View
15
Download
1
Category
Tags:
Preview:
DESCRIPTION
cognitive psychology
Citation preview
Summary of first journal article
Jeffrey D.Karpicke . (2009) . Metacognitive strategies in student learning : Do students practice retrievel when they study on their own? . Purdue University : West Lafayette, in, USA
Andrew C.Butler and Henry L.Roediger III. (2009) . Metacognitive strategies in student learning : Do students practice retrievel when they study on their own? . Washington University : St. Louis, MO, USA
Many researches show that practicing retrieval of information has powerful effects on learning
process. A laboratory research said that students lack metacognitive awareness of the mnemonic
benefits of testing. Metacognition can increase engagement. Metacognition “has the potential to
empower students take to charge of their learning and to increase the meaningfulness of students’
learning.” (Amado Gama, 2007). Testing effect that is retrieving information from memory can
enhance long term memory in learning process. But most of the students use repeated reading
strategy and only a few students engage in self-testing strategy in learning process.
According to authors, the objective of this research was to determine the extent to which
students practice recall relative to other study strategies in real world educational settings. They
also wanted to examine whether students who choose to engage in retrieval practice do so
because they know that testing promotes long-term retention. Another reason students may use
testing during studying is to determine what information is known and what is not known so that
future study time can be allocated to the unknown material.
To accomplish these goals, the researchers created new study strategies questionnaire and
surveyed a large sample of undergraduate students. In this research, the researchers provide a
brief overview on repeated reading, repeated testing and students’ metacognitive awareness of
the the testing effect.
According to the author, self testing while studying enhances long-term retention if
compare with repeated studying. Most of the students failed to identify that testing has powerful
effects on learning and they lack in metacognitive awareness of the testing effect.
The author mentioned that in the research that conduct by Karpicke & Roediger, shows
that repeated retrieval practice even after students were able to successfully recall items in the
learning phase produced large positive effects on long-term retention. The writers propose that
based on some laboratory research showed that the students may not practice retrieval when they
study in real-world educational settings. Instead they may spend their time repeatedly reading
material when they study.
According to the researchers, research on testing effect can enhances learning is obvious
to the instructors and not obvious to the students. So that, the intent of this survey was to
determine whether students’ self-reported study behaviors would converge with their laboratory
findings. The results showed that repeated reading is the most popular study strategy among
college students, more popular than practicing retrieval even though retrieval practice is a more
effective study strategy. On the other hand, taking a recall test, even without feedback, enhances
long-term retention more than spending the same amount of time restudying. In addition, most of
the students were unaware of the mnemonic benefits of self-testing. In conclusion, the authors
stated that a challenge for instructional practice is to encourage students to base their study
strategies on theories about why a particular strategy like practicing repeated retrieval promotes
learning and long-term retention.
Summary of second journal article
Steven V.S, Wayne A.C . (2008) . Using Metacognitive Strategies and Learning Styles to Create Self-Directed Learners. Institute for learning styles journal.
This action research project was conducted by Steven and Wayne to help students become self-
directed learners. The researcher found that what metacognitive strategies would be the most
effective for a student’s specific learning styles. In this action research, the researchers were
surveyed students by using the Perceptual Modality Preference Survey (PMPS) to determine
their dominant learning styles. After that, students were then introduced to a new metacognitive
strategy each week and asked to apply the strategy to their daily learning processes. Finally, the
researchers were determined which strategies were preferred within the seven learning style
groups.
At beginning of this article, the researchers describes about some important key ideas
about this research. The researchers were give a brief overview about self-directed learning,
characteristics of self-directed learner, student motivation, goal orientation, self-efficacy, locus
of control, self-regulation, metacognition and learning styles. After researching the concepts of
self-directed learning, learning styles, and metacognition, the goal for this research study was to
determine the chemistry students’ individual learning styles using the PMPS. Next, a new
metacognitive strategy was introduced to the students each week. Then the students reflected on
each strategy to see if it positively affected their learning process, with the overall focus of
helping the students to become more self-directed learners.
