappliancesgenerally,andsmartmetersspecifically.ThisreporthasbeenextensivelyreviewedbytheProjectTeam,expertsinrelatedfields,andhasbeensubjecttotheCCSTpeerreviewprocess(seeAppendixB).Ithasalsobeenmadeavailabletothepublicforcomment.
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TwoTypesofRadioFrequencyEffects:ThermalandNon‐thermalHouseholdelectronicdevices,suchascellularandcordlesstelephones,microwaveovens,wirelessrouters,andwirelesssmartmetersproduceRFemissions.ExposuretoRFemissionsmayleadtothermalandnon‐thermaleffects.Thermaleffectsonhumanshavebeenextensivelystudiedandappeartobewellunderstood.TheFederalCommunicationsCommission(FCC)hasestablishedguidelinestoprotectpublichealthfromknownhazardsassociatedwiththethermalimpactsofRF:tissueheatingfromabsorbingenergyassociatedwithradiofrequencyemissions.Non‐thermaleffects,however,includingcumulativeorprolongedexposuretolowerlevelsofRFemissions,arenotwellunderstood.Somestudieshavesuggestednon‐thermaleffectsmayincludefatigue,headache,irritability,orevencancer.Butthesefindingshavenotbeenscientificallyestablished,andthemechanismsthatmightleadtonon‐thermaleffectsremainuncertain.Additionalresearchandmonitoringisneededtobetteridentifyandunderstandpotentialnon‐thermaleffects.FindingsGiventhebodyofexisting,generallyacceptedscientificknowledgeregardingsmartmetersandsimilarelectronicdevices,CCSTfindsthat:
1. TheFCCstandardprovidesanadequatefactorofsafetyagainstknownRFinducedhealthimpactsofsmartmetersandotherelectronicdevicesinthesamerangeofRFemissions.
ThepotentialforbehavioraldisruptionfromincreasedbodytissuetemperaturesistheonlybiologicalhealthimpactthathasbeenconsistentlydemonstratedandscientificallyproventoresultfromabsorbingRFwithinthebandoftheelectromagneticspectrum(EMF)thatsmartmetersuse.TheFederalCommunicationsCommission(FCC)hassetalimitontheStandardAbsorptionRate(SAR)fromelectronicdevices,whichiswellbelowthelevelthathasbeendemonstratedtoaffectbehaviorinlaboratoryanimals.Smartmeters,includingthosebeinginstalledbyPacificGasandElectricCompany(PG&E)intheAssemblyMembers’districts,ifinstalledaccordingtothemanufacturersinstructionsandconsistentwiththeFCCcertification,emitRFthatisaverysmallfractionoftheexposurelevelestablishedassafebytheFCCguidelines.
FCCstaffhasrecentlyconfirmedthatit“reliedontheexpertopinionsofEPA,NCRP,andotherstoconcludethattheRFexposurelimitsitadoptedwereadequatelyprotectiveofhumanhealthfromallknownadverseeffects,regardlessofwhethertheseeffectswerethermalorathermalinorigin”.1TheFCCguidelinesprovideasignificantfactorofsafetyagainstknownRFimpactsthatoccuratthepowerlevelsandwithintheRFbandusedbysmartmeters.Givencurrent
1 StatementprovidebyRobertWellerregardingFCCregulationsonFebruary3,2011.RobertWeller,Chief,TechnicalAnalysisBranch,OfficeofEngineeringandTechnology,FederalCommunicationsCommission.
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scientificknowledge,theFCCguidelineprovidesamorethanadequatemarginofsafetyagainstknownRFeffects.
2. Atthistimethereisnoclearevidencethatadditionalstandardsareneededtoprotectthepublicfromsmartmetersorothercommonhouseholdelectronicdevices.NeithertherelevantscientificliteraturenorourexpertconsultationssupportthatthereisacausalrelationshipbetweenRFemissionsandnon‐thermalhumanhealthimpacts.Nordoestherelevantevidenceconvincinglydescribemechanismsforsuchimpacts,althoughmoreresearchisneededtobetterunderstandandverifythesepotentialmechanisms.Giventheabsenceofevidencesupportingarealhazard,thebenefitsofelevatingexistingstandardsarehighlyspeculative.Further,thereisnotanexistingbasisfromwhichtounderstandwhattypesofstandardscouldbehelpfulorappropriate.Withoutaclearerunderstandingofthebiologicalmechanismsinvolvedidentifyingadditionalstandardsorevaluatingtherelativecostsandbenefitsofthosestandardscannotbedeterminedatthistime.
Giventheexistingsignificantscientificuncertaintyaroundnon‐thermaleffects,thereiscurrentlynogenerallyaccepteddefinitive,evidence‐basedindicationthatadditionalstandardsareneeded.Becauseofthelackofgenerallyacceptedevidence,thereisalsonotanexistingbasisfromwhichtounderstandwhattypesofstandardscouldbehelpfulorappropriate.Withoutaclearerunderstandingofthebiologicalmechanismsinvolvedidentifyingadditionalstandardsorevaluatingtherelativecostsandbenefitsofthosestandardscannotbedeterminedatthistime.
CCSTnotesthatinsomeofthestudiesreviewed,contributorshaveraisedemerging
questionsfromsomeinthemedicalandbiologicalfieldsaboutthepotentialforbiologicalimpactsotherthanthethermalimpactthattheFCCguidelinesaddress.AreportoftheNationalAcademiesidentifiesresearchneedsandgapsandrecommendedareasofresearchtobeundertakentofurtherunderstandingoflong‐termexposuretoRFemissionsfromcommunicationdevices,particularlyfromnon‐thermalmechanisms.2Inourincreasinglywirelesssociety,smartmetersaccountforaverysmallportionofRFemissionstowhichweareexposed.ConcernsabouthumanhealthimpactsofRFemissionsfromsmartmetersshouldbeconsideredinthisbroadercontext.
2NationalResearchCouncil(2008)IdentificationofResearchNeedsRelatingtoPotentialBiologicalorAdverseHealthEffectsofWirelessCommunication,TheNationalAcademiesPress,Washington,D.C.
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THESCIENTIFICMETHOD“Scientificallyestablished”,“generallyacceptedscientificknowledge”andothersuchreferencesthroughoutthisdocumentarereferencinginformationobtainedthroughthescientificmethod.Ascientificmethodconsistsofthecollectionofdatathroughobservationandexperimentation,andtheformulationandtestingofhypotheses.Thesestepsmustberepeatableinordertopredictfutureresults.Scientificinquiryisgenerallyintendedtobeasobjectiveaspossible,toreducebiasedinterpretationsofresults.Anotherbasicexpectationistodocument,archiveandsharealldataandmethodologysotheyareavailableforcarefulscrutinybyotherscientists,givingthemtheopportunitytoverifyresultsbyattemptingtoreproducethem.Thispractice,calledfulldisclosure,alsoallowsstatisticalmeasuresofthereliabilityofthesedatatobeestablished.INTERPRETINGTHESCIENTIFICLITERATUREInourreviewoftherelevantscientificevidence,weprivilegedthosestudiesthathadasmanyofthefollowingindiciaofscientificreliabilityaspossible:(1)Empiricaltesting;(2)Peerreviewandpublication;(3)Theuseofacceptedstandardsandcontrols;(4)Degreetowhichthefindingisgenerallyacceptedbyarelevantscientificcommunity.ThesecriteriaofscientificreliabilityarebroadlybasedonthestandardsofexperttestimonyandevidenceintheUSFederalCourts.
HealthconcernssurroundingRFfromsmartmetersaresimilartothosefrommanyotherdevicesthatweuseinourdailylives,includingcordlessandcellulartelephones,microwaveovens,wirelessrouters,hairdryers,andwireless‐enabledlaptopcomputers.Asdetailedinthereport,acomparisonofelectromagneticfrequenciesfromsmartmetersandotherdevicesshowsthattheexposurelevelisverylow.Standards of Proof or Certainty in Public Health Inthisreport,scientificevidenceistheprimaryconsideration.UponconsultingwiththeCaliforniaDepartmentofPublicHealth,itisnotedthatusingscientificevidencetoshapepublicpolicyisalwayschallenging.Thestandardsfordeclaringcertaintywithinascientificdiscipline,whicharebasedontheresultsofstatisticaltesting,maybeunrealisticorinappropriateformakingpublicpolicydecisions,particularlythosewithpotentialimpactsonpopulationhealth.Statisticaltestsusuallyrelyontheconventionofwhethertheresultsofagivenstudyaresufficienttorejectthenullhypothesisofnoeffect(i.e.,ofagivenexposure).Thisiseffectivelyastandardof95%certainty,analogoustothelegalstandardofproof“beyondareasonabledoubt.”Inpublichealth,fivefactorsaregenerallyconsideredwhenreviewingscientificevidenceforpolicydecisionsrelatedtospecifiedexposures:
1. Severityofpotentialeffect(s):e.g.,cancerorseriousbirthdefectswouldbeconsideredmoreseverethanskinirritation;
2. Numberofpeoplewithpotentialexposure;3. Levelsoflikelyandpossibleexposures;4. Degreeofcertaintyofthespecificeffect(s)atdifferentexposurelevels;certaintyjust
above50%mightbecharacterizedas“morelikelythannot.”5. Costtomitigatepotentialeffect(s),typicallyconsideredinlightoftheotherfactors.
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Policymakersconstantlyweighthesefactorsconsciouslyorunconsciouslyastheyinteractwithstakeholderstocraftgoodpublicpolicy.Inonesituation,theymightconsiderhigh‐costmitigationsforhigh‐severityeffectswithhigh‐certaintyevidence.Inanothersituationwithhigh‐severityeffectsand“morelikelythannot”certaintyofthoseeffects,theymightchooselow‐costmitigations.Thisreportdidnotextendbeyondthescientificevidencerealmwithwhichwewerechargedleavingthoseissuestothepolicymakerstowhomthisreporthasbeendelivered.WhatareSmartMeters?Smartmetersmeasureattributesofelectricity,naturalgas,orwaterasdeliveredtoconsumersandtransmitthatinformation(e.g.,usage)digitallytoutilitycompanies.Somesmartmetersarealsodesignedtotransmitreal‐timeinformationtotheconsumer.Thesesmartmetersreplacetraditional,analogmetersandmeterreaderswithanautomatedprocessthatisexpectedtoreduceoperatingcostsforutilities,andpotentially,costsforcustomers(seeFigure2).EachofCalifornia’smajorelectricityutilitieshasbegundeployingsmartmeterinfrastructure. a.AnalogMeter b.DigitalMeter
Figure2.a)Ananalog,conventionalmeteranda(b)digitalsmartmeter(Source:PG&E)
Therearemanykindsofsmartmetersmanufacturedbyavarietyofcompanies.Themeter,includingsensorsandthehousingorcasing,maybemanufacturedbyonecompanywhilethecommunicationsdevice(installedwithinthemeter)ismanufacturedbyanother.Dependingupontheinternalcommunicationsdeviceemployed,metersareconfiguredtooperateinawiredorinwirelessenvironment.ThesmartmetersusedbyPG&EaremadebyGeneralElectricandLandis+GyranduseawirelesscommunicationstechnologyfromSilverSpringNetworks.EachofthesePG&Emetershastwotransmitterstoprovidetwodifferentcommunicationsofdatafromthesemeters.3Thefirstprovidesforthe“automaticmeterreading”(AMR)function
3Tell,R.(2008)“SupplementalReportonAnAnalysisofRadiofrequencyFieldsAssociatedwithOperationofthePG&ESmartMeterProgramUpgradeSystem,”PreparedforPacificGas&ElectricCompany,RichardTellAssociates,Inc.,October27.
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ofthemeter(andformoredetailedandrealtimemonitoringofthecharacteristicsoftheelectricalenergydeliveredtotheconsumer)andsendsthisdatatoanaccesspoint,whereitiscollectedalongwithdatafrommanyothercustomersandtransmittedtoPG&Eusingawirelessareanetwork(WAN)(similartothewaycellphonecommunicationworks).
