Economics 160 Votey 2, Notes: pp 21-26 Lecture 3 Professor Votey Law Enforcement Effectiveness:...

Economics 160 Economics 160

Votey 2, Notes: pp 21-26

Lecture 3

Professor Votey

Law Enforcement Effectiveness: Productivity

The Science of Decisionmaking The Science of Decisionmaking

Methodology:Methodology: The Economic ParadigmThe Economic ParadigmRecall 3 StepsRecall 3 Steps (Notes, pp 11,12)(Notes, pp 11,12)

1. Specification:1. Specification:

Specify the Alternative States of the WorldSpecify the Alternative States of the World

22. . Valuation:Valuation:

Establish a Value System, e.g. Prices Establish a Value System, e.g. Prices

3. Optimization:3. Optimization:

Picking the “Best” SolutionPicking the “Best” Solution

Profit Maximization, Cost MinimizationProfit Maximization, Cost Minimization

Offenses(Crime Level)

Costs to Victims (VC)

Social Costs of Crime (SC)

OF*Minimum Social Cost of Crime

Minimizing the Net Social Costs of Crime:

An Application of Economic DecisionmakingThe Tool: Some Form of Cost/Benefit Analysis

Control CostsControl Costs

Notes, p 12Notes, p 12

Offenses(Crime Level)

Costs to Victims

Social Costs of Crime (SC)

OF*Minimum Social Cost of Crime

Minimizing the Net Social Costs of Crime:An Application of Economic Decision-makingThe Tool: Some Form of Cost/Benefit Analysis

We referred to: E. J. Mishan, Cost-Benefit Analysis, Ch. 3,in REFERENCES (RBR)

Control CostsControl Costs

Minimizing the Costs of CrimeMinimizing the Costs of Crime

Objective: Min SC = VC + CC

Notes, p 13Notes, p 13

Minimizing the Costs of CrimeMinimizing the Costs of Crime

Objective: Min SC = VC + CC

The Logic:

The minimum social cost of crime is the smallest sumof victim costs plus the costs of crime control.If we minimize the costs of a “BAD”, we have moreof our resources left to spend on “GOODS”.

CrimeGeneration

OFFENSES

Output

Crime Control(Social Defense) Input Output

DeterrenceDetentionRehabilitation(Retribution)

Resources

Recall from Lecture 1 the circular flow diagram that represented the interacting system of Crime Generation and Control

Text Reference: Economics of Crime Control, Chapter 9

Notes, p13Notes, p13

Economic Notions of Productivity

Example: A Steel Mill Example: A Steel Mill Economic Notions of Productivity

Example: A Steel Mill Example: A Steel Mill Resources:Resources:

Example: A Steel Mill Example: A Steel Mill Resources:Resources: Raw Materials: Raw Materials:

Example: A Steel Mill Example: A Steel Mill Resources:Resources: Raw Materials: Iron Ore, Coal, LimestoneRaw Materials: Iron Ore, Coal, Limestone

Labor: Variety of SkillsLabor: Variety of Skills

Labor: Variety of SkillsLabor: Variety of SkillsCapital: Blast Furnace, Oxygen Furnace,Capital: Blast Furnace, Oxygen Furnace,

Rolling Mills, Plating MillsRolling Mills, Plating Mills

Example: A Steel Mill Example: A Steel Mill ResourcesResources:: Raw Materials: Iron Ore, Coal, LimestoneRaw Materials: Iron Ore, Coal, Limestone

Labor: Variety of SkillsLabor: Variety of SkillsCapital: Blast Furnace, Oxygen FurnaceCapital: Blast Furnace, Oxygen Furnace

Technology: Technology:

Technology: Technology: Means of Linking InputsMeans of Linking Inputs

Output:Output: Iron, Finished SteelIron, Finished Steel

How does one make a Reasonable Analogy betweenHow does one make a Reasonable Analogy betweena typical production process and the Criminal Justicea typical production process and the Criminal JusticeSystem?System?