This study took place at a high school in a Midwestern Class C-1 school district. The
district’s enrollment is approximately 282 students in grades nine through twelve, with a 27%
free/reduced lunch population and 14% of students receiving special education services. For this
study, a total of 40 students participated in the action research project within the three chemistry
classes. Of the 40 students, there were 20 females and 20 males. There were a total of four
seniors, 28 juniors, eight sophomores, and no freshmen. Only one of the students participating in
the study was on a modified special education plan and was able to receive services in the special
needs room. The teacher collected research data throughout the study in the form of anecdotal
notes, teacher & student reflections, and classroom observations. The PMPS was administered at
the beginning of the study, while teacher observations, reflections, and anecdotal notes occurred
daily. In order to analyze the data, the PMPS results were analyzed and individual findings
separated into the seven learning style groups and percentages were compiled. The researcher
proceeded to determine which metacognitive strategies were preferred within each learning style
group through the use of student comments and classroom observations. Comments were also
sought from participants regarding the study.
This research show that, after analyzing the data from student lab journals and
metacognitive forms, four themes were apparent and they included the connection between
learning styles and
metacognitive strategies, self-assessment, and student motivation. First, the connections between
a student’s learning styles and preferred metacognitives strategies, as determined by students,
were determined. Next, the concept of motivation, related to metacognition and the self-directed
learner was addressed. Finally, the student’s ability to self-regulate themselves to become self-
directed learners was reviewed. The PMPS results were analyzed and there were 73% students
who had kinesthetic as one of their top two ranked learning styles. This was followed by
interactive with 45%, haptic with 38%, visual with 30%, print with 15% aural with 10%, and
finally olfactory with no students represented. These learning styles were then used to help
classify which metacognitive strategies were preferred by each learning style later in the study.
Throughout the study, the researcher found that no matter the learning style a student might
prefer, all of the students, whether consciously or unconsciously, were continuously evaluating
their performance and their progress.
The key ideas that the author(s) highlighted in first article
The testing effect refers to the higher probability of recalling an item resulting from the act of
retrieving the item from memory (testing) versus additional study trials of the item. However, in
order for this effect to be demonstrated the test trials must have a medium to high retrieval
success. Logically if the test trials are so difficult that no items are recalled or if the correct
answers to the non-recalled items are not given to the test subject, then minimal or no learning
will occur. This is by no means a new concept in the field of human memory, with the first
documented empirical study occurring in 1917 by Gates. The effect is also sometimes referred to
as retrieval practice or test-enhanced learning. ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testing_effect)
Meaning of retrieval is the act or process of retrieving and the process of accessing
information from memory or other storage devices.
(http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/retrieval)
A strategy is a plan of action designed to achieve a vision. Strategy is all about gaining
(or being prepared to gain)a position of advantage over adversaries or best exploiting emerging
possibilities. As there is always an element of uncertainty about future, strategy is more about a
set of options ("strategic choices") than a fixed plan. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy)
A metacognition is “thinking about thinking.” Metacognition goes beyond thinking
(meta + cognition) in that it is the active awareness and knowledge of one’s own thinking
processes. Metacognitive skills are sometimes referred to as “self-direction skills” (Burke, 2007,
151). The word “metacognition” was invented by an American psychologist, J. H. Flavell who
emphasized its important role in communication, reading comprehension, language acquisition,
social cognition, attention, self–control, memory, self-instruction, writing, and problem solving
(Flavell, 1979). Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) maintain that metacognition is more difficult to
teach and assess than factual, conceptual, and procedural categories of knowledge because it is
the most abstract.
The key ideas that the author(s) highlighted in second article
The researchers stated that, Self-directed learning integrates self management
(management of the context, including social setting, resources, and actions) with self-
monitoring (the process whereby learners monitor, evaluate, and regulate their cognitive learning
strategies) (Bolhuis, 1996; Garrison, 1997). According to Nelson & Conner (2008), teachers and
administrators, along with parents and students, must have an understanding of the following
characteristics of becoming a self-directed learner: student motivation, goal orientation, self-
efficacy, and locus of control, self-regulation, and metacognition.
