Hamlet as a Religious Allegory

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HAMLETASARELIGIOUSPARODY

IntroductionThereisarenewedinterestinidentifyingtheuseofJewishsources,suchastheMishnah,theTalmudandtheZohar,intheShakespeareanplays,asevidencedbyMichaelPosner’srecentarticleonthissubjectintheSpring2010issueofReformJudaismmagazine.TheexistenceofsuchJewish‐sourcedmaterialintheplaysopensthepossibilitythattheMarranoJewishpoetAmeliaBassanoLanier(1569‐1645),identifiedbyA.L.Rowseastheso‐called‘DarkLadyoftheSonnets’,wasahithertounrecognizedcollaboratorontheseplays,inadditiontothehalfdozenrecognizedmalecollaborators.ItispossibletoassessthescopeofthatcollaborationbyexaminingtheallegoricalparodiesofChristianitythattheplayscontain.Thesehavebeenrecognized,inanadhocfashion,inworkonindividualplaysbyscholarssuchasPatriciaParkerandSteveSohmer.BytakingtheexampleofHamlet,Iwilldemonstratethattheseparodiesarenotincidental,butareessentialtotheentirestructureoftheplay.GiventhatneitherWilliamShakespeare,asacovertCatholic,noranyoftheotherknowncollaboratorswouldhavehadanymotivationforcreatingananti‐Christianparody–andthatFletcher,Wilkins,MassingerandMiddleton,whoweretheknowncollaboratorsofthe1600s,didnotincludesuchparodiesintheirownindependentwritings–itthereforefollowsthatwemustseekanadditionalco‐authorwiththerightmotivations.AsaMarranoJew,AmeliaBassanoisjustsuchapotentialco‐author.Shepublishedherown1800lineparodyofthegospel,SalveDeusRexJudaeorum(1611),whichhasbeenrecognizedbyfeministscholarslikeSchnellandGuibboryasasatiricalchallengetoChristiandoctrinessuchasoriginalsin,andtheneedforaredeemer.Assuch,BassanowouldhavebeeninapositiontocontributetheHebrewandJewishknowledgefoundintheplays,aswellastheiranti‐Christianallegories.Furthermorethereisamassofcircumstantialevidence:shecamefromafamilyinvolvedintheatricalproductions,herfirstcousinwasthelutenistRobertJohnsonwhowrotemostofthemusicthatsurvivesfortheplays,andforadecadeshewasmistresstoLordHunsdon,whonotonlywasLordChamberlainresponsibleforregulatingthewholeoftheEnglishtheatre,butwasalsoPatronoftheCompanythatfrom1594performedtheShakespeareanplays.Ifthiscontentioniscorrect,theextensivenessoftheallegoricalparodiesinHamletsuggeststhatherroleasaco‐authorwassubstantialandincludedtheoverallplaydesign,thedeepstructure,andthemanagementofthecompositiontofulfilltheallegoricaltemplate.Moreover,giventhatsimilarallegoriescanbeidentifiedacrossthemajorityoftheplays,itislikelythatshewasresponsibleforallofthem‐‐inwhichcaseherrole,unlikethatofothercollaborators,spannedtheentireperiodduringwhichtheplayswerewritten.

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TheuseofallegoryAllegoryisusedinliteraturetocommunicatehiddenmeanings—somethingnotedbyElizabethI’scousin,SirJohnHarington.AndattheElizabethanCourt,solvingallegoricalpuzzleswasamajorpastime.OfcourseallegoryhasamuchlongerhistoricalprovenancethanElizabethanEngland.ItwasusedbothinclassicalGreeceandintheHebrewBibleandwasalsousedinthemysteryplays.SotheuseofallegorywasawellestablishedliterarytropeinEnglishliteraturebythetimeoftheShakespeareanplays.IndeedithadrecentlybeenusedinanunusuallyblatantfashioninTheFairieQueen.Norhastheuseofallegoryandpersonifiedcharacters–indeed,Christianallegory–intheShakespeareanplaysgoneunnoticed.Forinstance,PatriciaParkerhasshownthatPyramusandThisbeinAMidsummerNight’sDreamareacomicallegoryofJesusandtheChurchinaparodyoftheApocalypsewhichallgoeswrong.SteveSohmeridentifiedJuliusCaesarascontainingan“impiousparody”,inwhichthehistoricaldetailsofCaesar’sdeathareturnedintoacomicparodyofthedeathofChrist.SimilarlyheidentifiedOthello’sallegoricalsub‐plotascontainingaparodyoftheVirginMary(Desdemona),presumablypregnant,beingsmotheredinrevengebyanallegoricaljealousJoseph(Othello)onthenightbeforeEaster,therebyechoingthebodyofJesusinthetombwithitsfacecoveredbyahandkerchief.Covertanti‐ChristiancommentarywashardlyforeigntotheEnglishstage.TherewasmuchPuritanoppositiontostageplaysbecauseofthedeepPuritandiscomfortwiththestage,andplayslikeNicholasUdall’sJackJugglercontainvarioussatiricalasidesaboutChristiandoctrine.Butnoneoftheserepresentsystematictheologicalcritiques.Bycontrast,theShakespeareanallegoriesarebothsystematicandextensive.Thelasttimetheyreceivedmuchsystematicattentionwasinthe1930s.ProminentscholarssuchasG.WilsonKnighttriedtoshowhowthe3,000religiousreferencesintheplayscreatedaconsistentChristologicalallegory,buttheyfailed.Itisnowclearwhy.TheallegoriesdonotreflectconventionalChristiandoctrine,andscholarsnearlyacenturyagowerethereforenotwellsituatedtoapprehendthemwithintheconstraintsoftheirworldview.Theyare,rather,aparodyofChristiandoctrine,andappeartobewrittenfromanon‐ChristianandpossiblyaJewishtheologicalperspective.