Figure3.SimplifieddepictionofSmartMetersystemnetwork.Arrowsshowtheuseofradiofrequency(RF)signalsforautomatedmeterreading,communicationsamongelectricpowermeters,relays,accesspoints,thecompany’senterprisemanagementsystems.Thefuturehomeaccessnetworkwilloperatewithinthehouse.
Smartmetershaveevolvedfromautomaticmeterreading(AMR;i.e.,replacingmeterreaders)toarealtimemonitoringofpowerasdeliveredtotheconsumerbytheutilitycompany.CCSTobtainedfromPG&EtheRichardTellAssociatesreport,whichdescribestheoperationofthesmartmeterfromthe2008perspectiveofAMR,notafullydeployedrealtimesmartgrid.TheRichardTellAssociatesreportsdescribetheuseofthesmartmeterradiosbeingdeployedbyPG&EaslicensedbytheFCCforamaximumpoweroutputof1W(watt)andwithinthe902‐928MHz(mega‐hertz)frequencyband.Initsinitialdeployment,PG&Ereportsthatitwillconfiguretheradiostotransmitdatafromthemetertotheaccesspointonceeveryfourhours,forabout50millisecondsatatime.4Accountingforthis,thecurrentdutycyclesofthesmartmetertransmitter(thatis,thepercentoftimethatthemeteroperates)wouldthentypicallybe1percent,orinsomecaseswherethemeterisfrequentlyusedasarelay,asmuchas2‐4percent.Thismeansthatthetypicalsmartmeterinthisinitial(AMR)usewouldnottransmitanyRFsignalatleast96‐98percentofthetime.
4Tell,R.(2008)“SupplementalReportonAnAnalysisofRadiofrequencyFieldsAssociatedwithOperationofthePG&ESmartMeterProgramUpgradeSystem,”PreparedforPacificGas&ElectricCompany,RichardTellAssociates,Inc.,October27.http://www.pge.com/includes/docs/pdfs/shared/edusafety/systemworks/rfsafety/rf_fields_supplemental_report_2008.pdf)
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Itisimportanttonotethatanyonesmartmeterispartofabroader“mesh”networkandmayactasarelayamongothersmartmetersandutilityaccesspoints.Inaddition,whenthesmartgridisfullyfunctionalthesmartmeterswouldbeexpectedtobetransmittingmuchmorethanonceeveryfourhours,providingdatainnearreal‐time,whichwillresultinamuchhigherdutycycle.Forpurposesofthisreportweincludeahypotheticalscenariowherethesmartmeteristransmitting50percentofthetime(i.e.,transmittinghalfthetimeandreceivinghalfthetime).Eveninthis50%dutycyclesituationthepoweroutputwouldbewellbelowtheFCClimits.Smartmetersaredesignedtotransmitdatatoautilityaccesspointthatisusually25feetaboveground,onutilityorlightpoles.Theseaccesspointsaredesignedtotransmitdatafromupto5,000smartmeterstotheutilitycompany.AccesspointshaveasimilarAMRtransmitterassmartmeters,aswellasanadditionalAirCard,whichcommunicateswithutilitiesandissimilartowirelesscardsusedinlaptopcomputers.AirCardstypicallyoperateat0.25‐1W,inthe800‐900MHzor1.9GHzrange.Insomecases,dataismovedthroughthemeshnetwork,relayingthedatathroughothermeterstotheutilityaccesspoint.Thismayoccurwhenthetopographyorbuiltenvironmentinterfereswiththetransmissionofdatafromasmartmetertotheaccesspoint.Inthesecases,therelayingofdatamayoccurbetweenonesmartmeterandanotherbeforethesignalissenttotheutilityaccesspoint(e.g.,hopsalongasetofmeters).Additionally,somenon‐meterdatarelayswillalsoexistinthesystemtoconnectsomesmartmeterstoutilityaccesspoints.Manysmartmeters,includingthosefromPG&E,alsohaveasecondtransmitterthat,atsomefuturepointintime,willallowcustomerstoenableahomeaccessnetwork(HAN).TheHANwillallowincreasedconsumermonitoringofelectricityuseandcommunicationamongappliancesandthefuturesmartgrid.Thisfunctionalityisimportanttoachievethefullpotentialofthesmartgrid.Thissecondinternaltransmitter,fordeliveryofsmartmeterdatatotheconsumer,reportedlywilloperateataratedpowerof0.223W,atfrequencyofabout2.4GHz(again,similartothatofcellphonesandwirelessphones).Theactualdutycycleofthistransmitterwilldependonthedesignandoperationofthehomeareanetwork.WhyareSmartMetersBeingInstalledThroughoutCalifornia?Itisanticipated,whenfullyoperational,thatsmartelectricitymetersareakeyenablingtechnologyfora“smartgrid”thatisexpectedtobecomeincreasinglyclean,efficient,reliable,andsafe(seeFigure3)atapotentiallowercosttotheconsumer.(Digitalmetersarealsobeingusedforreadingofnaturalgasandwaterconsumption).Smartelectricalmetersallowdirecttwo‐waycommunicationbetweenutilitiesandcustomers,whichisexpectedtohelpendusersadjusttheirdemandtopricechangesthatreflecttheconditionoftheelectricitygrid.Theseenduseradjustmentscanhelptoprotecttheoverallreliabilityoftheelectricitygrid,cutcostsforutilitycustomers,andimprovetheoperationandefficiencyoftheelectricitygrid.Thesmartgridwillenablegridoperatorstobetterbalanceelectricitysupplyanddemandinreal‐time,
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whichbecomesincreasinglyimportantasmoreintermittentwindandsolargenerationresourcesareaddedtothegrid.Figure4depictsthepotentialoperationofasmartgrid.
Figure4.IllustrationofcomponentsofthePG&ESmartMeterProgramUpgradeshowingtheuseofradiofrequency(RF)signalsforcommunicationsamongelectricpowermeters,relays,accesspointsand,
ultimately,thecompany’senterprisemanagementsystems.(SourceSilverSpringNetwork5)
Smartmeterswillalsoallowutilitiestocommunicategridconditionstocustomersthroughpricesignals,sothatconsumers,viatheirHAN,candelaynon‐timesensitivedemands(suchasclothesdrying)toatimewhenelectricityischeapestorhasthemostbenefittothereliabilityofthesystem.Insomecaseswirelesssignalsinteriortothestructurewillalsobeabletoautomaticallyadjusttheheatingandventilationsystemsandtoadjustheatorairconditioningunits.Thisadaptationtopriceorreliabilitysignalscouldreduceoverallelectricitycostsforcustomers,improvetheutilizationofrenewableandnon‐renewablepowerplants,andcutcostsassociatedwithaddingintermittentwindandsolarresourcestothegrid.
5Seehttp://www.silverspringnet.com/products/index.htmlforcomponentdescriptions.NetworkinfrastructureincludestheSilverSpringAccessPoints(APs)andRelaysthatforwarddatafromendpointsacrosstheutility’sbackhaulorWANinfrastructureintothebackoffice.TheUtilityIQapplicationsuiteincorporatesbothutilityapplicationssuchasAdvancedMeteringandOutageDetectionaswellasadministrativeprogramsformanagingandupgradingthenetwork.GridScapeprovidesmanagementforDAcommunicationsnetworks.TheCustomerIQwebportalenablesutilitiestodirectlycommunicateusage,pricing,andrecommendationstoconsumers.SilverSpringworkswitheachutilitytocustomizetheinformationportrayedandtoimportutility‐specificinformationsuchasrateschedules.
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Whilesuchlong‐termvalueofsmartmeterswilltakeyearstofullyrealize,theyaresufficientlypromisingthatthefederalgovernmenthasrequiredutilitiestotakestepstoimplementsmartgridnetworks,includingtheuseofsmartmeters.6AfterreviewandauthorizationfromtheCaliforniaPublicUtilitiesCommission,7utilitiesinCaliforniahavebeguntoinstallsmartmetersthroughoutthestate.SomeCaliforniautilities(suchasSacramentoMunicipalUtilityDistrict)havereceivedsignificantfederalfundingforsmartmeterdeploymentfromtheAmericanRecoveryandReinvestmentAct(federalstimuluspackage).Manycountriesaroundtheworldareactivelydeployingsmartmetersaswell.Digitalsmartmetersaregenerallyconsideredtobethefundamentaltechnologyrequiredtoenablewidespreadintegrationofinformationtechnology(IT)intothepowergrid(i.e.,thesmartgrid).Thefollowingtable(table1)summarizessomepotentialsocietalbenefitsexpectedtoresultfromthesmartgrid.
Table1:SmartGridBenefits
Consumers
1.CostSavingsResultingfromEnergyEfficiency2.IncreasedConsumerChoiceandConvenience3.MoreTransparent,Real‐TimeInformationand
ControlforConsumers
Environment
1.WidespreadDeploymentofRenewableEnergy(Solar,Wind,Biofuels)andElectricVehicles(EVs)
2.ReducedNeedtoBuildMoreFossilFueledPowerplants
3.ReducedCarbonFootprintandOtherPollutants(viaRenewables,EnergyEfficiency,ElectricVehicles)
Utilities
1.ReducedCostDuetoIncreasedEfficienciesinDeliveringElectricityandReductioninManpowertoReadMeters.
2.ImprovedReliabilityandMoreTimelyOutageResponse
3.IncreasedCustomerSatisfactionDuetoCostSavingsandSelf‐Control
Source:CaliforniaSmartGridCenter
Economy
1.CreatesNewMarketforGoodsandServices(i.e.,NewCompanies,NewJobs)
2.Up‐skillingWorkforcetobePreparedforNewJobs
3.ReducedDependenceonForeignOil,KeepsDollarsatHome
6ThefederalEnergyIndependenceandSecurityActof2007directsstatestoencourageutilitiestoinitiatesmartgridprograms,allowsrecoveryofsmartgridinvestmentsthroughutilityrates,andreimburses20%ofqualifyingsmartgridinvestments.TheAmericanRecoveryandReinvestmentActof2009provided$4.5billiontodevelopsmartgridinfrastructureintheU.S.Formoreinformation,see:CongressionalResearchService(2007)“EnergyIndependenceandSecurityActof2007:ASummaryofMajorProvisions,”CRSReportforCongress,OrderCodeRL34l294,December21.(http://energy.senate.gov/public/_files/RL342941.pdf)7CaliforniaPublicUtilitiesCommissiondecisiononApplication07‐12‐009(March12,2009).DecisiononPacificGasandElectricCompany’sProposedUpgradetotheSmartmeterProgram.