Conceiving of OutputsConceiving of Outputs

The Criminal Justice SystemThe Criminal Justice System

A SchematicA Schematic 1. Functions1. Functions 2. Stages of Operation2. Stages of Operation 3. Operating Entities3. Operating Entities

TheoryTheory 1. Basis for Identifying Outputs1. Basis for Identifying Outputs 2. Basis for Evaluating Effectiveness2. Basis for Evaluating Effectiveness

Empirical EvidenceEmpirical Evidence

Criminal Justice System:The Real World Process

NotesNotes, p 22, Figure 2.2, p 22, Figure 2.2

Criminal Justice System:The Real World Process

InputOF

Law Enforcement POLICE FORCE

Stage 1 Function

Operating EntityProduces

ARRESTS Prosecution Stage 2

DACOMPLAINTS

Adjudication

COURTS Stage 3COMPLAINTS

Corrections or Punishment

JAILS,PRISON,PROBATION

CONVICTION (guilty)DISMISSAL (not guilty)

Stage 4

RELEASE(PAROLE)

INDICTMENTS

INPUTS/OUTPUTS

How Good is the output analogy in cases of non-market decisionmaking?

Consider other Public Service Industries:

Education - What is the output?Education - What is the output?

How Good is the output analogy in cases of non-market decision making?

Education - What is the output?Education - What is the output?Number of Students ?Number of Students ?

Education - What is the output?Education - What is the output?Number of Students ?Number of Students ? - or are these inputs?- or are these inputs?

Education - What is the output?Education - What is the output?Number of Students ? - or are these inputs?Number of Students ? - or are these inputs?Number of Graduates? Number of Graduates?

Education - What is the output?Education - What is the output?Number of Students ? - or are these inputs?Number of Students ? - or are these inputs?Number of Graduates? Number of Graduates? Value?Value?

How Good is the output analogy in cases ofnon-market decision making?

Education - What is the output?Education - What is the output?Number of Students ? - or are these inputs?Number of Students ? - or are these inputs?

Number of Graduates? Number of Graduates?

Hospitals - What is the Output?Hospitals - What is the Output?

Hospitals - What is the Output?Hospitals - What is the Output?Number of Patients ?Number of Patients ?

Education - What is the output?Education - What is the output?Number of Students ? - or are these inputs?Number of Students ? - or are these inputs?Number of Graduates?Number of Graduates?

Hospitals - What is the Output?Hospitals - What is the Output?Number of Patients ?Number of Patients ? Again, this is an inputAgain, this is an input

Education - What is the output?Education - What is the output?Number of Students ? - or are these inputs?Number of Students ? - or are these inputs?Number of Graduates? Value?Number of Graduates? Value?

Hospitals - What is the Output?Hospitals - What is the Output?Number of Patients ? Again, this is an inputNumber of Patients ? Again, this is an inputLives Saved? For how long?Lives Saved? For how long?

Hospitals - What is the Output?Hospitals - What is the Output?Number of Patients ? Again, this is an inputNumber of Patients ? Again, this is an inputLives Saved? For how long?Lives Saved? For how long?What determines hospitals’ rankings?What determines hospitals’ rankings?

How Good is the output analogy in cases of non-market decisio nmaking?

Physical Outputs in a Command Economy -Physical Outputs in a Command Economy -

Physical Outputs in a Command Economy -Physical Outputs in a Command Economy -How measured?How measured?

Physical Outputs in a Command Economy -Physical Outputs in a Command Economy -How measured? How measured?

An example of non-market decision makingAn example of non-market decision making

What is VALUE ADDED?What is VALUE ADDED?

Physical Outputs in a Command Economy -Physical Outputs in a Command Economy -How measured?How measured?

What is VALUE ADDED?What is VALUE ADDED?QUANTITY x QUALITYQUANTITY x QUALITY

What did we decide was the proper social objective with respect to CRIME?

Minimizing the Social Cost

What does this mean in terms of productivity?

Minimizing the Social Cost

What does this mean in terms of productivity?

Reducing Crime Numbers or Seriousness (or both)

Minimizing the Social Cost Minimizing the Social Cost

Recall: Social Cost Minimization implies:Recall: Social Cost Minimization implies: Min SC = VC + CC i.e., Victim Costs + Control CostsMin SC = VC + CC i.e., Victim Costs + Control Costs

Irrespective of the values we place on individual offenses, as long as Irrespective of the values we place on individual offenses, as long as they are positive,they are positive, Social Cost Minimization requiresSocial Cost Minimization requires Reducing Crime Reducing Crime Numbers or SeriousnessNumbers or Seriousness

Irrespective of the values we place on individual offenses, as long as Irrespective of the values we place on individual offenses, as long as they are positive,they are positive, Social Cost Minimization requiresSocial Cost Minimization requires Reducing Crime Reducing Crime Numbers or Seriousness or Numbers or Seriousness or Reducing Control CostsReducing Control Costs