PARTONE:HAMLETASANALLEGORYOFTHEBOOKOFREVELATIONTheLiterarySourcesForHamletIntheidentificationofsources,thispaperfollowsafewscholarslikeR.GLatham,JohnCorbinandCharltonM.Lewis‐‐‐mostlywritingattheturnofthe20thcentury‐‐‐byassumingthattheGermanDerBestrafteBrudermordistheUr‐Hamlet,andisaversionofThomasKyd’sEnglishplay.Writtenoriginallyaround1580,thishassurvivedonlyinGerman,whichwasretranslatedbackintoEnglishasFratricidePunished.DrawingonhistoriessuchasthoseofSaxo‐GrammaticusandBelleforest,itissetinDenmark,andbeginswithalongpseudo‐classicalintroduction.Thentheplayproperbeginswithtwosoldierswaiting,aghost,andtheentranceofHamlet,whodiscussestheghostwiththe

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men.ThentheGertrudecharacterentersanddissuadesHamletfromgoingtoWittenberg,andthePoloniuscharactersaysthathissonhasalreadygonetoFrance.HethenreturnstoannouncethatHamletismad,andOpheliaenterstocomplainHamletistroublingher.Thentheactorsarrive,Hamletmakesafewratherpedestrianremarksaboutacting,andaskstoseetheirplayaboutkingPyrrhus,whichisaboutpouringpoisonintoabrother’sear,andsoon.Theplaycontainsnoallegoriesandnoreligiousreferences.ThesecondimportantsourceisalongallegoricalreligiouspoemAFigforFortune(1596)writtenbyaRomanCatholic,AnthonyCowley.Ithas3sectionsaboutthehero,Elizan,asortofElizabethaneveryman.Inthesethreesections,

• theghostfromhellandthegoddessofrevengeurgeElizantomurderandrevenge;

• thereisagraveyardsceneinwhichthehermitequippedwithaskullfullofwormsandthepictureofagraveurgesElizantostopbeingabeastandfollowChristandletgoofhisimpiousmelancholy;

• thereisasceneclearlybasedontheBookofRevelation,inwhichthehermitleadsElizantotheheavenlyJerusalem,thetempleofSion,wheretheforcesofJerusalemovercometheWhoreofBabylon.

Hamletborrowslanguageandideasfromthispoem,particularlyinthegraveyardscene‐‐‐butturnsthemupsidedown.SoHamletmeetsagravediggerwiththeskulls,butinsteadofgivinguphismelancholyandfollowingChrist,hedoesexactlytheopposite.Asweshallsee,insteadofceasingtobeabeast,HamletgoesonandbecomesoneofthebeastsofApocalypse from theBookofRevelation.ThethirdmajorsourceforHamlet,firstidentifiedbyLindaHoff,istheBookofRevelationitself.ThisisthelastbookoftheChristianBibleanddescribestheApocalypseorDoomsday,themostsacredeventinChristiantheologybecauseitdescribesthesecondcomingofChrist,atwhichtimehewillinaugurateamessianicage.Revelationdescribesagreatbattlebetweentheforcesofevil(thebeastandthewhoreofBabylon,thebeastfromthesea,theAnti‐Christandthekingofthepit),allofwhomareopposedagainsttheforcesofGodledbyChristandtheWomancrownedwiththesun.TheforcesofChristianitywinintheendandanewheavenlyJerusalemdescendsfromthesky.Structurally,theBookofRevelationisconstructeduponathemeofsevens:seventrumpets,sevenletterstosevenchurches,sevenseals,sevenjudgmentsandsevenbowlspouringoutplague.Forinstance,theseventrumpetsaresoundedacrosschapters8‐11ofRevelation.Trumpet1isassociatedwithhail,fireandbrimstone.Trumpet2withagreatmountainandfirefallingintothesea.Trumpet3withastarcalledWormwood.Trumpet4witheclipsesanddarknessofthesun,moonandstars.Trumpet5isassociatedwiththeabyss,andlocustslikehorses.Trumpet6isassociatedwithagreatriver.Finallytrumpet7isassociatedwiththunder,andunleashessevenbowlsofGod'swrathwhicharepouredoutbysevenangels.

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Hamlet’sStructuralResemblancetotheBookofRevelationPerhapsthemoststartlingthingaboutHamletisthatitfeaturesasimilarcatalogueofsevenstotheBookofRevelation.Revelationhassevenangels.SodoesHamlet.Revelationhasseventrumpetblasts,sodoesHamlet.Revelationhassevenletters,sodoesHamlet.ThenHamletgoesonandcreatesitsowncatalogueofsevensongs,sevensoliloquiesandtheprophesiedseven‐folddeathsthataccompanytheslaughterofCain.