The researchers were said that student motivation deals with a student’s desire to
actively participate in the learning process. But student motivation also focuses on the reasons
that underlie a person’s involvement or noninvolvement in academic activities. A student who is
intrinsically motivated undertakes an activity "for its own sake, for the enjoyment it provides, the
learning it permits, or the feelings of accomplishment it evokes" (Lepper, 1988, p. 292). In
contrast, an extrinsically motivated student performs "in order to obtain some reward or avoid
some punishment external to the activity itself," such as grades, stickers, or teacher approval
(Lepper, 1988, p. 292).
At the same time the researcher noted that, one theory that focuses on the components of
goal orientation is the target achievement goal theory, developed by Dr. Donna Woolard.
According to this theory, there are three factors that act together to determine a person’s
motivation: development of achievement goals, a person’s self-perceived ability level, and the
achievement behavior of the individual. In following this theory, individuals in an achievement
setting are usually driven to follow one of two possible goals when determining whether or not
they have been successful in goal setting. A person may have a task goal orientation, “where the
focus is on improving performance relative to past performance, not on comparison with others.
They have a stronger work ethic, are more persistent, and are better motivated because the
factors they focus on are internal and more controllable” (Woolard, 2008, p. 1).
Perceived self-efficacy is defined as people's beliefs about their capabilities to produce
designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives
(Bandura, 1994). Self-efficacy beliefs determine how people behave, think, feel, and motivate
themselves. Self-efficacy, although somewhat similar to self-esteem, differs in one main concept.
Self-efficacy is a personal belief of competency, rather than one’s emotional reaction to an actual
accomplishment (Nelson & Conner, 2008).
Locus of control as defined by Miller, Fitch, and Marshall (2003) is "the tendency
students have to ascribe achievements and failures to either internal factors that they control
(effort, ability, motivation) or external factors that are beyond control (chance, luck, others'
actions)" (p. 549). A person who is considered a self-directed learner would be described as
having a greater internal locus of control then that of an external locus of control.
Zimmerman (2001) stated "self-regulated learning refers to learning that results from
students’ self-generated thoughts and behaviors that are systematically oriented toward the
attainment of their learning goals" (p. 125). In order for students to be self-regulated they need to
be aware of their own thought process, and be motivated to actively participate in their own
learning process (Zimmerman, 2001).
Metacognition can be loosely defined as “thinking about one’s own thinking.” More
specifically, metacognition is “an appreciation of what one already knows, together with a
correct apprehension of the learning task and what knowledge and skills it requires combined
with the ability to make correct inferences about how to apply one’s strategic knowledge to a
particular situation and to do so efficiently and reliably” (Peirce, 2003, p. 2).
In effective classrooms, teachers are responsible for helping students develop better
metacognitive skills by incorporating active reflection throughout the learning process. Darling-
Hammond, Austin, Cheung, and Martin (2008) listed the following examples of effective
metacognitive strategies:
Predicting outcomes – Helps students to understand what kinds of information they might need
to successfully solve a problem.
Evaluating work – Reviewing of work to determine where their strengths and weaknesses lie
within their work.
Questioning by the teacher – The teacher asks students as they work. “What are you working on
now?, Why are you working on it?, and “How does it help you?” have learned something.
Self-questioning – Students use questions to check their own knowledge as they are learning.
Selecting strategies – Students decide which strategies are useful for a given task.
Using directed or selective thinking – Students choose consciously to follow a specific line of
thinking.
Using discourse – Students discuss ideas with each other and their teacher.
Critiquing – Students provide feedback to other students about their work in a constructive way.
Revising – Students return their work after receiving feedback.
Learning styles refer to the concept that we, as individuals, process and perceive
information in different ways. There are many different factors that can lead to the differences
that arise within learning styles. These factors include, but are not limited to, personality, ability
to process information, self-efficacy, sensory intake processes or some complex combination of
these and other differences (Institute for Learning Styles Research, 2003). . One assessment tool
that canbe used in establishing a person’s learning style is the Perceptual Modality Preference
Survey (PMPS).