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WhatHealthConcernsareAssociatedwithSmartMeters?Humanhealthimpactsfromexposuretoelectromagneticfrequency(EMF)emissionsvarydependingonthefrequencyandpowerofthefields.SmartmetersoperateatlowpowerandintheRFportionoftheelectromagneticspectrum.Attheselevels,RFemissionsfromsmartmetersareunlikelytoproducethermaleffects;howeveritisnotscientificallyconfirmedwhetherorwhatthenon‐thermaleffectsonlivingorganisms,andpotentially,humanhealthmightbe.Thesesameconcernsoverpotentialimpactsshouldapplytoallotherelectronicdevicesthatoperatewithsimilarfrequencyandpowerlevels,includingcellphones,computers,cordlessphones,televisions,andwirelessrouters.Anydifferenceinhealthimpactsfromthesedevicesislikelytobearesultofdifferencesinusagepatternsamongthem.Thermal EffectsElectromagneticwavescarryenergy,andEMFabsorbedbythebodycanincreasethetemperatureofhumantissue.Thescientificconsensusisthatbodytemperaturesmustincreaseatleast1oCtoleadtopotentialbiologicalimpactsfromtheheat.Theonlyscientificallyverifiedeffectthathasbeenshowntooccurinthepowerandfrequencyrangethatsmartmetersaredesignedtooccupyisadisruptioninanimalfeedingbehavioratenergyexposurelevelsof4W/kgandwithanaccompanyingincreaseinbodytemperatureof1oCormore.8Theexposurelevelsfromsmartmetersevenatcloserangearefarbelowthisthreshold.TheFCChassetlimitsonpowerdensitiesfromelectronicdevicesthatarewellbelowthelevelwheredemonstratedbiologicalimpactsoccur,andthelimitsaretensorhundredsoftimeshigherthanlikelyexposurefromsmartmeters.9Non‐thermal Effects Thereareemergingquestionsinthemedicalandbiologicalfieldsaboutpotentialharmfuleffectscausedbynon‐thermalmechanismsofabsorbedRFemissions.Complaintsofhealthimpactsfrom“electromagneticstress”havebeenreported,withsymptomsincludingfatigue,headache,andirritability.SomestudieshavesuggestedthatRFabsorptionfrommobilephonesmaydisruptcommunicationbetweenhumancells,whichmayleadtoothernegativesimpactsonhumanbiology.10,11Whileconcernsofbraincancerassociatedwithmobilephoneusagepersist,thereiscurrentlynodefinitiveevidencelinkingcellphoneusagewithincreased
8D'Andrea,J.A.,Adair,E.R.,andJ.O.deLorge(2003)Behavioralandcognitiveeffectsofmicrowaveexposure,BioelectromagneticsSuppl6,S39‐62(2003).9Tell,R.(2008)“SupplementalReportonAnAnalysisofRadiofrequencyFieldsAssociatedwithOperationofthePG&ESmartMeterProgramUpgradeSystem,”PreparedforPacificGas&ElectricCompany,RichardTellAssociates,Inc.,October27.(http://www.pge.com/includes/docs/pdfs/shared/edusafety/systemworks/rfsafety/rf_fields_supplemental_report_2008.pdf)10Markova,E.,Malmgren,L.,andI.Y.Belyaev(2009)Microwavesfrommobilephonesinhibit53PB1focusformationinhumanstemcellsstrongerthanindifferentiatedcells:Possiblemechanisticlinktocancerrisk.EnvironmentalHealthPerspectives,doi:10.1289/ehp.0900781.11Nittby,H.,Grafstrom,G.,Eberhardt,J.L.,Malmgren,L.,Brun,A.,PerssonB.R.R.,andL.G.Salford(2008)RadiofrequencyandExtremelyLow‐FrequencyElectromagneticFieldEffectsontheBlood‐BrainBarrierElectromagneticBiologyandMedicine,27:103–126,2008.
16
incidenceofcancer.12Butduetotherecentnatureofthetechnology,impactsoflong‐termexposurearenotknown.Ongoingscientificstudyisbeingconductedtounderstandnon‐thermaleffectsfromlong‐termexposuretomobilephonesandsmartmeters,etc.,especiallythecumulativeimpactfromallRFemittingdevicesincludingthatofanetworkofsmartmetersoperatingthroughoutacommunity.13Therecurrentlyisnoconclusivescientificevidencepointingtoanon‐thermalcause‐and‐effectbetweenhumanexposuretoRFemissionsandnegativehealthimpacts.Forthisreason,regulatorsandpolicymakersmaybeprudenttocallformoreresearchwhilecontinuingtobaseacceptablehumanRFexposurelimitsoncurrentlyprovenscientificandengineeringfindingsonknownthermaleffects,ratherthanongeneralconcernsorspeculationaboutpossibleunknownandasyetunprovennon‐thermaleffects.Suchquestionswilllikelytakeconsiderabletimetoresolve.Thedatathatareavailablestronglysuggestthatiftherearenon‐thermaleffectsofRFabsorptiononhumanhealth,sucheffectsarenotsoprofoundastobeeasilydiscernable.FCCGuidelinesIn1985,theFCCfirstestablishedguidelinestolimithumanexposureandprotectagainstthermaleffectsofabsorbedRFemissions.TheguidelineswerebasedonthosefromtheAmericanNationalStandardsInstitute(ANSI)thatwereissuedin1982.14In1996,theFCCmodifieditsguidelines,15basedonarulemakingprocessthatbeganin1993inresponsetoa1992revisionoftheANSIguidelines16,17andfindingsbytheNationalCouncilonRadiationProtectionandMeasurements(NCRP).18The1996guidelinesarestillinplacetoday.
InitsrulemakingprocesstosetSARandMPElimits,theFCCreliedonmanyfederalhealthandsafetyagencies,includingtheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyandtheFoodandDrugAdministration.
12Ahlbom,A.,Feychting,M.,Green,A.,Kheifets,L.,Savitz,D.A.,andA.J.Swerdlow(2009)Epidemiologicevidenceonmobilephonesandtumorrisk:areview.Epidemiology20,639‐52(2009).13NationalResearchCouncil(2008)IdentificationofResearchNeedsRelatingtoPotentialBiologicalorAdverseHealthEffectsofWirelessCommunication,TheNationalAcademiesPress,Washington,D.C.(http://www.nap.edu/catalog/12036.html)14AmericanNationalStandardsInstitute(1982)“AmericanNationalStandardRadioFrequencyRadiationHazardWarningSymbol,”ANSIC95.2‐1982,InstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers,Inc.15FCC(1997)“EvaluatingCompliancewithFCCGuidelinesforHumanExposuretoRadiofrequencyElectromagneticFields,”OETBulletin65(Edition97‐01),FederalCommunicationsCommission,August.(http://www.fcc.gov/Bureaus/Engineering_Technology/Documents/bulletins/oet65/oet65.pdf)16AmericanNationalStandardsInstitute(1992)“SafetyLevelswithRespecttoHumanExposuretoRadioFrequencyElectromagneticFields,3kHzto300GHz,”ANSI/IEEEC95.1‐1992(previouslyissuedasIEEEC95.1‐1991),InstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers,Inc.17AmericanNationalStandardsInstitute(1992)“RecommendedPracticefortheMeasurementofPotentiallyHazardousElectromagneticFields–RFandMicrowave,”ANSI/IEEEC95.3‐1992,InstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers,Inc.18NCRP(1986)“BiologicalEffectsandExposureCriteriaforRadiofrequencyElectromagneticFields,”NCRPReportNo.86(1986),NationalCouncilonRadiationProtectionMeasurements.
17
WhiletheFCCguidelinesappeartoprovidealargefactorofsafetyagainstknownthermaleffectsofexposuretoradiofrequency,theydonotnecessarilyprotectagainstpotentialnon‐thermaleffects,nordotheyclaimto.19Withoutadditionalunderstandingoftheseeffects,thereisinadequatebasistodevelopadditionalguidelinesatthistime.TheFCCguidelinesmeasureexposuretoRFemissionsintwoways.Specificabsorptionrate(SAR)measurestherateofenergyabsorptionandismeasuredinunitsofwatts‐per‐kilogramofbodyweight(W/kg).Itaccountsforthethermaleffectsonhumanhealthassociatedwithheatingbodytissueandisusedasalimitingmeasurementforwirelessdevices,suchasmobilephones,thatareusedincloseproximitytohumantissue.20TheFCClimits,aswellastheunderlyingANSIandNCRPlimits,arebasedonaSARthresholdof4W/kg.AtthetimeoftheFCCrulemaking,andstilltoday,behavioraldisruptioninlaboratoryanimals(includingnon‐humanprimates)atthisabsorptionrateistheonlyadversehealthimpactthathasbeenclearlylinkedtoRFatlevelssimilartothoseemittedbysmartmeters.Thisfindingissupportedinscientificliterature21,22andbytheWorldHealthOrganizationandmanyhealthagenciesinEurope.23,24TheFCClimitof1.6W/kgprovidesasignificantfactorofsafetyagainstthisthreshold.LimitsonSARprovidethebasisforanothermeasurementofexposure,maximumpermissibleexposure(MPE).MPElimitsaverageexposureoveragiventimeperiod(usually30minutesforgeneralexposure)fromadeviceandisoftenusedforexposuretostationarydevicesandwherehumanexposureislikelytooccuratadistanceofmorethan20cm.Itismeasuredinmicro(10‐6)watts‐per‐square‐centimeter(μW/cm2),andaccountsforthefactthatthehumanbodyabsorbsenergymoreefficientlyatsomeradiofrequenciesthanothers.Thehumanbodyabsorbsenergymostefficientlyintherangeof30‐300MHz,andthecorrespondingMPElimitsforRFemissionsinthisrangeareconsequentlythemoststringent.Inthefrequencybandswheresmartmetersoperate,includingPG&E’s,namelythe902‐928MHzbandand2.4GHzrange,thehumanbodyabsorbsenergylessefficiently,andtheMPElimitsarelessrestrictive.
19TheU.S.EPAconfirmedthisinalettertoTheElectromagneticRadiationPolicyInstitute,datedMarch8,2002.(http://www.emrpolicy.org/litigation/case_law/docs/noi_epa_response.pdf)20FCC(2001)“AdditionalInformationforEvaluatingComplianceofMobileandPortableDeviceswithFCCLimitsforHumanExposuretoRadiofrequencyEmissions,”SupplementC(Edition01‐01)toOETBulletin65(Edition97‐01),FederalCommunicationsCommission,June.(http://www.fcc.gov/Bureaus/Engineering_Technology/Documents/bulletins/oet65/oet65c.pdf)21D'Andrea,J.A.,Adair,E.R.,andJ.O.deLorge(2003)Behavioralandcognitiveeffectsofmicrowaveexposure,BioelectromagneticsSuppl6,S39‐62(2003).22Sheppard,A.R,Swicord,M.L.,andQ.Balzano(2008)Quantitativeevaluationsofmechanismsofradiofrequencyinteractionswithbiologicalmoleculesandprocesses,HealthPhys95,365‐96(2008).23TheWorldHealthOrganizationhasreviewedinternationalguidelinesforlimitingradiofrequencyexposureandscientificstudiesrelatedtohumanhealthimpactsandconcludesthatexposurebelowguidelinelimitsdon’tappeartohavehealthconsequences.(http://www.who.int/peh‐emf/standards/en/)24CommitteeonManandRadiation(COMAR)(2009)“TechnicalInformationStatement:ExpertreviewsonpotentialhealtheffectsofradiofrequencyelectromagneticfieldsandcommentsonTheBioinitiativeReport,”HealthPhysics97(4):348‐356(2009).
18
TheFCClimitsonMPEaresummarizedinFigure5.25,26At902MHz,appropriateforoperationoftheAMRtransmitterofthesmartmeter;theFCClimitis601μW/cm2.Athigherfrequencies,thehumanbodyabsorbsevenlessenergy,andthethresholdforthe2.4GHztransmitterforhomeareanetworkcommunicationsisconsequentlyhigher,1000μW/cm2.PG&Ecommissioneda2008studybyRichardTellAssociates,“SupplementalReportonAnAnalysisofRadiofrequencyFieldsAssociatedwithOperationofthePG&ESmartMeterProgramUpgradeSystem.”InthisstudyofPG&E’sproposedsmartmeternetworkitisnotedthattheFCClimitsonMPEincludeafactorofsafety,andtheperceivedhazardousexposurelevelis50timeshigherthantheFCClimits.27Thestudyestimatesthatthehighestexposurefromsmartmeters,ifanindividualwerestandingdirectlyinfrontofandnexttothemeter,wouldbe8.8μW/cm2transmittingat2to4%ofthetime.Thestudynotesthatthisisalmost70timeslessthantheFCClimitand3,500timeslessthanthedemonstratedhazardlevel.Inalllikelihood,individualswillbemuchfartherawayfromsmartmetersandlikelybehindthem,(withinastructure)wherepowerdensitywillbemuchlower.Thehighestexposurefromtheentiresmartmetersystemwouldoccurimmediatelyadjacenttoanaccesspoint.Itisveryunlikelythatanindividualwouldbeimmediatelyadjacenttoanaccesspoint,astheyarenormallylocated25feetabovethegroundonatelephoneorelectricalpoleorotherstructure.Thepeakpowerdensityfromanaccesspointisestimatedtobe24.4μW/cm2,orabout25timeslessthantheFCClimit.Fromtheground,exposuretopowerdensityfromaccesspointsisestimatedtobe15,000timeslessthantheFCClimitingreatpartduetothedistancefromthedevice.ThePG&EcommissionedreportbyRichardTellAssociatesisbasedonlyonanAMRdutycycleoftransmittingdataonceeveryfourhourswhichresultsinthisverylowestimatedpeakpower.However,wearenotawareofthejustificationforusingaveragingoverafour‐hourperiod.WedoknowtheFCC28allowsaveragingofexposureoveradesignatedperiod(30minutes).Totrulybeasmartgridthedatawillbetransmittedatamuchmorefrequentratethanthis.Inthisreportwelookattheworst‐casescenario,ameterthatisstuckinthe“on”position,constantlyrelaying,ata100%dutycycle.Eveninthis100%scenariotheRFemissionswouldbemeasurablybelowtheFCClimitsforthermaleffects.