• 7trumpetsThetrumpetblastsare1,2,1,1,2,128;1,4,7;2,2,364;3,2,89;3,2,133;5,1,220.

• 7AngelsappearinHamlet“Solust,thoughtoaradiantangellinked,”,“likeanangel,in

apprehensionhowlikeagod”,“Ofhabitsdevil,isangelyetinthis”,“Aministeringangelshallmysister“,“Artmoreengaged!Help,angels!Makeassay”,“Andflightsofangelssingtheetothyrest!”,“angelsandministersofgracedefendus!”

• 7LettersClaudius’lettertoEngland,Norway'slettertoClaudiusdeliveredbyVoltemand,andHamlet'sfiveletterstoOphelia,Horatio(4.6.8‐28),Gertrude(4,7.36),Claudius(4.6.20and4.7.36‐46)andtotheKingofEngland(5.2.31‐35).

• 7Soliloquies'Othatthistoosulliedfleshwouldmelt'(1.2);'Oallyouhostofheaven'

(1.5;'OwhatarogueandpeasantslaveamI!'(2.2);'Tobe,ornottobe,thatisthequestion'(3.1);'Tisnowtheverywitchingtimeofnight'(3.3):'Andsoagoestoheaven'(3.3):'Howalloccasionsdoinformagainstme'(4.4).

• 7Songswhicharesunginsnatches.WhyLettheStruckenDeer(3.2)Hobbyhorse(3.2),BonnySweetRobin(4.5),TomorrowisStValentine’sDay(4.5),Walsingham(4.5)AndWillHenotComeAgain(4.5),Iloathethatdidlove(5.1).

• 7foldDeathsforthedeathofCain/Claudius(Genesis4:15statesthattherewillbesevendeathsifCainiskilled,andinadditiontoCain/Claudiusthereare7corpses).

TheChiasticdesignTheliterarystructureofHamletisveryunusual.InElizabethanEnglandchiasmusasaliteraryform,wasused,evenbywriterslikeSpenser,inanunsophisticatedway.FrancisBaconandtheEarlofOxfordforinstance,merelyusedsimplechiasticstructurestakenfromtheclassicalrhetoricaltradition.YetJanBlitshasshownthattheentiretyofHamletiscomposedusingahighlycomplexchiasticringstructure.Itiswrittenasaseriesoflinkedrings,withinternalsymmetrywithineachscene,aswellasoverallsymmetrybetweenscenes.Forinstance,thethirdscene,inwhichwemeetOphelia,isbalancedbythethirdscenefromlast,inwhichshedies.ThefifthscenetellsofHamletbeingdrivenmadforOphelia’slove;inthefifthscenefromtheend,Opheliasingsmadlyoflove.ThesearejusttwoexamplesofanextensivechiasticstructurethatresemblesthatfoundinBiblicalliteraturesuchastheBookofRevelation.

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TheForcesofHeavenandHellinHamletButitisnotonlyaspectsofthestructureoftheplaythatfollowRevelation.Thecharactersdoaswell.AsLindaHoffhasshown,theplaywrighthastransformedthecharactersfromKyd’sUr‐HamletintoallegoriesforthecharactersfromBookofRevelation.Thecharactersaredividedintotwodifferentfamilies,onegoodandtheotherevil.Letslook,first,attheforcesofChristianitywhoformthefirstTriad.ThisisthefamilyofPolonius.

• Ophelia,isbothanallegoryfortheVirginMaryandalsoforMary’sequivalentintheBookofRevelation,theWomancrownedwiththesun.WorkbyChrisHasselhasshownthatthewaythatOpheliaisinterruptedwhilesewingandreadingisaparodyoftheannunciationtotheVirginMary.ThereferencestopregnancyandmaggotsinadeaddogareallusionstomedievaltheologyabouthowMaryconceivedandremainedavirgin.Ophelia’sdeathsinginglaudsandwithacoronetisaparodyofthe‘AssumptionofMary’intoheaventobecrowned.

• Laertes,istheresurrectedChristwholeapsoutofthegrave.Thereasonwhythisyoung

manbearstheotherwiseinappropriatenameofanelderispresumablythatheisrejuvenated,justastheoldLaerteswasinHomerbyAthena.Heisacclaimedbytherabbleastheir“lord”,anddeclaresthathewillstretchouthisarmslikethe“kindlife‐renderingpelican”feedingpeoplewithhisblood‐‐awell‐knownChristsymbol.

• Polonius,asthefatheroftheVirginMaryandofChrist,ispresumablyGodtheFather.