Recall: Social Cost Minimization impliesRecall: Social Cost Minimization implies:: Min SC = VC + CC i.e., Victim Costs + Control CostsMin SC = VC + CC i.e., Victim Costs + Control Costs

Irrespective of the values we place on individual offenses, as long as Irrespective of the values we place on individual offenses, as long as they are positive, they are positive, Social Cost Minimization requiresSocial Cost Minimization requires Reducing Crime Reducing Crime Numbers or Seriousness or Reducing Control CostsNumbers or Seriousness or Reducing Control Costs

Consider the Circular Flow ProcessConsider the Circular Flow Process: : (again)(again)

Minimizing the Social Cost Minimizing the Social Cost Irrespective of the values we place on individual offenses, as long as Irrespective of the values we place on individual offenses, as long as

they are positivethey are positive,, Social Cost Minimization requiresSocial Cost Minimization requires Reducing Crime Reducing Crime Numbers or Seriousness (or control costs)Numbers or Seriousness (or control costs)

Minimizing the Social Cost Minimizing the Social Cost Recall: Social Cost Minimization implies:Recall: Social Cost Minimization implies:

Min SC = VC + CC i.e., Victim Costs + Control CostsMin SC = VC + CC i.e., Victim Costs + Control Costs Irrespective of the values we place on individual offenses, as long as Irrespective of the values we place on individual offenses, as long as

they are positive, they are positive, Social Cost Minimization requires Reducing Crime Social Cost Minimization requires Reducing Crime Numbers or Seriousness (or both)Numbers or Seriousness (or both)

Victim Costs +

Looking at the Circular Flow Process, One observes that Arrests and Offenses seem to move togetherLooking at the Circular Flow Process, One observes that Arrests and Offenses seem to move together

Separating the EffectsSeparating the Effects Resort to the Economic Paradigm andResort to the Economic Paradigm and Economic Decision TheoryEconomic Decision Theory

Appeal to the approach ofAppeal to the approach of The UtilitariansThe Utilitarians Jeremy Bentham - the father of . . .Jeremy Bentham - the father of . . .

Appeal to the approach ofAppeal to the approach of The UtilitariansThe Utilitarians Jeremy Bentham - the father of Jeremy Bentham - the father of

Modern Economic Decision TheoryModern Economic Decision Theory

Appeal to the approach ofAppeal to the approach of The UtilitariansThe Utilitarians Jeremy Bentham - the father ofJeremy Bentham - the father of

Modern Economic Decision TheoryModern Economic Decision Theory Expected Net BenefitsExpected Net Benefits

Economic Decision Theory in a NutshellEconomic Decision Theory in a Nutshell

Expected Net Benefits (Expected Net Benefits (of any action):of any action):Expected Net Benefits = Expected Benefits - Expected CostsExpected Net Benefits = Expected Benefits - Expected Costs

E(NB) = E(B) - E(C)E(NB) = E(B) - E(C) In terms of value:In terms of value:

the Value of the Expectation = the Value of the Expectation = $B x P(B) - $C x P(C)$B x P(B) - $C x P(C)

The Basis for:The Basis for:

The decision from the potential criminal’s point of view? The decision from the potential criminal’s point of view?

AndAnd

The logical counter policy from Society’s point of view?The logical counter policy from Society’s point of view?

These are two sides of the same coinThese are two sides of the same coin

Working within the framework of the Criminal Justice System

Bentham’s focus: “Pain” - the institutional counterpart:Bentham’s focus: “Pain” - the institutional counterpart: Punishment via the system of CorrectionsPunishment via the system of Corrections

Enlarging the Expectation: Increase the likelihoodEnlarging the Expectation: Increase the likelihood We call this combination of activities We call this combination of activities DeterrenceDeterrence

The Criminal Justice System: involved at every stageThe Criminal Justice System: involved at every stage Raising the expected cost implies:Raising the expected cost implies:

$C x P(C)$C x P(C)

The Criminal Justice System: involved at every stageThe Criminal Justice System: involved at every stage Raising the expected cost impliesRaising the expected cost implies::

$C x P(C) = P(Arrest)$C x P(C) = P(Arrest)