25FCC(1997)“EvaluatingCompliancewithFCCGuidelinesforHumanExposuretoRadiofrequencyElectromagneticFields,”OETBulletin65(Edition97‐01),FederalCommunicationsCommission,August.(http://www.fcc.gov/Bureaus/Engineering_Technology/Documents/bulletins/oet65/oet65.pdf)26FCC(1999)“QuestionsandAnswersaboutBiologicalEffectsandPotentialHazardsofRadiofrequencyElectromagneticFields,"OETBulletin56(FourthEdition),FederalCommunicationsCommission,August.(http://www.fcc.gov/Bureaus/Engineering_Technology/Documents/bulletins/oet56/oet56e4.pdf)27Tell,R.(2008)“SupplementalReportonAnAnalysisofRadiofrequencyFieldsAssociatedwithOperationofthePG&ESmartMeterProgramUpgradeSystem,”PreparedforPacificGas&ElectricCompany,RichardTellAssociates,Inc.,October27.(http://www.pge.com/includes/docs/pdfs/shared/edusafety/systemworks/rfsafety/rf_fields_supplemental_report_2008.pdf)28http://www.fcc.gov/Bureaus/Engineering_Technology/Documents/bulletins/oet56/oet56e4.pdf
19
PowerDensity(andExposureLevel)DeclinesRapidlywithDistanceThepowerdensityfromsmartmeters,orotherdevicesthatemitRF,fallsoffdramaticallywithdistance.Figure6illustratesthisaffectforanexamplesmartmeter.Whiletheestimatedmaximumexposurelevelat1footfromthemeterwithadutycycleof50%is180μW/cm2(farbelowtheFCCguidelines),atadistanceofabout10feet,thepower‐densityexposureapproacheszero.
Figure5.FCCmaximumpermissibleexposurelimitsonpowerdensityrisewithfrequencybecausethehumanbodycansafelyabsorbmoreenergyathigherfrequencies.Theestimatedmaximumexposurefroma1‐WattAMRtransmitterat5%dutycycle(i.e.,72minutes/day)andone‐footdistanceis18μW/cm2,or3%oftheFCClimit.Evenifametermalfunctionedandwasstuckinthealways‐ontransmitmode(i.e.,100%dutycycle),
exposurelevelswouldbe60%oftheFCClimitforanAMRtransmitter.Fora250mWHANtransmitterata5%dutycycle,thelevelwouldbe.45%oftheFCClimitand9%oftheFCClimitifthetransmitterwereon100%.
ExposurefiguresderivedfromFebruary2011ElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)fieldmeasurementstudyentitled“RadioFrequencyExposureLevelsfromSmartMeters:ACaseStudyofOneModel”.29
29EPRI(2011)“Radio‐FrequencyExposureLevelsfromSmartMeters:ACaseStudyofOneModel,”ElectricPowerResearchInstitute,February2011.
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Max. permissible exposure (MPE) (μW/cm
2)
Frequency (MHz)
FCCLimitFCCLimitFCCLimitFCCLimit
MaxexposurefromsmartmeterHANtransmiwerat5%dutycycle
100%ifalwayson
Ifon50%MaxexposurefromsmartmeterAMRtransmiwerat5%dutycycle
20
Figure6.Powerdensityfromasamplesmartmeterversusdistance;301‐Wattemitterat50%dutycycle.TypicalsmartmeterAMRtransmitterpowerdensitydeclinesrapidlywithdistance.Therapiddropofpowerdensity
withdistance(inverse‐squarelaw)issimilarforvariousdutycyclesanddifferentsetsofsourcedata.
ComparisonofElectromagneticFrequenciesfromSmartMetersandOtherDevicesHealthconcernssurroundingRFfromsmartmetersaresimilartothosefrommanyotherdevicesthatweuseinourdailylives,includingcordlessandmobiletelephones,microwaveovens,wirelessrouters,hairdryers,andwireless‐enabledlaptopcomputers.Inadditiontoslightdifferencesinfrequencyandpowerlevels,whichaffecthumanabsorptionofRFfromthesedevices,theprimarydifferenceamongthemishowtheyareused.Cellphones,forexample,areoftenusedformanyminutesatatime,severaltimesoverthecourseofaday,andhelddirectlynexttoone’shead.Forperspective,microwaveovensoperateatasimilarfrequencyastheHANtransmitterofsmartmeters(2.45GHz),andtheU.S.FoodandDrugAdministrationhassetlimitsonleakagelevelsthatarefivetimeshigher(5,000μW/cm2)thantheFCClimitforsmartmetersandother
30EPRI(20110)“Radio‐FrequencyExposureLevelsfromSmartMeters;ACaseStudyofOneModel,“”ElectricPowerResearchInstitute,February2011.
180
20 1.8 0.2 0.018
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
1 3 10 30 100
μW/cm
2
DistanceinFeet
21
devicesoperatingat2.4GHz.31WirelessroutersandWi‐Fiequipmentproduceradiofrequencyfieldsofabout0.2–1.0μW/cm2.32,33,34Peopleinmetropolitanareasareexposedtoradiofrequencyfromradioandtelevisionantennas,aswell,althoughformostofthepopulation,exposureisquitelow,around0.005μW/cm2.35
Figure7. Instantaneous RadioFrequencyPowerDensityLevelsofCommonDevices(inmicroWatts/cm2)Aboutthisfigure:ThisfigurewasdevelopedbytheCCSTprojectteam.Quantitiesfordifferentdistancescalculated
usingInverseSquareLaw.Assumesdistancesinfar‐field,wherepowerdensityreducesasthesquareofthedistancefromthesource.Smartmeterpowerscaledtoobtainoutputfor50%dutycycle.ThesourceforthevariousstartingmeasurementscamefromElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI),Radio‐FrequencyExposure
LevelsfromSmartMeters:ACaseStudyofOneModel(February2011)
31FDA,“SummaryoftheElectronicProductRadiationControlProvisionsoftheFederalFood,Drug,andCosmeticAct,”U.S.FoodandDrugAdministration.(http://www.fda.gov/Radiation‐EmittingProducts/ElectronicProductRadiationControlProgram/LawsandRegulations/ucm118156.htm)32EPRI(2011)“Radio‐FrequencyExposureLevelsfromSmartMeters;ACaseStudyofOneModel,“ElectricPowerResearchInstitute,February2011.33Foster,K.R.(2007)RadiofrequencyexposurefromwirelessLANSutilizingWI‐FFItechnology.HealthPhysics,Vol.92,No.3,March,pp.280‐282.34Schmidt,G.etal.(2007)ExposureofthegeneralpublicduetowirelessLANapplicationsinpublicPlaces,RadiationProtectionDosimetry,Vol.123,No.1,EpubJune11,pp.48‐52.35EPA(1986)TheRadiofrequencyRadiationEnvironment:EnvironmentalExposureLevelsandRFRadiationEmittingSources,EPA520/1‐85‐014,U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,July.
Minimum
Maximum 0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
1000
200 200 20 0.2 0.005
5000
800
200 20 1 1
22
Table2:Radio‐FrequencyLevelsfromVariousSources
Source Frequency ExposureLevel(mW/cm2)
Distance Time SpatialCharacteristic
Mobilephone 900MHz,1800MHz 1—5 Atear Duringcall HighlylocalizedMobilephonebasestation
900MHz,1800MHz 0.000005—0.002 10stoafewthousandfeet
Constant Relativelyuniform
Microwaveoven 2450MHz ~50.05‐0.2 2inches2feet Duringuse Localized,non‐uniform
Localareanetworks 2.4—5GHz 0.0002—0.0010.000005—0.0002
3feet Constantwhennearby
Localized,non‐uniform
Radio/TVbroadcast Widespectrum 0.001(highest1%ofpopulation)
0.000005(50%ofpopulation)
Farfromsource(inmostcases)
Constant Relativelyuniform
Smartmeter 900MHz,2400MHz 0.0001(250mW,1%dutycycle)
0.002(1W,5%dutycycle)
0.000009(250mW,1%dutycycle)0.0002(1W,5%
dutycycle)
3feet
10feet
Wheninproximityduringtransmission
Localized,non‐uniform
Source:ElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI),Radio‐FrequencyExposureLevelsfromSmartMeters:ACaseStudyofOneModel(February2011)
23
WhatisDutyCycleandHowDoesitRelatetoRFExposure?Dutycyclereferstothefractionoftimeadeviceistransmitting.Forinstance,adutycycleof1%meansthedevicetransmitsRFenergy1%ofagiventimeperiod.Onepercentofthetimeinadayisequivalentto14.4minutesperday.Thedutycycle,orsignaldurationisanoften‐overlookedfactorwhencomparingexposuresfromdifferentkindsofdevices(e.g.,mobilephones,Wi‐Firouters,smartmeters,microwaveovens,FMradio/TVbroadcastsignals).Dutycyclesofvariousdevicesvaryconsiderably.ThedutycycleofAM/FMradio/TVbroadcasts,are100%;inotherwords,theyaretransmittingcontinuously.Mobilephonesusagevarieswidelyfromusertouser,ofcourse.However,thenationalaverageuseisabout450minutespermonth.Thisusageequatestoa1%dutycycleforthe“average”user.FrominformationthatCCSTwasabletoobtainweunderstandthatthesmartmetertransmitterbeingusedbyPG&Eoperateswithamaximumpoweroutputof1W(watt)andwithinthe902‐928MHz(mega‐hertz)frequencyband.Eachsmartmeterispartofabroader“mesh”networkandmayactasarelaybetweenothersmartmetersandutilityaccesspoints.Thetransmitterateachsmartmeterwillbeidlesomeofthetime,withthepercentoftimeidle(nottransmitting)dependingontheamountandscheduleofdatatransmissionsmadefromeachmeter,therelayingofdatafromothermetersthatanindividualmeterdoes,andthenetworkingprotocol(algorithm)thatmanagescontrolanduseofthecommunicationspathsinthemeshnetwork.Theoreticallythetransmittimecouldincreasesubstantiallybeyondtoday’sactualoperationlevelifnewapplicationsandfunctionalityareaddedtothemeter’scommunicationmoduleinthefuture.Forahypotheticalillustration(i.e.,themetertransmitshalfthetimeandreceiveshalfthetime),anupperenddutycyclewouldbe50%,.ThetablebelowcomparestheeffectofdifferentdutycyclesagainsttheFCCguidelinesforhumanexposurelimits.