ThesecondTriadistheDanishfamilywhorepresenttheforcesofevil,theforcesofAnti‐Christ.CherrellGuilfoylehassuggestedthatthesettingoftheplayinDenmarkisasignifieroftheAnti‐ChriststatusofthissecondTriad.TheDanishforDenmarkisDanmark,andtheDaneswereaccordinglysometimesbelievedtobetheoffspringofthetribeofDan,describedintheBibleasaserpent,andwhosetribechurchtheologiansexpectedtogivebirthtotheAnti‐Christ.ThissecondTriadfamilyincludes:

• Gertrude,whoattheendholdsthepoisonedChalicecontainingapearl,representstheWhoreofBabylon,adornedwithgoldandpearls,whoalsoholdsachalicefilledwithabominationsandwillbemadetodrinka“doubledraught”ofit(Rev.18:6).DressedinscarletandpurpletheWhorewassometimesregardedasanallegoryforthechurch.

• Claudius,isthe“serpent”whostungOldHamlet,andtheHyrcanianbeast(thetiger),

whoiscalledan“adulteratebeast”.HerepresentstheBeastfromtheApocalypsewhichhasthebodyofaleopard,headslikeaserpent,andonwhomtheWhorerides.TheheadsareassociatedwiththesevenCaesarsandsometimeswiththesevenhillsofRome‐‐‐‐andClaudiusisofcoursethenameoftheJulio‐ClaudiandynastyofCaesars.

• OldHamlet,isinHellatthebeginningoftheplaybecauseheisspecificallyidentified

withHyperion.HyperionwastheGreekgodoflightwhowassimilartoApollo—thegodofthesun,fireandplagues—whowasimprisonedinthepitTartarus.HisequivalentintheBookofRevelationisApollyon,thedestroyer—whowasthekingofHell—and

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escapesfromthepit.Theplayclearlyassociateshimwiththedevil“ThespiritthatIhaveseen/Maybethedevil:andthedevilhathpower/Toassumeapleasingshape.”

TheCharacterofHamletHimselfIfPrinceHamletisallegoricallythesonofthedevil,asthesonofHyperionheisalsoanallegoryforHelios,thegodofthesun.Asif“loosedoutofhell”(2,1,82),hefrightensandinterruptsOpheliawhilesheissewingandbendsthe“light”(2,1,100)ofhiseyesuponher.ThisparodiesthebeamsoflightthatmarkedtheArchangelGabriel’sannunciationtoMarywhilesheissewingasshowninRenaissancepaintings.Ophelia’slaterappearancewithherabortifacientherbs—identifiedbyNewmanandothers‐‐‐suggeststhatsheabortsthebaby.OnewayofreconcilingtheseattributeswouldbetopositHamletasrepresentingtheArchangelLucifer,thelightbearer,thestarwhofellfromheavenintohell.Luciferismentioned,forinstance,inHenryV,“arrayedinflamesliketotheprinceoffiends”(3,3,16).HamletimagineswearingProvincialrosesonhisshoes,whichwereusedbystageactorstoindicateaclovenfoot,awell‐knownsignifierofthedevil.HealsousesexpressionsusedbytheViceorcomicdevilontheEnglishstage.HisidentityastheAnti‐Christisfurthermadeclearbythethreeallegoricalidentitieshetakeson;

• MartinLuther,regardedbyCatholicsasthesecondAnti‐Christ.SteveSohmerhasusedthepatternoffeastdaysintheplaytoworkoutthattheinitialpartoftheplayissetonthedaybeforeLuthernailedthe95thesesoftheReformationtothechurchdoorinWittenberg.InadditionHamlet’smelancholyparallelsLuther’s,bothmenworeblackandheisassociatedseveraltimeswithWittenberg.

• EmperorNero,regardedasthefirstAnti‐Christ.VariouseventsechotheLifeofNeroin

thewellknownhistoryTheTwelveCaesarsbySuetonius:thematricide,killingoftheEmperorClaudius,hisinterestinmusic,beinganactor,performingonstage,actinginaplayaboutOrestes,writingverse,playingpranks,beingpursuedbyaghost,andbeingmad.Moreover,accordingtoSuetonius,NerowasknownasNero‐Orestes,andotherpartsofHamlet’scharactercomefromOrestes.Nerowasalsocomparedtothesungod,andHamletisanallegoryforHeliosthesonofHyperion.ItwouldappearthatHamletisstrugglingtopreventthesoulofNerofromtakingoverhisbody.Hedoesnotsucceed.

• TheSeaBeast,HamletcomesbackfromtheSeaandresemblestheBeastfromtheSea

intheBookofRevelationwhomakesimagesofthefirstbeast(intheplay,thebrooches/portraitsofClaudius),whowaswidelyidentifiedastheAnti‐Christ.