$C x P(C) = P(Arrest) $C x P(C) = P(Arrest) x P(Conv|Arrest) x P(Conv|Arrest)

$C x P(C) = P(Arrest) x P(Conv|Arrest) $C x P(C) = P(Arrest) x P(Conv|Arrest) x x P(Jail|Conv) P(Jail|Conv)

$$C x P(C) = P(Arrest) x P(Conv|Arrest) x C x P(C) = P(Arrest) x P(Conv|Arrest) x P(Jail|Conv) P(Jail|Conv) x x $$JailJail

$C x P(C) = P(Arrest) x P(Conv|Arrest) x $C x P(C) = P(Arrest) x P(Conv|Arrest) x P(Jail|Conv) x $JailP(Jail|Conv) x $Jail

Each Stage contributes to the reduction inEach Stage contributes to the reduction in CRIMECRIME

Criminal Justice SystemMeasures of Output

Quantity MeasuresQuantity Measures A. The number of ArrestsA. The number of Arrests

Made on basis of probable causeMade on basis of probable cause

B. Arrest Ratio(a relative measure)B. Arrest Ratio(a relative measure) = = ARAR = = Arrests / OffensesArrests / Offenses Was declining in 1960’s and ‘70’s for U.S. and CaliforniaWas declining in 1960’s and ‘70’s for U.S. and California

Q. Do Arrests deter crime?Q. Do Arrests deter crime? Sjoquist, Sjoquist, AERAER (1973) – in (1973) – in ReferencesReferences San DiegoSan Diego Problem: Arrests may not be best measureProblem: Arrests may not be best measure

Criminal Justice SystemMeasures of Output (-cont.)

Quality MeasuresQuality Measures A. Clearances (an absolute measure) A. Clearances (an absolute measure)

crimes cleared by arrest = crimes cleared by arrest = CLCL The last burglar - an exampleThe last burglar - an example

B. Clearance Ratio (a relative measure)B. Clearance Ratio (a relative measure) = = CRCR = = Clearances / OffensesClearances / Offenses Problems with the Clearance RatioProblems with the Clearance Ratio

System QualitySystem Quality A. Convictions (an absolute measure)A. Convictions (an absolute measure)

Outcome determined in a court of lawOutcome determined in a court of law

Criminal Justice SystemMeasures of Output (-cont.)

B. B. Conviction Ratio (a relative measure)Conviction Ratio (a relative measure) CR =CR = Felony Convictions / OffensesFelony Convictions / Offenses (sometimes CR)(sometimes CR)

Other MeasuresOther Measures A. Police RatioA. Police Ratio

= Complaints (filed in courts) = Complaints (filed in courts) // Offenses Offenses measures quality of Police & DA effortsmeasures quality of Police & DA efforts

B. Complaints RatioB. Complaints Ratio = Complaints (filed w= Complaints (filed w//DA) DA) // Arrests Arrests measures quality of Police efforts measures quality of Police efforts byby DA DA

Output Measures Compared for Homicide in CaliforniaOutput Measures Compared for Homicide in California

What was happening to felony offense rates in California and the U. S. ?

Text, p 63

The Decline of Criminal Justice EffectivenessThe Decline of Criminal Justice Effectiveness

The Effect of Increasing Expenditures for Law Enforcement in California and the U. S.The Effect of Increasing Expenditures for Law Enforcement in California and the U. S.

How Do We Use Output Measures to Evaluate the System? Economic Production TheoryHow Do We Use Output Measures to Evaluate the System? Economic Production Theory

Case of:Constant Returnsto ScaleFixed Proportions

Output

Inputs

Notes, Fig.2.3, p.25

Economic Production Theory Applied to Law Enforcement

Case of:Varying Proportions

Production: CL = f( OF, L)

OFFENSES(load on the System)

RESOURCES(labor)

Assumes the loadon the System(offenses) is heldfixed

What if we hold Resources Fixed and Increase Offenses?

Notes, Fig. 2.5, p 28Notes, Fig. 2.5, p 28

The case of Diminishing ReturnsThe case of Diminishing Returns

RESOURCES(labor)

Assumes SystemResources are heldfixed while offensesvary

Notes, Fig. 2.5

RESOURCES(labor)

Assumes SystemResources are heldfixed while offensesvary

So much for Productivity, What does this imply aboutPolice Effectiveness?

Determining Police EffectivenessDetermining Police Effectiveness

OF0 OF1

How do we measure Police Effectiveness?