Method and Finding of first journal article
In first journal, the researchers used survey method to determine the students’ self-
reported study behaviors. They surveyed 177 undergraduate students at Washington University
in St.Loius about strategies they use to study for exams. Their survey got two questions which
the first question was an open-ended free report question in which students listed the strategies
they used studying and rank ordered the strategies in terms of how frequently they used them. In
question 2, the researchers used forced report question that asked students to choose one of three
alternatives when studying a text book for an exam. The three alternatives are repeated reading
of the chapter, practicing recall of material from the chapter and engaging in some other study
activity. All 177 students answered question 1. Around 101 students answered version 1 of
question 2 which testing without restudy and the other 76 students answered version 2 which
testing with restudy.
The results showed that repeated reading is the most popular study strategy among
college students, more popular than practicing retrieval even though retrieval practice is a more
effective study strategy. On the other hand, taking a recall test, even without feedback, enhances
long-term retention more than spending the same amount of time restudying. In addition, most of
the students were unaware of the mnemonic benefits of self-testing. In conclusion, the authors
stated that a challenge for instructional practice is to encourage students to base their study
strategies on theories about why a particular strategy like practicing repeated retrieval promotes
learning and long-term retention.
Method and Finding of second journal article
The study took place at a high school in a Midwestern Class C-1 school district. The
district’s enrollment is approximately 282 students in grades nine through twelve, with a 27%
free/reduced lunch population and 14% of students receiving special education services. For this
study, a total of 40 students participated in the action research project within the three chemistry
classes. Of the 40 students, there were 20 females and 20 males. There were a total of four
seniors, 28 juniors, eight sophomores, and no freshmen. Only one of the students participating in
the study was on a modified special education plan and was able to receive services in the special
needs room. The teacher collected research data throughout the study in the form of anecdotal
notes, teacher & student reflections, and classroom observations. The PMPS was administered at
the beginning of the study, while teacher observations, reflections, and anecdotal notes occurred
daily. In order to analyze the data, the PMPS results were analyzed and individual findings
separated into the seven learning style groups and percentages were compiled. The researcher
proceeded to determine which metacognitive strategies were preferred within each learning style
group through the use of student comments and classroom observations. Comments were also
sought from participants regarding the study.
The PMPS results were analyzed and there were 73% students who had kinesthetic as one
of their top two ranked learning styles. This was followed by interactive with 45%, haptic with
38%, visual with 30%, print with 15% aural with 10% and finally olfactory with no students
represented. These learning styles were then used to help classify which metacognitive strategies
were preferred by each learning style later in the study. Throughout the study, the researcher
found that no matter the learning style a student might prefer, all of the students, whether
consciously or unconsciously, were continuously evaluating their performance and their
progress.
Similarities and differences that could find from both articles
The similarities that I found in both articles are, both articles emphasize metacognitive
strategies in students’ learning process. Learners need practice to develop automaticity.
Conscious practice with metacognitive strategies can lead learners to become unconsciously
metacognitive – a position in which they are always reflecting on and evaluating the standards of
their own thinking and learning and their strategies for personal development (Claxton, 1996).
From both articles, I can say that the students can enhance their learning by using metacognitive
strategies. Five basic principles for instruction in metacognition are:
1. Build an inclusive, positive, and stimulating classroom environment, e.g., by exhibiting a
positive and enthusiastic approach to learning and by modeling thinking skills and habits of
mind.
2. Construct teacher-driven metacognitive activities initially, with an emphasis on developing
awareness of metacognitive processes, but also use the gradual release model as a guide so that
students become capable of effectively selecting, using, monitoring, and evaluating their use of
these strategies (Graham and Harris, 1993).
3. Create opportunities for students to talk about their thinking and to build a thinking
vocabulary. To think and talk about their thinking, students need help to sort out thinking skills
and terms associated with decision making, e.g., global terms like “metacognition” and specific
terms like “classifying,” “formulating questions,” and having “self-knowledge” and “self-
control.”
4. Engage students in talking about metacognitive strategies, e.g., through conference, interview,
or survey questions. Israel cautions: “it is not wise to assume that students intrinsically have the
metacognitive ability to respond to questions in a reflective manner.” (Israel, 2007, 33)
5. Provide students with ample practice so that they can become automatic users of
metacognitive strategies. For example, making the discussion of metacognitive knowledge part
of the everyday classroom discourse will raise the awareness of their own metacognitive
knowledge and increase their skill (Pintrich, 2002).