ThisApocalypseAllGoesWrongInsummary,HamletparodiesthecataloguesofsevensfromtheBookofRevelation,andthemaincharactersareparodiesofthecharactersinRevelation.InadditionHamletusessomeofAFigforFortune,anallegoricalreligiouspoem.TheplayissetonApocalypse,Doomsday,whichismentioned5timesintheplay.ManystrangeaspectsoftheplotsuchasthereferencestoWormwood,andtheattackbyLaertes(asChrist)on

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thecitadelofClaudius,comedirectlyfromtheBookofRevelation’sdepictionsofDoomsday.TheplayopenswiththecockcrowingandthewaitingwhicharebothanallusiontoAdvent—theseasoninwhich“ourSaviour’sbirthiscelebrated”(1,1,164).ButAdventcouldalsoimplytheSecondAdvent,orParousia,thesecondcomingofChrist,whichtookplaceonDoomsday.ThisiswhythegravediggerssaythatgraveslasttoDoomsday.Theythenproceedtounmakethosegravesbytakingtheskullsout,showingthatitisthereforeDoomsday,whenthespiritsareresurrectedfromtheirgraves.Exceptthatinthisparodicplay,theirskullsarecrudelythrownoutratherthanresurrected.TheallegoricalplotofHamletiscompletelyoppositetotheBookofRevelation–acompleteparodyofthemostsacredChristiandoctrines.Thekingofhellescapesfromthepit,andthedeviltellshissonLucifertotakerevengeforhisdeathandincarceration.Thesonofthedeviltakesontheidentityof3Anti‐Christs.HefirstimpregnatestheVirginMary/WomanCrownedwiththeSun(Ophelia),leadinghertoabortthebabyandthendie.HekillsGodthefather(Polonius)andthentheResurrectedChrist(Laertes)inaswordfight.Hethenendsupkillingdirectlyorindirectly,boththeChurch(Gertrude)andRome(Claudius).TheRuleofGod(whichisthemeaningofthenameoftheminorcourtierOsricintheplay)isutterlyineffective.TheplaywrightisparodyingtheBookofRevelationinshowinganApocalypsethatfailsandinwhichnogoldencitydescendsfromtheheavens.Instead,afterHoratioreferstotheparadisum,askingthatHamletshouldbereceivedinJerusalem(5,2,365),whatarrivesisFortinbrass,anapparentcomicparodyofJerusalem,alludingtotheanalogousFort‐in‐Brass,orCityofBrass,inTheArabianNights.

PARTTWO:THEMOUSETRAPHavingshownthatmuchofHamletisaparodyofChristiandoctrinesetsthecontextforconsideringthecenter‐pieceoftheplay,theMousetrap.TheMousetraphasnothingtodowiththeBookofRevelation,whichopensupthepossibilitythatitmightbeanallegoryofsomeotherChristiantext.WecanidentifywhatthattextmightbebyisolatingtheuniquefeaturesthatthewriterofHamletaddedtotheoriginalsource.InKyd’soriginalplay,Hamletsimplyimaginesthattheactorscouldplayascenethatwouldre‐enactClaudius’scrime,andinwhichtheactorswill‘switchplaces’bymirroringtheking,queenandthemurderer.HamletthenreassuresClaudiusthatthereisnothinguncivilinwhattheactorswillperform,andtheplaythentakesplace—averyshortdumbshow.ThePlaywright’sAdditionsIntheworldoftheUr‐Hamlet,the‘playwithintheplay’isveryminimal.Itisnotgivenanameatall,letalonebeingmysteriouslycalledthe‘Mousetrap’,orhavingafussmadeaboutthename.Norisanykindofprovenanceattributedtoit‐‐‐‐whereasinthe

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differentversionsoftheShakespeareanplaythecrimeisindicatedastakingplaceinViennaorGuyana,bothofwhicharehistoricallyincorrect,sinceitactuallytookplaceinUrbino,andGonzago(3,2,233)wasthemurderernotthevictim.IntheUr‐Hamlet,therearenoreferencestothetwomousepoisons,chameleon,andwormwood.Equally,Poloniusisnotarat,Claudius’swifeisnotcalledamouseandisnotnamedafterSt.Gertrude(thepatronsaintofmouseplagues).HamletisnotthesonofHyperion,anddoesnotthereforehavethetraditional3rdcenturytitleSmitheus‘theMousekiller’.Forthatmatter,thePoloniuscharacterneveractedthepartofJuliusCaesar,thekingisnotnamedafteradynastyofCaesarsanddoesnotsqueezemenlikesponges,astheEmperorVespasiandid–aFlavianemperorwhoplaysanimportantroleintheallegorytheMousetrapenacts,asweshallsee.NordoesHamletimaginebecomingpossessedbythesouloftheEmperorNero.TheRevisionstotheMousetrapFurtherinformationaboutthesourcethattheplaywrightwasparodyingcanbegainedfromtherevisionsthatweremadeduringtheprocessofcomposition.Followingtheminorityofscholarsinassumingthatthe1603and1605Quartosaresubstantiallytheplaywright’ssuccessivedrafts,ratherthanbeing‘bad’quartosormemorialreconstructions,theMousetrapbecameincreasinglyelaborated,intermsoflength,intermsofSenecanstyle,andintermsofcentricity.

• Length,inthe1603Quarto,the‘play‐within‐the‐play’isextremelyelementary.ThePlayerKing(Duke)beginswithan8linespeechandthePlayerQueen(Duchess)hasa2linespeech.Thetextmakesnomythologicalreferences,andisverymatteroffactthatthePlayerKingisgoingtodie(Q1lines1311‐1321).Howeverinthe1605Quartothishasgrownto19lines,andwascutslightlyfortheversionintheFirstFolio.