TypicalSmartMeterOperationWithRepeaterActivity
ScaledHypotheticalMaximumUseCase(i.e.,alwayson)
5%DutyCycle 50%DutyCycle
72minutes/day 12hours/day
3%ofFCClimit 30%ofFCClimitSourcedataonoperatingdutycycles(i.e.,firstcolumn)fromElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)actualfieldtestingofsmartmeters,asreportedinRadio‐FrequencyExposureLevelsfromSmartMeters:ACaseStudyofOneModel,February2011.Secondcolumnhypotheticalmaximumcasederivedthroughextrapolationoffirstcolumndata.Bothexposurelevelsat1‐footdistance.
Insummary,thedutycyclesofsmartmetersintypicalmeter‐readoperationandaddedmaximum‐caserepeateroperationresultinexposuresthatare3%oftheFCCexposureguidelines.Eveninahypotheticalextremeandunusualcaseofhalf‐transmitandhalf‐receivescenariothemaximumexposurewouldbeabout30%oftheFCClimit,whichprovidesawidesafetymarginfromknownthermaleffectsofRFemissions.
24
WhatAboutExposureLevelsfromaBankofMetersandfromJustBehindtheWallofaSingleMeter?InaFebruary2011studyElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)36fieldtestedexposurelevelsfromabankof10metersof250mWpowerlevelatonefootdistanceinordertosimulateabankofsmartmeterslocatedatamultifamilybuilding,suchasanapartmenthouse.Theexposurelevelwasequivalentto8%oftheFCCstandard.InthesamestudyEPRImeasuredexposureofonemeterfromeightinchesbehindthemeterpanelboxinordertosimulateproximityontheoppositesiteofthemeterwall.At5%dutycycleityieldedanexposureofonly0.03%oftheFCCstandard.Evenat100%dutycycle(i.e.,alwaystransmitting),exposureateightinchesbehindthemeterwas0.6%oftheFCClimit.IstheFCCStandardSufficienttoProtectPublicHealth?TheFCCguidelinesdoprovideasignificantfactorofsafetyagainstthermalimpactstheonlycurrentlyunderstoodhumanhealthimpactthatoccursatthepowerlevelandwithinthefrequencybandthatsmartmetersuse.Inadditiontothefactorofsafetybuiltintotheguidelines,atworst,humanexposuretoRFfromsmartmeterinfrastructureoperatingateven50%dutycyclewillbesignificantlylowerthantheguidelines.Whileadditionalstudyisneededtounderstandpotentialnon‐thermaleffectsofexposuretoRFandeffectsofcumulativeandprolongedexposuretoseveraldevicesemittingRF,givencurrentscientificknowledgetheFCCguidelineprovidesanadequatemarginofsafetyagainstknownRFeffects.AreAdditionalTechnology‐specificStandardsNeeded?FCCguidelinesprotectagainstthermaleffectsofRFexposure.Manynon‐thermaleffectshavebeensuggested,andadditionalresearchisneededtobetterunderstandandscientificallyvalidatethem.Giventhescientificuncertaintyaroundnon‐thermaleffectsofallRFemittingequipment,atthistimethereisnoclearindicationofwhat,ifany,additionalstandardsmightbeneeded.Neitheristhereabasisfromwhichtounderstandwhattypesofstandardscouldbehelpfulorappropriate.Withoutaclearunderstandingofthebiologicalmechanismsatplay,thecostsandbenefitsofadditionalstandardsforRFemittingdevicesincludingsmartmeters,cannotbedeterminedatthistime.
36 EPRI(2010)“Aperspectiveonradio‐frequencyexposureassociatedwithresidentialautomaticmeterreadingtechnology,”ElectricPowerResearchInstitute,February,2011.
25
PublicInformationandEducationItisimportantthatconsumershaveclearandeasilyunderstoodinformationaboutsmartmeteremissionsaswellasreadilyavailableaccesstoclear,factualinformationandeducationonknowneffectsofRFemissionsatvariousfieldstrengthsanddistancesfromanarrayofdevicescommonlyfoundinourworld.Equippedwiththisinformation,peoplecanmakeknowledgeablejudgmentsabouthowtoprudentlyminimizepossibleriskstothemselvesandtheirfamiliesbyutilizingstandards‐compliantdevicesatknownsafedistances.Also,peoplewillbebetterabletogaugerelativefieldstrengthsofvariousRFsourcesinoureverydayenvironment(e.g.,mobilephones,electricblankets,clockradios,TVandradio,computers,smartmeters,powerlines,microwaveovens,etc.).Anongoingregularlyupdatedsourceofunbiasedinformationonthestateofscientificresearch,bothprovenandas‐yet‐unprovencausaleffectsbeingstudied,ifpresentedbyanindependententity,wouldprovideconsumersacredibleandtransparentsourcefromwhichtoobtainfactsaboutRFinourenvironment.CCSTisnotcurrentlyawareofasinglewebsitewithup‐to‐dateconsumerinformationwhichweareabletoendorseasimpartial.AlternativestoWireless?AssemblyMemberHuffmanhasinquiredaboutpotentialalternativestowirelesscommunicationwithsmartmeters.Therearecurrentlyseveralothermethodsoftransmittingdatafromsomesmartmeterstotheutilitycompany.Thesemethodsincludetransmittingoverapowerlineorwiredthroughphonelines,fiber‐opticorcoaxialcable.Eachmethodhastradeoffsamongcostandperformance(e.g.,howmuchdatacanbecarried,howfar,howfast).Theabilitytohaveatransmissionprotocolalternativetowirelessdependsuponthetypeandconfigurationofthemeterused.Someexistingsmartmeterscanbehard‐wired,whileotherswouldhavetobemodifiedorreplaced.Thecommunicationsboardplugsintoadigitalmeter.ThecurrentPG&EmetersuseaSilverSpringcommunicationsboardthatonlysupportswirelessprotocol.SilverSpringoranothervendorcouldprovideanalternativecommunicationsmeansifsuchwerewarrantedandcosteffective.Therelatedcostsofanalternativeapproachwouldneedtobefactoredintothedecisionmakingprocessrelatedtodifferentoptions.IffutureresearchweretoestablishacausalrelationshipbetweenRFemissionsandnegativehumanhealthimpacts,industriesandgovernmentsworldwidemaybefacedwithdifficultchoicesaboutpracticalalternativestoavoidandmitigatesucheffects.Thiswouldgreatlyaffectthewidespreaduseofmobilephones,cordlessphones,Wi‐Fidevices,smartmeters,walkie‐talkies,microwaveovens,andmanyothereverydayappliancesanddevicesemittingRF.Ifsuchahypotheticalscenarioweretooccur,smartmeterscouldconceivablybeadaptedtonon‐wirelesstransmissionofdata.However,retrofittingmillionsofsmartmeterswithhard‐wiredtechnologycouldbedifficultandcostly.Perhapsmoreimportantly,retrofittingsmart
26
meterswouldnotaddressthesignificantlygreaterchallengepresentedbythebillionsofmobilephonesinuseglobally.KeyFactorstoConsiderWhenEvaluatingExposuretoRadiofrequencyfromSmartMeters1.SignalFrequency Comparetodevicesinthe
900MHzbandand2.4GHzbandFrequencysimilartomobilephones,Wi‐Fi,laptopcomputers,walkie‐talkies,babymonitors,microwaveovens
2.SignalStrength(orPowerDensity)
Microwatts/squarecentimeter(µW/cm2)
Metersignalstrengthverysmallcomparedtootherdeviceslistedabove
3.DistancefromSignal Signalstrengthdropsrapidly(doublingdistancecutspowerdensitybyfour)
Example:1ft.–8.8µW/cm23ft.–1.0µW/cm210ft.–0.1µW/cm2
4.SignalDuration ‐Extremelyshortamountoftime(2.0‐5.0%,max.)
‐NoRFsignal95‐98%ofthetime(over23hours/day)
‐Oftenoverlookedfactorwhencomparingdevices.
‐Shortdurationcombinedwithweaksignalstrengthyieldstinyexposures
5.ThermalEffects ‐ScientificconsensusonproveneffectsfromheatathighRFlevels
‐FCC“margin‐of‐safety”limits50timeslowerthanhazardousexposurelevel
‐Typicalmeteroperatesat70timeslessthanFCClimitand3,500timeslessthanthedemonstratedhazardlevel
6.Non‐thermalEffects ‐Inconclusiveresearchtodate‐Noestablishedcause‐and‐effectpointingtonegativehealthimpacts
Continuingresearchneeded
27
ConclusionTheCCSTProjectTeam,aftercarefullyreviewingtheavailableliteratureonthecurrentstateofscienceonhealthimpactsofradiofrequencyfromsmartmetersandinputfromawidearrayofsubjectmatterexperts,concludesthat:
1. TheFCCstandardprovidesacurrentlyacceptedfactorofsafetyagainstknownthermallyinducedhealthimpactsofsmartmetersandotherelectronicdevicesinthesamerangeofRFemissions.Exposurelevelsfromsmartmetersarewellbelowthethresholdsforsucheffects.
2. Thereisnoevidencethatadditionalstandardsareneededtoprotectthepublicfrom
smartmeters.ThetopicofpotentialhealthimpactsfromRFexposureingeneral,includingthesmallRFexposurelevelsofsmartmeters,continuestobeofconcern.Thisreporthasbeendevelopedtoprovidereadersandconsumerswithfactual,relevantinformationaboutthe:
• ScientificbasisunderpinningcurrentRFlimits• NeedforfurtherresearchintoRFeffects• RelativenatureofRFemissionsfromawidearrayofdevicescommonlyusedthroughout
world(e.g.,cellularandcordlessphones,Wi‐Fidevices,laptopcomputers,babymonitors,microwaveovens).
CCSTencouragestheongoingdevelopmentofunbiasedsourcesofreadilyavailableandclearfactsforpublicinformationandeducation.Aweb‐basedrepositoryofwrittenreports,frequentlyaskedquestionsandanswers,graphics,andvideodemonstrationswouldprovideconsumerswithfactual,relevantinformationwithwhichtobetterunderstandRFeffectsinourenvironment.
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AppendixB–ProjectProcessCCSTSmartMeterProjectApproachAssemblyMemberHuffman(Marin)(July30,2010letter)andAssemblyMemberMonning(SantaCruz)(September17,2010letter)requestedCCST’sassistanceindeterminingiftherearehealthsafetyissuesregardingthenewSMARTmetersbeinginstalledbytheutilities.Inaddition,theCityofMillValleysentalettertoCCST(September,2010)insupportofMr.Huffman’srequest.(AppendixA‐letters)TheCCSTExecutiveCommitteeappointedaSmartMeterProjectTeamthatoversawthedevelopmentofaresponseontheissue(AppendixC):
• RollinRichmond(Chair),PresidentHumboldtStateUniversity,CSU• JaneLong,AssociateDirectoratLarge,GlobalSecurityDirectorateFellow,Center
forGlobalSecurityResearchLawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratory• EmirMacari,DeanofEngineeringandComputerScience,CaliforniaState
University,SacramentoandDirectoroftheCaliforniaSmartGridCenter• PatrickMantey,Director,CITRIS@SantaCruz• RyanMcCarthy,2009CCSTScienceandTechnologyPolicyFellow• LarryPapay,CEO,PQR,LLC,mgmtconsultingfirm• DavidWinickoff,AssistantProfessorofBioethicsandSociety,Departmentof
EnvironmentalScience,PolicyandManagement,UCBerkeley• PaulWright,Director,UCCenterforInformationTechnologyResearchinthe
InterestofSociety(CITRIS)Inadditiontothoseontheprojectteam,CCSTapproachedovertwodozentechnicalexpertstocontributetheiropiniontoinformCCST’sresponse.TheexpertswerereferredfromavarietyofsourcesandwerevettedbytheSmartMeterProjectTeam.Effortsweremadetoincludebothbiologicalandphysicalscientistsandengineerstohelpprovidebroadcontextandperspectivetotheresponse.Manyoftheexpertsapproachedindicatedtheydidnottimetoprovideawrittenresponsehowevertheyprovidedreferencestoadditionalexpertsand/orliteratureforreview.Afewexpertsidentifiedwerenotaskedtocontributeduetoaffiliationsthatwerefelttobeaconflictofinterest.Expertswereaskedtoprovidewrittencommentontwoissues,toprovidereferraltootherexperts,andtosuggestliteraturethatshouldbereviewed.AppendixDprovidesalistofthoseexpertswhoprovidedwrittencomment.SmartMeterProjectTeammembersandtheexpertsprovidingwrittentechnicalinputcompletedaconflictofinterestdisclosureformtorevealanyactivitiesthatcouldcreatethepotentialperceptionofaconflict.Inadditiontowrittenandoralinputfromtechnicalexperts,CCSTidentifiedrelevantreportsandothersourcesofinformationtoinformthefinalreport.ThismaterialcanbefoundlistedinAppendixEandonaCCSTwebsite:http://ccst.us/projects/smart/.