As Slope of 0A = tan = OF1 A = CL1

0 OF1 OF1

OF0 OF1

How do we measure Police Effectiveness?

As Slope of 0A = tan = OF1 A = CL1

0 OF1 OF1

Does anyonerecall what this is?

OF0 OF1

tan = OF1 A = CL1 = CR1 The CLEARANCE RATIO 0 OF1 OF1

To plot the Clearance Ratio for various Offense Levels To plot the Clearance Ratio for various Offense Levels

OF0 OF1

To plot the Clearance Ratio for various Offense Levels To plot the Clearance Ratio for various Offense Levels

OF0 OF1

Plot points A and B in space showing the ClearanceRatio relative to Offense levels

Plotting points A and B in CR - OF space Plotting points A and B in CR - OF space

OF0 OF1

Note that CR1 = CL1 > CR2 = CL2

OF1 OF2

line AB is drawn holding L constant

(CR,OF|L0)

What happens to Police Effectiveness with an increase in Police Resources?

OF0 OF1

(CR,OF|L0)

The change in Police Effectiveness with an increase in Police Resources, holding Offense levels constant

(CR,OF|L1)

Higher Effectiveness, Effect of New level of Police Resources

We can show this in terms of alternative levels of Resources

Police Effectiveness in terms of alternative levels of Resources

Curves illustrated assumeEconomic Efficiency, i.e.,that Resources are beingused efficiently.

Notes, Fig. 2.8 What if they are not ?

Offenses are being Offenses are being held constantheld constant

What if Police are not efficient, but simply “satisficing”, i.e., just working sufficiently hard

to maintain Clearance Ratios?

We will not observe diminishingreturns since the police are not working to their limit to begin with.

A BPerformancestandards appear tobe maintained, sinceClearance Ratiosare maintained

What would thisimply in Economic

terms ?

Depicting Police Manpower Inefficiency Depicting Police Manpower Inefficiency

CRefficient production

observed output levelif police only work tomaintain the ClearanceRatio

efficient production

As manpower is increasedslack increases

If this were the true picture, how could we tell ?, but output level, but output level doesn’t risedoesn’t rise

efficient production

slack increases as manpower increases

There would be no statistical relationship between Police Resources and the Clearance Ratio.

Looking at the Empirical Evidence:Looking at the Real World

A. Acquire DataA. Acquire Data 1. Outputs: 1. Outputs: CL, CRCL, CR 2. Inputs: 2. Inputs:

Resources: Resources: EMP, OTE, LEMP, OTE, L Case Load: Case Load: OFOF Technological Change: systematic changes over timeTechnological Change: systematic changes over time

not related to inputs not related to inputs

B. Work Out Theoretical Statistical ModelsB. Work Out Theoretical Statistical Models 1. Productivity: CL = f( OF, EMP, OTE, t)1. Productivity: CL = f( OF, EMP, OTE, t) 2. Effectiveness: CR = f( OF, EMP, OTE, t)2. Effectiveness: CR = f( OF, EMP, OTE, t) 3. and : CR = f( OF, L ) with other data3. and : CR = f( OF, L ) with other data

Based on Theory, what do we expect to find ?

SwitchingSwitching

Notice that, at this point, I have Notice that, at this point, I have switched fromswitched from discussing the discussing the theorytheory of what we have studied to of what we have studied to moving toward the testing of our theoretical moving toward the testing of our theoretical model. model.

Recall the distinction made in the introduction to Recall the distinction made in the introduction to the course between Positive and Normative the course between Positive and Normative economics.economics.

We are moving into the realm ofWe are moving into the realm of Positive Positive Economics – determining how the real world of Economics – determining how the real world of crime and justice workscrime and justice works

Such work has been the focus of much of the research Such work has been the focus of much of the research of Professor Phillips and myself. of Professor Phillips and myself.

A worthy less technical exercise in positive economics: A worthy less technical exercise in positive economics: FreakonomicsFreakonomics, is , is by Steven Levittby Steven Levitt, who describes , who describes himself as a “rogue economist.” Some of it is about himself as a “rogue economist.” Some of it is about crime. It provides an easy description of the logic crime. It provides an easy description of the logic behind his work and ours.behind his work and ours.