• Style,between1603and1605,theMousetrapdevelopednewmythologicalreferences

toNeptune’stides,Hymen,andPhoebus’cartwhichderivefromSeneca.Similarly,theprecedingneo‐SenecanepicPyrrhusspeechwhichoriginallyoccupiedonly29lines,doubledto64linesintheFirstFolio(2,2,445‐514).

• Positioning,theMousetrapwasgivenincreasingcentricity.Therewerenoactdivisions

inthequartos,butintheFoliotheMousetrapappearsinAct3justafterthegrandroyalentrancethatisessentiallythecenteroftheplay.Furthermore,theMousetrapisframedoneithersidebyreferencestoplayingpipes(3,2,46‐91and3,2,289‐378).Oneoftheselinesoriginatedinthe1603Quarto“willyouplayuponthispipe”(3,2,341),buttheotherlineaboutflattery,“ThattheyarenotapipeforFortune’sfinger/Tosoundwhatstopsheplease”(3,2,70‐71),wasaddedinpreciselyinordertocreatethisstructuralsymmetry.

Soif,liketherestofHamlet,theMousetraphasbeenconstructedasareligiousparody,todiscoverwhatitisparodyingweneedtofindadocumentthatmeetsthefollowingcriteria:itmustbesignificanttoChristianbeliefs,betheatricallyinfluencedbySeneca,

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haveasymmetricallyframedliteraryconstruction,mustconcernCaesarsandmice,andcharactersmustswitchplaceswithoneanotherlikethePlayerKing,PlayerQueenandthePoisonerdowithOldHamlet,GertrudeandClaudius.Thisnarrowsitdowntoonlyonepossibility,theTestimonium,whichispartofJosephus’JewishAntiquities.TheTestimoniumTriptychTheplaywrightusedtheworksofJosephusinotherplays,forinstanceinthereferenceinKingJohntothe“mutinesofJerusalem”(2,1,400),themotherswhoboilandeattheirbabiesinTwoNobleKinsmen(1,3,20‐21),andinthecompositionofAnthonyandCleopatra,aslistedbyBullough.SothereisnoreasonwhyHamletalsoshouldnotbemakingareferencetoJosephus’sAntiquitieswhichhadbeenpublishedinEnglishin1602.ItcontainsasectionknownastheTestimoniumFlavianum,orinEnglishthe‘FlavianTestament’(Ant.18,3).ThiswasheldtobetheonlydocumentaryevidenceforthehistoricalexistenceofJesus,soitiscertainlyanimportantChristiantext.AlthoughitbegantobequestionedbyafewEuropeanhumanistsinthelate16thcentury,itistodaygenerallyregardedashavingbeenauthenticallyincludedinJewishAntiquitieslateduringtheJosepheancompositionalprocessandtobeatleastpartlyauthentic.Atwill’sanalysisoftheTestimoniumwhichhassofarnotbeentakenintoaccountbyscholars,providesanewperspectivewhichallowstheTestimoniumtobecomparedwiththeMousetrapasfollows:

• Symmetry.TheTestimoniumpassagewasregardedbyhistoriansinisolationfromitsimmediateliterarycontext,butitcannowbeseentoformthelefthandsideofaliteraryTriptych.TheTriptychhasasymmetricalliterarystructurefoundintheHebrewBibleandtechnicallyknownaspedimentalcomposition.TherighthandsideconcernsawickedJewishpriestwhocanbeidentifiedasSaintPaul,bybeinglinkedtothenamePaulina,andtheclosingoftheTemplegateswhichheoccasionsintheBookofActs.InthecenterthereisaprominentpassageaboutastrangecharactercalledDeciusMundus.Theleftside,orTestimonium,mentionsJesusastheChrist,whoafterhisdeathappearedaliveonthethirddayandwhowasateacherof“suchpeoplewhoacceptthetruthgladly”—acharacteristicallyJosepheanphrase.

• MouseandCaesar.DeciusMundusappearstobeapunonthefamousthree

generationalfamilyofRomanmilitaryheroesallcalledDeciusMus,theTenthMouse.Inaddition,theTriptychfeaturesTiberiusCaesar.SotheTriptychfulfillstheoddcriterionthatthetextmustconcernaCaesarandamouse.

• Characterswitching.InthesamewaythatinHamlettheidentitiesoftheplayersinthe

MousetrapareswitchedforClaudius,GertrudeandoldHamlet,theTestimoniumrequiresreaderstoswitchtheidentitiesofsomeofthecharactersinthecentralpassagewithcharactersinthesidepassagestounderstandthehiddenmeaning.TheTriptychusesakindofsubstitutioncipher,requiringcharacterstochangeplacesandisaliteraryequivalentofthecodesthatwereusedinimperialmilitarycommunications.ThistechniqueoccasionallysurfacedinRomanliterarycircles,suchasina4thcenturyepigrambyAusonius.WorkingoutoftheEmperorVespasian’stownhouse,itappears

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thatJosephusandhisteamofwritersdesignedtheTestimoniumasaliterarypuzzle.ThisperhapswaswhyJustusofTiberiusclaimedthatJosephus’sworkswere“fabulous”,andanothercontemporarywriterreferredtothemas“scholasticexercises”(AgainstApion1.10.53).