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PeerReview:AfterthedraftreportwasvettedingreatdetailbytheSmartMeterProjectTeam,itwasforwardedtotheCCSTBoardandCouncilforpeerreview.PublicComment:CommentsontheJanuary2011draftofthisreportweresolicitedfromthepublic.ThereportwaspostedtotheCCSTwebsitetoallowthegeneralpublictoeasilycomment.Manyverythoughtfulandinformedcommentswerereceived.Allpubliccommentswerereviewedandtakenintoconsiderationasthisfinalreportwascompleted.
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AppendixC–ProjectTeamTheCaliforniaCouncilonScienceandTechnologyadherestothehigheststandardstoprovideindependent,objective,andrespectedwork.BoardandCouncilMembersreviewallworkthatbearsCCST’sname.Inaddition,CCSTseekspeerreviewfromexternaltechnicalexperts.Therequestforrigorouspeerreviewresultsinaprotocolthatensuresthespecificissuebeingaddressedisdonesoinatargetedwaywithresultsthatareclearandsound.Inall,thisreportreflectstheinputandexpertiseofnearly30peopleinadditiontotheprojectteam.Reviewersincludeexpertsfromacademia,industry,nationallaboratories,andnon‐profitorganizations.Wewishtoextendoursincereappreciationtotheprojectteammemberswhohavehelpedproducethisreport.Theirexpertiseanddiligencehasbeeninvaluable,bothinrigorouslyhoningtheaccuracyandfocusoftheworkandinensuringthattheperspectivesoftheirrespectiveareasofexpertiseandinstitutionsweretakenintoaccount.Withouttheinsightfulfeedbackthattheseexpertsgenerouslyprovided,thisreportcouldnothavebeencompleted.RollinRichmond,SmartMeterProjectChair,CCSTBoardMemberPresidentHumboldtStateUniversity,CSU
PriortoRichmond’sappointmentatHumboldtStateUniversityin2002,hehadadistinguishedcareerasafacultymember,researcherinevolutionarybiologyandacademicadministrator.RichmondreceivedaPh.D.ingeneticsfromtheRockefellerUniversityandabachelor’sdegreeinzoologyfromSanDiegoStateUniversity.Dr.Richmond’scareerhasincluded:ChairpersonofbiologyatIndianaUniversity,foundingDeanoftheCollegeofArtsandSciencesattheUniversityofSouthFlorida,ProvostattheStateUniversityofNewYorkatStonyBrook,andProvostandProfessorofZoologyandGeneticsatIowaStateUniversity.HewasnamedthesixthPresidentofHumboldtStateUniversityinJulyof2002.Dr.RichmondisafellowoftheAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScienceandamemberofPhiBetaKappa.Hisresearchinterestsareinevolutionarygenetics.
JaneLong,CCST’sCalifornia’sEnergyFutureProjectCo‐ChairandCCSTSr.FellowAssociateDirectoratLarge,GlobalSecurityDirectorateFellow,CenterforGlobalSecurityResearchLawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratory
Dr.LongisthePrincipalAssociateDirectoratLargeforLawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratoryworkingonenergyandclimate.SheisalsoaFellowintheLLNLCenterforGlobalStrategicResearch.Hercurrentinterestsareinreinventionoftheenergysysteminlightofclimatechange,nationalsecurityissues,economicstress,andecologicalbreakdown.Sheholdsabachelor'sdegreeinengineeringfromBrownUniversityandMastersandPh.D.fromUCBerkeley.
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PatrickManteyDirector,UCCenterforInformationTechnologyResearchintheInterestofSociety(CITRIS)@SantaCruz,UniversityofCalifornia,SantaCruz
ManteyholdstheJackBaskinChairinComputerEngineeringandwasthefoundingDeanoftheJackBaskinSchoolofEngineering.HeisnowthedirectorofCITRISatUCSantaCruzandofITI,theInformationTechnologiesInstituteintheBaskinSchoolofEngineering.In1984,hejoinedtheUCSCfacultytostarttheengineeringprograms,comingfromIBMwherehewasaseniormanageratIBMAlmadenResearch.Hisresearchinterestsincludesystemarchitecture,design,andperformance,simulationandmodelingofcomplexsystems,computernetworksandmultimedia,real‐timedataacquisition,andcontrolsystems.ManteyisaFellowoftheInstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers.HiscurrentprojectsatCITRISincludetheResidentialLoadMonitoringProjectandworkonpowerdistributionsystemmonitoringandreliability.ManteyreceivedhisB.S.(magnacumlaude)fromtheUniversityofNotreDame,hisM.S.fromtheUniversityofWisconsin‐Madison,andhisPh.D.fromStanfordUniversity,allinelectricalengineering.HeisaFellowoftheInstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers(IEEE).
EmirJoséMacariDeanofEngineeringandComputerScience,CaliforniaStateUniversity,SacramentoandDirectoroftheCaliforniaSmartGridCenter
PriortohisappointmentasdeanatCSUSacramento,MacariwasdeanoftheCollegeofScience,MathematicsandTechnologyattheUniversityofTexasatBrownsville.Priortothat,heservedastheprogramdirectorfortheCentersofResearchExcellenceinScienceandTechnologyattheNationalScienceFoundation.HespentfiveyearsastheChairandBinghamC.StewartDistinguishedProfessorintheDepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineeringatLouisianaStateUniversity.AttheGeorgiaInstituteofTechnologyhetaughtbothengineeringandpublicpolicyandattheUniversityofPuertoRicohewasaprofessoranddirectorofCivilInfrastructureResearchCenter.HehasalsoworkedasacivilengineerinprivateindustryandhasbeenafellowatNASA.Macariholdsbothadoctorateandamaster’sdegreeincivilengineeringgeomechanicsfromtheUniversityofColorado.Hehasabachelor’sdegreeincivilengineeringgeomechanicsfromVirginiaTechUniversity.
LarryPapayCCSTBoardMemberCEO,PQR,LLC,mgmtconsultingfirm
PapayiscurrentlyCEOandPrincipalofPQR,LLC,amanagementconsultingfirmspecializinginmanagerial,financial,andtechnicalstrategiesforavarietyofclientsinelectricpowerandotherenergyareas.HispreviouspositionsincludeSectorVicePresidentfortheIntegratedSolutionsSector,SAIC;SeniorVicePresidentandGeneralManagerofBechtelTechnology&Consulting;andSenior
37
VicePresidentatSouthernCaliforniaEdison.PapayreceivedaB.S.inPhysicsfromFordhamUniversity,aM.S.inNuclearEngineeringfromMIT,andaSc.D.inNuclearEngineeringfromMIT.HeisamemberoftheNationalAcademyofEngineeringandservedonitsBoardofCouncilorsfrom2004‐2010.HeservedasCCSTCouncilChairfrom2005through2008,afterwhichhewasappointedtotheBoard.
DavidEWinickoffAssociateProfessorofBioethicsandSociety,DepartmentofEnvironmentalScience,PolicyandManagement,UCBerkeley
DavidWinickoff(JD,MA)isAssociateProfessorofBioethicsandSocietyatUCBerkeley,whereheco‐directstheUCBerkeleyScience,TechnologyandSocietyCenter.TrainedatYale,HarvardLawSchool,andCambridgeUniversity,hehaspublishedover30articlesinleadingbioethics,biomedical,legalandsciencestudiesjournalssuchasTheNewEnglandJournalofMedicine,theYaleJournalofInternationalLaw,andScience,Technology&HumanValues.Hisacademicandpolicyworkspanstopicsofbiotechnology,intellectualproperty,geo‐engineering,risk‐basedregulation,andhumansubjectsresearch.
PaulWrightDirector,UCCenterforInformationTechnologyResearchintheInterestofSociety(CITRIS)
AsDirectorofCITRISWrightoverseesprojectsonlargesocietalproblemssuchasenergyandtheenvironment;ITforhealthcare;andintelligentinfrastructuressuchas:publicsafety,watermanagementandsustainability.Wrightisaprofessorinthemechanicalengineeringdepartment,andholdstheA.MartinBerlinChair.Heisalsoaco‐directoroftheBerkeleyManufacturingInstitute(BMI)andco‐directoroftheBerkeleyWirelessResearchCenter(BWRC).BorninLondon,heobtainedhisdegreesfromtheUniversityofBirmingham,EnglandandcametotheUnitedStatesin1979followingappointmentsattheUniversityofAuckland,NewZealandandCambridgeUniversityEngland.HeisalsoamemberoftheNationalAcademyofEngineering.
RyanMcCarthyScienceandTechnologyPolicyFellow,CaliforniaCouncilonScienceandTechnology
McCarthyrecentlycompletedtheCCSTScienceandTechnologyPolicyFellowshipintheofficeofCaliforniaAssemblyMemberWilmerAminaCarter,whereheadvisedonissuesassociatedwithenergy,utilities,andtheenvironment,amongothers.McCarthyholdsamasteranddoctoratedegreeincivilandenvironmentalengineeringfromUCDavis,andabachelor’sdegreeinstructuralengineeringfromUCSanDiego.Hisexpertiseliesintransportationandenergysystemsanalysis,specificallyregardingtheelectricitygridinCaliforniaandimpactsofelectricvehiclesonenergyuseandemissionsinthestate.
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AppendixD–WrittenSubmissionAuthorsWrittenInputReceivedfrom:PhysicalSciences/EngineersKennethFoster,Professor,DepartmentofBioengineering,UniversityofPennsylvaniaRobKavet,Physiologist/Engineer,ElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)Biologists/medicalDe‐KunLi,MD,Ph.D.,SeniorReproductiveandPerinatalEpidemiologist,Divisionof
Research,KaiserFoundationResearchInstitute,KaiserPermanenteAsherSheppard,Ph.D.,AsherSheppardConsulting,trainedinphysics,environmental
medicine,andneuroscienceMagdaHavas,B.Sc.,Ph.D.,Environmental&ResourceStudies,TrentUniversity,
Peterborough,CanadaCindySage,MA,DepartmentofOncology,UniversityHospital,Orebro,SwedenandCo‐
Editor,BioInitiativeReport
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AppendixE–AdditionalMaterialsConsultedAllsourcescanbeaccessedthroughtheCCSTwebsiteathttp://www.ccst.usAmericanAcademyofPediatrics
• TheSensitivityofChildrentoElectromagneticFieldsAmericanAcademyofPediatrics(August3,2005)
AustralianRadiationProtectionandNuclearSafetyAgency(ARPANSA)• www.arpansa.gov.auAustralianRadiationProtectionandNuclearSafetyAgency
(ARPANSA)• RadiationProtection‐CommitteeonElectromagneticEnergyPublicHealthIssues
(FactSheet)AustralianRadiationProtectionandNuclearSafetyAgency(ARPANSA)(May2010)
• RadiationProtection‐MobileTelephonesandHealthEffectsAustralianRadiationProtectionandNuclearSafetyAgency(ARPANSA)(June25,2010)
Bushberg,Jerrold–WrittenSubmission• BackgroundontheThermalvs.Non‐thermalExposureandHealthIssue
JerroldBushberg
DocumentsFromtheCaliforniaDepartmentofPublicHealth(CDPH)• CorrespondenceProvidedbyRickKreutzer,CaliforniaDepartmentofHealth
RickKreutzer,CaliforniaDepartmentofPublicHealth(March10,2011)• MixedSignalsAboutCellphones'HealthRisksHangUpResearch
TheChronicle(September26,2010)• SummaryoftheLiterature:WhatdoweKnowAboutCellPhonesandHealth?