Both articles said that metacognitive strategies can encourage self-regulated learning
among students. Besides that, the most effective learning styles than I can found from both
articles is the students must do self testing or self assessment to enhance their learning process.
The differences that I can found in both articles are, in first article, the researcher only
emphasizing the metacognitive strategy with self testing to enhance the learning process. In
second articles, the writer emphasizing the metacognitive strategies more in different learning
styles including self assessment. The researcher used survey method to support their idea. They
were using questionnaires with open ended questions and forced task question. In second article,
the researcher used action research to support their ideas. The research fully conducted with
classroom observation and reflection by teachers and students. Other than this, in first article, the
researchers choose their respondents from universities students. In second article, the researchers
choose their respondents among high school students.
Discussion on Both Articles
In my point of view, the students very rarely were using metacognitive strategis in their
learning process. I think that, the instructors should encourage students to using metacognitive
strategies in learning process. At the same time, the students should combine both cognitive and
metacognitive strategies for effective learning process. The teachers should plan opportunities
for students to learn metacognitive skills while they are involved in learning something else. For
example, when developing a piece of writing in a particular discipline, students can reflect on
their progress in relation to the criteria and then set new goals in order to move forward.
Metacognitive and cognitive strategies may overlap depending on the purpose for using the
strategy. A self-questioning strategy used while reading to obtain information would be a
cognitive strategy, while a self-questioning strategy used to monitor understanding of what was
read would be a metacognitive strategy (Livingston, 1996).
If teachers hope to help all students become self-directed learners, it’s necessary to help
them develop fluency in both cognitive and metacognitive skills (Pintrich, 2002). Instruction in
metacognitive skills promotes the self-monitoring and self-regulation that can lead to intellectual
growth, increase academic achievement, and support transfer of skills so that students are able to
use any strategy at any time and for any purpose. (Bransford, 1986; Robinson, 1987).
Metacognition contributes to successful learning and moves students toward independence,
interdependence, and self-efficacy. Through metacognitive strategies, students learn to master
information and solve problems more easily (Block, C. et. al. 2005; Scruggs, 1985).
Metacognitive strategies are already in teachers’ repertoires; however, teachers can become
aware of and consciously model these strategies for students. Although using metacognitve
techniques requires that teachers be attentive and capitalize on classroom opportunities, the
investment of time and energy results in students becoming more purposeful, flexible, and
creative problem solvers. Besides that, self testing is most important part in developing
metacognitive skills. The teachers must encourage students in to do self testing in order to get a
good result in their exams and solving problem effectively.
Reference
Andrew C.Butler and Henry L.Roediger III. (2009) . Metacognitive strategies in student learning : Do students practice retrievel when they study on their own? .
Washington University : St. Louis, MO, USA
Anonymous 1.( no date). Metacognition online accessed on 10 Mei 2012. Available at (http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/retrieval)
Anonymous 2.( no date). Metacognition online accessed on 10 Mei 2012. Available at (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy)
Jeffrey D.Karpicke . (2009) . Metacognitive strategies in student learning : Do students practice retrievel when they study on their own? . Purdue University : West Lafayette, in, USA
Steven V.S, Wayne A.C . (2008) . Using Metacognitive Strategies and Learning Styles to Create Self-Directed Learners. Institute for learning styles journal.
Willamson B. “What is metacognition - A brief guide to some jargon. Online Accessed on 10 May 2012. Available at: www.futurelab.org.uk/resources/publications_reports_articles/web_articles/Web_Articles
MPF1153(COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY)
CRITICAL REVIEW
Metacognitive strategies in student learning: Do students practice retrievel when they study on their own?
Using Metacognitive Strategies and Learning Styles to Create Self-Directed Learners
PREPARED FOR:
Dr. Narina Binti A. Samah
PREPARED BY:
THAVAMALAR A/P BALAKRISHNAN (MP111029)
Recommended