Thechurch’sreadingoftheTestimonium,likethatofanycasualreader,simplyunderstoodthesurfacestoryasifitwereastaticnovella.However,bymeansofthestrangereferencetoamouseandaCaesar,theMousetrapalludestotheTestimoniumandinvitesthereadertoapplytoitthesameliteraryassumptions.Ifwedoso,andtreattheTriptychasapieceoftheaterinwhichthecharactersareswitchedaround,then,astheauthorsoftheTriptychintended,anewstoryemerges.Aswewillnowsee,farfrombeingapeculiartestimonytothehistoricalexistenceofJesus,theTestimoniumispreciselytheopposite.SettingtheTestimoniuminMotionAtwillplausiblyregardsthefigureofDeciusMundusasapunonthemilitaryvictorsDeciusMus.ThisgeneratesthefigureoftheWorld/MousewhichwouldappeartorepresentthefamilyoftheThreeMilitaryVictorsoftheWorld.SincetheworksofJosephuswerecreatedattheFlaviancourt,thisisareferencetothethreeFlavianCaesars,Vespasian,TitusandDomitian.FurtherevidenceisthatDeciussleepsatthetempleofIsis,asbothVespasianandTitusdidononeoccasion.Toconfirmthatidentity,thedecisiveevidenceisthatwhentheTestimoniumissetinmotiontheDeciusMundusfiguredestroysthetempleatJerusalem,asTitusandVespasiancertainlydid.DeciusputsonthemaskofafalsegodAnubisinordertopersuadeanAnubisworshipertohavesexwithhim,sothathecangainhedonisticpleasure.Thenonthethirddayherevealsthatheisnotagodafterall.Thetempleisdestroyedandthepriestscrucified.Tounderstandthis,theseeventshavetobeswitchedwiththeirexactequivalentsinthesidepanelsoftheTriptych.BysubstitutingthetempleofJerusalem,mentionedintherighthandpanel,withthetempleofIsismentionedinthecenter,thiseventbecomessetnotatthetempleofIsis(whichremainedstandinguntilthe1600s)butatthetempleofJerusalem(whichcertainlywasdestroyedandwhosepriestsindeedwerecrucified).Similarly,byswitchingtheidentitiesofthetwowomenwhoaredeceivedbywickedpriests,thewomanwhoDeciusdeceivesisnotanAnubisworshipper,butbecomesJewish.Byswitchingtheidentityofthegodswhoareassociatedwithhedonisticpleasureandwitharevelationonthethirdday,thegodwhosefalsemaskDeciuswearsisnotAnubis,butJesus.Incombination,thissimpleswitchofidentitiescreatesthefollowingalgorithm.TheThreeMilitaryVictorsoftheWorlddestroythetempleofJerusalemandbywearingthemaskofthefalsegodJesusdeceivetheJew(s)intoworshippingthem.ThisseemstosupporttheemergingradicalNewTestamenttheory,knownasthe‘Caesar’smessiah’model,thatthegospelswerecreatedbytheFlavianCaesarsasliteraryallegories‐‐‐asan

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actofSenecanrevengetodeceivetheJewsintoworshipingCaesarintheguiseofapro‐Roman,pacifistic,literarymessiah.TheMousetrapasaCounterAllegorySinceLodge’stranslationofJewishAntiquitieswaspublishedinEnglishin1602,justayearbeforethefirstQuartoofHamlet,knowingthattheunderlyingliteraryallegoryistheTestimoniumcreatesanewperspectiveontheMousetrap.Firstly,theMousetrapwasapparentlywrittentoprovidethecluesthatwouldallowreaderstoidentifytheTestimonium,tounderstanditscovertmeaningandthechallengeitrepresentstoChristianorthodoxy.Butthatisnotall.Inaddition,itwouldappearthattheMousetrapwascreatedasanactofrevenge,asacounter‐satire.ThisMousetrapissettocatchaCaesar,ClaudiustheallegoricalsevenheadedCaesarbeastfromtheBookofRevelation.SincetheBeastfromtheLandwasrecognizedasacontemporaryallegoryforVespasian,andsinceClaudiussqueezesmenlikesponges—asVespasiandidinhistaxgathering—thisMousetrapisapparentlysetto‘catch’VespasianCaesar.Themysteriousreasonitiscalleda‘Mousetrap’,andthereasonClaudiusisanallegoricalmouse,thereforehasnothingtodowiththe‘DeathofGonzago’,butgoesbacktoVespasian’sliteraryidentityastheprimaryWorld/MouseintheTestimoniumTriptych.ConclusionThispaperbuildsontheworkofahandfulofinnovativescholarswhohaverecognizedtheunderlyingApocalypseinHamlet,especiallythewritingsofLindaHoff,ChrisHassel,CherrellGuilfoyle,andArthurMcGee.Thispaperhastakentheirworkfurthertosuggestthattheanti‐ChristianallegoriesbothoftheBookofRevelationandoftheTestimoniumTriptychrepresenttheunderlyingdeepstructureofmuchofHamlet.IndeeditsuggeststhattheunderlyingreasontheplaywaswrittenwastoparodysomeofthemostsacredChristiantextsinfar‐reachingways.GrantedthatRichardWilsonhasidentifiedShakespeareasacovertCatholic,itisdifficulttoimaginewhoinhiscirclewouldhavehadthepoeticskillsandmotivationtocreatesuchextensiveandriskyparodies,otherthantheonlypersonwhoisknowntohavecreatedanythingsimilar,theso‐called‘DarkLady’AmeliaBassanoLanier.REFERENCESATWILL,Joseph.‘ThePuzzleofDeciusMundus’Caesar’sMessiah.Berkley:UlyssesPress,2003.226‐249.BLITS,JanH.‘Hamlet’andtheHumanSoulNewYork:LexingtonBooks,2001.BRUNN,Erik.‘Asyourdaughtermayconceive’HamletStudiesvol.15,(1993):93‐99.CHAPMAN,AlisonA.‘Ophelia’s‘OldLauds’;MadnessandHagiographyinHamlet’in(ed)S.P.CerasanoMedievalandRenaissanceDramainEnglandvol.20,(2007):111‐135.CORBIN,John.TheElizabethanHamlet.NewYork;CharlesScribner’sSons,1895DAVIS,WilliamL.‘Structuralsecrets:Shakespeare'sComplexChiasmus’Style,vol.39,3,(2005):237‐258.