Throughout the course, we shift between explaining the Throughout the course, we shift between explaining the theory behind our analysis, positive economics – testing theory behind our analysis, positive economics – testing the theory, and normative economics – the discussion the theory, and normative economics – the discussion of what this all implies for sound public policy.of what this all implies for sound public policy.

Next, the results of our testing of production theory as it Next, the results of our testing of production theory as it relates to crime and justice.relates to crime and justice.

Expected Outcomes from statistical evaluation:Economic Theory Would Predict

CR / OF < 0 CR / L > 0 CR / t > 0 (if Tech

CR CR CR

varying OF|L,t L|OF,t L|OF,t

The question we would hope to be able to answer by looking at real world data is whether these expectations are borne out.

For the answer one should refer to the text, The Economics of Crime Control, Chapter 9 For the answer one should refer to the text, The Economics of Crime Control, Chapter 9

the statistical form used for estimation:the statistical form used for estimation:

CR = k eCR = k ett OF OF EMPEMPOTEOTE the Cobb-Douglas Production Function, fromthe Cobb-Douglas Production Function, from

Paul Douglas, ”Are there Laws of Production”, Paul Douglas, ”Are there Laws of Production”, American American Economic Review Economic Review (1939)(1939)

1122are elasticitiesare elasticities

= = % % CR CR

1% 1% OFOF

For the answer one should refer to the text, The Economics of Crime Control, Chapter 9

= = % % CR CR

= = % % CRCR

1% 1% OF 1% OF 1% EMPEMP

= = % % CR CR

= = % % CR _CR _ = = % % CR__CR__

1% 1% OF 1% OF 1% EMP 1% EMP 1% OTEOTE

= = % % CR CR

= = % % CR CR = = % % CR_CR_

1% 1% OF 1% OF 1% EMP 1% EMP 1% OTEOTE

= rate of growth of output, independent of OTE, EMP, OF= rate of growth of output, independent of OTE, EMP, OF

Empirical Results for 4 Felony Crimes: Burglary, Larceny(Theft), Auto Theft, RobberyEmpirical Results for 4 Felony Crimes: Burglary, Larceny(Theft), Auto Theft, Robbery

Parameter Variable Prediction Estimate Range

Parameter Variable Prediction Estimate RangeOF < 0 - .37 to -.88

Parameter Variable Prediction Estimate RangeOF < 0 - .37 to -.881 EMP > 0 NS to .72

Parameter Variable Prediction Estimate RangeOF < 0 - .37 to -.881 EMP > 0 NS to .722 OTE > 0 .13 to .30

Time > 0 NS

1 EMP > 0 NS to .722 OTE > 0 .13 to .30

Time > 0 NS

NS = Not statistically different from zero

1 EMP > 0 NS to .722 OTE > 0 .13 to .30

Time > 0 NS

NS = Not statistically different from zeroNote: The formulations estimated for each of the four offenses produced estimates of % of “explained” variance (R2) ranging from 78 to 86.

Time > 0 NS

NS = Not statistically different from zeroNote: The formulations estimated for each of the four offenses produced estimates of % of “explained” variance (R2) ranging from 78 to 86.

These results can be displayed graphically as well.

Law Enforcement Effectiveness Estimates for the U. S.,1952-1968

Patterns for the Clearance Ratio and Offense Rates forRobbery in Comparison with Expenditures for LawEnforcement for the United States, 1952 - 1967.

Recall the More Recent patterns of Offense Rates for California and the U. S.

-and the Levels of Police Protection in Place, Relativeto Overall Offense Rates, over the same period-and the Levels of Police Protection in Place, Relativeto Overall Offense Rates, over the same period

Professor PhillipsProfessor Phillips

Jobs and CrimeJobs and Crime

NotesNotes, Phillips 2, p 29, Phillips 2, p 29

Ideas to RememberIdeas to Remember

The Economic ParadigmThe Economic Paradigm ( (3 steps3 steps)) The objective in dealing with crimeThe objective in dealing with crime

Minimizing the Social Cost of CrimeMinimizing the Social Cost of Crime

Jeremy BenthamJeremy Bentham Who was he? What did he do?Who was he? What did he do?

Economic Production TheoryEconomic Production Theory How does it apply to the analysis of crime?How does it apply to the analysis of crime?

The empirical evidenceThe empirical evidence What does it tell us?What does it tell us?

Economics 160 Votey 2, Notes: pp 21-26 Lecture 3 Professor Votey Law Enforcement Effectiveness:...

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