(July20,2010)• BrainTumorRiskinRelationtoMobileTelephoneUse:Resultsofthe
INTERPHONEInternationalCase‐ControlStudyOxfordUniversityPress(March8,2010)
• MobilePhonesandHealthU.K.DepartmentofHealth
• LateLessonsfromEarlyWarnings:TowardsRealismandPrecautionwithEMF?DavidGee,EuropeanEnvironmentAgency,(January30,2009)
• StatementofFinnishRadiationandNuclearSafetyAuthority(STUK)ConcerningMobilePhonesandHealthRadiationandNuclearSafetyAuthority‐STUK(January7,2009)
• FactSheet:ChildrenandSafeCellPhoneUseTorontoPublicHealth(July2008)
• ChildrenandMobilephones:TheHealthoftheFollowingGenerationsinDangerRussianNationalCommitteeonNon‐IonizingRadiationProtection(April14,2008)
• AFSSEStatementonMobilePhonesandHealthFrenchEnvironmentalHealthandSafetyAgency‐AFSSE(April16,2003)
40
CommitteeonManandRadiation(COMAR)• IEEEEngineeringinMedicineandBiologySocietyCommitteeonManand
Radiation(COMAR)• COMARTechnicalInformationStatementtheIEEEExposureLimitsfor
RadiofrequencyandMicrowaveEnergyIEEEEngineeringinMedicineandBiologyMagazine(April2005)
CommonwealthClubofCalifornia• CommonwealthClubofCalifornia‐TheHealthEffectsofElectromagneticFields
(Video)(November18,2010)
ElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)• emf.epri.comEMF/RFProgramatEPRI• Radio‐FrequencyExposureLevelsfromSmartMeters:ACaseStudyofOneModel
ElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)(February2011)FinalReport• Radio‐FrequencyExposureLevelsfromSmartMetersDraft
ElectricPowerResearchInstitute(November2010)DraftReport‐accessedviatheInternetDecember2010
• PerspectiveonRadio‐FrequencyExposureAssociatedWithResidentialAutomaticMeterReadingTechnologyElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)(February22,2010)
• TestingandPerformanceAssessmentforFieldApplicationsofAdvancedMetersElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)(December4,2009)
• OverviewofPersonalRadioFrequencyCommunicationTechnologiesElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)(September9,2008)
• CharacterizingandQuantifyingtheSocietalBenefitsAttributabletoSmartMeteringInvestmentsElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)(July2008)
• MeteringTechnologyElectricPowerResearchInstitute(June20,2008)
• TheBioInitiativeWorkingGroupReportElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)(November23,2007)
• AnOverviewofCommonSourcesofEnvironmentalLevelsofRadioFrequencyFieldsElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)(September2002)
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency• UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency'sResponsetoJanetNewton
(March8,2002)• UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency'sResponsetoJo‐AnneBasile
(September16,2002)
Epidemiology• PrenatalandPostnatalExposuretoCellPhoneUseandBehavioralProblemsin
ChildrenEpidemiologyJuly2008‐Volume19‐Issue4‐pp523‐529
41
EuropeanJournalofOncology‐RamazziniInstitute• Non‐ThermalEffectsandMechanismsofInteractionbetweenElectromagnetic
FieldsandLivingMatter(2010)
FederalCommunicationsCommission• RadioFrequencySafetyFAQ's• RFSafetyPage• StatementProvidedbyRobertWellerRegardingFCCRegulations
RobertD.Weller,Chief,TechnicalAnalysisBranch,OfficeofEngineeringandTechnology,FederalCommunicationsCommission(February3,2011)
• FederalCommunicationsCommissionResponsetoCindySage(August6,2010)
• FCCCertificationso FCCCertificationfortheSilverSpringNetworksDevices‐September28,
2009o FCCCertificationfortheSilverSpringNetworksDevices‐September28,
2009o FCCCertificationfortheSilverSpringNetworksDevices‐September4,
2007o FCCCertificationfortheSilverSpringNetworksDevices‐July6,2007
• QuestionsandAnswersaboutBiologicalEffectsandPotentialHazardsofRadiofrequencyElectromagneticFieldsFederalCommunicationsCommissionOfficeofEngineering&Technology(August1999)
• EvaluatingCompliancewithFCCGuidelinesforHumanExposuretoRadiofrequencyElectromagneticFieldsFederalCommunicationsCommissionOfficeofEngineering&Technology(August1997)
FoodandDrugAdministration• NoEvidenceLinkingCellPhoneUsetoRiskofBrainTumors
U.S.FoodandDrugAdministration(May2010)
HealthProtectionAgency• Wi‐Fi
HealthProtectionAgency(Lastreviewed:October26,2009)• CordlessTelephones‐DigitalEnhancedCordlessTelecommunications(DECT)and
otherCordlessPhonesHealthProtectionAgency(Lastreviewed:September4,2008)
InternationalCommissiononNon‐IonizingRadiationProtection(ICNIRP)• www.icnirp.deInternationalCommissiononNon‐IonizingRadiationProtection
(ICNIRP)• InternationalCommissiononNon‐IonizingRadiationProtection(ICNIRP)onthe
InterphonePublication
42
InternationalCommissiononNon‐IonizingRadiationProtection(May18,2010)• ICNIRPStatementonthe"GuidelinesforLimitingExposuretoTime‐Varying
Electric,Magnetic,andElectromagneticFields(upto300GHz)"InternationalCommissiononNon‐IonizingRadiationProtection(September2009)
• EpidemiologicEvidenceonMobilePhonesandTumorRiskInternationalCommissiononNon‐IonizingRadiationProtection(September2009)
• ExposuretoHighFrequencyElectromagneticFields,BiologicalEffectsandHealthConsequences(100kHz‐300GHz)InternationalCommissiononNon‐IonizingRadiationProtection(2009)
NationalAcademiesPress• IdentificationofResearchNeedsRelatingtoPotentialBiologicalorAdverseHealth
EffectsofWirelessCommunicationNationalAcademiesPress(2008)
• AnAssessmentofPotentialHealthEffectsfromExposuretoPAVEPAWSLow‐LevelPhased‐ArrayRadiofrequencyEnergy(9.9MBPDF)NationalAcademiesPress(2005)
NationalCancerInstitute• CellPhonesandCancerRisk(FactSheet)
NationalCancerInstitute• CellPhonesandBrainCancer:WhatWeKnow(andDon'tKnow)
NationalCancerInstitute(September23,2008)
NationalInstituteofEnvironmentalHealthSciences• ElectricandMagneticFields
NationalInstituteofEnvironmentalHealthSciences
Neutra,Raymond–MaterialsSubmitted• www.ehib.org/emfTheCaliforniaElectricandMagneticFields(EMF)Program• ShouldtheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)ApplythePrecautionaryPrincipalto
LowandHighFrequencyElectromagneticFields?RaymondRichardNeutra
PG&E• UnderstandingRadioFrequency(RF)
PG&E• SupplementalReportonAnAnalysisofRadiofrequencyFieldsAssociatedwith
OperationofPG&ESmartMeterProgramUpgradeSystemRichardA.Tell,RichardTellAssociates,Inc.(October27,2008)
• SmartGrid:UtilityChallengesinthe21stCentury(7.4MBPDF)AndrewTang,SmartEnergyWeb,PacificGasandElectricCompany(September18,2009)
• SummaryDiscussionofRFFieldsandthePG&ESmartMeterSystemRichardA.Tell,RichardTellAssociates,Inc.(2005Reportand2008SupplementalReport)
• AnalysisofRFFieldsAssociatedwithOperationofPG&EAutomaticMeter
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ReadingSystemsRichardA.Tell,RichardTellAssociates,Inc.andJ.MichaelSilva,P.E.EnertechConsultants(April5,2005)
SocietyforRiskAnalysis• RiskGovernanceforMobilePhones,PowerLinesandOtherEMFTechnologies
SocietyforRiskAnalysis(2010)
SwedishStateRadiationProtectionAuthority(SSI)• TheNordicRadiationSafetyAuthoritiesSeenoNeedtoReducePublicExposure
GeneratedbyMobileBasStationsandWirelessNetworksSwedishStateRadiationProtectionAuthority(SSI)(2009)
UniversityofOttawa• WirelessCommunicationandHealth‐ElectromagneticEnergyand
RadiofrequencyRadiationFAQ'sUniversityofOttawa,RFcom
WorldHealthOrganization• DatabaseofWorldwideEMFStandards• WHO‐ElectromagneticFields• ElectromagneticFieldsandPublicHealth‐BaseStationsandWirelessNetworks
(FactSheetN°304)WorldHealthOrganization(May2006)
• ElectromagneticFieldsandPublicHealth‐ElectromagneticHypersensitivity(FactSheetN°296)WorldHealthOrganization(December2005)
• ElectromagneticFieldsandPublicHealth‐Mobilephones(FactSheetN°193)WorldHealthOrganization(May2010)
UnsolicitedSubmissionsDocumentsProvidedbyAlexanderBlink,ExecutiveDirectoroftheDE‐ToxicsInstitute,FairfaxCA
o PointsandSourcesSubmittedforConsiderationbyAlexanderBlink2o PointsandSourcesSubmittedforConsiderationbyAlexanderBlink1o PublicHealthImplicationsofWirelessTechnologies,CindySageo MemoryandBehavior,ByHenryLai,BioelectromagneticsResearch
Laboratory,UniversityofWashingtonSageConsulting
o AssessmentofRadiofrequencyMicrowaveRadiationEmissionsfromSmartMetersSageAssociates(January2011)
o CindySageLettertoJuliusKnapp(FCC)(September22,2010)
o ResponseLettertoCindySagefromJuliusKnapp(FCC)(August6,2010)
o CindySageLettertoEdwinD.Mantiply(FCC)
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(March15,2010)o BioinitiativeReport:ARationalforaBiologically‐basedPublicExposure
StandardforElectromagneticFields(ELFandRF)(3.1MBPDF)o BioinitiativeReport:WhatistheBioInitiativeReport?o BioinitiativeReport:MyocardialFunctionImprovedbyElectromagnetic
FieldInductionofStressProteinhsp70(1.1MBPDF)o BioinitiativeReport:TheInterphoneBrainTumorStudy(1.6MBPDF)
CindySage,EditorialPerspectiveo BioinitiativeReport:StepstotheClinicwithELFEMF(1.0MBPDF)o MobilePhoneBaseStations‐EffectsonWellbeingandHealth
Pathophysiology(August2009)o IncreasedBlood‐BrainBarrierPermeabilityinMammalianBrain7Days
afterExposuretotheRadiationfromaGSM‐900MobilePhonePathophysiology(August2009)
o PublicHealthImplicationsofWirelessTechnologiesPathophysiology(August2009)
o GenotoxicEffectsofRadiofrequencyElectromagneticFieldsPathophysiology(August2009)
o EpidemiologicalEvidenceforanAssociationBetweenUseofWirelessPhonesandTumorDiseasesPathophysiology(August2009)
o PublicHealthRisksfromWirelessTechnologies:TheCriticalNeedforBiologically‐basedPublicExposureStandardsforElectromagneticFields(2.9MBPDF)BioInitiativeBriefingforPresident‐ElectObamaTransitionTeam
o TheBioInitiativeReport:ARationaleforABiologically‐basedPublicExposureStandardforElectromagneticFields(ELFandRF)(3.6MBPDF)CindySagePowerPointPresentation(November2007)
Wilner&Associateso SmartMetersandExistingElectromagneticPollution