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DeSILVA,DavidA.‘XMarkstheSpot?ACritiqueoftheUseofChiasmusinMacro‐StructuralAnalysesofRevelation’JournalfortheStudyoftheNewTestament,vol.30,(2008):3,343‐371.DOUGLAS,Mary.ThinkinginCircles:AnEssayonRingComposition.NewHaven:Yale,2007ENGEL,William.ChiasticDesignsinEnglishLiteraturefromSidneytoShakespeare.Burlington:Ashgate,2009.FELDMAN,LouisH.JosephusandModernScholarship1937‐1980.NewYork:W.deGruyter,1984.FELDMAN,LouisH.‘TheTestimoniumFlavianum:TheStateoftheQuestion,’ChristologicalPerspectives,Eds.RobertF.BerkleyandSarahEdwards,NewYork:PilgrimPress,1982.GUIBBORY,Achsah.“TheGospelAccordingtoAemilia;Womenandthesacred”.AemiliaLanier:Gender,GenreandtheCanon.Ed.M.Grossman.Lexington:UniversityofKentuckyPress,1998.191‐211.GUILFOYLE,Cherrell.Shakespeare’sPlayWithinaPlay:medievalimageryandscenicforminHamlet,Othello,andKingLear.Kalamazoo,Michigan:WesternMichiganUniversity,1990.HASSEL,Chris.R.“PaintedWomen:AnnunciationMotifsinHamlet.”ComparativeDramavol.32,(1998):47‐84.HOFF,Linda.Hamlet’sChoice;Hamlet—aReformationAllegory.Lewiston:TheEdwinMellonPress,1988.HUDSON,John.‘AmeliaBassanoLanier;ANewParadigm’TheOxfordianvol.11,(2010):65‐81.HUNT,Maurice.‘ImpregnatingOphelia’Neophilologusvol.89(2005):641‐63.KNIGHT,G.Wilson.ShakespeareandReligion:EssaysofFortyYears.London:RoutledgeandKeganPaul,1967.LEWIS,CharltonM.‘TheGermanHamlet’TheGenesisofHamlet.NewYork:HenryHolt,1907.47‐63.MCGEE,Arthur.TheElizabethanHamlet.NewHaven:Yale,1967.MILWARD,Peter.Shakespeare’sApocalypseLondon:StAustin’sPress,2000.NEWMAN,L.‘Ophelia’sHerbal’EconomicBotanyvol.33,2(1979):227‐32.PARKER,Patricia,“MuralsandMorals:AMidsummerNight’sDream.”EditingTextsAPOREMATA;KritischeStudienzurPhilologiegeschichteEd.GlennW.Most.Gottingen:VanenhoeckandRuprech,1998.190‐218.POSNER,Michael“TitletoCome”ReformJudaismSpring(2010):pptocomeROWSE,A.L.ThePoemsofShakespeare’sDarkLady.NewYork:ClarksonN.Potter,1979.SCHNELL,Lisa.“’BreakingtheruleofCortezia’;AemeliaLanier’sDedicationstoSalveDeusRexJudaeorum.”TheJournalofMedievalandEarlyModernStudiesvol.27,1(1997):77‐101.SOHMER,Steve."CertainSpeculationsonHamlet,theCalendar,andMartinLuther."EarlyModernLiteraryStudies2.1(1996):5.1‐51SOHMER,Steve.Shakespeare’sMysteryPlay:TheOpeningoftheGlobeTheater1599.Manchester:ManchesterUniversityPress,1999.SOHMER,Steve.’The"DoubleTime"CruxinOthelloSolved’EnglishLiteraryRenaissance,vol.2,2,(2002):214–238.WHEALEY,Alice.JosephusonJesus;TheTestimoniumFlavianumControversyfromLateAntiquitytoModernTimes.NewYork:Lang,2003.WILSON,Richard.SecretShakespeare:studiesintheatre,religionandresistance.Manchester:ManchesterUniversityPress,2004.