Wilner&Associates(January2011)‐ThisreportwasnotcommissionedbyCCST
o ApplicationforModificationBeforetheCaliforniaPublicUtilitiesCommission(3.5MBPDF)
OtherDocuments• HealthCanadaSafetyCode6andCityofToronto'sProposedPrudentAvoidance
Policy(2010)
• TransmittingSmartMetersPoseASeriousThreatToPublicHealth(2010)
• RFSafetyandWiMaxFAQ's:AddressingConcernsAboutPerceivedHealthEffects(April2008)
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RelevantWebsites• EMF‐Portal
• emfacts.com
• emfsafetynetwork.org
• lbagroup.com
• NIOSHProgramPortfolioCentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention(CDC)
• RadioFrequencyRFSafetyandAntennaFAQs
• SmartGridInformationClearinghouse(SGIC)
• stopsmartmeters.org
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AppendixF–GlossaryAccesspoint‐AtermtypicallyusedtodescribeanelectronicdevicethatprovidesforwirelessconnectivityviaaWANtotheInternetoraparticularcomputerfacility.Dutycycle–AmeasureofthepercentageorfractionoftimethatanRFdeviceisinoperation.Adutycycleof100%correspondstocontinuousoperation(e.g.,24hours/day).Adutycycleof1%correspondstoatransmitteroperatingonaverage1%ofthetime(e.g.,14.4minutes/day).Electromagneticfield(EMF)‐Acompositionofbothanelectricfieldandamagneticfieldthatarerelatedinafixedwaythatcanconveyelectromagneticenergy.Antennasproduceelectromagneticfieldswhentheyareusedtotransmitsignals.Far‐field‐Adistancewhichextendsfromabouttwowavelengthsdistancefromtheantennatoinfinity,istheregioninwhichthefieldactsas"normal"electromagneticradiation.Thepowerofthisradiationdecreasesasthesquareofdistancefromtheantenna.Bycontrast,thenear‐field,whichisinsideaboutonewavelengthdistancefromtheantenna,isaregioninwhichthereareeffectsfromthecurrentsandchargesintheantenna,whichdonotbehavelikefar‐fieldradiation.Theseeffectsdecreaseinpowerfarmorequicklywithdistance,thandoesthefar‐fieldradiationpower. FederalCommunicationsCommission(FCC)‐TheFederalCommunicationsCommission(FCC)isanindependentagencyoftheUSFederalGovernmentandisdirectlyresponsibletoCongress.TheFCCwasestablishedbytheCommunicationsActof1934andischargedwithregulatinginterstateandinternationalcommunicationsbyradio,television,wire,satellite,andcable.TheFCCalsoallocatesbandsoffrequenciesfornon‐governmentcommunicationsservices(theNTIAallocatesgovernmentfrequencies).TheguidelinesforhumanexposuretoradiofrequencyelectromagneticfieldsassetbytheFCCarecontainedintheOfficeofEngineeringandTechnology(OET)Bulletin65,Edition97‐01(August1997).AdditionalinformationiscontainedinOETBulletin65SupplementA(radioandtelevisionbroadcaststations),SupplementB(amateurradiostations),andSupplementC(mobileandportabledevices).Gigahertz(GHz)‐OnebillionHertz,oronebillioncyclespersecond,ameasureoffrequency.Hertz‐Theunitforexpressingfrequency,oneHertz(Hz)equalsonecyclepersecond.Maximumpermissibleexposure(MPE)limit.AnexposurelimitorguidelineforRFenergyexposurepublishedbyarecognizedconsensusstandardsorganization.Megahertz(MHz)‐OnemillionHertz,oronemillioncyclespersecond,aunitforexpressingfrequency.
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Meshnetwork‐Anetworkprovidingameansforroutingdata,voiceandinstructionsbetweennodes.Ameshnetworkallowsforcontinuousconnectionsandreconfigurationaroundbrokenorblockeddatapathsby“hopping”fromnodetonodeuntilthedestinationisreached.Milliwattpersquarecentimeter(mW/cm2)‐Ameasureofthepowerdensityflowingthroughanareaofspace,onethousandth(10‐3)ofawattpassingthroughasquarecentimeter.Microwattpersquarecentimeter(µW/cm2)‐Ameasureofthepowerdensityflowingthroughanareaofspace,onemillionth(10‐6)ofawattpassingthroughasquarecentimeter.Radiofrequency(RF)‐TheRFspectrumisformallydefinedintermsoffrequencyasextendingfrom0to3000GHz,thefrequencyrangeofinterestis3kHzto300GHz.Repeaterunit‐Adevicethatcansimultaneouslyreceivearadiosignalandretransmitthesignal.Repeaterunitsareusedtoextendtherangeoflowpowertransmittersinageographicalarea.Router‐Anelectroniccomputerdevicethatisusedtorouteandforwardinformation,typicallybetweenvariouscomputerswithinalocalareanetworkorbetweendifferentlocalareanetworks.Smartmeter‐Adigitaldeviceformeasuringconsumption,suchasforelectricityandnaturalgas,andsendingthemeasurementtoautilitycompany.Automatedmeterreading(AMR)meterssendinformationone‐wayonly.Automatedmeterinfrastructure(AMI)metersarecapableoftwo‐waycommunications.
Specificabsorptionrate(SAR)‐Theincrementalenergyabsorbedbyamassofagivendensity.SARisexpressedinunitsofwattsperkilogram(ormilliwattspergram,mW/g).Transmitter‐AnelectronicdevicethatproducesRFenergythatcanbetransmittedbyanantenna.ThetransmittedenergyistypicallyreferredtoaradiosignalorRFfield.Wideareanetwork(WAN)‐Acomputernetworkthatcoversabroadareasuchasawholecommunity,town,orcity.Commonly,WANsareimplementedviaawirelessconnectionusingradiosignals.High‐speedInternetconnectionscanbeprovidedtocustomersbywirelessWANs.Wi‐Fi‐Annamegiventothewirelesstechnologyusedinhomenetworks,mobilephones,andotherwirelesselectronicdevicesthatemploytheIEEE802.11technologies(astandardthatdefinesspecificcharacteristicsofwirelesslocalareanetworks).
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AppendixG–CCST2011BOARDMEMBERS
KarlS.Pister,Board Chair;ChancellorEmeritus,UCSantaCruz;andDeanandRoyW.CarlsonProfessorofEngineeringEmeritus,UCBerkeley
BruceM.Alberts,Professor,DepartmentofBiochemistry&Biophysics,UCSanFrancisco
AnnArvin,ViceProvostandDeanofResearch,LucileSalterPackardProfessorofPediatricsandProfessorofMicrobiologyandImmunology,StanfordUniversity
WarrenJ.Baker,Emeritus,President,CaliforniaPolytechnicStateUniversity,SanLuisObispo
PeterCowhey,CouncilVice‐ChairandDean,SchoolofInternationalRelationsandPacificStudies,UCSanDiego
BruceB.Darling,ExecutiveVicePresident,UniversityofCalifornia
SusanHackwood,ExecutiveDirector,CaliforniaCouncilonScienceandTechnology
RandolphHall,ViceProvostforResearchAdvancement,UniversityofSouthernCalifornia
CharlesE.Harper,ExecutiveChairman,SierraMonolithics,Inc.
MiriamE.John,CouncilChairandEmeritusVicePresident,SandiaNationalLaboratories,California
MoryGharib,ViceProvost,CaliforniaInstituteofTechnology
BruceMargon,ViceChancellorofResearch,UniversityofCalifornia,SantaCruz
TinaNova,President,CEO,andDirector,Genoptix,Inc.
LawrenceT.Papay,CEOandPrincipal,PQR,LLC
PatrickPerry,ViceChancellorofTechnology,ResearchandInformationSystems,CaliforniaCommunityColleges
RollinRichmond,President,HumboldtStateUniversity
SamTraina,ViceChancellorofResearch,UniversityofCalifornia,Merced
49
AppendixH–CCST2011COUNCILMEMBERS
MiriamE.John,Council ChairandEmeritusVicePresident,SandiaNationalLaboratories,California
PeterCowhey,Council Vice ChairandDean,SchoolofInternationalRelationsandPacificStudies,UCSanDiego
WandaAustin,PresidentandCEO,TheAerospaceCorporation
JulianBetts,ProfessorofEconomics,UCSanDiego
GeorgeBlumenthal,Chancellor,UCSantaCruz
SusanBryant,FormerViceChancellorforResearch,UCIrvine
CharlesElachi,Director,JetPropulsionLaboratory
DavidGollaher,PresidentandCEO,CaliforniaHealthcareInstitute
CoreyGoodman,FormerPresident,BiotherapeuticsandBioinnovationCenter,Pfizer
M.R.C.Greenwood,President,TheUniversityofHawai’iSystem
SusanHackwood,ExecutiveDirector,CaliforniaCouncilonScienceandTechnology
BryanHannegan,VicePresidentofEnvironmentandRenewables,ElectricPowerResearchInstitute
Sung‐Mo“Steve”Kang,Chancellor,UniversityofCalifornia,Merced
CharlesKennedy,VicePresidentforHealthInformationTechnology,WellPoint,Inc.
JudeLaspa,DeputyChiefOperatingOfficer,BechtelGroup,Inc.
WilliamMadia,FormerSeniorExecutiveVicePresidentofLaboratoryOperations,Battelle
DavidW.Martin,Jr.,M.D.,Chairman&CEO,AvidBioticsCorporation
FariborzMaseeh,FounderandManagingPrincipal,PicocoLLC
GeorgeH.Miller,Director,LawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratory
MichaelNacht,Dean,GoldmanSchoolofPublicPolicy,UCBerkeley
StephenD.Rockwood,ExecutiveVicePresident,ScienceApplicationsInternationalCorporation
JeffreyRudolph,PresidentandCEO,CaliforniaScienceCenter
ShankarSastry,Dean,CollegeofEngineering,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley
SorooshSorooshian,DistinguishedProfessorandDirector,CenterforHydrometeorology&RemoteSensing(CHRS),UCIrvine
JamesL.Sweeney,Director,PrecourtInstituteforEnergyEfficiency,andProfessorofManagementScienceandEngineering,StanfordUniversity
S.PeteWorden,Director,NASAAmesResearchCenter
JulieMeierWright,PresidentandCEO,SanDiegoEconomicDevelopmentCorporation
KathyYelick,Director,NationalEnergyResearchScientificComputingCenter(NERSC),LawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory
50
AppendixI–ReportCreditsCCSTSmartMetersProjectTeam:RollinRichmond(Chair),PresidentHumboldtStateUniversity,CSUJaneLong,AssociateDirectoratLarge,GlobalSecurityDirectorateFellow,Centerfor
GlobalSecurityResearchLawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratoryEmirMacari,DeanofEngineeringandComputerScience,CaliforniaStateUniversity,SacramentoandDirectoroftheCaliforniaSmartGridCenterPatrickMantey,Director,CITRIS@SantaCruzRyanMcCarthy,2009CCSTScienceandTechnologyPolicyFellowLarryPapay,CEO,PQR,LLC,mgmtconsultingfirmDavidWinickoff,AssistantProfessorofBioethicsandSociety,Departmentof
EnvironmentalScience,PolicyandManagement,UCBerkeleyPaulWright,Director,UCCenterforInformationTechnologyResearchintheInterestof
Society(CITRIS)WithAdditionalAssistanceFrom:JDStack,Administrator,CaliforniaSmartGridCenter,CollegeofEngineeringand
ComputerScience,CaliforniaStateUniversity,SacramentoCCSTExecutiveDirector:SusanHackwoodProjectManager:LoraLeeMartin,Director,S&TPolicyFellowsCCSTStaff:DonnaKing,ExecutiveAssistantandAccountantSandraVargas‐DeLaTorre,ProgramCoordinator,LayoutandDesign
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